SacrificeAmongtheAncientCelts:

ControversiesandConclusions










PatrickDuerr














History210
Prof.T.Mays
4/26/16

Therainsfellonthemarshlandatthefootofthegreathillastheyhadforweeks,carrying

awaywhatpoorharvesttheunseasonalcoldhadgranted,whiledesperationandhungerrandeep

amongstthevillage.Akingonceglorious,nowfedonchaff,nakedforallbutanarmbandoffox

furandanoosebywhichhewasleddownthewickertrackwaytothecenterofthebog,where

thewaterwasdeepest.Theentirevillagefollowedastheyhaltedatthewatersedge.Themanby

hissideraisedtheclubhighandbroughtitcrashingintothelegofthegreatking,forcinghimto

kneel.Hedidnotfightashisheadwastiltedbackandtheknifelowered,theknifewhichcuthim

fromeartoear.Arubymessageofpropitiationsprayedthepoolasthegarrotingcorddrewtight.

Theheadoncegracedbyacrown,nowgracedbyaclubsblow,andhefell,atlonglast,forward

intothebog.Thethreefolddeathcomplete,thepunishmentwascarriedout.Afailedhusband,

thegodsofthelandwerenotpleasedbyhisreign,butperhapshispunishmentsatedthespiritof

thefamine.

Accusationofhumansacrifice,eveninprehistoriccontexts,isasensitivetopicformany

differentpeopleacrossmanydifferentcultures,rangingfromCentralAmericatoScandinavia.

ThesurvivingCelticculturesoftodayarenoexception,andrecentdevelopmentsontheissue

stillreverberateinnewsheadlinestopresent.Forcenturies,fewhavetrulyquestionedthe

indictmentbyancientMediterraneanauthorsofhumansacrificethroughoutthenortherlyCeltic

regions.Today,theissuehasgrownmorecomplexanddrawsmoreandmoreattentionasthe

recorddevelops.Modernscholars,drawingfromprimarysourcematerialofboththeliteraryand

archaeologicalrecords,havediscoveredthatthesubjectofsacrificeamongtheCeltsisfarmore

complexthansimplemurder,andindeed,mostcasesmorecloselyresemblecapitalpunishment.

Inordertotrulyunderstandtheancientpastofthediversepeoplegroupunderthelabelof

3

Celtic,onemustdrawfrommultiplesourcesinordertogainamorewholesome,accurate,and

helpfulperspective,answeringthewhy?behindthesacrificeand/orexecutionofselect

individualsbyancientCeltictribes.

ThehistoriographyandpoliticalsignificanceoftheancientCelticpeoplegroupsisa

murkytopic,withinterestinancientWesternrootsgrowingwiththenationalistsentimentsofthe

earlymodernera.AuthorSamSmilesdealswithaprominentviewonthetopicinhisdayas

beingheavilyromanticized,withnationsdevelopingpersonalizedimagesofanoblepast,andthe

constructedperspectiveofantiquarianismsayingmoreaboutthemodernerathanaboutthe

ancientinhabitantsofCelticBritain.1 AnothercontenderthroughoutthefieldistheNeoclassical

andEnlightenmentstyledisdainforthesavageinhabitantsofthepastandtheirsacrificial

practices,retractingfromtheirlinearideaofthehistoryofcivilizedprogress.Smilesdoesan

exceptionaljobofseparatingallopposingperspectivesfromthecorehistoricalevidenceand

whatitsaysforitselfthroughthedevelopingfieldofprofessionalandobjectivearchaeology,as

wellasdistinguishingthetwomajorvoicesinCeltichistory,andthusonthedebatesregarding

thesacrificeofhumanbeings.

ThemainsourceforthehistoryoftheancientCeltsandtheirsacrificialritesarethe

ancientGreekandRomanauthors.ClassicalcitationsfortheCelticreverenceforhuman

sacrificegobacktosomeoftheearliestsurvivingrecordsontheCelts,suggestingthat,ifthe

evidenceissolid,itwasacommonenoughconcerntobewidelyknownthroughouttheClassical

world,andthatitwasstartlingtotheoutsiderswhobeheldit.PhilipFreemancitesareferenceby

theRomanpoetSopaterastheearliestmentionofCelticreligionaroundthelatefourthcentury

SamSmiles,
1
TheImageofAntiquity:AncientBritainandtheRomanticImagination,
(London:Yale
UniversityPress,1994),12.

4

B.C.,alludingtothepracticeofsacrificingprisonersofwartothegodsaftergreatvictories.2

AnotherearlyreferenceismadebyEudoxusofRhodesinthethirdcenturyB.C.,whichnotes

thattheCeltsheldcapitalpunishmentforinfractionsofthesacred,supposedlyinpropitiationfor

theircrimessothattherestofthetribewouldnotbepunished.3

AuthorandscholarJ.A,MacCullochinterpretedthemanyRomanaccountsofsacrificial

ritesbytheirrespectivemotives:propitiatorytowardoffdiseaseoraffliction,ontheprincipleof

alifeforalife,inthanksgivingforsuchmattersasvictoryinbattle,orinordertodivinethe

futureduringuncertaintimes.4CaesarandMacCullochagreethatmostevidencepointstotheuse

ofcriminals,slaves,orcaptivesasthesacrificialvictims.This,then,raisesquestionsregarding

thenatureofthesacrificialrites.RomansandGreekswerecertainlyfamiliarwiththeirown

versionsofsacrifice,andhistorianGrahamWebsternotesthat,thoughtheRomanswereas

ruthlessasanyofthetimetowardsanimals,theyconsideredhumansacrificeunacceptable.Yet,

apracticeofthrowingeffigiesofmenintotheTiberontheIdesofMaystrikessomehistorians

asadescendantofhumansacrifice.5Nevertheless,themeaningtheyascribetotheproceedings

maynotnecessarilyfittheCelticattitudetowardshumansassacrifices.Anextraneousexample,

aRomanauthorwitnessinganexecutionbyhanginginthe19thcenturyAmericanWestmight

observethepresenceofclergyortheadministeringoflastrightsaspartsofaritualizedhuman

sacrificeifheknewlittleoftheinnerworkingsoftheculture.

Thediscerninghistorianeasilycallsintoquestionthemotivesofimperialistssuchas

JuliusCaesarifoneacknowledgesthathewouldhavebeentryingtorallysupportfromRomeby

2
PhilipFreeman,War,Women,andDruids:EyewitnessReportsandEarlyAccountsoftheAncient
Celts,(Austin,UniversityofTexasPress),3334.
3
Freeman,35.
4
J.A.MacCulloch,TheReligionoftheAncientCelts,
(Edinburgh:T.&T.Clark,1911),233237.
5
GrahamWebster, CelticReligioninRomanBritain,
(Totowa:BarnesandNobleBooks,1987),36.

5

perhapspaintingthenortherntribesasmorebarbaricthanwasquitehonest.Wheretheclassical

authorsenjoyedpaintingtheCelticandGermanicterritoriesaspathlesswilderness,themodern

scholarfindsthatdiscoveriesofroads,welldevelopedsettlements,andwellmanaged

agriculturalsystemstelladifferentstoryentirely.Romanaccountsofreligiousproceedingsmay

betaintednotonlybybias,butalsobyignoranceandcreativelyfillinginthegaps.TheDruidic

traditionwaswellknownamongsttheClassicalauthorsasbeingsecretiveandexclusive,and

presenceatreligiousritesseemstobeacommunalmatter,asnotedbyCaesaronthewoesof

beingbannedfromsacrificialrituals.6Further,manyclassicalauthors,especiallywhenwritingof

religiousactivitiesoftheCelts,areconsiderednottohavebeenwritingfirsthandaccounts,but

citingtherecollectionsofothers,andoftenpreviousauthorsonthetopic.Thedangersof

generalizationoftheCelticpeoplesfromtheeventswhichtheRomansmayhavebeenwitnessto

arealsoapparent.Suchclaimsofambiguousdocumentationofreligiousritesamongtheancient

CeltshavebeenusedagainsttheClassicalauthorsfordecadesnow,andmanypeopleturntothe

archaeologicalrecordorotherliterarysourcesforanswers.Thankfully,theserecordshavebeen

farmoreenlightening.

Asthefieldhasdevelopedoverthepasttwocenturies,archaeologyhasgivenhistorians

muchtoconsiderregardingtheancientCelts,andattheforeoftheissuestoberevisedarethe

ideasofhumansacrifice.Whereallhadbeenspeculationbefore,preservedbodiesrecovered

fromthepeatbogswhichcandatebackasfarasapproximately2000B.C.allowhistoriansto

crossreferenceandgetadeeperideaofthecontext.Especiallyfascinatingarethoseconcretely

heldasvictimsofhumansacrifice.Archaeologistshavedeterminedthisthroughtheunusual

6
EverydayLifeofthePaganCelts,
AnneRoss, (NewYork:G.P.PutnamsSons,1970.)132.

6

circumstancesoftheirdeathandtheplacesinwhichthebodieshavebeenfound,rangingfrom

thedetailsoftheirlastmeal,theindicatorsoftheirsocialstatus,andthemanneroftheirdeath.It

isthelatterofthesefactorsthatisthemainindicatorforhistorianssuchasNedKelly,whonotes

inarecentarticlethattheuseofexcessiveviolence,isastrongsuggestionofritualkilling,

especiallyasarepeatingfactorinmultiplebogbodies.KellynotesthebodyoftheOldCroghan

Man,abogbodynamedforthelocationofhisdiscovery,asoneexample,havinghadholescut

inhisupperarmsthroughwhicharopewaspulledthroughinordertorestrainhim.Hewas

stabbedrepeatedlyandhehadhisnipplesslicedbeforehewasfinallycutinhalf.Anotherbody,

theClonycavanMan,wasdisemboweledandstruckthreetimesacrosstheheadwithanaxeand

onceacrossthebodyandalsohadhisnipplescut.7Commonthemessuchasthecuttingofthe

nipples,whichwerealsonotedbyKellyasbeingsymbolicallyassociatedwithkingshipin

ancientIreland,makeastrongcasethatthesebodiesareevidenceofhumansacrifice,yetthe

contextisstillinvestigatedbyarchaeologistsandhistorianswhohaveaferventdesireto

understandexactlywhythesemendied.

RecentstudiesincludedintheBBCdocumentary
4,000YearOldColdCase:TheBodyin

theBog
(aired2013)revealnotonlythattheancientliteratureofIrelandbackstherunning

theoriesregardingkillingaspunishmentforafailedking,butthatparallelscanbedrawn

betweenachangingclimateandtheappearanceofbogsacrifices.Kellyappearsagaintocite

ancientIrishliteraturewhichmentionsthemultiplemethodsusedinexecutinganIrishkingatop

asacredhill,aswellasthelongstandingtraditionofIrishkingsbeingceremoniallymarriedto

theland.Further,aroundtheinterchangeoftheBronzeandIronAges,Europesclimategrew

7
IrishCentral
JamesOShea,BogBodiesareKingsSacrificedbyCelts,SaysExpert, ,n.d..
http://www.irishcentral.com/news/bogbodiesarekingssacrificedbyceltssaysexpert1292895482374101
31.html(accessedApril10,2016)

7

colderandwetterthanbefore,whichwouldhavebeendetrimentaltoagricultureacrossCeltic

territories.Ifthesewellgroomedmenwithmarksofritualkillinghadindeedbeenkings,

historiansnotethedirectresponsibilityofIrishkingsforthelandsproductivitythroughthe

inauguralceremony,involvingmarriagetotheland.Thus,iftheweatherandcropsturnedforthe

poorer,itislikelythattheresponsibilityforthesefailingswouldbeheldagainsttheking.The

burialproximitytoancientinauguralsitesbacksthisideainsuchmindsasKellys.Thisseemsto

blendcapitalpunishmentandhumansacrifice,ifindeedthevictimswerecondemnedbythelaws

oftheirsociety.HistorianMirandaAldhouseGreenremarksthatthefateoftheIrishbogbodies

arereminiscentofthedescriptionsofcapitalpunishmentbyTacitusinhisobservationsofthe

northerntribes.Theseincludedtheweightingdownofcowardsanddisreputableofbodyin

marshes.8GreenagainquotesTacitustowarnagainsthastilyascribingevidenceofviolenceto

Germania
humansacrifice,asTacituswritesinthe thatcapitalpunishment,imprisonment,and

evenfloggingareallowedtononebutthepriests,andarenotinflictedmerelyaspunishmentsor

ontheleadersorders,butinobediencetothegodwhomtheybelievetopresideoverbattle.9

TheCelticattitudetowardsdeathasevidencedinothersourcescontributesmuchtotheir

trialforhumansacrifice.TheancientCeltsasobservedbytheGreeksandtheRomanswere

famousforfearlessnessinbattle,anditisthisattributewhichmadethempopularmercenaries

andterrifyingadversaries.TheGreekpoetNicanderisquotedbyTertullianassayingthatthe

Celtsbelievebecauseofvisionsindreamsthatthedeadtrulylive,andbecauseofthistheywill

spendthenightnearthetombsoftheirfamousmen.10 DiodorusSiculus,anotherGreek

8
CaesarsDruids:StoryofanAncientPriesthood,
MirandaAldhouseGreen, (London:YaleUniversity
Press,2010),74.
9
AldhouseGreen,74.
10
Freeman,35.

8

historian,notedthatteachingsimilartothoseofPythagorasweretaughtamongstthetribesof

Gaul,andthusthattheybelieveinreincarnation,ortherebirthofsoulsintoanewbodyafter

death.Hefurthernotesthepracticeofburningmessagesforthedeadonfuneralpyres.11

TheancientCelticattitudetowardsthedeadwasneverambiguousabouttheideaofan

afterlife.Countlessgravesandburialchambershaveyieldedrichandelaborategravegoods:

giftstothosewhopassedonwhichtheywouldrequireinthenextlife.Anotherrecentdiscovery

byarchaeologistsnearmoderndayYorkshirehasintriguedhistoriansoftheancientCeltsfor

multiplereasons.12 Theuncoveringofapproximately150skeletonsin75gravesdatingtothe

Britishironageissignificantenough,but23oftheseskeletonsrevealremarkablecircumstances

regardingtheCelticattitudetowardsdeathandhighstatusindividuals.Eachofthe23,most

likelyfallenwarriors,hadmultiplespearsthrownatthem,piercingtheircorpsespriortoburial.

Speculationreignsastowhetherthiswasafinalsalute,orinsuranceagainstthemrisingfromthe

dead,orperhapsaproceduretofreetheirspiritfromthecorpsepostburialrites.

EvershockingandabhorrenttotheauthorsofRomewasthesacrificeofprisoners

amongsttheCelts,whoallegedlynevertookransomfortheircapturedinwar.Oneofthemajor

sourcesbackingthisisSopatersearlyreferencetotheGauls,mentionedabove.13 Asthetopicof

capitalpunishmentandtheactofcowardicehavebeenmentioned,onemustagainconsiderthem

inanewlight.TheCeltsviewedcowardiceandsurrenderastheultimatedishonor,and

potentiallyasaninsulttothegodspresidingoverwar.Therefore,thosewhohadsurrendered

11
Freeman,37.
12
PeterHalkon,BonesofIronAgewarriorsmayreveallinkbetweenYorkshiresspearpeopleandthe
ancientGauls,HeritageDaily
,March182016.
http://theconversation.com/bonesofironagewarriorsmayreveallinkbetweenyorkshiresspearpeoplean
dtheancientgauls56458(accessedApril10,2016)
13
Freeman,34.

9

wereperhapsconsideredforfeitoftheirlives.Thetruenatureofthisactisdebatable,andthe

slaughterofprisonersofwarwasnotunknownelsewhereintheancientworld.Giventhat

cowardicewaspunishablebydeath,theirtreatmentofprisonersassacrificestoappeasethegods

maybeseenaspunishmentforaninfractionagainstsaidgods.TheauthorAlainDeyber,a

specialistinGallicmilitaryhistory,notesthatforcertainmeetingsofwar,theGaulswould

sacrificethelasttoarrive.14WeseeinthistherigidlymartialcultureoftheCelticpeoples.

CaesarwasextremelydescriptiveoftheGaulsfromafirsthandperspective,unlikeotherRoman

authors,butminimizesthecommentaryonthesacrificeofhumans,alsounlikeRomanauthors.

Hedoes,however,remarkoncapitalpunishmentasbeingcommonplace.15 Onemightalsonote

thatCaesarmentionedseveraltimeshowmobiletheGallicarmieswere:thismaybeattributed

simplytotheirlighterattireandhighcountofcavalrytroops,butitcouldalsotieintotheir

limitedusesforwarcaptives,whicharenotoriousforslowinganarmydown.Again,itis

difficult,withinthescopeoftheculture,todistinguishbetweensacrificeorexecutionfor

infractionswhichourperspectivescannotfullyunderstand.

OntheGaulishscornforcowardiceanddefeat,twounusualactsarenoteworthy:inthe

eventofvictory,theharvestingofhumanheads,andindefeat,suicidalacts.Multipletimes,

includingtheaccountofthebattleofTelamon,theGaulsareknownasbeingrecklesslybravein

desperatesituationstothepointofappearingsuicidaltotheirfoes.Thisagaintiesintothe

conceptofafterlifesointensivethroughoutCelticmaterialculture.Gallicwarriorshave

allegedlyfallenontheirownswordsratherthanbetakenasprisoners,whichbacksthetestament

14
AlainDeyber,
LesGauloisenGuerre:Stratgies,TactiquesetTechniques:Essai
d'HistoireMilitaire
,unpub.translationbyKevinBeckham,(Paris:EditionsErrance,2009),
15
7778.
Deyber,

10

againstcowardicewhichwaspunishablebyadeathconsideredlessnoble.Thiswasapparently

suchastrikingfeatureofCelticmartialculturethatitinspiredastatue.16Theharvestingof

humanheadsisubiquitousinclassicalaccounts,especiallynotedbyPolybius,andtheywere

usedastrophiesondisplayathomeafterbeingpreservedandcarefullytransportedtotheirplace

ofdisplayaftergrandvictories.AuthorssuchasAnneRossnotethattheheadwasconsideredby

theCeltstobetheseatofthesoul,theessenceofbeing.Itsymbolizeddivinityitself,andwas

thepossessorofeverydesirablequality.17AncientIrishliteraturementionstheharvestingof

TheCattleRaidofCooley
headsasastatussymbolforwarriorssuchasCuChulainnin .18The

materialcultureoftheCeltssupportsthisnotonlyinplacesofsacrificialdeposition,including

theheadsofbothanimalsandhumans,butintheirartaswell.Humanheadsaretotedby

warriorsonmanyCelticcoinsoftheIronAgeera,andaregivenmuchattentionincountless

carvingsinwoodandstoneaswellastheGundestrupcauldron.

Notably,somehistorians,Piggottamongstthem,believethatthiscauldronalsodisplays

theactofhumansacrifice.19 Oneonpanel,warriorsstandinranksbeforeadivinefigureis

shownloweringawarriorheadfirstintothecauldron,possiblytodrownhim.Mountedwarriors

arethenshownridingawayintothesun,whichcouldbeavisualpresentationoftheCelticideals

surroundingtheafterlifeandtheirattitudetowardsdeathassimplyapassage.Onanother,aslain

16
MartinVanNieuwkoop, TheGalatianSuicide:UnravellingtheLudovisiGaulkillinghimselfandhis
wife
,(LiedenUniversity:FacultyofArchaeology,April2012).
https://www.academia.edu/5180896/The_Galatian_Suicide_Unravelling_the_Ludovisi_Gaul_killing_himself_
and_his_wife (accessedApril13,2016)
17
Ross,156157.
18
TomPeeteCrossandClarkHarrisSlover,eds.,AncientIrishTales
,(1936,repr.,Totowa:Barnesand
NobleBooks1981.)281
19
Piggot,7779.

11

mananddoglayatthebreastofagoddessfigurewhoisgroomedbyattendants.Thesacrificeof

dogswasnotunknownamongsttherangeofvictimsinwhichtheGaulsindulged.

Thearchaeologicalrecordandtheliteraturebothhavemuchtosayabouttheworldofthe

ancientEuropeansknownasCelts.Sacrificewasundoubtedlyadailypartoflifeasfaras

materialcultureisconcerned.Votiveofferingsofspecialitems,likelytocurrythefavorofthe

gods,aswellastheburialandburningofgravegoodsshowusareligioussystemofexchange

withstrictrulesandstandards.Goodscouldbeexchangedtosupposedlyensuregoodharvests,

or,asinIreland,theroleofsuchinsurancemayhaverestedonthekingsshoulders.Asa

warriorbasedsociety,theCelticcultureisnaturallymartialandrigid,andcapitalpunishment

wascertainlynotanexclusivemattertotheCelts.TheancientGermansallegedlybelievedthat

thepowertotakeafreemanslifeinexecutionwasamatterforthegods,andthusreligious,and

practicedformostoffencesthepayingoffines.20 Thus,whendeathwastobeadministeredbythe

tribalsystemoftheCelts,onecaninferthatitwasamatterforthegods,andsotothegodsthe

offenderwouldbesentinpropitiation.

AccusationsofritualcannibalismamongsttheancientBritishdruidshaverecentlybeen

underheavierinvestigationthanbefore,itbeingtypicallyrecognizedevenbythelessgenerous

historiansasRomanpropagandadirectedagainstthemoreprimitiveinhabitantsoftheIsles.As

isdrylynotedbyStraboregardingIreland,concerningthisislandIhavenothingcertaintotell,

exceptthatitsinhabitantsaremoresavagethantheBritons,sincetheyaremaneatersaswellas

herbeaters.21 Therecentarchaeologicalfindswhichsuggesttheirvalidityhaveevenbeen

20
Germania
Tacitus, ,sec.12.
21
AldhouseGreen,75.

12

groundshakingenoughtoattracttheattentionofNationalGeographic.22Greenisacclaimedfor

dealingwiththesetopicsasobjectivelyandcomprehensivelyasmosthistorianscouldhopeto.

Certainevidenceforthedefleshingofhumanbonesdoesexist,butthecontextremains

ambiguous,andwiththeoccasionaloffhandremarksregardingthesavageryofthefringeCeltic

regions,discerninghistoriansarehesitanttorushtoconclusions.Theremovaloffleshevidenced

inaselectfewbonesexcavatedfromtheeraoftheRomanoccupationinBritainmayverywell

havebeenanothermanifestationoftheoverkillwhichthebogbodiesofIrelandexperienced.

Yet,perhapscannibalismwasusedasadesperateritualprocedurebytheundergroundfewwho

refusedtocomplywiththeRomanbanonhumansacrifice.Accusationsofcannibalism

neverthelessremainedacommontoolinEuropethroughtheMiddleAgesandupintotheeraof

NewWorldcolonization,andwererarelyfoundedinfactsomuchasfearoffringeterritories.

Again,notonlyareconclusionsdifficulttodraw,butisolatedevidencecannotbeappliedona

broadspectrumorevennecessarilyassociatedwiththedruids.

AllofthisevidencesuggeststhattheancientCeltsofGaul,Britain,andIrelandhad

vastlydifferentviewsindeathandsacrificethantheRomansandGreeksdid,andthuseven

moreforeigntomostmodernpeopletoday.Tounderstandthecontextofritualizedhumandeath

inancientCelticsociety,itisnecessarytoattempttounderstandasmuchasonecanaboutwhat

thedeathmeanttothoseinvolved,andthuswhattheendpurposewas.Aphilosophysuchasthat

ofPythagoras,teachingthedeathlessnessofthehumansoul,canbothmakespecialallowance

formoreabundantviolence,andalsosubtractsomeofthesignificancewhichtermssuchas

humansacrificeconjureuptothemodernmind,withthepropitiatorytortureandmurderof

22
JamesOwen,DruidsCommittedHumanSacrifice,Cannibalism?NationalGeographic ,2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/03/090320druidssacrificecannibalism.html
(accessedApril
19th,2016)

13

innocentsunderreligiousprotection.WhatscholarsseeintheevidenceforCelticsacrificesdoes

notseemtomatchthis.Nowidegeneralizationscanbemadewithanydegreeofcertainty,but

certainly,thepracticeofhumansacrificehasmuchmoretoitthansensationalizednewsarticles

anddocumentariesmayprovide.ThemodernWesternmindviewssuchoccurrencesmuchasthe

Romanmindofantiquitydid:unjust,despicable,andignorantbutthroughthecomplexand

alienlensofCelticreligiousandsocialphilosophy,ittakesonanentirelynewappearance

altogether.Thisperspectiveisperhapsnotabetterormoreacceptableappearance,butamore

sensibleandaccurateonethaneitherrecord,Romanorbogbody,canprovidealone.


14

References

Primary

Cross,TomP.,andClarkH.Slover,eds. AncientIrishTales .1936.Reprint,Totowa:Barnes&
NobleBooks,1981.

Freeman,Philip.War,Women,andDruids:EyewitnessReportsandEarlyAccountsofthe
AncientCelts .Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2002.

TheBogPeople:IronAgeManPreserved
Glob,P.V.. ,trans.RupertBruceMitford.NewYork:
CornellUniversityPress,1969.

OnBritainandGermany:aTranslationoftheAgricolaandtheGermania,
Tacitus. trans.H.
Mattingly.Baltimore:PenguinBooks,1948.

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AldhouseGreen,Miranda. CaesarsDruids:StoryofanAncientPriesthood .NewHavenand
London:YaleUniversityPress,2010.

Deyber,Alain.LesGauloisenGuerre:Stratgies,TactiquesetTechniques:Essaid'Histoire
Militaire,unpub.trans.KevinBeckham.Paris:EditionsErrance,2009.

Green,Miranda. SymbolandImageinCelticReligiousArt .London:Routledge,1989.

Halkon,Peter.BonesofIronAgewarriorsmayreveallinkbetweenYorkshiresspearpeople
andtheancientGauls. HeritageDaily.March182016.
http://theconversation.com/bonesofironagewarriorsmayreveallinkbetweenyorkshir
esspearpeopleandtheancientgauls56458(accessedApril10,2016)

MacCulloch,J.A..TheReligionoftheAncientCelts.Edinburgh:T.&T.Clark,1911.

MacCulloch,J.A..TheCelticandScandinavianReligions .1948.Reprint,Westport:Greenwood
Press,1973.

VanNieuwkoop,Martin. TheGalatianSuicide:UnravellingtheLudovisiGaulkillinghimself
andhiswife.LiedenUniversity:FacultyofArchaeology,2012.
https://www.academia.edu/5180896/The_Galatian_Suicide_Unravelling_the_Ludovisi_Gaul
_killing_himself_and_his_wife (accessedApril13,2016)

OShea,James.BogBodiesareKingsSacrificedbyCelts,SaysExpert. IrishCentral
.N.d.
http://www.irishcentral.com/news/bogbodiesarekingssacrificedbyceltssaysexpert1
29289548237410131.html (accessedApril5th,2016)


15

Owen,James.DruidsCommittedHumanSacrifice,Cannibalism? NationalGeographicNews .
March20th,2009.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/03/090320druidssacrificecannibalism.h
tml(accessedApril5th,2016)

TheDruids
Piggott,Stuart. .1968.Reprint,NewYork:ThamesandHudsonInc.,1985.

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Smiles,Sam.TheImageofAntiquity:AncientBritainandtheRomanticImagination
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YaleUniversityPress,1994.