Chapter 4

Evaporation Process
Introduction
Vapor from a boiling liquid solution is removed and a more
concentrated solution remain (Majority of cases : removal of water
from an aqueous solution).
Typical examples: concentration of aqueous solutions of sugar,
sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, glycerol, glue, milk and orange
juice.
Processing factors (the physical and chemical properties of the
solution being concentrated and of the vapor being removed bear
greatly on the type of evaporatoe used and the pressure and
temperature of the process. Some of the properties which affect
the processing methods include:
i) Concentration in the liquid: Adequate circulation and/or
turbulence is used to avoid heat-transfer coefficient low.
ii) Solubility: Solubility limit of the material may be exceeded
and crystals may form.
iii) Temperature sensitivity of materials: Certain products (i.e.
biological materials) are temperature-sensitive and can
degrade at higher temperature/after prolonged heating.
iv) Foaming or frothing: i.e. some fatty-acid solutions form a
foam or froth during boiling. This foam accompanies the
vapor coming out of the evaporator and entrainment losses
occur.
v) Pressure and temperature: The higher the operating pressure
of the evaporator, the higher the temperature at boiling. As
the concentration of the dissolved material in solution
increases by evaporation, the temperature of boiling may rise
(phenomenon called boiling-point rise or elevation). Thus, it is
necessary to operate under 1 atm pressure (under vacuum).
vi) Scale deposition and materials of construction: Deposition of
solid material (due to decomposition/decrease in solubility)
on the heating surface could reduce overall heat-transfer
coefficient. Thus, materials chosen is important to minimize
corrosion.
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient in Evaporators
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U depends mainly on the steam-side
condensing coefficient, the solution-side forced-convection or boiling
coefficient and a scale or fouling resistance on the solution side.
Additional wall resistance is present in glass-lined evaporators.
Conduction resistance of the metal wall of the heat-exchanger tubes is
negligible.
 Typical heat-transfer coefficients for various evaporators

Overall U
Type of Evaporator W / m2 . K Btu / h . Ft2 .
F
Short-tube vertical, natural circulation 1100-2800 200-500

Horizontal-tube, natural circulation 1100-2800 200-500

Long-tube vertical, natural circulation 1100-4000 200-700
Long-tube vertical, forced circulation 2300-11 000 400-2000
Agitated film 680-2300 120-400
Calculations Methods for Single-Effect
Evaporators
Heat and material balances for evaporators: T K (F) : difference in
temperature between the
q UAT condensing stream and the
boiling liquid in the
evaporator.
Vapor V
T1, yv, hv q (W) (btu / h)
Feed F
TF, xF, hF

Steam S
Ts, Hs
Condensate S
Ts, hs

Concentrated liquid L
T1, xL, hL
 Vapor V is in equilibrium with the
Steam gives off only its latent heat H S hS liquid L, T of vapor and liquid are
the same. Pressure P1 is the
saturation vapor pressure of the
liquid composition xL at its boiling
At steady state, rate of mass in = rate of mass out point T1. This assumed no boiling
point rise.
F L V
Balance on the solute (solid) FxF LxL
Total heat entering = total heat leaving
Heat in feed + heat in steam = heat in concentrated liquid + heat in vapor +
heat in condensed steam
No heat lost by radiation or convection
FhF SH S LhL VHV ShS FhF S LhL VHV

Then, q heat transferred in the evaporator is: q S ( H S hS ) S

Some approximation are made in order to make a heat
balance:
Steam table (using the temperature of the boiling solution
T1-esposed surface temperature).
If the heat capacities CPF of the liquid feed and CPL of the
product are known, they can be used to calculate the
enthalphies (neglecting the heat of dilution).
Example 8.4-1 Heat transfer area in single-effect
evaporator
A continuous single effect evaporator concentrates 9072 kg / h
of a 1.0 wt% salt solution entering at 311.0 K (37.8 C) to a
final concentration of 1.5 wt%. The vapor space of the
evaporator is at 101.325 kPa (1.0 atm abs) and the
steam supplied is saturated at 143.3 kPa. The overall
coefficient U = 1704 W / m2.K. Calculate the amounts of
vapor and liquid product and the heat-transfer area
required. Assume that, since it is dilute, the solution has
the same boiling point as water.
Calculation method for single effect evaporator
Vapor, V
Feed, F T1, yV, HV
TF, xF, hF

P1, T1 Condensate S
Steam, S TS, hS
TS, HS
Concentrated liquid L
T1, xL, hL
1. Material balance: Determine unknown flow rate (ex. L
Overall material balance (F = L + V) and V)
solute balance ( FxF = LxL)

2. Perform heat balance FhF SH S LH L VHV ShS Determine S,

hL = 0 (at
FH F S LhL VHV datum T)
(Determine entalphy of feed, hF, , hL and Hv)

3. For heat balance, select boiling point of the dilute solution in the Determine T1
evaporator, ex bpt for water, at 100 C or 373.2 K

4. For hF (hF = cPF (TF T1): Assume heat capacity of feed, CPF = 4.14
kJ.kg.K (which is the heat capacity of water)
5. For HV = Latent heat of water at T1 (Steam table, Table B.5, Felder Rousseau)
6. Latent heat, : Ts and from Steam table, Felder Rousseau)

q S UAT
Determine U or A
T TS T1
Effect of processing variables on evaporator operation
Effect of feed temperature
The inlet feed temperature has a large effect on the operation of
evaporator. Preheating the feed can reduce the size of evaporator heat-
transfer area needed.

Effect of pressure
Example: If the pressure were reduced to 41.4 kPa, the boiling point of
water would be 349.9 K and new T is 383.2 349.9, or 33.3 K. A large
decrease in heating surface area would be obtained.

Effect of steam pressure

Using higher-pressure, saturated steam increases T, which decrease
the size and cost of evaporator.
Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions
In most cases, thermal properties of the solution being evaporated
may differ considerably from water.
For strong solutions of dissolved solutes, the boiling point rise due to
the solutes in the solution usually cannot be predicted.
Empirical law known as Duhrings rule can be applied.
Refer page 538.

Entalphy-Concentration Charts of Solutions

Heat of solution is large, cannot be neglected.
Ex. Pellets of Naoh is dissolved in water, considerable T rise occurs >
heat is evolved.
Values of hF and hL can be determined from Fig. 8.4-3 (Page 540).
Calculation method for multiple-effect
evaporator
Evaporation of solution in a single-effect evaporator : wasteful since
the latent heat of vapor leaving the evaporator is usually not used.
To reduce the cost : multiple-effect evaporator are used in order to
recover the latent heat of the vapor leaving and re-use it.
To transfer heat from the condensing vapor to the boiling liquid in
this second effect, boiling temperature T2 must less than the
condensing temperature (pressure P2 in the second effect is lower
than P1 in the first effect. In a similar manner, P3 < P2.
Multiple-effect at steady state operation : flow rates and rate of
evaporation in each effect are constant.
 Temperature drops and capacity of multiple-effect
evaporators Vapor condenses in the second effect

Assumptions:
No boiling-point rise
No heat of solution
Neglecting sensible Feed
heat (needed to heat
the feed to the boiling
point)

Condensate
Concentrated product

q1 U1 A1T1 q2 U 2 A2 T2 q3 U 3 A3T3
T1 = difference between the
condensing steam and the boiling
point of the liquid, TS T1
q1 q2 q3
U1 A1T1 U 2 A2 T2 U 3 A3 T3
q
U1T U 2 T2 U 3T3
A
T T1 T2 T3 TS T3
1 / U1 T1 is proportional to 1/U1
T1 T
1 / U1 1 / U 2 1 / U 3
Capacity of multiple-effect evaporators
Adding the value of q for each evaporator:

q q1 q2 q3 U1 A1T1 U 2 A2 T2 U 3 A3T3
q UA(T1 T2 T3 ) UAT
Calculations for multiple-effect evaporators
Normally, values to be obtained are :
Area of heating surface in each effect
The kg of steam per hour to be supplied
Amount of vapor leaving each effect

The given or known values are usually:

Steam pressure to the first effect
Final pressure in the vapor space of the last effect
Feed conditions and flow to the first effect
The final concentration in the liquid leaving the last effect
Physical properties such as entalphies and/or heat capacities of
the liquid and vapor
Overall heat-transfer coefficients in each effect.
 Step-by-step calculations methods for triple
effect evaporators
1. Determine the boiling point in the last effect (from the known outlet
concentration and pressure in the last effect). If BPR present, determine
from duhring-line plot.
2. Total amount of vapor evaporated (overall material balance). [First trial : V1
= V2 = V3]. Total material balance on effects 1, 2 and 3 to obtain L1, L2 and L3.
Calculate solid concentration in each effect.
3. Estimate temperature drops T1, T2 and T3 in the three effects.
Calculate boiling point in each effect. Estimate the pressure in effect
1 and 2 and determine the BPR in each effect. T for heat transfer
without the superheat is obtained by subtracting the sum of all three
BPRs from the overall T of TS-T3 (saturation). Then, estimate T1,
T2 , and T3 and calculate the boiling point in each effect.
4. Calculate the amount vaporized and the flows of liquid in each effect (using
heat material balances). If the amounts vaporized differ appreciably from
those assumed in step 2, thus step 2, 3 and 4 can be repeated using the
amounts of evaporation.
5. Calculate the value of q transferred in each effect. Using q = UAT for each
effect, calculate the areas A1, A2 and A3. Calculate average value Am
by:
A1 A2 A3
Am
3
If areas are close to each other, calculation complete. If these area are not
almost equal, a second trial should be performed.
6. Trial 2 : Use new values of L1, L2, L3, V1, V2 and V3 calculated by the heat
balance in step 4. Calculate new solids concentration in each effect by solid
balance on each effect.
7. Obtain new values T1, T2, and T3 from:
T1 A1 T
T2 A2
T
T3 A3
T ' ' '
1 2 3
Am Am Am

Sum T1, T2, and T3 must equal to original T. Calculate boiling

point in each effect.
If BPR present, determine the new BPR in the three effect using the new
concentration from step 6. New value of T, subtract the sum of all
three BPRs from the overall T. Calculate T (the value T must be
readjusted to the new T value) . Then calculate boiling point in each
effect.
8. Repeat calculation starting with step 4 using the new T. Two
trials are sufficient so that areas are reasonably close to being equal.
Condensers for evaporators
In multiple-effect evaporators, vapors from the last effect are
usually leaving under vacuum (less than atm pressure).
Vapors must be condensed and discharged as a liquid at atm
pressure (using cooling water to condense the vapors).
Condenser : Surface condenser or direct-contact condenser.

a) Surface condenser
Actual mixing of the condensate with condenser cooling
water is not desired (i.e. shell and tube condenser: vapor on
the shell side and cooling water in in multipass flow on the
tube side.
b) Direct contact condenser
Cooling water directly contacts and condenses the vapor.
Common types : countercurrent barometric condenser
Vapor enters the condenser and is condensed by rising upward
against a shower of cooling water droplets.
Baromatic condenser : inexpensive and economical of water
consumption. It can maintain a vacuum corresponding to a saturated
vapor temperature within about 2.8 K.
Simple heat balance (V = vapor flow to the condenser kg/h at
temperature TS; water flow is W kg/h at entering temperature of T1
and leaving temperature T2, HS : entalphy from steam table at TS K).
VH S Wc p (T1 273.2) (V W )c p (T2 273.2)
W kgwater H S c p (T2 273.2)

V kgvapor c p (T2 T1 )
 Baromatic condenser
Cold water
T1 K

Noncondensables

Vapor inlet

Tailpipe

Warm water
T2