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T
he syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic
hormone secretion (SIADH) is a clinical syn- Take Home Points
drome in which enhanced secretion or action
of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) due to various The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hor-
disease processes and medications causes persistent mone secretion (SIADH) is the most common
hyponatremia and inappropriately elevated urine os- cause of hyponatremia in hospitalized patients.
molality. Normally, ADH, or arginine vasopressin, is Symptoms of SIADH depend on the degree of hy-
secreted from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland ponatremia and the rate at which it develops. Acute
in response to a decrease in plasma volume or an decline in serum sodium to below 120 mEq/L can
increase in serum osmolality. In SIADH, secretion of cause life-threatening symptoms, while gradual de-
ADH is not caused by a hemodynamic disturbance and cline causes nonspecific symptoms.
is mediated through nonosmotic receptors, resulting SIADH is a diagnosis of exclusion, and adrenal,
in water retention and dilutional hyponatremia. The cardiac, liver, kidney, and thyroid dysfunction must
incidence of hyponatremia in hospitalized patients is be ruled out.
2.5%, and SIADH is the most common cause of hypo- Mild asymptomatic hyponatremia (serum sodium
natremia in this population.1 As early as 1957, Schwartz > 125 mEq/L) is treated with fluid restriction.
described SIADH in 2 patients with bronchogenic Severe symptomatic hyponatremia is treated with
carcinoma.2 This article reviews the etiology, pathogen- hypertonic saline in addition to fluid restriction. In
esis, and diagnosis of SIADH. Treatment strategies in treating SIADH, the osmolality of the infused saline
various clinical scenarios are also discussed. The work- must exceed the osmolality of the patients urine.
up for potential underlying causes of SIADH is beyond To avoid neurologic complications due to rapid
the scope of this article. shifts in sodium, the serum sodium level should be
raised no faster than 1 to 2 mEq per hour, and no
Pathophysiology
faster than 8 to 12 mEq per day.
ADH is a nonapeptide hormone that is synthesized
in the hypothalamus and transported down the pitu-
itary stalk to the posterior pituitary, where it is stored.3
Increased osmotic pressure caused by increased plasma free water through the tubular cells, causing water re-
osmolality is a major stimulus for ADH release, which is absorption in the renal medulla.35 In SIADH, ADH is
mediated through the osmoreceptors in the hypothala- inappropriately secreted, resulting in unregulated water
mus. Volume depletion is another major stimulus for reabsorption and a measured dilutional hyponatremia.
ADH release, which is mediated through baroreceptors
at various sites, including the left atrium, pulmonary
veins, carotid sinus, and aortic arch. The antidiuretic
action of ADH occurs when the active hormone binds
to the V2 receptors on the cells lining the collecting tu- At the time this article was written, Dr. Balasubramanian was a resi-
bules in the kidney, stimulating cyclic adenosine mono- dent, University of South Florida-Morton Plant Mease Family Medicine
Residency Program, Clearwater, FL; she is now in clinical practice with
phosphate and leading to the insertion of aquaporin-2 CFP Physicians Group, Casselberry, FL. Dr. Flareau is director, and
channels into the apical membrane of the collecting Dr. Sourbeer is assistant director, University of South Florida-Morton
tubule cells. This in turn facilitates transport of solute- Plant Mease Family Medicine Residency Program, Clearwater, FL.
Table. Causes of the Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Other mechanisms implicated in SIADH include
Hormone Secretion increased sensitivity to ADH in the kidney; reset os-
Mechanism Etiology
mostat, in which ADH release is normally regulated
around a lower osmolality set-point, leading to mild
Increased secretion of Central nervous system: stroke, hemor-
asymptomatic hyponatremia (124134 mEq/L) that
ADH rhage, infection, trauma, psychosis
Drugs (most common): cyclophospha- fluctuates around the reset level of serum sodium;14,15
mide, vincristine, vinblastine, amioda- failure to suppress ADH completely at low osmolality
rone, ciprofloxacin, theophylline, antipsy- (incomplete pituitary stalk section); and exogenous ad-
chotic drugs (haloperidol, thioridazine, ministration. Medications that can increase sensitivity
thiothixene), SSRIs, TCAs, MAOIs, bro-
to ADH and result in SIADH include chlorpropamide,
mocriptine, carbamazepine, clofibrate
Pulmonary conditions: pneumonia, tuber- tolbutamide, carbamazepine, mizoribine, nonsteroidal
culosis, acute respiratory failure, asthma, anti-inflammatory drugs, and cyclophosphamide.3,4,8,9
atelectasis Approximately 30% of patients who underwent trans-
Postoperative states: major abdominal or sphenoidal pituitary surgery developed hyponatremia
thoracic surgeries
due to inappropriate secretion of ADH from the in-
Ectopic secretion of Lung cancers, tumors of duodenum and
jured pituitary stalk.15 Miscellaneous causes of SIADH
ADH pancreas, olfactory neuroblastoma,
malignant histiocytosis, mesothelioma, include cachexia, malnutrition, and administration of
occult tumors desmopressin.16
Increased sensitivity to NSAIDs, cyclophosphamide, tolbutamide,
ADH carbamazepine, mizoribine, chlorprop- Clinical Features
amide The signs and symptoms of SIADH depend on both
Miscellaneous Exogenous administration of vasopressin, the degree of hyponatremia and the rate at which
desmopressin
hyponatremia develops. Patients whose sodium con-
Cachexia, malnutrition
AIDS centration has decreased slowly over a long period
of time may be completely asymptomatic.5,11 In these
ADH = antidiuretic hormone; MAOIs = monoamine oxidase inhibi- patients, there can be nonspecific symptoms such as
tors; NSAIDs = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; SSRIs = selec- anorexia, nausea, vomiting, irritability, headaches, and
tive serotonin reuptake inhibitors; TCAs = tricyclic antidepressants.
abdominal cramps.4 Conversely, patients who have un-
dergone rapid declines in sodium concentration tend
to have more symptoms. A serum sodium concentra-
ETIOLOGY tion less than 120 mEq/L or serum osmolality less than
SIADH usually results from either increased secre- 240 mOsm/kg is considered serious, irrespective of
tion of ADH by the posterior pituitary or ectopic secre- the rate of decline. With this degree of hyponatremia,
tion of ADH from another site (Table). Causes of excess patients can experience cerebral edema, which may
release of ADH from the pituitary gland include central manifest as headache, nausea, restlessness, irritability,
nervous system disturbances68 and certain drugs.3,4,810 muscle cramps, generalized weakness, hyporeflexia,
Pulmonary conditions, such as pneumonia, tubercu- confusion, coma, or seizures and can cause permanent
losis, acute respiratory failure, asthma, and atelectasis, brain damage, brainstem herniation, or death.3,4,8,17
have also been associated with increased production of
ADH.3,5,6,8,11 SIADH is one of the most frequent causes EVALUATION AND DIAGNOSIS
of hyponatremia in hospitalized patients with AIDS, in As SIADH has a varied etiology, a careful history is
whom SIADH can be related to adrenal insufficiency important and should include comorbidities, current
or pneumonia.12 Finally, postoperative states in patients medications, and patients symptoms. There are no
who undergo major abdominal and thoracic surgical significant findings in the physical examination of a
procedures as well as chronic pain syndromes can result patient with SIADH, although signs of dehydration
in increased secretion of ADH; in these scenarios, ADH or edema would make the diagnosis unlikely. Patients
release is believed to be mediated by pain afferents.4,5 with moderate to severe hyponatremia need to be thor-
Ectopic secretion of ADH has been associated with oughly assessed to rule out potential complications.
small cell lung cancer, bronchogenic carcinoma, duo- The key points in diagnosing SIADH are the serum
denal tumors, pancreatic tumors, thymus tumors, olfac- sodium concentration, tonicity of plasma and urine,
tory neuroblastoma, sarcoma, malignant histiocytosis, urine sodium concentration, and clinical volume status.
mesothelioma, and other occult tumors.1,4,5,6,8,11,13 Findings of hyponatremia (serum sodium concentration