Summary Bussines Resaerch Method

Fieldwork Questionnaires and Responses

(Disusun untuk Memenuhi Tugas Mata Kuliah Metode Penelitian Akuntansi)

Dosen Pengampu : Tri Lestari, Ph.D

DI SUSUN OLEH :

MAUNAH
7774160074

Program Studi Magister Akuntansi

Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa

Tahun 2017
 Fieldwork Questionnaires and Responses

14.1 Developing The instrument Design Strategy

The instrument design process starts with a list of investigative questions drawn from
the management research question. Instrument design include 3 phases:
1. Developing the instrument design strategy.
2. Constructing and refining the measurement questions.
3. Drafting and refining the instrument. Every phase has different issues.

14.2 The management research question hierarchy revisited :

Phase 1 : Developing the instrument design strategy
Management research question hierarchy is the foundation of successful instrument
development. The process from the management dilemma to specific measurement
questions, 4 levels:
1) Dilemma question : dilemma stated in question form, that the researcher
wants to solve.
2) Research questions : fact-based translation of the question we must answer to
find the solution of the management question.
3) Investigative questions : specific questions we must answer to provide
sufficient detail and coverage of the research question.
4) . Measurement questions : questions participants must answer.

Addressing the dilemma research question hierarchy is the first step in planning for the
collection of data. Investigative questions are the core of the researchers information
needs.
To plan a strategy for the survey, there are four important questions that need to be
asked:
1) What type of data is needed to answer the management question?
2) What communication approach will be used?
3) Should the questions be structured, unstructured or a combination of the two?
4) Should the questioning be undisguised or disguised? If the latter, to what degree?

1. Data type Nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio.

2. Communication approach Personal interview, telephone, mail, computer or a
combination of these.
3. Question structure
Questionnaires and interview schedules contain three types of measurement
question:
Administrative question identify participant, interviewer, location, conditions.
 Classification questions are usually demographic variables that allow
participants answers to be grouped so that patterns (patronen) are revealed
and can be studied.
Target questions address the investigative question of a specific study.
Structured: fixed set of choices / closed questions.
Unstructured: they do not limit responses / open-ended questions.
Combination of structured and unstructured.

The type of interview also affects the question structure.

In-depth interview : encourages participants to share as much information as possible
in an unconstrained (ongedwogen) environment.
Interviews with participants in focus groups : widely used in exploratory studies. There
is a list of points that the researcher wants to see discussed.

4. Disguising objectives and sponsors

The last question is whether questioning should be undisguised or disguised
(vermond).

A disguising question is designed to conceal the question's true purpose. The researcher
disguise the sponsor and the objective of a study if he or she believes that participants
will respond differently than they would if both or either were known. Four situations
where disguising the study objective is or is not an issue:

willingly shared, conscious level information: either disguised or undisguised.

reluctantly shared, conscious level information: often disguised, projective
technique.
knowable, limitedly conscious level information: often disguised.
subconscious-level information: seeking insight in the basic motivations, underlying
attitudes or consumption practices may or may not require disguised techniques.
Another form of disguising refers to not revealing the sponsor of a research to
participants. It couldbe because of strategic reasons or researchers will disguise the
name of sponsor if they believe thename would influence the answer behaviour of the
participants.

Preliminary analysis plan

This serves as a check on whether the planned measurement questions meet the data
needs of the research question. It also helps the researcher determine the type of data
needed for each question -a preliminary step to developing measurement questions for
investigative questions.
14.3 Constructing and refining the measurement questions: phase 2
Phase 2 : Constructing and refining the measurement questions
In phase 2 you draft (oppstellen) specific measurement questions considering subject
content, the wording of each question (14.4), and response strategy (14.5). The order,
type and wording of the measurement questions, the introduction, the instructions, the
transitions and the closure in a quality communication instrument should accomplish
the following tasks:
Stimulate each participant to provide accurate (nauwkeurige) responses : extensive
cognitive processes intended to deliver more accurate answers might in fact disguise the
''truth''. A quick answer is often closer to what a respondent really thinks and feels, than
a well elaborated one.

Stimulate each participant to provide an adequate amount of information :

unstructured interviews: while some respondents are very talkative, other are very
limited in their answers. The skills of the interviewer are crucial in ensuring that
participants deliver comparable information. Probing is one strategy.

Discourage (ontmoedig) each participant from refusing to answer specific questions :

the chance of response refusal (weigering) increases with the sensitivity of the question.
Emphasizing that the answer of the respondent is essential for the study, and that
theanswer is confidential, can increase the response to such questions.

Discourage each participant from early strike (staking) of participation : this applies
mainly to mail questionnaires. The main point is that participants enjoy answering the
questions, they have the feeling the questions relate to what they experience.

Leave the participant with a positive attitude about the survey participation
:introducing a survey with an emphasis on the importance of the participants responses
to the project, and closing it with an appreciation of the participants willingness to
cooperate,are simple and easy ways to create a general positive attitude to the survey.

14.4 Question content

How to formulate the questions is another challenge. 4 questions guide the instrument
designer in selecting appropriate question content:
1. Should this question be asked?
2. Is the question of proper scope and coverage?
3. Can the participant adequately answer this question, as asked?
4. Will the participant willingly answer this question, as asked? each question has
numerous issues.
1. Should this question be asked
Issue 1 Purposeful versus interesting.
A good question designer knows the value of learning more from fewer questions.

2. Is the question of proper scope and coverage

Issue 2 incomplete or unfocused
Will this question reveal all we need to know?

Issue 3 Multiple questions.

Does the question request so much content that is should be broken into two or more
questions(multiple questions)? Do not try to ask double barrelled questions (two or
more questions in one).

Issue 4 Precision
Does the question ask precisely what we want and need to know? A second precision
issue deals with common vocabulary between researcher and participant.

3. Can the participant answer adequately

Issue 5 Time for thought
Is it asked in such a way the participant will be able to frame an answer, or is it
reasonable to assume that the participant can determine the answer? Some questions
takes time and thought. Inform the participant in advance about the detailed
information you will be asking about.

Issue 6 Participation at the expense of accuracy

The participants assume giving any answer is more helpful than denying knowledge of a
topic. Their desire to impress the interviewer may encourage them to give answers
based on no information. Given reasonable sounding choices, they will select one even
thought they know nothing about the topic.

Issue 7 Presumed knowledge

The question designer should consider the participants information level when
determining the content and appropriateness of a question. If a construct is involved and
differing interpretations of accouncept are feasible, operational definitions may still be
needed.

Issue 8 Recall and memory decay

The adequacy problem also occurs when you ask questions that overtax participants
recall ability (herinnerings vermogen). Retro spectiveness (retro activite it) is another
precision problem, and becomes more severe the longer the period between the
occurrence of the behavior and the time of the interview because participants find it
harder to remember events the longer the time since their occurrence.
Issue 9 Balance (general versus specific)
Answering adequacy also depends on the proper balance between generality and
specificity. Developing the right level of generality depends on the subject, industry,
setting and experience of the question designer.

Issue 10 Objectivity
The ability of participants to answer adequately is also often distorted by questions
whose content is biased by what is included or omitted.

4. Will the participants answer willingly

Issue 11 Sensitive information-
Some topics are considered too sensitive to discuss with strangers.
Participants may also be unwilling to give correct answers for ego reasons.

Question wording

It is frustrating when people misunderstand a question, most of the time due to the lack
of a share vocabulary.
The difficulty of understanding long and complex sentences or involved
phraseologyaggravates the problem further. The diligent question designer will put a
given question through many revisions before it satisfies the following criteria:
Is the question stated in terms of shared vocabulary?
Does the question contain vocabulary with a single meaning?
Does the question contain unsupported or misleading assumptions?
Does the question contain biased wording?
Does the question contain double negations (ontkenningen)?
Is the question personalized correctly?
Are adequate alternatives presented within the question?

Issue 12 Shared vocabulary

Each must understand what the other says, through using vocabulary common to both
parties.
Simple rather than complex words
Interviewers with content knowledge
Commonly known, unambiguous words (eenduidig)
Precise words

Issue 13 Unsupported assumption (aanname/veronderstelling)-

Unwarranted assumptions contribute to many problems of question wording
 Through assumption you can get a smaller response
Several of the answers can be un-interpretable

Issue 14. Frame of reference (referentiekader)

The frame of reference can be controlled in two ways:
1. The interviewer may seek to learn the frame of reference used by the participant
2. It is useful to specify the frame of reference for the participant

Issue 15 Biased wording

Bias is the distortion of responses in one direction. Word choice is often the major
source. A more subtitle form of bias is that we know that respondents are more likely to
agree with a question and answer it with yes, especially if they do not have a strong
opinion on the issue asked. We can also strongly bias the participant by using
prestigious names in a question. We also can bias response through the use of
superlatives, slang expressions and fad words. Issue 16 Personalized Personalizing
questions changes responses, but it's not clear whether this change is for better/worse.

Issue 17 Adequate alternatives

It is usually wise to express each alternative explicitly to avoid bias.

14.5 Response strategy

The various response strategies offer options that include unstructured or structured
response (open ended or closed questions). Several situational factors affect the
decision of whether to use open ended or closed questions. The decision is also affected
by the degree to which the followingfactors are known to the interviewer:
Objectives of the study.
Participants level of information about the topic.
Degree to which participants has thought through the topic.
Ease with which participant communicates.
Participants motivation level to share information.

Issue 18 Objective of the study

If the objective of the question is only to classify the participant on some stated point of
view, then the closed question will serve well. Open ended questions are appropriate
when the objective is to discover opinions and degrees of knowledge. It may be better to
use open ended questions when the interviewer does not have a clear idea of the
participants frame of reference or level of information.

Issue 19 Thoroughness of prior thought

Closed question: if participants have developed a clear opinion on the topic. Open ended
question: if participants have not thought out their answers.
Issue 20 Communication skill
Open ended questions require a stronger understanding of vocabulary/greater ability to
frame responses.

Issue 21 Participant motivation

Closed questions typically require less motivation and answering them is less
threatening. The response alternative sometimes suggest which answer is appropriate:
for this reason, closed questions may be biased.

Different response strategies:

Free response strategy Open-ended questions

Dichotomous response strategy Suggests opposing

(tegenovergestelde)responses (yes or no),
but not always

Multiple choice strategy There are more than two alternatives.

Checklist response strategy
Problemswith using a multiple choice
strategy are:
One or more responses have
notbeen anticipated.
Participant could divide question
inseveral questions with different
List of choice is not exhaustive
answers
Choices have to be mutually
exclusive
Order of choices.
Multiple choices to a single question (you
canchoose more than 1 answer).

Rating response strategy Participants can position each factor on

acompanion scale.

Ranking response strategy When relative order of alternatives is

important. (example: order your top 3
factors with 123)One problem is how
many factors should beranked.
14.6 Sources of existing questions

Inventing and refining questions demands considerable time and effort. For some topics,
a care failure view of the related literature and an examination of existing instrument
sourcebooks can shortenthis process. Borrowing items from existing sources is not
without risk. Language, phrasing and idiom can also pose problems. Whether an
instrument is constructed from scratch or adapted from the ideas of others, pre-
testing is recommended.

14.7 Drafting and refining the instrument: phase 3

Phase 3: Drafting and refining the instrument

Drafting and refinement is a multistep process:

1. Develop the participant-screening process (personal/telephone) along with the

introduction.
2. Arrange the measurement sequence (meetproces):
a) Identify topic groups.
b) Establish logical sequence (volgorde/ ordening) for the question groups
and questions within the groups
c) Develop transition between these groups
3. Prepare and insert instructions including termination (bendiging), skip
directions and probes(sensoren).
4. Create and insert a conclusion, including a survey return statement.
5. Pre-test specific questions and the instrument as a whole.
1. Introduction and participation screening
The introduction must supply the sample unit with the motivation to participate
in the study. It mustreveal enough about the forthcoming questions. Personal or
telephone interview: screen question to determine if the potential participant has
the knowledge or experience necessary to participate in the study. The
introduction also reveals the identity of the research organization/sponsor and
possibly the objective of the study.
2. Measurement question sequencing
The basic principle used to guide sequence decisions is: the nature and needs of
the participant must determine the sequence of questions and the organization of
the interview schedule. 4 guidelines:
The question process must quickly awaken interest and motivate the
participant to participate in the interview. Place the more interesting topical
target questions early on.
Design attention getting questions.
Design human interest questions.
 Overcome the motivational barrier.
The participant should not be confronted by early requests for information
that might be considered personal or ego threatening. Place questions that
might influence the participant to discontinue or terminate the questioning
process near the end
Start with buffer questions (neutral questions).-
Don't start with questions which are too personal.
The questioning process should begin with simple items and move to the more
complex, andalso from general items to the more specific. Place taxing and
challenging questions later in the questioning process.
Deferring (uitstellen) complex questions or simple questions that
require much thought.
Funnel approach: from general to more specific questions.
Changes in the frame of reference should be small and should be clearly
pointed out. Usetransition statements between the different topics of the
target question set
.- Arranging questions to minimize shifting in subject matter and frame of
reference
.
3. Instructions
Ensure all participants are treated equally/avoiding building error into the
results. Two principlesform the foundation for good instructions: clarity and
courtesy (duidelijkheid en beleefdheid).

Instruction topics including the following:

- Termination of an unqualified participant- Termination of a discontinued interview-
Skip directions- Return instructions.

4. Conclusion
Give the participant the impression that the involvement has been valuable
Overcoming instrument problems
The researcher can do several things to help improve survey results:
Build rapport with the participant :
Building participants interest in the project.
Assurance of confidentiality can increase participants motivation.
Redesign the questioning process
Improve quality of answers by modifying administrative process/response
strategy.
Lead a participant from safe questions to those that are more sensitive.
Secure answers by using a proxy code.
Explore alternative response strategies:
 Try developing positive, negative, neutral versions of each type of
question.
Recognize the sensitivity of certain topics
Use methods other than surveying to secure the data.
Pre-test all the survey elements:
Participant interest (discover participants reaction to the questions).
Meaning (response from participant need to be singled out for further
refinement).
Question transformation (probing necessary to discover how questions
transform).
Question sequence (start with stimulating questions, then sensitive
questions).
Skip instructions (route the response to another question).
Variability. Length and timing (modifying or cutting material).

5. Pre-testing options
Researcher pre-testing bringing research colleagues into the process.
a. Participant pre-testing use sample participants or surrogates (field-
tested).
b. Collaborative pre-tests inform participant it's a pre-test.
c. Non collaborative pre-tests do not inform participant it's a pre-test.