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Metallic Bonding
This occurs in metals and is when electrons are given out from the metal atoms to make a "sea" of free
electrons in between all of the metal atoms. These free electrons hold the metal as a mass together.
The free electrons present make it possible for electricity to be transferred easily because the charge is
carried by them. Because the metal atoms have lost electrons, they have a positive charge.
Ionic Bonding
This occurs typically between a metal and a non-metal (from groups 1 + 2 and 6 + 7 on the periodic
table). The metal atom loses electrons which are taken by the non-metal. Therefore, the metal ion
produced has a positive charge and the non-metal ion is negatively charged.
Sodium (metal - group 1) + Chlorine (non-metal - group 7) ----> Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
In the example below, the sodium atom has lost an electron to form a positive ion. The chlorine atom
has gained the electron lost from the sodium to form a negative ion. The NaCl molecules are arranged
Covalent Bonding
This is when electrons are shared between atoms. Covalent bonding occurs between non-metals due to
the fact that all of the atoms need to gain electrons, so they have to share.
Common substances that covalent bonding occurs in: Water (H2O), Hydrogen gas (H2), and Methane
(CH4)
FRACTIONAL DISTILATION
Fractional distillation is the process of heating up a mixture containing different substances with different
boiling points, and drawing the different fractions off as they each boil and liquify at its own level. Crude
oil contains a lot of useful substances that can be used for different purposes.
Each fraction is not a pure compound but is a mixture of different alkanes with similar boiling points.
Fractional distillation is used because the substances in crude oil are miscible (which means that they
mix) therefore they do not separate out into layers. The following table shows the products of fractional
distillation:
list but contains most of the elements that you need to know about.
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
A single substance is broken down by heating. A good example of this is the cracking of hydrocarbons.
Displacement
When one more reactive element pushes another less reactive element out of a compound. This mainly
Neutralisation
Precipitation
A solid (the precipitate) is formed from the reaction of two solutions (i.e. no solids present at beginning
of reaction)
Exothermic Reactions
Endothermic Reactions
A reaction that TAKES IN heat. This energy is used to form the bonds needed to gain the products.
Reduction
Oxidation
Reversible Reactions
When the reaction goes "both ways". The conditions surrounding the reaction determines which way the
reaction favours i.e. more products or more reactants formed. (e.g. The Haber Process in forming
ammonia)