1. What is metal cutting? Explain the characteristics of metals.

Definition: The metal cutting process may be defined as removing a layer of metal from
the blank to obtain a product of specified shape and size with specified accuracy and
surface finish. The cutting process is carried out on metal cutting machine tools with the
help of metal cutting tools.

Characteristics of metal cutting tools

1. Metal is cut by way of removal chips, which are thicker than the depth of cut and are
correspondingly short.
2. There is no flow on the material at right angles to the direction of chip flow.
3. Metal cutting involvers shearing mechanism, a fact, which is proved from the
presence of new lines on the side and back of a chip.
4. Examination of flow lines on the surface of a chip reveals that chips are formed by
block-wise slip of the metal. The front surface usually becomes smooth due to
burnishing action.
5. There are three important areas in any cutting process. The first one is along the shear
plane, second is interface between the chip and the tool face, and third is the finished
or machined surface and the material of tool adjacent to that surface.
6. Generally no crack is observed in front of cutting tool point. Due to strain hardening,
the hardness of the metal in the chip and the built-up edge and near the finished
surface is usually greater than for the metal.
7. Sometimes a built-up edge is formed at the tip of the tool and it significantly alters the
cutting process. It deteriorates the surface finish and the rate of tool wear is increased.
8. A lot of heat is generated in the process of cutting due to the friction between the chip
and the tool.

2.What are the elements of the metal cutting process? How is metal cutting
presented?
In any cutting process the following are the main elements:
1. Workpiece
2. Tool (including holding devices)
3. Chip
4. Cutting fluid

In figure: the line AB is the dividing line between the work and the chip. The
material above this line is deformed by an internal shearing process and comes out in the
form of a chip. The metal below this line is underfomed. The shear plane is the plane
along the line AB and perpendicular to the plane of paper. The inclination of the plane
AB with respect to the surface of work is known as the shear angle. When shear angle
increases, the thickness of the chip as well as the plastic deformation of the chip gets
reduced.
3.Differentiate between orthogonal and oblique cutting.
Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting
Direction of cutting edge
The cutting edge of the tool is The cutting edge is inclined at an angle to
perpendicular to the direction of tool the normal to the direction of tool travel.
travel.

Chip follow direction

The chip flows over the tool face, and the
direction of chip flow velocity is normal
to the cutting edge
Nature of chip generated
Chip coils in a light flat spinal.
Chip flows on the tool face and the
direction of chip flow velocity makes an
angle with the normal on the cutting
edge.
The chip flows sideways in a long cut.

Clearing action of cutting edge

The cutting edge clears the width of the The cutting edge may or may not clear
workpiece on either end. the width of workpiece.

Point of maximum chip thickness There may or may not be a maximum

Maximum chip thickness occurs at its thickness.
middle

Heat developed per unit area

For the same feed of depth of cut, the For same feed and depth of cut, the heat
heat developed per unit area is less. generated is more.

Tool life
Tool life is less. The shearing force acts Tool life is more because shear force acts
on a smaller area. on a larger area.

Cutting force components

Only two components of the cutting force Three components of the cutting force,
act on the tool. These are perpendicular to which are mutually perpendicular to each
each other and can be represented in a other, act at the cutting edge.
plane.

4.Explain the concept of chip formation.

Irrespective of the basic nature of the chips obtained during machining of metals,
the main factor governing the formation of chips is the plastic deformation of the metal
by shear process.
Merchant (1945) used an idealized concept of chip formation for which a precise
geometry may be taken to be the basis for his studies of the mechanism of metal cutting.
In developing the geometry, the following assumptions are made:
1) The process can be adequately represented by any two-dimensional cross-sections
of the cut
2) The tool is perfectly sharp and contacts only the chip on its front or rake face.
3) The primary deformation takes place in very thin zone adjacent to the shear plane
AB.
 4) The cutting edge is perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector V.
5) The chip does not flow to the sides.
As the tool advances into the workpiece, the metal ahead of the tool is severely
stressed. The cutting tool causes internal shearing action in the metal, and so the below
the cutting edge yields and flows plastically in the form of chip. First of all, compression
of the metal under the tool edge takes place. Then plastic flow takes place. It follows the
separation of metal when the compression limit of that metal has been exceeded. Plastic
flow takes place in a localized region called shear plane, which extends from the cutting
edge obliquely up to the uncut surface ahead of the tool. Here is the shear angle and
is the grain elongation angle.
It may be mentioned that the deformation of metal, in the process of separation of
chip, does not occur sharply across the shear plane. The grains of the metal ahead of
cutting of tool start elongation along the line AB, and continue to do so until they are
completely deformed along the lie CD. The region between AB and CD is called shear
zone.
After passing out of shear zone, the deformed metal slides along the tool face due
to velocity of the cutting tool. For all mathematical analysis, the shear zone is treated as a
plane and is called a shear plane.
The size of the shear zone is thick if the metal is machined at low cutting speeds and thin
if metal is machined at high cutting speeds. Some investigations have proposed two
shearing zones instead of one. The additional zone has been described at the chip tool
interference. Kececioglu (1958) have proposed that plane shear is not the only means by
which deformation takes place in shear zone: there may also be slip on the cleavage
planes of the grains, adjustment of grain boundaries for accommodating elongated grain
movement in the grain, boundary material accompanied by the auxiliary movements
within the grains, rotation of slip plane, and sub-division of existing grain into smaller
units.
5.What do you understand by the term geometry of chip? What are the different
methods used for determining chip geometry.
Geometry of chip formation
The formation of all the basic types of chips can be described with the help of
geometrical models derived from photomicrographs. Figure illustrates the simplest
geometrical model for continuous type of chips. However, this model conveys practically
all the information which suit the model of other types of chips to a very great extent.
The tool moves with a velocity Vc against the work and thereby shears the metal along
the shear plane AB. The out coming chip of thickness t2 experiences two velocity
components Vf and Vs along the tool face and shear plane respectively. The depth of cut
is t1, which is actually the feed in the machining operation as shown in figure. From the
geometry of chip, it is possible to compute the value of shear angle in terms of
measurable parameters t1,t2 and , which in turn fully defines the model of continuous
chip.

Methods used for determining chip geometry

Two experimental methods have been used in order to discover the way in which chips
are formed. In one of these, the cutting process is stopped suddenly to leave the chip
attached to the workpiece and in contact with the tool. This gives a still picture of chip
formation, which probably suffers some distortion due to elastic recovery when the
cutting stress is released.
The second method is that of high speed photography, which enables a slow motion film
of chip formation to be made. In both methods the region around the cutting edge of the
tool is viewed through a microscope so that chip formation may be examined in detail.

6.Explain the various type of chip.

1. Discontinuous chips: the chips are small individual segments, which may adhere
loosely to each other. The chips are produced as the tool advances in the direction
of the feed, due to plastic deformation of the material ahead of the tool nose and in
the vicinity of the cutting edge. The reason for generation of such chips is that as
the material gets ahead, due to advancement of the tool it ruptures intermittently,
thus producing segmented or discontinuous chips
2. Inhomogenous chips: these are the chips with inhomogenous strain obtained while
machining steels at medium cutting speeds. In this type of chip, the side adjoining
the tool face is smooth and the opposite side has notches showing the orientation
of the separately bonded segments.
3. Continuous chips with built-up edge(BUE): the term built-up edge implies the
building up of a ridge of metal on the top surface of the tool and above the cutting
 edge. As the chip moves over the tool face due to high normal load on the tool
face, high temperature and high coefficient of friction between the chip and the
tool interface, a portion of the chip gets welding on the tool face, forming the
embryo of the built up edge. The strain-hardened chip is so hard that now it
becomes the practical cutting edge and starts cutting the material. Since this built-
up edge is irregular in shape, the surface produced becomes quite rough. As the
machining continues, more and more chip material gets welding on the embryo of
the built-up edge: this increases its size and ultimately it becomes unstable and get
sheared off. This cycle is repeated. These chips also in the form of coil
4. Fractured chips: such chips are obtained in machining metals of low plasticity
like hard C.I. and hard bronze. The chip consists of separate specimens that seem
to be broken out from the chip in continuity. In such chips, the leading crack
spreads immediately over the whole shear surface from which the chip is formed.
Such fracture chips are not subjected to appreciable plastic defomations. But a
instantaneous non-uniform load is applied to the machine-work tool system. The
surface produced is rough and there is no relative movement of the chip over the
tool.

7.Explain the effects of the following parameters on chip formation

1. Velocity: it directly affects the temperature at the tool point. It does not affect the
direction of chip flow. Low cutting speed causes built-up edge and discontinuous
chips. On ductile materials, high velocity forms continuous chips.
2. Material of workpiece: ductile materials produce continuous chips (normally with
built-up edge), whereas brittle materials produce segmented or discontinuous
chips
3. Depth of cut and feed: Increasing of feed and depth of cut results in greater
distortion of chip. The direction chip flow changes with change in the size of cut.
The high values of feed and depth of cut lead to formation of built-up edge and
poor surface finish.
4. Tool geometry: this changes the shear angle and ultimately the chip thickness.

8.What is the need of chip control?

Effective chip control is essential in the machining of steels of high tensile
strength and of most metals when machined at high speeds. Proper control is particularly
necessary when machining with sintered carbide tool material, which operates at
relatively high speed and produces continuous, sharp, blue chips at high temperatures.
These chips are definitely detrimental to effective machining from the standpoint of
service ability of the tool and the surface finish of the workpiece, and they are hazardous
to the safety of the machine operator.
Continuous chips and chips of large coil are difficult to handle and dangerous to
the operator. A chip, which curls into a tight spiral, breaking up into short sections against
the unfinished surface of the work, rigid tool or the tool post is much preferred. This is
particularly true when tough materials such as some of the low carbon alloy steels, high
nickel alloy stainless steels and aluminium are machined. Discontinuous or short ships
such as those from brass and cast iron require no special tool treatment.

9. Discuss the method of chip control?

The methods of chip control are
1. Chip control through tool grinding
2. Chip control through chip breaker
1.Chip Control Through Tool Grinding
A tool can be ground in two ways to control chips: (i) by getting the right combination of
back and side rake angles for a given feed and speed, and (ii) by grinding a groove or
shelf in the face of the tool.
Method (i) is usually preferred where strict control of chip is not required, since it is
simpler to grind and more likely to preserve the strength of the cutting edge. However,
method (ii) involving the use of a ground groove as chip breaker is less dependent on the
precision of take angles, and since it provides better control of the chip it is more
universal in application.
2.Chip Control Through Chip Breaker
Chip breakers are of two general types- those made of an additional piece clamped to the
tool to deflect the chip and those ground into the face of the tool. The latter are of the
shelf type and the groove type.
1) Clamp type chip breaker
2) Ground-in type chip breakers
3) Ground parallel shelf-type chip breaker
4) Ground-in angular chip breaker for sintered carbide-tipped tool

10.Draw Merchants force diagram. State the assumptions made in the development
of such a diagram.

11.Define chip reduction coefficient.

1
The chip reduction coefficient is and it is denoted as K.