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h i g h l i g h t s
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: NDT methods applicable to concrete bridges are reviewed. The methodology, advantages and disadvan-
Received 21 May 2015 tages along with up to date research on NDT methods are presented. Different damage levels, having less
Received in revised form 21 October 2015 dependence on inspector judgment, are suggested. Moreover, a flow chart based on damage level along
Accepted 5 December 2015
with NDT methods and potential remedial measures are proposed for periodic health monitoring of
Available online 6 January 2016
structures. NDT methods are also suggested to address specific problems related to structures. Finally,
the relation between some of the well-known NDT methods and most common problems encountered
Keywords:
by the field engineers is proposed. Hence, the importance of structural health monitoring is highlighted.
NDT methods
Structural health monitoring
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Damage levels
Remedial measures
Concrete bridges
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2. Nondestructive Test (NDT) methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.1. AudioVisual methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.1.1. Visual inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.1.2. Chain drag. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.1.3. Coin tap test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2. Stress-wave methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2.1. Acoustic emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2.2. Impact echo testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.2.3. Sonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.2.4. Ultrasonic NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.2.5. Impulse response (IR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Abbreviations: ACI, American Concrete Institute; AE, acoustic emission; ASTM, American Standards for Testing Materials; EM, electromagnetic; ER, electrical resistivity;
GPR, ground penetrating radar; IE, impact echo; IR, impulse response; NDE, Non-destructive evaluation; NDT, Non-destructive test; PCC, plain cement concrete; RC,
reinforced concrete; RCP, Rapid Chloride Ion Penetration; SAFT, Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique; SHM, structural health monitoring; UPV, ultrasonic pulse velocity;
VBM, vibration-based monitoring; VBDD, Vibration Based Damage Detection.
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: kashif@engineersdaily.com (S. Kashif Ur Rehman), zainah@um.edu.my (Z. Ibrahim), shazimalimemon@gmail.com (S.A. Memon), jameel@um.edu.my
(M. Jameel).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.011
0950-0618/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886 59
Fig. 1. Concrete deterioration between spans (a) seepage, (b) efflorescence, (c) concrete cover delamination, (d) widen cracks [18].
Fig. 2. Description of the bridge structure in the inventory module, by Gattulli and Chiaramonte [16].
electro-magnetic methods while the techniques which give defi- especially with structural behavior, materials and construction
nite results are placed under heading of deterministic methods. methods [7]. Visual inspection is most extensively used for moni-
Finally, in order to make this review paper more comprehensive, toring the damages in concrete structures [1,7,1418]. According
some other test methods like vibration method, Infrared method to Perenchio [19], visual inspection is one of the first steps in eval-
and Radiographic methods are also discussed. uating concrete structures. It is a quick method for identifying the
apparent and superficial problems. This method is rapid & inex-
2.1. AudioVisual methods pensive but it never offers detailed and quantitative information
about the interior defects. It is normally carried out to determine
2.1.1. Visual inspection cracking, seepage, spalling, exposed reinforcement, staining, mois-
Visual inspection is one of the versatile and powerful NDT ture ingress, beam delamination, concrete deterioration and rein-
methods for inspecting visible surfaces. However, its effectiveness forcement corrosion [17]. Hand held magnifier, stereo
depends on the experience and knowledge of the investigator microscope, fiberscopes and borescopes are some of the tools that
S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886 61
Fig. 4. Coin tap test for checking the debonding and delamination in concrete and Fig. 5. (a) Forcetime histories of impacts on good and disbonded areas of CFRP
steel. skinned honeycomb structure; (b) spectra of time histories [27].
62 S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886
Delaminations were marked by using chain drag method in geo- coin was used to enhance the frequency range of excitation. Test
metric shapes/figures which provided the estimate regarding the results showed that high frequency coin tap is more capable to
actual delaminated areas and were often used as the boundaries observe the cracks and voids in greater depth as compared to con-
for repair and maintenance area. The authors suggested removing ventional coin. This method when tested on aluminum plates with
the cover material during repair and maintenance work, especially flat-bottom holes showed that high frequency coin tap can detect
for the exposed corroded steel bars, which lie outside of the bound- 50 mm diameter defect located at 7 mm depth, while the same
aries marked by chain drag survey. The difference between chain defect with 5 mm depth was not detectable by conventional coin
drag based delaminated area and GPR based delaminated area tap test. However, the results of this low mass striker were not
was 2.5 m2 or 0.4% with a standard deviation of 1.3% of the deck good on honeycomb specimen with fiber reinforced plastic skin.
surface area. Chain drag results and GPR results were much similar According to the authors, it may be due to reduction in excitation
and very close to each other using thresholds developed by the frequency range by the low out of plane stiffness of the fiber rein-
authors. force plastic. It was recommended that the method may be effi-
cient on structures made with metals or unreinforced plastic.
Wu and Siegel [28], used hammer to apply force on structure
2.1.3. Coin tap test and measured its value by accelerometer and the resulting sound
Coin tap test is the simplest form of Impulse echo method [6]. It with the help of microphone. From the experimental results, it
is amongst the oldest methods of NDT and frequently used for was found that both accelerometer and microphones have valid
crack and damage detection [6,2629]. Specifically, it is used for role as instruments for automating defect and damage detection.
laminated structures and bonded joints [27]. In the past, this However, according to the authors, it is hard to say in any univer-
method was widely used in UK for detecting defects/discontinu- sal sense whether forces-only or sound-only methods are more
ities during tunnel linings [6]. In this method, wall or lining or useful coin-tap methods.
bridge portion is strike with coin or lightweight hammer and echo The traditional coin tap test is low cost but it is operator depen-
or ringing is heard. Whenever, the impulse hammer hits the cavity dent. Therefore, in Georgeson et al. [29] research work, an illustra-
or defaulted portion of structure, a significant change in the fre- tion of low cost tap hammer developed by Boeing was given. This
quency is noticed. It is a rapid method and can be used anywhere low cost tap hammer provides quantitative measure about impulse
easily, because human ears are very sensitive to detect change in time of hammer/composite which can further be linked with
the frequency of sound. Moreover, different types of equipment delaminations in structure. The instrumented tap hammer pro-
can also be used to detect the difference in frequency and make vides numeric value that can easily be linked with the quality of
this technique convenient to use anywhere. Fig. 4 shows the appli- local parts and thus removes discrimination of workers. Moreover,
cation of coin tap test in steel and concrete structures. the effect of operator differences and background noise on investi-
The physical basis of coin-tap test was investigated by Cawley gated data can be eliminated.
and Adams [27]. It was observed that during the tap the presence
of defect such as delamination beneath the surface of the structure 2.2. Stress-wave methods
changes the force characteristics. As defect becomes larger, the
duration of impact increases and the peak force reduces. It was also 2.2.1. Acoustic emission
observed from the forcetime history spectra that as the defect Acoustic emission (AE) test is most extensively used for damage
become larger, the rate of reduction in force amplitude with fre- detection in several fields in general and transportation sector in
quency increases. Fig. 5(a) shows measured forcetime histories particular [9,3036]. In 1939, Hopwood [30] for the first time
from taps on good and disbonded regions of a honeycomb struc- applied the concept of AE testing to a bridge for structural health
ture. The impact over the good area is more intense and of shorter monitoring [9]. Carter and Holford [31] and Holford and Lark
duration than that on the damaged area. In Fig. 5(b), the amplitude [33] reviewed the application of AE in bridge monitoring. AE test-
of the force input to the damaged area falls off rapidly with ing is used for three major areas of damage i.e. source location,
increasing frequency, while the impact on the sound area has a source identification and severity assessment [32]. The automated
much lower rate of decrease of force with frequency. The authors source location capability of AE make this technique more distin-
showed that the defects like delaminations and disbonds can be guished in NDT [32,34]. This test is based on transient elastic
modeled as spring where the stiffness of spring would be same waves. These elastic waves are produced from the structure under
as of layer(s) above the defect. The authors concluded that this observation by rapid release of energy and the transducers are
method is more reliable and provide satisfactory results on thin used to collect these waves. Thus, two integral components are
structures. In this method no coupling fluid is required which make necessary for AE test. The first is the material deformation which
this technique more rapid then ultrasonic testing techniques. produces the elastic waves and becomes the source while the sec-
In Cawley [26] research, a high frequency version of coin tap ond is transducers that receive these elastic stress waves.
test by tapping the structure (aluminum plates with flat-bottom The schematic layout of the AE testing which represents the
holes) with a lighter coin (below 1 g) was investigated. The lighter overall operational principle of an AE monitoring system is shown
in Fig. 6. Whenever a crack, damage or flaw develop within the
interior layers of structure, it release burst of energy [36]. This
energy (primary and secondary emissions) is mostly in the form
of high frequency sound waves [36]. The primary emissions are
those which are generated from the under observation structure
while the secondary emissions are those which are produced from
some external material or source. These waves travel within the
object and are received by transducers and sensors [36]. The travel
time of these waves is very important. If both transmitter and
transducer are placed on the opposite sides than the shortest travel
time would indicate the sound concrete while the longer travel
time is an indication of inferior quality of the concrete. The longer
Fig. 6. Principle of acoustic emission [36]. travel time may be due to the reason that the signal got diffracted
S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886 63
Fig. 7. Wireless sensing of large structures using radio frequency transmission scheme [39].
Fig. 10. Devices used for the IE method (a) stepper, (b) bridge deck scanner [25].
Fig. 11. Void detection using DAI-1 impact-echo system at a concrete bridge [53].
Fig. 12. Results of void detection along a scanning line in a concrete bridge [53].
determining the depth of crack [4152]. Schematic working princi- time domain signal into frequency domain signal. The location of
pal of impact-echo method is shown in Fig. 9. Initially a two the damage portion, crack or discontinuity and depth of member
dimension grid system is drawn on structure and IE is carried over can be found by using simple formula [10].
the specified location. Scott et al. [10], used a spacing of 2 ft
T C p =2f
between the grid lines. An impactor is used to produce the tran-
sient pulse in the structure by applying impact loading (Fig. 10). where T is location of discontinuity or point from where waves
Depending on the materials characteristics, the stress pulse infil- reflect, f is the wave frequency and Cp is the velocity of the compres-
trate into the structure at a specific speed and produces waves sional propagating wave.
(P, S and surface waves) that are reflected by internal interfaces/ Different authors used various ways for interpreting the sever-
defects or external boundaries. Transducers are used to receive ity of delamination in bridge deck with IE method [25]. For exam-
these reflected waves from any discontinuity present in concrete. ple, a delaminated point in the deck will theoretically demonstrate
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis is then used to transform a shift in the return frequency toward higher values because the
S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886 65
2.2.3. Sonics density of the concrete. Therefore, the calculated velocity can pro-
Non-destructive sonic test was abundantly used in past for vide information regarding the concrete quality [7].
assessing and determining the civil structures and materials When the stress wave has traveled the full length of the shaft,
[6,7,5558]. This method is based on the stress waves. Mechani- these calculations are based on the following formula
cally, stress waves are transmitted into the structure and when
intervene by any discontinuity; these waves reflect and collected
by the receivers. Transmission modes for sonic wave tests include C b 2L=Dt
(a) direct, (b) semi-direct, (c) indirect [6]. The different modes of
transmission are illustrated in Fig. 14.
In direct transmission method compressional waves of frequen- where Cb = bar wave speed in concrete; L = shaft length; Dt = transit
cies ranging from 500 Hz to 10 kHz penetrate through the struc- time of stress wave.
ture [6]. Waves are transmitted from one side of structure and Empirical data show that a typical range of values for Cb can be
received at opposite site. Upgraded form of direct transmission is assumed, where 38004000 m/s would indicate good-quality con-
semi-indirect transmission mode [6]. Semi-indirect transmission crete, having a compressive strength on the order of 3035 MPa
method, also known as sonic tomography [6], is used on the paths [59]. For the case where the length of the shaft is known, an early
which are not transverse to wall surfaces of structure. The effi- arrival of the reflected wave would mean that it has encountered a
ciency of results is increased by adopting a dense grid system for reflector (change in stiffness or density) other than the toe of the
data recording (Fig. 15) [57]. Colla et al. [57], used the recorded tra- shaft.
vel time data of sonic signal waves to draw 3-D velocity distribu- Colla et al. [57], evaluated and compared the performance of
tion across the entire structure. McCann and Forde [6] plotted sonic and ultrasonic tests on rubble masonry walls. The authors
velocity magnitude into the format of contour map [6]. Grid points found that ultrasonic frequencies have high depletion rate due to
were drawn on xy axes and velocity coordinates on z-axis. This presence of voids, joints and homogeneities. Therefore, they sug-
format provided information about the relative conditions of inter- gested that sonic test should be preferred for rubble masonry
nal fabrics of structure [6]. Moreover, 3-D velocity distribution walls. Berra et al. [58], also concluded that for masonry walls and
map helped in diagnosing the local alterations in velocity which in comparison to ultrasonic test, sonic test is more suitable and
can be further linked with the different areas of weakness and appropriate in detecting the cracks, delaminated joints and large
flaws [6]. In indirect method, also known as sonic reflection voids.
method or sonic-echo method, the signal generator and receiver The effect of sonic test on existing partially damaged and
are placed on the same face of structure. Recorded stress waves repaired structures was investigated by Binda et al. [55]. Sonic
(direct stress waves) are echoed from the inner discontinuities or velocities were used to analyze the structural health of masonry
from rear face. This method is not recommended due to poor res- walls of Cathedral of Noto. According to the authors, this test can
olutions attained from the low frequency energy [6]. Moreover, it is be used to identify different levels of damage in structural ele-
difficult to discriminate between reflected waves and surface ments and can also examine the efficiency of grout injection.
waves [6]. Sonic methods can be utilized for evaluation of material In 2003, Binda et al. [56], investigated the effect of sonic and
uniformity, void detection, depth of surface crack, internal proper- radar tests on masonry structures. Both tests gave reliable informa-
ties of fill material or structure, average compressive strength, tion about the damage portions. However, the results of sonic tests
internal dimensions and shape of the structure [6]. As an example, were found to be better than radar test. The authors suggested that
if the length of the pile shaft is known and the transmission time these test can be used to recognize different materials on the sur-
for the stress wave to return to the transducer is measured, then face of large areas and can identify variation in material character-
its velocity can be calculated. Conversely, if the velocity is known, istics. Furthermore, this test might be used for evaluating the
then the length can be calculated. Since the velocity of the stress effectiveness and distribution of grout in the structure. Results of
wave is primarily a function of the dynamic elastic modulus and sonic tests were found better then radar test.
S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886 67
Fig. 16. Bridge deck survey using ultrasonic equipment (top) test results, (bottom) equipment and data collection [25].
Fig. 17. Validation test specimen: (a) validation test site; (b) sketch depicting locations of built-in defects as well as marked test lines and test points [65].
Fig. 18. Point-by-point condition rating of validation test specimen based on: (a) longitudinal measurements; (b) transverse measurements [65].
68 S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886
Fig. 20. Impulse response test method: (a) the concept, (b) example of using in practice [69].
used to determine the length of piles and piers, cross-sectional area problematic zones for detailed investigations. The author con-
of pier, provide information about dynamic stiffness of the shaft/- cluded that IR test plays an important role in rapid assessment of
soil composite [7]. Theoretical interpretation of impulse response large concrete structures during on site testing and immediately
application regarding pile length and dynamic stiffness are given allows identifying the problematic areas within structure for
by Turner [70]. Even though the concept behind impulse response detailed investigation. This results in financial benefit and
and impact echo is similar, there are significant differences when it increased confidence on this technique.
comes to bridge deck testing. Impact echo is based on the excita- The Impulse Response sMash test method was used by Gorze-
tion of particular wave propagation modes above the probable lanczyk et al. [69] to measure the length of piles. The authors used
anomalies within the deck or between the top and bottom of the this method to determine the length and continuity of concrete
deck. The frequency range is typically in between 3 and 40 kHz. prefabricated piles in a quick manner. The pile length measured
On the other hand, impulse response relies more on the structural by IR method was found similar to the designed length. However,
response in the vicinity of the impact and, therefore, the frequency professional person is required for analyzing stress waves signals
range of interest is much lower i.e. 01 kHz for plate structures which is a major drawback of this method.
[25].
Davis [68] applied this test method on different concrete struc- 2.3. Electro-magnetic methods
tures which include cooling towers, arch bridge, bridge deck, pre-
stress box beam bridge, freeways and terra coda clad steel column. 2.3.1. Ground penetrating radar (GPR)
Fig. 21 shows the exposed wall of cooling tower after the IR test GPR is the most successful and well-known Non-destructive
and stiffness contour map of pre-stressed box beam bridge. test for investigation of bridge decks and pavements [7,23,71
According to Davis [68], this method play an important role in 79]. It is used for structural health monitoring of concrete struc-
evaluation of floor slabs, pavements, concrete bridges, decks, piers tures like buildings, bridges and tunnels [73,78,80,81] and provides
fluid retaining structures and silos. Moreover, this test can be used an electromagnetic (EM) wave-reflection survey. GPR is rapid and
for rapid evaluation of large structures and identification of quick method for assessing in-depth characteristics of subsurface
Fig. 21. (Left) Exposed cooling tower wall after IR testing, (Right) stiffness contour plot of pre-stressed box beam bridge [68].
70 S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886
Fig. 22. Reflections of electromagnetic radiation pulse at interfaces between materials with different relative dielectric constants [7,88].
layers and can be used for detecting damages, delaminations, voids depth of the discontinuity are directly proportional to each other,
(more than 1 in. deep and 1 in. diameter) [82], cracks and their therefore, it is also possible to detect interface surfaces between
lengths, cavities, recognizing steel reinforcement and its diameter air and concrete, steel and concrete, steel and water [87]. Reflec-
[72], thickness of member, identifying regions of high moisture tions of electromagnetic radiation pulse at interfaces between
content, settlement of layers and monitoring of deformation materials with different relative dielectric constants is shown in
induced by strain [71,76,77,8386]. Initially grid lines are marked Fig. 22. We would like to mention here that large amount of data
on structure at different intervals (usually 2.5 ft) [17]. Then on is obtained from this test; therefore, an experienced interpreter/-
these grid points GPR equipment moves for data recording of com- analyst is required.
plete structure. Typical GPR include an antenna, a control unit, a Hugenschmidt and Mastrangelo [75], quantified the accuracy
display unit and a data recording device [7]. The antenna transmits and reliability of GPR on bridge structure under real circumstances.
short pulses of electromagnetic energy that penetrate through the They applied the GPR method on a bridge which was marked for
material and a portion of this energy is received by the antenna demolition. For concrete cover over the top layer of re-bar, the dif-
when it is encountered by an interface between materials of dis- ference in results between radar and reality was 10 mm. The main
similar dielectric properties [7]. For continuous acquisition of data reason for this difference in results was related to the resolution
along the bridge deck, the antenna is either mounted (150 problem in small cover areas and uncertainties in interpretation.
500 mm above the pavement surface) on the vehicle or it can be Moreover, the pavement thickness was also measured and the dif-
dragged across the pavement surface [7]. The control unit controls ference in the results between GPR and reality was found to be
the pulse, amplify the received signal and provide output to the 9 mm. The main reason for the gap in the results was small con-
display unit (oscillo-graphs, graphic facsimile recorders) [7]. The crete cover which resulted in overlapping reflections from re-bar
data obtained (arrival time and energy level of reflected electro- and bottom of pavement. According to the authors, the quality of
magnetic pulse) can be analyzed by various techniques such as results depends on two parameters (1) the object under testing
cluster analysis, quantitative peak analysis, and topographic plot- and (2) qualification and experience of persons conducting test.
ting [7]. The velocity and travel time of the electromagnetic pulse Fig. 23 shows the working of GPR test equipment.
signals provide information about the location and depth of the Hugenschmidt [74], used mobile GPR system for concrete
discontinuity [87]. Moreover, since the travel time of signals and bridge inspection (Fig. 24). The results of mobile and manual data
S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886 71
water which limit GPR to identify the damage at early stage. Fur-
thermore, defects were not detectable in lightweight concrete
mixes within 3 months of casting concrete.
2.3.2. Conductivity
Electromagnetic conductivity is a technique which provides
geometrical, electrical information and degree of saturation about
the materials [6]. Alteration in the conductivity characteristics of
concrete indicates the damage in concrete [6,57,8991]. This
method uses the response of the ground against the propagation
of electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic fields, which are
generated through the transmitting coils, passes through the object
and their response is monitored. Since the receiving and the trans-
mitted fields are different both in amplitude and phase, hence, this
difference provides certain information on materials geometry and
electrical properties [57]. In this method, normally a grid system is
laid on the surface of the material and the measurements are taken
on specific grid points. For better results and maximum accuracy
level, it is suggested to have overlapped reading for every half
meter [57]. Data is then recorded by the digital data recorder and
later on, it is transferred to the computer for plotting contour maps
of the conductivity distribution in both horizontal and vertical
plane.
The relationship between concrete mix proportions and electri-
Fig. 24. EMPAs mobile GPR system [74]. cal characteristics of concrete was investigated by Whittington
et al. [91]. The determination of electrical conductivity of concrete
mix was based on the hydration of cement paste, rate of hydration
GPR were compared for accuracy. The accuracy of the mobile radar of cement paste within concrete, degree of hydration of concrete
for layer thickness was in between 5 and 15 mm if signal velocity is and water cement ratio of mix. Indirectly, this method was used
assumed to be horizontally invariant. However, the accuracy can to determine the quality of concrete and its strength at particular
be improved if velocity variations are taken into account. The time. A simplified model proposed for conduction of current
authors concluded that mobile GPR data acquisition system is cost through concrete is shown in Fig. 26. Whittington concluded that
effective method as compared to manual data GPR. Moreover, it can be used for real time structural health monitoring of struc-
interruption in traffic flow can be reduced to minimum by using tures. For example, the growth of a crack can be identified as an
this method. alteration in the conductivity characteristics of concrete.
An experimental investigation was carried out by Yehia et al. Colla et al. [57], used this rapid, low cost and not-contacting
[79] to evaluate the effect of different parameters such as mix vari- technique for the assessment (inhomogeneity identification, mois-
ations, changes in temperature and concrete maturity on defect ture movement detection over time) of masonry arch bridge
detection ability using GPR method in bridge decks. Overall they (Fig. 27). The main parameters which controlled the conductivity
prepared sixteen concrete samples and eight were simulated with procedures were clay content, moisture level (humidity) and salin-
defects. Fig. 25 shows the specimen made for experimental testing. ity [57]. However, the conductivity method was unable to collect
The authors found that GPR can detect defects in bridge deck with data at deeper locations.
radius to depth ratio (r/d) as small as 0.15. The existence of defects It was shown by Smith-Rose [92] that conductivity increased
under steel reinforced was found to limit the defect detection abil- approximately by the square of the moisture content in soil sam-
ity of GPR. Porous lightweight aggregate can absorb and retain ple. In a typical case, the conductivity for dry soil at a frequency
Fig. 25. Specimens used in the investigation (a) singly reinforced specimen cross-section and (b) doubly reinforced specimen cross-section [79].
72 S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886
of the metal and the anions present in the solution. This potential
difference will give us information about the corroded reinforce-
ment [25]. As per ASTM C876-91 [93], if the reinforcement is cor-
roding, the electrons would tend to flow from the reinforcement to
the half-cell, where copper ions would be transformed into copper
atoms deposited on the reinforcement. A display of more negative
reading on the voltmeter would be an indication of high probabil-
ity that the reinforcement is corroding. During experiments, it was
observed that the negative potential will be more when some
defects like cavities are present in the surface [98]. For bridge
decks, initially a grid system is laid on the deck. ASTM C876-91
[93] suggests a spacing of 1.2 m, however, a closer spacing is rec-
ommended if the voltage difference between the adjacent points
exceeds 150 mV. For reliable assessment of corrosion activity,
some researchers suggested a spacing of about 0.6 m [94].
The results of the survey can be prepared in the form of equipo-
Fig. 26. Conduction model for concrete [91]. tential contour maps to assess corrosion activity on concrete bridge
and can then be used for the maintenance and repair work [6]. The
of 1200 kilocycles per sec was of the order of 105 electrostatic units results of survey can also be formulated in the form of cumulative
(corresponding to a resistivity of 9 mega ohms per cm cube), while frequency diagram [93]. It has been pointed out by Gu and Beau-
at a moisture content in between 12 and 26 percent a limiting doin [97], that when the portable half-cell is moved on the marked
value in between 108 and 2 108 electrostatic units (resistivity grid points, the longitudinal distribution of corrosion potential is
90004500 ohms per cm cube) was obtained [92]. Burial-type mapped. Finally, the results can be evaluated by either numeric or
four-electrode units used for monitoring applications are shown potential difference technique [93]. Half-cell potential method
in Fig. 28. can be applied at concrete structures irrespective of thickness of
concrete cover and size and detailing of reinforcement [96]. It can
indicate the corroding reinforcement not only near the external
2.3.3. Half-cell potential surface but also in greater depth [96]. It needs to be pointed out
Half-cell potential is an electrical technique used for evaluation here that the testing and interpretation of results must be done
of corrosion activity of steel reinforcement [7,9398]. The standard by experienced personnel. Some limitations of this method include
equipment (Fig. 29) consists of a coppercopper sulfate half-cell, (1) the wire has to be connected to the reinforcement, (2) it is dif-
connecting wires and a high voltmeter so that very little current ficult to take correct reading if any coating is present on the surface
flows through the circuit [7]. When a metal is submerged into an like epoxy, paint or asphalt, (3) it does not provide information
electrolyte, positive metal ions will resolve (oxidation) and will about the rate of corrosion, (4) correction factor has to be applied
accumulate at the metalliquid interface. As a consequence, the if the test is performed outside 1728 C range [7,93].
metalliquid interface becomes positively charged, and a double In [95], Elsener observed that half-cell potential method can be
layer is formed. Anions, from the electrolytic solution (in concrete easily used for assessing the corrosion of rebars after repair and
Cl and SO2 4 ), are attracted to the positively charged side of this thus scrutinize the effectiveness and durability of repair work. It
double layer and accumulate there, forming the so-called half-cell. was found that for accurate results and effectiveness of repair
A potential difference between the metal and the net charge of the work, two parameters are crucial, one mechanism of repair
anions in the electrolyte builds up, which depends on the solubility principle and second measurement time after repair work. The
Fig. 34. Proof load test on new Elizabeth Bridge in 1964 [111].
Fig. 37. Cross-section of specimens (a) core and (b) cylindrical specimen [113].
roughly costs around 6% of bridge replacement [106,110]. Applica- and bridges after performing preliminary NDT survey. Scott et al.
tion of proof load test on a bridge in early 60s is represented in [10], used 10 cores samples from different locations marked by
Fig. 34. preliminary survey for detail investigations. The cores extracted
Saraf and Nowak [109], carried out proof load test on three sim- from different locations were thoroughly inspected for the cracks,
ply supported steel girder bridges. These selected bridges varied in delamination, deterioration, seepage and corrosion (Fig. 36). After
span length from 11.0 to 15.5 m and aged more than 60 years. Two the experiment, the core places are filled up by grouting or any
military tanks were used to load the bridges as shown in Fig. 35. other method. It is worth mentioning here that the data obtained
Weighed of each tank was 530 kN and these tanks were used to from cores is reliable and can be used for further investigation
increase the mid-span bending moment in different steps. Values and selection of repair and maintenance work. This method is
of Stress and deflection were measured on the steel girder at applied extensively in highways, bridge-deck and concrete struc-
selected points. The authors found that these measured stresses tures. Core is a destructive and expensive method. However, its
and deflections were less as compared to the analytical calcula- results are used with NDT to achieve the high level of confidence.
tions. The composite action between steel girders and concrete Suzuki et al. [114] obtained the cylindrical core samples from
slab was observed even at maximum load level. It was noted that the walls of canals (more than 40 years old), in Hokkaido prefec-
nonstructural members contributed to the flexural stiffness and ture, Japan so as to determine the mechanical properties of the
for all bridges bearings provided partial restraint to rotation at concrete. In cores freezethaw damage was heavily observed.
supports. Compression test showed that samples effected by freezethaw
have 3.87 times lower strength as compared with non-cracked
2.4.2. Coring samples. The cracked in cores were also inspected by X-ray com-
Cores are considered as semi-destructive method and are used puted tomography method and AE. Moreover, the damage of con-
to determine the internal defects in structures. ASTM C 42/C crete structures was evaluated quantitatively by AE and X-ray
42M-04 [112], provide the standard test method for obtaining method.
and testing the drilled cores. Cores are extracted to measure the McIntyre and Scanlon [113], proposed the relationship between
compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strength of in-situ con- core-cylinder specimens. Cross-section of core and cylindrical
crete. These are used to check the quality of construction and mea- specimens are given in Fig. 37. Due to the destructive nature of col-
sure the strength of old structures [10,25,112,113]. Strength of lecting samples, core strength was found to be less than the cylin-
concrete is affected by the location of the cores, amount and distri- der strength. Some of the energy used to cut and remove the
bution of moisture and orientation of cores [112]. Core drill and sample invariably cause micro-cracks, bond failure or weakening
saw is used for the drilling of cores from specimen. Usually, cores between cement matrix to aggregate surface and major cracks in
are extracted from concrete structures particularly from highways core. Authors proposed that overall average core-cylinder strength
S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886 77
ratio was 0.923. The major problem with the core test is that it pro- compressive tests were also conducted for the comparative charac-
vide information about small region of total volume of concrete terization of the brickwork. Dynamic characteristics were deter-
from where it is obtained. mined by using natural and forced vibration loading. These
loadings were used to find out stiffness and to some extent esti-
2.5. Miscellaneous tests mate the structural damage and some types of global deterioration.
The effects of harmonically forced vibration tests on two-span
2.5.1. Dynamic/vibration testing post-tensioned reinforced concrete bridge was investigated by
Vibration testing is most commonly used for measuring the Bedon and Morassi [119]. This bridge was located in northern Italy
structural health of structures. In late 19th century, vibration/dy- which is prone to high seismicity. The Frequency response function
namic field tests were applied to different concrete structures (FRF) was determined by using low levels of excitation with series
[115]. Various researches used this method on bridges to assess of harmonic forced-vibration applied in the form of stepped-sine
their condition and structural health [115124]. In dynamic test, technique. Thereafter, the acceleration response of the bridge
the structure is subjected to excitation forces and its response is was measured and the acceleration-time histories were used to
measured by means of transducers [125]. Natural frequency, mode determine the FRF of the bridge.
shapes and modal damping values are measured during testing In recent past, Cunha, et al. reviewed the latest features of
and are known as modal parameters [125]. The values of these vibration/dynamic testing [120]. According to the authors, forced
modal parameters change whenever a structure deteriorates. After vibration has a disadvantage especially when it is applied to long
inspecting these parameters it is easier to find out the structural span bridges. The problem was related to exciting the important
health and condition of the structure [125]. It is worth mentioning and significant vibration modes in a controlled way specifically
here that the changes in these parameter mainly depend upon the in a low range of frequencies with adequate energy. However,
location, type and severity of defects and flaws [125]. Two types of the latest advancement in technology make it possible to measure
methods (ambient and forced vibration) are used for vibration test- precisely low levels of dynamic response produced by the ambient
ing. In ambient vibration testing method, there is no control on the excitations like traffic or wind. The ambient or free vibration tests
input or applied force [122] while in forced vibration testing are the most real and effective method used for determining the
method, the input/applied forces is controlled. modal parameters [120]. Moreover, this method can be applied
Vibration-based monitoring (VBM) of civil infrastructure is during the construction and rehabilitation stage [120]. Fig. 38
explored by Brownjohn et al. [126]. VBM is a subcategory of struc- shows the application of free vibration test on the bridge. The
tural health monitoring plan and emphasis on the dynamic part of non-contact measurement techniques such as radar or laser pro-
performance [126]. It provides enough data for the structural vided ease and efficiency in application of dynamic testing [120].
investigation and leads to the another study area which is a sub-
group of VBM and known as Vibration Based Damage Detection 2.5.2. Infrared thermography
(VBDD) [126]. VBDD methods are not only limited to determining Infrared thermography, a global inspection method, allows
the natural frequencies of the structures, but can also be used for large surface area to be inspected in a short span of time. Concrete
diagnosing the change in support conditions/bearing, degradation surfaces absorb the solar energy in day and release it in night
of the material properties and contribute in probabilistic post- [129,130]. Therefore, Infrared thermography is used for detecting
earthquake assessment using modal parameters [126]. This the delaminations and anomalies in concrete surface [6,7,25,131
method is relatively cheap and easy and the measurement points 134]. The three main properties that influence the heat flow and
can be selected in accordance to test situation. distribution within a material include the thermal conductivity,
A model calibration method was proposed by Robert-Nicoud specific heat capacity (Cp), and the density (q). The electromagnetic
et al. [127]. This method is based on the structural behavior such spectrum range used to measure the Infrared thermography is
as material characteristics and support conditions. A methodology shown in Fig. 39. Infrared thermography for testing concrete is
for dynamic based assessment, using ambient vibration testing, based on two heat transfer mechanism, radiation and conduction
was applied to reinforced concrete arch bridge by Gentile [123]. [7]. In the first mechanism, a surface emits energy (electromag-
Output-only modal identification and updating different uncertain netic radiation) and the rate of energy emitted by the surface per
parameters of the computer models [123]. unit area can easily be calculated by StefanBoltzmann law. Since
In [128], Brencich and Sabia used dynamic tests on a masonry infrared radiations are not visible to human eye, therefore, special
bridge to detect the natural frequencies and mode shapes. The sensors are required to detect these radiations. After calibration,
Fig. 40. Infrared image looking down a span, camera is set to include all
Fig. 42. Schematic of radiographic method [7].
temperatures in the frame [132].
S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886
(3) Detect debonding of steel bars (3) Data quality strongly depends upon the coupling of the sensor unit
(4) Detect shallow cracking (4) Difficult on rough surface to couple the sensor
(5) Detect delamination (5) Shallow defects may remain undetected
(6) Detect material interface, specifically interfaces between concrete (6) Some defects might remain undetected due to use of lower frequencies
and air (e.g. grouting defects) and concrete and steel (reinforce-
ment) [60,62,66,140]
(7) Detect grouting defects
Impulse response Also known as transient (1)Detect cracks (1) Reliable data interpretation is highly dependent on the selection of test points
dynamic or mechanical (2)Detect honeycombing or low density concrete (2) Smaller defects may remain undetected
impedance method, (3)Detect voids (3) Automated apparatus is not available
extension of vibration test (4)Detect delamination in concrete
(5)Determine loss of support below rigid pavement
(6)Determine load transfer at joints of concrete pavements
(7)Detect debonding of overlays
(8)Quality control and condition assessment of pavements and deep
foundations
(9) Determine subgrade modulus
(10) Used as screening tool for potential damage detection
Acoustic emission Transient elastic waves (1) Real-time damage detection (1) Background noise problem
(2) Remote monitoring (2) Difficult to apply analysis to real structure
(3) Applicable for both local and global monitoring (3) No standard procedure for all types of bridges
(4) Continuous monitoring without interrupting the traffic flow
(5) Reliable analysis
Ground Use electromagnetic waves (1) Able to determine the buried objects (1) Inability to direct image
penetrating (2) Produce contour maps of subsurface features (2) Unable to detect delamination in bridge decks, unless they are epoxy-impregnated
radar (3) Used for condition assessment of civil structures specially related to or filled with water
soil (3) Extreme cold conditions effects the GPR data
(4) Detect voids and anomalies (4) Completely frozen moisture will remain undetected
(5) Evaluate thickness of members (5) Frozen moisture influence the acquired signal
(6) Measure thickness of concrete cover (6) Deicing salts affect the dielectric constant
(7) Determine rebar configuration (7) Unable to estimate mechanical properties of concrete like strength, modulus
(8) Detect delamination and its potential (8) Unable to provide absolute information about the presence of corrosion, corrosion
(9) Detect concrete deterioration rate or rebar section loss
(10) Sensitive to corrosive environment (9) Expensive method as compared to other ones
(11) Estimate concrete properties
Half-cell potential Electrochemical method (1) Determine active corrosion (1) Minimum temperature must be higher than 2 C [96]
(2) Can be used at any time (2) Influence of concrete cover depth is still unknown
(3) Can be used in any climatic condition (3) Correcting data for depth is difficult
(4) It is not used for moisture or salt content calculation
(5) Cannot take reading on the isolating layer (asphalt, coating and paint)
(6) Measurements are often unreliable (concrete is wet, dense or polymer modified)
79
(continued on next page)
80 S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886
thermore, in future, this field has potential for scanning the exte-
rior cladding of buildings.
Clark et al. [132], used Infrared thermography to identify areas
delamination in a concrete bridge. The authors showed that even
Provide raw data and interpretation is more challenging
2.5.3. Radiography
(1) Difficult to detect deep flaws
Surface has to be pre-wetted
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
which pass through the concrete and sensed by the detector. The
detector converts these radiations into the electrical pulses, which
are further analyzed or counted by other techniques [136]. The
(3) Provide contour maps regarding soundness of the surface
Detects cracks, delamination and concrete disintegration
the material depends on the thickness and the density of the mem-
Identify regions susceptible to chloride penetration
ER surveys can be used to map corrosion activity
ber as well as the exposure time that can be tolerated [7]. On the
(2) Provide preliminary details for further testing
Detect moisture
thick structures.
capacity
field scale. The authors found that the CT numbers varied accord-
ing to the material properties. Variance of the CT number
increases with the increase in damage. Finally, crack properties
were quantified using X-ray CT data.
thermography
Table 1 (continued)
sounding
hammer
Test name
Infrared
Table 3
Detail description of damage levels.
Level Inspection Crack lengths Spalling Support settlement Tilting of Reinforcement Potential remedial action
foundation corrosion
0 Periodic None/1 lm None 100 lm 0 None Routine preservation
activities
1 Periodic Partial/100 lm None 1 mm 0.05 Some stains on Minor maintenance
surface activities
2 Detailed Some/61 mm (NDT Partial bulge outward 50 mm 0.1 (Realized) Partially stains Major maintenance
limit) [143] [121] activities
3 Special Fair amount/610 mm Partial spalling 95 mm (Realized) 0.3 Fair amount of Priority to remediate and
stains repair
4 Special Large amount/ Fair amount of bulge 200 mm (maximum 0.5 (max Fair amount of Rehabilitation and
6100 mm and spalling allowable) [121] allowable) rusts replacement options
5 Special Large/61 m Large amount of bulge P200 mm P0.5 Large amount of Strengthen & upgrading
and spalling rusts
82 S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886
Fig. 44. Schematic layout of SHM procedure, NDT method selection and potential remedial measure.
Table 4
Selection of nondestructive method based upon damage criteria modified from Uemoto [11].
In this research, we have proposed a flow chart for periodic (s). Currently, the most prominent on-site methods for detecting
inspection of concrete bridges (Fig. 44). The health of structures disbonds, defects, impact damages, cracks, fiber breakage and
is monitored and classified in terms of damage level. After classify- misalignment are visual inspection and tap testing [144]. Visual
ing the damage level, several suitable NDT methods are suggested inspection is the first step for deciding the health of a structure
for detailed investigation of bridge. Since maintenance activities and selecting NDT method for further examination. AE method is
are the routine interventions which are applied to the structure also used for periodic inspection. In comparison to visual inspec-
to preserve the structural performance and health. Therefore, sub- tion, it is obviously advantageous as it can provide the global as well
sequently corrective measures are also proposed to recover the lost as local monitoring of the structures. Moreover, it provides the real
strength. Repair activities involve restoration of the existing dam- time monitoring of the structure. After the periodic inspection,
aged members to improve the condition, while rehabilitation and detailed investigation is performed based on the defect type. Each
replacement activities involve the replacement of damaged mem- defect type mention here can be further categorized and elaborated
bers and focus on the root cause of the problem. Strengthening and into different groups. We would like to mention here that these are
upgrading activities involve the modification in existing structural the most common type of damages which are required to be inves-
members to improve and enhance the structural performance. tigated in almost all types of civil structures. This will provide an
Most of the time field engineers are familiar with the problem ease to the field engineers in selection of an NDT method. Coring,
related to concrete structures specifically bridges. However, they which is considered as semi-destructive method, can be used only
require precise NDT method which addresses their problem. In for validating the results of other methods. Once the detail study
Table 4, NDT methods are suggested according to different issues is completed, the maintenance work can be started.
related to structures. It will provide a guideline for field engineers The selected method must be able to include all those problem-
to select NDT method. atic areas which cannot be examined by using traditional methods.
The selection of NDT method based on the defect type is also The data recovered from the method must be reproducible and
proposed in this paper. The relation between some of the well- should serve as reference for carrying out investigation in future.
known NDT methods and most common problems encountered In should also be kept in mind that the selected methods are con-
by the field engineers is illustrated in Fig. 45. Normally, periodical strained by allocated time and budget of the project. It is worth
inspection is done by using visual aids or by simple NDT method mentioning here that the experience of the investigator is most
84 S. Kashif Ur Rehman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 107 (2016) 5886
critical for executing any testing scheme in a successful manner. different issues related to structures. Finally, the relation
The testing scheme should be designed such that it provides the between some of the well-known NDT methods and most com-
optimum level of knowledge about the health of structure. The mon problems encountered by the field engineers is proposed.
investigator must also be familiar with the construction technique, This will provide an ease to the field engineers to select the
damage mechanism and structural behavior besides knowing the NDT method. Hence, this research tries to overcome the misper-
capabilities and limitation of selected NDT method. The knowledge ception about the NDT methods and encourage the field engi-
about the construction technique will help in anticipating about neers an ease to use NDT as integral part of testing.
the exact location of possible anomaly in concrete. Moreover, Some of the NDT methods are developed for some specific
information about damage mechanism will guide the investigator industries, like radiography for the medical industry, GPR for
to choose the parameters that are required to be measured. Finally, the geologist and geo-physics, Electrical based methods for
the structural behavior will provide valuable information about solving the electrical problems. Hence, there is a strong need
selecting most vulnerable member for the existence of defects. to introduce a new discipline which bridges the gap between
civil engineering and these technologies.
4. Conclusions and recommendations
In this paper, various NDT methods which are applicable espe- Acknowledgements
cially to concrete bridges are reviewed. The methodology, advan-
tages and disadvantages along with the up to date research on This research was supported by University Malaya Research
NDT methods are presented. Following are some of the important Grant (UMRG Project No. RP004A/13AET), University Malaya
conclusions. Postgraduate Research Fund (PPP Project No. PG2172014B)
and Fundamental Research Grant Scheme, Ministry of Education,
For those structures which are inaccessible, dynamic testing, Malaysia (FRGS Project No. FP028/2013A). Authors would like
infrared and radar technology are the better choice. Moreover, to thanks to all those who gave written permission to use the
global and local monitoring of structures in real time make AE figures.
a preferred method with compared to other NDT methods.
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