9.

4 Information Systems

Contextual Outline
Transmission of information from place to place is advancing at a rapid pace. Demands
are being placed on information systems to handle a large quantity of material at an
ever-increasing pace by the media industry, the armed forces, the civil service and
private individuals.

Many of the new communication technologies have become so commonplace that our
perception is that they have always been a part of our everyday lives. Silicon chip
technology has not stopped with the computer, as many appliances and devices now
depend on these integrated circuits for ultra-fast communication and retrieval of
information.

An understanding of different physical properties of the energies in the electromagnetic

spectrum provide for a multitude of applications in communication technologies, with
each energy form utilised to suit a particular communication niche, from laser light in
optical fibres to the use of X-rays in medicine, engineering and baggage checks at
airports.

This module increases students understanding of the nature and practice, applications
and uses of science, the implications of science for society and the environment and the
current issues, research and developments in science.
Background

Recent technological advances in fibre optics mean that it is now practical to use light as a
message carrier. Because light has a much higher frequency than radio waves, it is able to carry
much more information per second. The replacement of the copper wire-based telephony system
with light carrying, optical fibres will enable every household to access multiple, two-way
voice, data and video channels, as well as enable business and commerce to move more
information per second between offices than ever before. Video conferencing will become a
daily event between offices around the world, and videophones at home will become a reality.

The switch from analog to digital information coding systems in the telecommunications
industry has allowed the use of sophisticated computer compression processes, thus ensuring
that the least amount of code is needed to reproduce a desired message. The same technology
has enabled the development of video CDs and digital video discs (DVDs).

Large-scale integration (LSI) has enabled computer circuitry to be reduced in size, weight and
energy consumption to become the basis for satellite-based global networks for the delivery of
voice (mobile phone), data, video and location information (global positioning systems, or
GPS).

The application and refinement of the above technological advances in a short time span (since
the 1950s) has had an enormous impact on every day life in Australia.

Sound

Language is transmitted by sound

There are two common factors in all types of sounds produced
They are all produced by a vibrating object
Soundwaves need matter to travel through
For example, when we hear the note of a tuning fork, we can see the arms vibrating
back and forth. When they do this, they alternately push the air particles together and
release them. This alternating pattern of compressed and rarefied air makes up the
soundwave. The vibrating particles oscillate back and forth along a line in the same
direction as the wave moves. Particles that move forward collide with those ahead of
them, forcing these particles forward, while rebounding themselves.
1. Information systems are many and varied and depend on the transfer
of energy from place to place

outline the basic pattern of the information transfer process as

Code common to both parties
Message
Transmission of coded message
decoder

Communication
The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or
behavior
Communication model
MSG CODE TRANSMITTER CHANNEL DETECTOR DECODER MSG

(NOISE)

Code common to both parties

Pictures, words and music are examples of codes. The sender deliberately uses agreed
conventions or codes, which must be learned, to construct a message.

Message

A message to be transferred electronically may have to be coded again, so that it can

alter the carrier current or wave in a systematic and consistent way. By international
agreement, the two ways of doing that are by either analog or digital means.
Nowadays, digital methods are preferred to analog because they are more reliable.

Transmission of coded message

Once the carrier current or wave has been coded, it is sent to the required destination.
Modern communication systems use either (or both) an electric current or
electromagnetic waves to carry messages.
Decoder

Two steps are now involved in extracting the message. The first detects and separates
the code from the carrier current or wave. The second involves converting that code
into a form that the receivers senses can detect and interpret to make meaning. Once
the message has been decoded and understood, communication has taken place.

In our body

Message is produced in our brains. It is turned into sound so that it can be transmitted.
Sound is produced by the vibration of vocal cords within the voice box which is located
at the top of the windpipe (trachea). The two vocal cords form lips at the top of the
windpipe the larynx. When the cords are relatively loose, they vibrate with a low
frequency. As the tension increases, a smaller portion of each cord vibrates and the
frequency increases. The sounds produced by the vocal cords are reinforced by the
cavities and air columns in the throat and mouth. This gives each voice its own
individual quality. The tongue and lips give the finer variations to our speech.
The language we use is the code to be transmitted over the communication channel
called sound. When we summarise a text for easy learning, the properties of this
language are called redundancy. This helps us to overcome problems with noise.
Soundwaves are detected by our ears. Our brains then have to decode the message so
that it has meaning.

identify a range of information systems used daily

Background

Prior to the twentieth century, systems such as hieroglyphs, message sticks, semaphore and
Morse code were commonly used. Many of those systems worked by physically transferring
objects on which the message was written in code form. In the case of Morse code, the message
was transferred by electricity carrying wires until radio waves were discovered and harnessed.
The first radio-borne Morse code messages were sent between continents at the beginning of the
twentieth century.
 These days, words, music and images are transmitted around the world via cable
(copper wire and optical fibre), microwave, radio and satellite-based communications
systems.
Information systems in daily use include the following. Some of them use a
combination of electric and electromagnetic carriers to achieve their purposes:

Bar codes Public address systems

Body language Public switched telephone
Cable television networks (PSTN)
CB radio Radar
Compact discs Satellite
Facsimile Short message service
Film (SMS)
International symbols Sign language
Internet and intranet Sonar
Laser video systems Sound
Mobile phone: dig/analog Telemetry
Multimedia interactive Television and teletext
video Touch, smell, taste
Print media Video and video tape

classify information systems as

verbal and nonverbal
short distance and long distance
electronic and non-electronic

Verbal and non verbal

Spoken and written language is the most basic forms of communication.
Verbal communication involves the use of a language (common code) that is
spoken or written by the sender to the receiver. Non verbal communication
includes pictures, symbols, body language and voice tone. Human cultural
development has occurred largely because of the capacity for language.
Cultural learning, told through story, dance, song and ritual is recorded or
stored in memory and transmitted from one generation to the next.
Short distance and long distance
 Short distance communication may take place in the presence of the receiver
or within their environment. Long distance communication may be defined by
the type of system to be used, e.g. interstate telephone calls are considered to
be long distance. Some systems are able to communicate over vast distances,
e.g. unmanned space probes are able to send data and pictures back to earth.
Other Examples include talking one-to-one and in small groups or
communication involved in teaching or a lecture. In early forms of
information technology, simple ways to transmit information over short
distances were more code by light and Morse code through a wire. The
discovery that information could be transmitted through the atmosphere
opened up possibilities for long distance communication and other
communication technologies. Metal cables and optic fibre cables also
connect people over short and long distances.
Electronic and non-electronic

Electronic communication (developed in the 20th century), involves the

controlled use of an electric current by devices such as thermionic valves,
semiconductors, transistors and other components. Integrated circuits found in
many modern communication devices may contain many thousands of such
components built into a single slice of silicon. Most information that goes
through a wire travels as electrical energy. Most long distance information
systems, such as telephone fax, email and television, require electricity. Non
electronic communication includes mail and print media such as newspapers,
books and magazines.

More examples of each communication form

Verbal Non-verbal Short distance Long distance

talking body language talking cable television
public address systems Radar public address systems radar
Electronic
mobile phone Non-electronic
sonar
public address systems talking body language internet
cable television cable television
mobile sonar mobile phone
internetphone body language
internet
cable television Newspapers mobile phone

recall phenomena and events where different forms of energy are used
 Energy is involved when a change to the physical or chemical state of a material object
occurs. Many phenomena are energy carriers (because they have the capacity to cause
changes when they encounter other objects). When we are interested in their capacity to
make a change, we describe the phenomena as a form of energy. Energy exists in many
different forms, e.g. electromagnetic radiation, sound, thermal, electrical and potential.

Electricity is a phenomenon related to the movement of electrically charged particles

(electrons or ions). An electric current is the movement of electrons through materials
and, because of their nature and their movement, they are energy carriers. Batteries
convert chemical (potential) energy to electrical energy in many communication
devices.

Electromagnetism is used to produce motion from electric currents. Electromagnetism

is used to make sound from earpieces, electric bells and loudspeakers.

Semiconductors are materials whose resistivity is between that of a conductor and an

insulator. These devices are widely used in electronic circuits found in many
communication devices. Controlling excess thermal energy is important to ensure the
proper functioning of circuits containing semi-conductor devices, such as LSI chips.

Cathode rays (a continuous stream of electrons) have a number of applications from the
production of X-rays to the creation of images in cathode ray tubes (CRTs) that are
critical components of many television sets and computer monitors.

identify the transformation of energy at each stage of information transfer in the

following devices
land connected telephones
mobile phones
television
radios
- compact disc players

Land connected telephones

The telephone handset contains both a microphone and small loudspeaker. There are two wires
connected to the telephone; one is grounded and connected to the earth and the other carries a
DC voltage that makes the phone ring. When you lift the handset, a switch connects the two
 wires through the microphone. The local telephone exchange senses there is now a complete
circuit and sends a dial tone to the loudspeaker. Dialling a number opens the DC circuit. When
the telephone exchange receives the whole number, the computers set about finding a route to
the other telephone. If the phone is answered, it sends a ring signal.

KE (sound) electrical KE (sound)

Mobile phones

The mobile phone system is often called a cellular phone system because it is based on
cell sites. They are self-contained transmitters and receivers of radio waves. They
function like a telephone without being connected by wire. A local antenna transmitter
(tower) picks up the radio waves in a certain geographical area called a cell.
Microwaves are also used to relay the transmission of the message.
When your phone is on, it is constantly checking for incoming calls and looking from
the cell site with the strongest power. If you make a call, your mobile locks onto a
channel. If someone tries to reach you on your mobile, the computers search all the cell
sites in your city. This is called paging. If your phone responds, then a channel is
assigned to you from the cell site with the highest power.

Sound electrical radio waves transmitted via microwaves electrical sound

Television

Light strikes the TV camera, converting light energy into electrical energy. This energy
transmits the TV signal as an Electromagnetic wave. When received at your TV aerial,
it is converted back into electrical energy. This is then converted into kinetic energy of
electrons as they are directed to strike the TV screen. The kinetic energy of the
electrons is converted back into light energy which detected by your eye.

Light/sound electrical E.M waves electrical kinetic light/sound

Radio
AM radio was first developed then FM
Sound is ultimately a form of kinetic energy; a microphone converts that to electrical
energy. When the radio waves are transmitted, they carry energy to the radio receiver
 where they are detected. The electrical energy is converted to sound energy again by a
loud speaker.

Sound electrical radio waves (EM waves travel through air) electrical sound

Compact disc players

Stores information, such as sounds, digitally
The digital signals are coded as binary patterns on the CD. Cds use light from a laser
instead of the tone arm or cartridge (used in record players) or the magnetic head (used
in tape cassettes) to read the coded message. When we play a CD, the digital signals
are then converted from the original signal, amplified and converted to sound by the
speaker.

Sound light (decoder) electrical sound

discuss the advantages of using a range of information systems

Some systems lend themselves better to specific applications. For example, the coding
systems used in FM radio are not destroyed by natural phenomena, such as electrical
storms, during transmission. AM radio can be transmitted over greater distances than
FM radio but the signals may be interfered with by electrical storms and other nearby
communication equipment.
Access to a choice of systems is inherently more reliable. For example, international
telephone calls can go via cable or satellite. If one fails, the other can take over.
If you are an advertiser, the choice of radio, TV, print or Internet means that your
message is more likely to be received and appropriately interpreted by the receiver.
Cheaper, reaches mass audience, higher quality, personal/confidentiality, more
compact.
2. Electromagnetic radiation can be modulated to carry different types of
information

identify the types of waves

in the electromagnetic spectrum currently used for communication systems as
visible light
infra-red
microwaves
radio waves, which include:
TV
FM radio
AM radio

The electromagnetic spectrum

Spectrum means a range. The EM spectrum shows the range of different
types of electromagnetic radiation or waves. These wave types all travel at the same
speed through the same material, but their speed does depend on the material they pass
through. They differ only in their frequency and therefore their wavelength. Our eyes
can detect a range of particular frequencies of EM radiation, we call this light.

INSERT DIAGRAM OF ELECRO SPECTRUM PAGE 127 EXCEL

Radio
Radio uses waves with wavelengths from several hundred up to several thousand metres
long. So called short-wave radio broadcasts can be heard over very large distances
because the waves are reflected off the ionosphere. Another use for radio is the
electronic pager, which is used to notify people when they are wanted.
TV uses radio waves with wavelengths of a few metres. Because the waves travel only
in straight lines, the aerials must be as tall as possible, often being built on nearby hills.
 This is too expensive hence, satellites are sometimes used instead. Satellites are also
used for cable television.
Radio waves have the longest wavelength and lowest frequency. Because of their low
frequency, radio waves do not penetrate all objects. They can easily be reflected and
bend around large obstacles such as buildings and hills. Hence, they dont need line-of-
sight transmission. Waves used for TV transmission and FM radio have shorter
wavelengths, do not reflect as easily and therefore dont bounce off atmosphere. These
transmissions need a relay such as transmission towers and satellites. Am radio waves
reflect well.
Microwaves
Has the shortest wavelength from a few mm to a few cm.
Used in microwave ovens and radar.
The dish-shaped aerials seen around the country are a part of the microwave
communication network that carries telephone messages, TV pictures and computer
data.
Travels in straight lines therefore, the aerials are usually placed up high on towers or
hills.
Has limited penetration
When sent from one continent to another, they use geostationary satellites.
Mobile telephones use microwaves. Because the microwave signals travel in straight
lines, there are communication towers everywhere.
Infra-red
Radiant heat is produced by the sun, electric globes, heaters and fires. It is also called
infra-red radiation. All objects with temp. less than 500degrees calcium give off infra-
red heat.
Used to control TV, VCR or stereo system with remote control. Also used in optical
fibres.
Visible light
Used to carry digital information. Example, computer information is digital and
telephone signals must be changed into digital.
Light in optical fibres can carry much more information than electricity in wires.
allows us to see
is detected by the human eye and photographic film
can be reflected
for us to see we need line of sight transmission
Ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays
 These are the last three parts of the EM spectrum which are not part of any
communication system. They do however, help us to communicate in other ways,
Ultraviolet light is used in special UV lamps. The black lights are used to show
invisible signatures in bankbooks. Too much causes sunburn.
X-rays have very short wavelengths and are produced in special x-ray tubes. Electrons
are made to travel very fast and hit a heavy metal target. The electrons slow down very
quickly, giving off xrays. They are used to photograph the insides of our bodies.
Gamma rays are the most dangerous aspect of radioactive decay. Many cm of lead are
needed to protect people. PET scanners can be used to study how the insides of our
bodies are working. It can detect any blood blockage.

compare the advantages and disadvantages of using microwaves and radio waves in
communication technologies

In general, the longer the wavelength, the more easily the waves can penetrate built structures,
water and the Earth. The first around-the-world communication (short wave radio) used the
ionosphere to reflect signals over the horizon. Modern satellite based systems use very short
wavelength signals, which include microwaves.

Microwaves

Advantages
Passes through ionosphere, so it is suitable for
satellite to Earth transmission
They are more directional so that several links
can be run side by side. Not as much power is
needed to transmit over the same distance.
Can be modified to carry many signals at one
time, including TV pictures, voice msgs, data
Disadvantages
Travels relatively short distances because their
intensity decreases quickly, therefore need
relay towers to amplify signal
Absorbed very easily by natural, e.g. rain, and
made objects, e.g. concrete. They are also
absorbed by living tissue and may cause harm
by their cooking effect.
Radio waves

Advantages Disadvantages
The range of frequencies that can be accessed by
Aerials to receive them are simpler than for existing technology is limited, so there is a lot of
microwaves. competition amongst companies for the use of
the frequencies.

Some are reflected off the ionosphere, so can

travel around the Earth.

Can carry a message instantaneously over a

wide area.

Both

Advantages
Cheaper form of communication
They can travel through air without requiring a
medium such as wire
They can be broadcast to a huge audience over large
distances. They dont need people to be connected
directly to one another or to the source of
information.
Disadvantages
They need transmitter and repeater stations
to get around corners and objects
Broadcasting over a wide area means that a
lot of energy is wasted; the receiver of the
signal must be tuned into the correct
frequency
The most effective frequency ranges in the
EM spectrum are limited; so there is a lot
of competition in those frequencies.

The frequency in transmission and reception of radio

waves can be precisely controlled.
 identify communication technologies that use energies from the electromagnetic
spectrum for communication purposes

Comm. Type Description Part of EM Spectrum

Replacing copper cables in coaxial cables
and phone lines as they last longer and carry
Optical Fibres Visible Light
46 times more conversations than copper
cables
Remote controls for a variety of electrical
Remote control
devices, such as TV, video, garage doors Infra-red
communication
and infra-red computer systems
This technology mostly makes use of
Satellite frequencies in the super high frequency
Microwaves
technologies (SHF) range and the extra high frequency
(EHF) range.
These use a combination of systems.
These use a combination of systems.
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is used to
Used to communicate between
Mobile phone communicate between individual mobile
individual mobile phones and each
networks phones and each local mobile exchange.
local mobile exchange. Exchange
Exchange networks communicate using
networks communicate using land
land lines (coaxial or optic fibre).
lines (coaxial or optic fibre).
TV stations transmit in the very high
TV
frequency (VHF) range and the ultra high Shortwave radio
broadcasting
frequency (UHF) range.
Radio is used for a broad range of
Radio
technologies including AM and FM Shortwave and long wave radio
broadcasting
broadcasting and amateur radio.
Radio dial indicated frequency range for FM:
88 108 megahertz.
Radio dial indicated frequency range for AM: 540 1600 kilohertz.
3. Electromagnetic waves have different properties which are utilized in a
range of communication systems through air and space

identify that where information systems cannot be physically linked the information
may be transmitted in wave form through the atmosphere or space

Many information systems rely on physical links, such as cables and optic fibres. In some
instances, such links may not be physically possible, say for geographic reasons, or may not be
economically viable.
Communication can still be achieved by using electromagnetic waves, which carry the
information to be transmitted in the form of a code. A transmitting antenna produces waves that
travel through air or space at great speed and over a range of distances. This may be several
meters or many thousands of kilometers. A receiving antenna tuned to particular frequencies will
detect the signal and relay this to the receiving communication device.

identify the properties of energy from the electromagnetic spectrum that make it
useful in communication technologies including its
speed of travel
ability to travel in a straight line
ability to be reflected

Speed of travel
Electromagnetic waves transmit energy from one place to another at the speed of 300
million metres per second. The very high speed of electromagnetic radiation (EMR)
means that the time between sending, receiving and decoding a signal is almost
instantaneous for Earth-based systems.
Ability to travel in a straight line
Electromagnetic waves travel in a straight line unless there is a change in the medium
through which they are travelling. This makes using them predictable.
Ability to be reflected
Reflection is the change in direction of a wave due to its bouncing off a boundary
between two media. This effect is used by shortwave AM radio frequencies. Signals are
deliberately bounced off the ionosphere.
Other properties

Intensity and distance

Light and all other EM waves obey the inverse square law of light. If you double the
distance, then the intensity is decreased by one-quarter. If you triple the distance, it
decreases by one-ninth.
You can reduce the problem by concentrating the light into beams. That is why there is
a dish-shaped reflector behind a torch or on a satellite.
Shorter wavelengths are better able to be focused into a beam. Longer wavelengths
tend to diffract around the edges of the dish. That is one reason why microwaves rather
than radio waves are used to communicate with spacecraft.
Scattering and absorption
Scattering occurs when shorter wavelengths strike an object and are reflected in many
directions, e.g. microwaves can be scattered by rain. Scattering weakens the signal.
Electromagnetic waves are absorbed when their energy matches the energy that atoms
and molecules can absorb. Radio waves can pass through bricks, concrete and glass but
not metal.

Reflection and refraction

Scattering of EM waves is a type of reflection. When EM waves are

reflected from buildings, it lowers the quality of the signal we receive. An
example is the ghosting on TV or the radio signals that fade as you drive
along in your car. Sometimes, you can hear more radio stations at night
compared with during the day. This is because radio waves are reflected from
the ionosphere better during the night.
Refraction of electromagnetic waves is better seen at shorter wavelengths
and is the basis of optical fibres. Refraction is the bending of light.
 describe the individual properties of visible light, radio waves (AM, FM, TV) and
microwaves and relate these to their use in communication systems

Visible Light
The frequencies of light are the highest available for practical communication systems.
Light has the highest information carrying capacity of all the communication systems
currently in use. Light can be refracted and reflected to achieve total internal
reflection.
Optical fibres are used to transmit light pulses generated by an electrical signal. The
use of the fibre ensures privacy and an energy efficient way of sending information.

Microwaves
Microwaves are easily absorbed and scattered by particles in the atmosphere. Thus
they need directional aerials for transmission and reception to ensure sufficient signal
strength. Special equipment is needed to generate microwaves.

TV
Signals have to be able to carry both sound and visual information and so a wider
bandwidth is required for each TV station than for the radio stations.
For best reception, external aerials are designed precisely to match the wavelengths
used by the TV stations. They also need to be orientated carefully to receive the signal
at the optimum angle.

FM radio
The audio signal changes the frequency of the carrier wave producing an FM signal.
FM waves are affected less by electrical interference and produce a higher quality
transmission of sound.

AM radio
Easy to do with existing technology. Historically, practical considerations were
important. The size of components for transmitters and receivers dictated the
wavelengths that were selected for use.
This part of the electromagnetic spectrum is not greatly affected by the atmosphere (i.e.
not absorbed or scattered).
AM and FM radio
Radio was first to exert this mass influence as it became cheap enough for people in
remote regions to use
Radio waves are part of the electromagnetic spectrum and travel at speed of light 300
000km/s
Has a longer wavelength than light
AM
Was developed first
If all radio stations sent out signals at the same time, signals and sounds would all
overlap and would be like 3 people in the same room talking at once. Sending the
signal from a microphone on a carrier wave overcomes these problems. Each station
has its own carrier wave and needs aerials 75m long.
The carrier wave is produced by an oscillator
Signal from a microphone is called an audio wave. This signal is added to the carrier
wave in an electronic circuit called a modulator
The pattern produced is called the modulated carrier wave. The outsides of the
carrier wave vary in time with the signal from the microphone. This is how the carrier
wave carries info and is called amplitude modulation (AM).
The radio aerial picks them all up at once. The tuners task is to select out the station
they wish to hear. The very small vibrating currents in the aerial are sent to the tuning
circuit where only one is retained. The variable capacitor is connected to the tuning
dial. The size of this capacitor is changed, so the station retained changes.
Now that the signal from the desired radio station has been selected, the information on
the carrier wave has to be retrieved, this process is called detection (demodulation)
and the simplest way to carry it out is by using a diode. This allows the vibrating
currents to flow only in the forward, thus removing the bottom of the wave
Radios use amplifiers to increase the strength of signals from aerials so that sound
from loudspeakers can be heard.
FM
AM transmitter radios have low efficiency they use a lot of electrical power to
produce the signal that leaves a stations aerial. Static can also be produced by
powerlines and lightning, these problems can be overcome by using frequency
modulation (FM).
 Instead of the signal from the microphone changing the height of the wave, the
wavelength is changed, thus the frequency or number of waves passing in a second is
also changed. The circuits needed in the modulator and detector is more complex, but
a much better sound quality can be produced. When the electrical signal arrives from
the microphone or CD at a FM transmitter, the voltage is used to change the frequency
produced by an oscillator. This is sent to an amplifier to be strengthened, ready for
transmission. When the signal is received at the FM receiver, the discriminator
converts the changing frequency into the original signal from the microphone. This is
then sent to an amplifier that drives the loudspeaker. FM stations use carrier waves
with frequencies from 88 to 108 MHz.
This is why noise is not a problem with FM. Noise induces unwanted voltages in the
electrical circuits of a radio so that the amplitude of the signal is changed. In AM, this
spike is retained during detection as the information is in the shape of the amplitudes
called the envelope of the amplitudes. The information in FM is in the changing
wavelength, so the change in amplitude is ignored.

Digital Communication
Is less prone to error than other methods, it is also able to transmit more data along a
given communication link. Examples are computers, faxes, telephone systems, music
recording, credit cards and barcodes.
Analog and digital signals
The signal produced by a microphone is an example of an analog signal. The stronger
the sound, the larger the amplitude produced.
The signal to be sent is converted into a series of pulses that record information using
the binary code. These are digital signals. In binary code, all numbers and letters are
represented by a series of 0s and 1s. We use electrical pulses to represent the 1s and a
lack of pulse to represent 0s.
The electronic circuits needed for digital communication are quite complex and have
only really become possible with the invention of ICs. Example, if you want to
convert a message from a microphone in a mobile phone into digital code, the
amplitude of the analog signal is firstly read (this process occurring 44000times each
second). The amplitude is then converted into a digital number by an IC called a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC). This produces a long stream of digital numbers.
This signal is then modulated onto a carrier wave and transmitted. When the message
in digital code reaches the receiver, the process is reversed. After demodulation, it is
 decoded and the digital signals are converted back by another IC into an analog signal.
This is amplified and powers the loudspeaker in the telephone.
Sending the signals
There are two main ways that digital signals are modulated onto carrier waves. The
first method involves the digital signal being amplitude modulated, such that the
voltage is either off (0) or (1). This type of modulation will still suffer distortion due to
noise but the signal is easy to reconstruct. The other method involves using
frequency modulation so that there is either normal wavelength (0) or a shortened
wavelength (1).
Advantages of digital signals sending information
Noise has minimal effect on the digital signals.
ICs have made the digital circuitry relatively inexpensive
Various forms of multiplexing allow many messages to be sent along the same channel
at the same time.
Digital pulses can be stored in computer memories
Errors can be readily detected and corrected.
Digital signals can be sent at very high frequencies, meaning that several signals can
be sent at the same time along the same cable, microwave link or optical fibre. Thus, if
you are talking on a long-distance phone, you often pause for a fraction of a second as
you think about what you will say next. During these short pauses, there is time to
send several other phone calls. This mixing of digital signals from several sources and
sending them along the same wire is called multiplexing.
Faxing information
Facsimile machines use frequency modulated digital pulses to send images of pictures,
drawings or written material over the telephone system. The page to be transmitted is
first scanned with a beam of laser light. As the laser moves in a narrow line across the
surface, the light reflected is converted by a photodiode into electrical signals. While
white sections of the page will reflect a lot of light, black sections will reflect only a
little. Modern faxes can even distinguish between shades of grey. The digital signal
produced is used to frequency modulate a low-frequency carrier wave before being
sent via a modem to the telephone line.
When the signal reaches the receiving fax machine, it is used to reconstruct the image.
If the machine is a plain-paper laser, then the laser beam moves across the page and
prints black or grey in the same places as the original. It leaves white sections as
white. As it scans down the page, it rebuilds the image so that it is the same as the
original.
 A number of techniques are used to speed up transmission of faxes. Most pages
contain far more white than black, so rather than transmit the information about every
white area, it counts the number of white spaces and sends instructions on how many
white spaces to leave. More advanced machines use the fact that successive lines are
often quite similar. These machines just transmit the differences between successive
lines.
Bar Codes
As we go through a checkout counter, a laser beam scans the code and converts it into
a digital number. The cash register lists the item and adds the cost to our bill. It also
adjusts the shops inventory stored on computer. The one used by most shops in Aus.
Is called the Universal Product Code.
Magnetic Strips
Magnetic strips on credit cards are moved through a card reader when you wish to
make a purchase. The strip is like a magnetic tape, except it contains data about the
owner of the card. This data is recorded digitally and allows confirmation of the
account status of the person using the card.

Telecommunications
Tele means far and phone means sound.
Early telephone systems used mechanical switches to make connections. Modern
systems use computers to control the system and to select the best route to send a
signal from one place to another.
Telephone (see previous pages)
Telecommunication networks
When you speak into the microphone of a handset, an AC voltage is produced and set
out along the wires. Once it reaches the local telephone exchange, it is converted into
a digital signal.
Around a city, the signal may then be transmitted by coaxial cable or optical fibre to its
destination. If it is travelling larger distances within Australia, it may go by fibre-optic
cable or microwaves. If the signals are going overseas, it will travel by fibre-optic
submarine cable or by satellite.
Once it arrives at the telephone exchange near its destination, the digital signal is
converted back into an analog signal again. The AC voltage of the analog signal is
converted back into sound by the loudspeaker in the handset.
Communicating between computers
 Sometimes a computer will be connected together on a network. This allows them to
share expensive printers and gain access to telephone lines.
A business with many more computes may be connected by a network to a server. This
network will allow printers, emails and access to internet to be shared. The server is a
special computer that is used to store records so that many employees can gain ready
access.
Local area networks (LANs)
Small networks such as at school or in an office are called LANs. An electrical token
passes around the network. If someone wants to send a msg or print a document, their
computer must gain possession of the token and then they can use the network.
Wireless LANs
A wireless LAN allows a network to be moved to a new location with relative ease.
Most use radio waves for communication, since the radio waves can pass through the
walls and other obstructions. The first wireless LANs were infra-red based, which
limits them to line-of-sight communication or to locations where reflection allows the
signal to reach other computers. This can be an advantage as no one outside the room
can receive the signal and there is no interference from electrical equipment.
The Internet (Web)
The internet is worldwide network. There may be direct access to the net through a
ISDN connection (Integrated Services Digital Network)
Digital signals produced by the computer dont need changing before they reach the
telephone exchange. This is more efficient as the signals remain digital. Even
telephone messages are converted to digital code before being sent to the ISDN
network, at the destination, only telephone messages need converting back to analog
form.
At home, you will need a modem to convert the digital signals of the computer into the
analog signals used to reach the telephone exchange. They may then be converted to
digital form for transmission to another area of the city. If the destination does not
have ISDN, the signals will be converted back to analog and back to digital form again
in the final computer.

Connecting Cities
Coaxial cables have until recent years been used to connect cities, but is no longer used
for major communication purposes. Microwave links perform to the same standard,
but are cheaper and can more readily reach locations where it is hard to lay cables.
 Fibre optics have also taken over most major communication needs due to its
enormous carrying capacity and satellite links.
Microwaves are used for mobile phone networks. Mobiles were analog services but
are now digital. Microwaves are used to connect the phone to the cell towers. The
signal then enters the main telephone network.
Microwave Links
Microwave links consist of repeater towers that are located on hills/high buildings.
The microwaves are transmitted by line-of-sight from tower to tower using
wavelengths of around 5-10cm. The relatively short distance is due to the rapid loss in
the intensity of microwaves with distance. However, the short wavelength allows the
beam to be very directional by using relatively small parabolic reflectors and antennae.
At the repeater towers, the signal is amplified before being retransmitted to the next
tower. Dishes on the towers allow the highly directional microwaves to be transmitted
in both directions, although different carrier wave frequencies are used to remove any
chance of interference.

INSERT TABLES FROM PAGE 204-210 SPOTLIGHT

4. Geostationary satellites relay and transmit information from the other
side of the world

A communication satellite is essentially a microwave relay station placed in earth orbit.

Telephone and TV broadcast signals are transmitted up to the satellite from an earth
station.
Large, highly directional parabolic antennae are pointed at the satellite and used to send
and receive the signals. A device called a transponder which is on board the satellite,
receives the weak signal from the earth station, amplifies it, changes it carrier frequency
and retransmits the signal to another earth station at a different location.
Power for the transponder comes from on board batteries charged by solar panels.
To reduce the chance of signals interfering, different carrier wave frequencies are used.
While the signal sent to the satellite is called the up-link, the signal sent from the
satellite to the earth is called the down-link.
Most modern telecommunications satellites are placed in a geostationary orbit
36000km above the equator. In this orbit, the satellite travels at a speed that keeps it
located over exactly the same spot on the equator below. It rotates at the same angular
velocity as that of the earth. At an altitude of 36000km, the antenna will be able to send
and receive signals from 40% of the earths surface.
The area of the earth that can communicate with the satellite is called the satellites
footprint.
Three such satellites, located 120 Degrees apart can cover 80% of the earth, with the
exception of the Polar Regions.
The footprint of a satellite has to be carefully designed. The Aus. Satellites like
AUSSAT will have large footprint covering all of Aus. And surrounding areas. You can
connect any region within the footprint using the same satellite.

Low earth orbit satellites

Nations such as Russia use these low earth orbit satellites because
geostationary satellites dont cover Polar Regions.
These satellites have an orbit that brings them to an altitude of 1000km for
about 20minutes of each orbit.


explain why the satellite must be at a height where its revolution period is the same
as that of the Earths period of rotation

A geostationary satellite is one that orbits the Earth once every 24 hours, in an
equatorial orbit, and therefore remains over the same point on the Earth at all times. The
size and weight of the antennae (transmission and receiving) is too great to allow them
to be easily or quickly moved to stay pointing at each other.
The signals are in the microwave region, so the satellite dish must face the same
direction at all times to ensure that signals are received and retransmitted in the correct
directions to intended receivers.

explain why the Earth-based satellite dish must face a fixed direction if it remains
in the same location with respect to the geostationary satellite

In order for a satellite to remain in orbit over the same point on the Earths surface at all
times, it must be located 36 000 kilometres above the equator. In this orbit, the satellite
travels at a speed that keeps it in the same position relative to the Earths surface and so
the signal can be sent directly to and from the dish antenna on the Earth to the satellite.
The Earths gravitational pull keeps the satellite in orbit. Satellites dont fall towards the
Earth because of their tremendous speed. Although they are pulled towards the Earth by
gravity, their speed enables them to keep falling over the horizon. Thus, if they are
travelling with exactly the correct speed they never actually get any closer to the Earths
surface. Tracking stations on Earth use radio signals to activate small rockets on the
satellite to keep them in the correct orbit.
5. Information can be transmitted in the form of electrical impulses

identify communication technologies that transform one type of energy into

electrical energy

Type of energy
Communication
transformed into
Tech.
electrical energy
microphone sound
TV camera light
scanner light
electric keyboard kinetic (movement)
EM radiation in radio
receiving antenna
freq.
photoelectric cell light

describe the transmission of images using digital technologies in terms of scanning

of the input image along very thin lines

Background
Electronic devices, such as fax machines, can communicate via the telephone network,
which includes landline, wireless communication or via satellites. These machines can
send and receive an exact copy of any sort of document, a page at a time.
The essential parts of scanning digital technologies are:

a transmitting device, which translates the visual matter (text and graphics) of the
copy into electrical impulses according to a set pattern
a synchronized receiving device, which translates these impulses and prints an
exact copy.
 In a typical system, the scanner consists of a source projecting a narrow beam of light
and a photoelectric cell. The copy to be transmitted is scanned by the light beam,
which moves along the device, scanning it in a series of thin lines. The output of the
photoelectric cell is suitably amplified in a coupling device and used to modulate a
carrier radio signal, or is transmitted directly over the telephone cables.

explain how the coding of the image into a series of zeros and ones allows its
transmission and ultimate decoding

Electronic digital devices work by digitizing an image, i.e. dividing it into a grid of dots. Each
dot is either on or off, depending on whether it is black or white. Electronically, each dot is
represented by a bit that has a value of either 0 (off), or 1 (on). In this way, the device translates
a picture into a series of zeros and ones (called a bit map) that can be transmitted like normal
computer data. On the receiving side, a device reads the incoming data, translates the zeros and
ones back into dots, and reprints the image.

6. Electrical energy can be converted to light energy for use in optical fibre
communication systems

Optical fibres

Glass and plastic fibres as thin as a few micrometres in diameter can be used to
transmit light with very little loss in intensity

The light passes along the fibre being reflected from the walls several thousand times
per metre

Even if the fibres are bent into complex shapes, the critical angle is rarely exceeded
and the signal will be transmitted

A bundle of such fibres is called a light pipe. They can be used for decorations and are
the basis of endoscopes used in medicine to examine inside our bodies. Light pipes
have become crucial in electronic communications, as they replace copper cables in
carrying thousands of telephone calls at the same time.
 When you have lots of optical fibres touching each other, there is the danger of light
leaking from one to the other (also called crosstalk). Such leakage would result in
a loss of information and a shorter distance of transmission. This is prevented by
cladding the optical fibres with a material that a lower refractive index than the fibre
itself.

The part through which the light travels is called the core. Most optical fibres are
glass, but plastics are also used as they are very cheap. Plastic optical fibres have large
light losses, so they are restricted to short distances such as inside motor vehicles.

Some light travels along a path close to the axis of the fibre and is reflected a number
of times. Other light travels at a large angle and is reflected many times. By the time
the light reaches the far end, some rays have travelled much longer distances than
others. This multimode transmission can be a problem when using light for
communication. For example, digital pulses can be spread out so much that the
message is lost.

This problem is partly overcome with graded index fibres. Such fibres are made of
layers of material with refractive indices. The speed of light depends on the refractive
index. This means that the light travels faster in a material with a higher refractive
index. Graded index fibres are intermediate in cost and performance.

Most optical fibres used in long-distance high-speed communication have a very thin
core. These are called single-mode fibres and are designed to force the light to travel
in a single mode through the tiny core of the fibre. This allows very high transmission
speeds over quite long distance before a repeater is needed. The disadvantage is the
cost of expensive laser light sources and expensive methods needed to join optical
fibres together. With such tiny cores, they to be aligned very carefully.

outline properties of optical fibres as communication carriers

The glass in optical fibres is made so that light is unable to emerge side ways from the glass.
This is achieved by covering the glass with a cladding of denser glass or plastic. As light travels
from the inner glass core to the denser cladding, it bends so much that, instead of leaving the
glass, it is reflected back into it. This process is known as total internal reflection.
 outline the principle of total internal reflection and relate this to the advantages of
fibre optics over more conventional carriers of information

Optical-fibre technology depends on the property of total internal reflection. When

light is passed from one substance to another, its path is bent refracted. The amount
the light is bent between two materials is measured by the refractive index. The
higher the reflective index, the more the light is bent.

If the light passes from a substance with low reflective index to one with high
reflective index (say air to glass), it is bent towards the normal. If it passes from a
substance with high refractive to low refractive, it is bent away from the normal. As
the angle of incidence gets larger and larger, the ray bends further from the normal
until it passes along the interface between the two substances. The angle at which this
occurs is called the critical angle.

Total internal reflection occurs when light travelling from a more-dense to a less-
dense medium hits the boundary between them. Some degree of reflection back into
the denser medium (internal reflection) always accompanies refraction. When the angle
of incidence is greater than the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs, i.e. all the
light is internally reflected.

Optical fibres, using laser generated light, can transmit many more messages at one
time than coaxial cable or microwaves. The pulses of light are produced millions of
times per second and pass along the optical fibre being reflected from the walls several
thousand times per meter.

Glass and plastic fibres as thin as a few micrometers in diameter can be used to
transmit light with very little loss of intensity. Even if the fibres are bent the critical
angle is rarely exceeded and the signal will be transmitted.

outline the differences and relative merits in the use of fibre optic cables and metal
cables to transmit and receive information
Fibre optic cables have the following advantages when compared to wire based (or radio
wave based) systems:

Have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This means that they can carry more
data per second, e.g. can transmit several gigabytes of data per second.
Are not affected by radio waves, so there is no static

Are much thinner and lighter than metal wires

Are less susceptible to corrosion than metal cables

Can handle digitally coded light (the natural form for computer data), as well as analog
signals
Can multiplex thousands of voice channels together over a single optical fibre
More secure as information cannot be intercepted easily.

More advantages

Light travelling along optical fibres can transmit several gigabytes of data per
second over hundreds of kilometers. Thus thousands of voice channels can be
multiplexed together and sent over a single optical fibre.
The glass making up optical fibres is becoming increasingly pure and so the loss
of light intensity is decreasing all the time. Optical fibres can now stretch for
more than 100km without the need for repeaters.
There is no leakage of light from one fibre to another to interfere with other
messages.
There is a dramatic reduction in weight and volume. One 7.5cm diameter
telephone cable containing 1800 copper wires can be replaced with a single optical
fibre with the diameter of a single strand of hair.
Information travelling along optical fibres is more secure, as it is almost
impossible to tap into optical-fibre cables.
Although made of glass, optical fibre is very flexible. Being so thin, an optical
fibre can be wrapped around a pencil.
The overall cost for using fibres is cheaper.
Since optical fibre is made of glass, it is more resistant to corrosion than metal. It
is expected to have a longer life span than copper cables.

Disadvantages
 The main disadvantage of fibre optics is that the cables are expensive to install. In
addition, they are more fragile than wire and must be spliced together precisely and
carefully.
Repeaters need to be added every 5565 kilometres to boost the signal strength.
A fibre optic system is a particularly popular technology for local area networks. In
addition, telephone companies are steadily replacing traditional metallic telephone
lines with fibre optic cables.
Optical fibre is not that strong and has to be protected in Kevlar coatings.