Unit I

Dr.
Satish Shukla 1 of 50
Engg. Math. I
Unit-I
Differential Calculus
Syllabus: Limits of functions, continuous functions, uniform continuity, monotone

and inverse functions. Differentiable functions, Rolles theorem, mean value theo-
rems and Taylors theorem, power series. Functions of several variables, partial
derivatives, chain rule, Tangent planes and normals. Maxima, minima, saddle
points, Lagrange multipliers, exact differentials.
Rolle's Theorem. Let f be a function which is continuous everywhere on the

interval [a, b] and has a derivative at each point of the open interval (a, b). Also,
assume that
f (a) = f (b).
Then there is at least one point c in the interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
Proof. We prove the Rolles theorem geometrically.
f (a) f (b) f (a) f (b) f (a) f (b)

x=c c2
x=c c1
x=a x=b x=a x=b x=a x=b
(a) (b) (c)
Geometric Interpretation of Rolls Theorem
Since f (a) = f (b) and function f is continuous in [a, b] we have the following three cases:
Case (a): Suppose that the function increases after point x = a. Since f (a) = f (b)
and function f is continuous, there must exists a point c such that a < c < b and f
has its maximum value at c. Therefore, we have f 0 (c) = 0.
Case (b): Suppose that the function decreases after point x = a. Since f (a) = f (b)
and function f is continuous, there must exists a point c such that a < c < b and f
has its minimum value at c. Therefore, we have f 0 (c) = 0.
Case (c): Suppose that the function increases after point x = a and then attains its
maximum values and then decreases and attains its minimum value, i.e., function
oscillates. Since f (a) = f (b) and function f is continuous, it finally returns to its
initial value. Thus, we have more than one point c1 , c2 , . . . such that a < c1 , c2 , . . . <
b and f has its maximum and minimum values at c1 , c2 , . . . . Therefore, we have
f 0 (c1 ) = f 0 (c2 ) = = 0.
Thus, in each case we obtain the desired point c.
Example 1. Verify the Rolles theorem for f (x) = |x| in [1, 1].
Dr. Satish Shukla 2 of 50
Sol: Here a = 1, b = 1. Given function f (x) is continuous in [1, 1] and f (a) = f (1) =
|1| = 1, f (b) = f (1) = | 1| = 1, but we know that the function f (x) = |x| is not
differentiable at point x = 0, and 0 [1, 1], therefore the Rolles theorem cannot be
verified.
Example 2. Verify the Rolles theorem for f (x) = ex sin x in [0, ].
Sol: Here a = 0, b = . Given function f (x) is continuous in [0, ] and f (a) = f (0) =
e0 sin 0 = 0, f (b) = f () = e sin = 0, so f (a) = f (b). Also, the function f (x) = ex sin x
is differentiable at every point of the interval (0, ). Therefore, all the conditions of the
Rolles theorem are satisfied and by Rolles theorem, there exists 0 < c < such that
f 0 (c) = 0. Then
d x
f 0 (x) = (e sin x) = ex sin x + ex cos x.
dx
Therefore,
f 0 (c) = 0 = ec sin c + ec cos c = 0 = ec [sin c + cos c] = 0

= sin c + cos c = 0 = (sin c + cos c)2 = 0
3
= sin 2c = 1 = 2c =
2
3
= c= .
4
3
Since c = (0, ) the Rolles theorem is verified.
4
h i
Example 3. Verify the Rolles theorem for f (x) = sin 3x in 0, .
3
h i
Sol: Here a = 0, b = . Given function f (x) is continuous in 0, and f (a) = f (0) =
3 3
3
sin 0 = 0, f (b) = f = sin = 0, so f (a) = f (b). Also, the function f (x) = sin 3x
3 3
is differentiable at every point of the interval 0, . Therefore, all the conditions of the
3
Rolles theorem are satisfied and by Rolles theorem, there exists c 0, such that
3
f 0 (c) = 0. Then
d
f 0 (x) = (sin 3x) = 3 cos 3x.
dx
Therefore,
f 0 (c) = 0 = 3 cos 3c = 0 = cos 3c = 0

= 3c =
2

= c= .
6

Since c = 0, the Rolles theorem is verified.
6 3
h i
Example 4. Verify the Rolles theorem for f (x) = cos 2x in , .
4 4
h i
Sol: Here a = , b = . Given function f (x) is continuous in , and f (a) =
4 4 4 4
2 2
f = cos = 0, f (b) = f = cos = 0, so f (a) = f (b). Also, the
4 4 4 4
function f (x) = cos 2x is differentiable at every point of the interval , . Therefore,
4 4
all the
conditions of the Rolles theorem are satisfied and by Rolles theorem, there exists

c , such that f 0 (c) = 0. Then
4 4
d
f 0 (x) = (cos 3x) = 2 sin 2x.
dx
Therefore,
f 0 (c) = 0 = 2 sin 2c = 0 = sin 2c = 0

= 2c = 0
= c = 0.

Since c = 0 , the Rolles theorem is verified.
4 4
Example 5. Verify the Rolles theorem for f (x) = 2 + (x 1)2/3 in [0, 2] .
Sol: Here a = 0, b = 2. Given function f (x) is continuous in [0, 2] and f (a) = f (0) =
2 + (0 1)2/3 = 3, f (b) = f (2) = 2 + (2 1)2/3 = 3, so f (a) = f (b). Note that f is not
differentiable in the interval (0, 2). Indeed:
d 2
f 0 (x) = 2 + (x 1)2/3 = (x 1)1/3 .
dx 3
Therefore, f 0 (1) does not exist and since 1 (0, 2), therefore all the conditions of the
Rolles theorem are not satisfied, and so, it cannot be verified.
Example 6. Verify the Rolles theorem for f (x) = x3 4x.
Sol: Here the interval where the theorem is to be verified is not given. To find the
interval put f (x) = 0, i.e.,
x3 4x = x(x2 4) = 0 = x = 0, 2.
So we obtain the intervals [2, 0], [0, 2] and [2, 2]. Given function f (x) is a polynomial in
x, so, continuous and differentiable everywhere and f (2) = f (0) = f (2) = 0. Therefore,
all the conditions of the Rolles theorem are satisfied and by Rolles theorem, there exists
c (0, 2) such that f 0 (c) = 0. Then
d
f 0 (x) = x3 4x = 3x2 4.

dx
Therefore,
2
f 0 (c) = 0 = 3c2 4 = 0 = c = .
3
2 2
Since c = (2, 0) and c = (0, 2) the Rolles theorem is verified.
3 3
Mean Value Theorem OR Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem. Let f be

a function which is continuous everywhere on the interval [a, b] and has a derivative
at each point of the open interval (a, b). Then there is at least one point c in the
f (b) f (a)
interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = .
ba
Proof. We prove the this theorem with the help of Rolle,s theorem.
ent
Tang
B
Cord
A
f (a) f (b)
x=a x=c x=b
Geometric Interpretation of Mean Value Theorem

Define a function F (x) by
F (x) = f (x) + x (1)
where is an arbitrary constant. Then, we shall show that F satisfies all the conditions
of Rolles theorem. Then:
(I) Since f is continuous in [a, b] and x is a polynomial so it is continuous everywhere,

and so, their sum F (x) = f (x) + x is also continuous in [a, b].
(II) Since f is differentiable in (a, b) and x is a polynomial so it is differentiable ev-

erywhere, and so, their sum F (x) = f (x) + x is also differentiable in (a, b).
(III) Finally, since was an arbitrary constant, choose such that:
F (a) = F (b) = f (a) + a = f (b) + b

f (b) f (a)
= = .
b a)
Thus, F satisfies all the conditions of Rolles theorem. Therefore, by Rolles theorem
there exists c (a, b) such that
F 0 (c) = 0 = f 0 (c) + = 0
= f 0 (c) =
f (b) f (a)
= f 0 (c) = .
b a)
Hence the proof is completes.
Example 7. Find the c of mean value theorem for the function f (x) = (x 1)(x
2)(x 3) in the interval [0, 4].
Sol: Here a = 0, b = 4 and the function f is a polynomial, and so, it is continuous and
differentiable everywhere. Therefore, all the conditions of mean value theorem are satis-
f (b) f (a)
fied. By mean value theorem there exists a point c (0, 4) such that f 0 (c) = .
ba
Now
f 0 (x) = (x 2)(x 3) + (x 1)(x 3) + (x 1)(x 2) = 3x2 12x + 11.
Therefore,
f (b) f (a) f (4) f (0)

f 0 (c) = = 3c2 12c + 11 =
ba 40
6 (6)
= 3c2 12c + 11 =
4
2
= 3c 12c + 11 = 3
= 3c2 12c
+8=0
2 3
= c=2 .
3

2 3
Since c = (0, 4), hence the mean value theorem is verified.
3
Example 8. Verify mean value theorem for the function f (x) = ln x in the interval
1
x e.
e
1
Sol: Here a = , b = e and the function f is logarithmic, and so, it is continuous in
e
the interval 1e , e and differentiable in the interval 1e , e . Therefore, all the conditions of

mean value theorem are satisfied. By mean value theorem there exists a point c 1e , e
f (b) f (a)
such that f 0 (c) = . Now
ba
1
f 0 (x) = .
x
Therefore,
f (e) f 1e

f (b) f (a) 1
f 0 (c) = = =
ba c e 1/e

1
ln (e) ln
1 e
= =
c e 1/e
1 e(1 (1))
= =
c e2 1
2
e 1
= c= .
e
e2 1 1

Since c = e
,e , hence the mean value theorem is verified.
e
Example 9. Show that on the graph of any quadratic polynomial the chord joining
the points for which x = a, x = b is parallel to the tangent line at the midpoint
a+b
x= .
2
OR
If f (x) = x2 + x + , where , , are constants and 6= 0, then find the value

of c in Lagranges mean value theorem in the interval [a, b].
Sol: The function f is polynomial, and so, it is continuous in the interval [a, b] and
differentiable in the interval (a, b). Therefore, all the conditions of mean value theorem
are satisfied. By mean value theorem there exists a point c (a, b) such that f 0 (c) =
f (b) f (a)
. Now
ba
f 0 (x) = 2x + .
Therefore,
f (b) f (a) f (b) f (a)

f 0 (c) = = 2c + =
ba ba
b + b + (a2 + a + )
2
= 2c + =
ba
(b2 a2 ) + (b a)
= 2c + =
ba
= 2c + = (b + a) +
b+a
= c= midpoint of a, b.
2
f (b) f (a) b+a
Since f 0 (c) = , hence the slope of tangent at midpoint c = (i.e., f 0 (c))
ba 2
is equal to the slope of chord at the end points a, b. Therefore, the tangent and cord are
parallel.
Exercise (Assignment)
(Q.1) Discuss the conditions of Rolles theorem for the function f (x) = tan x in the
interval 0 x .
Ans. Since tan x is not continuous at x = 2 , the Rolles theorem is not applicable.
(Q.2) Verify the Rolles theorem for the function f (x) = x2 in the interval [1, 1].
Ans. c = 0.
(Q.3) Can Rolles theorem be applied for the function f (x) = 1 (x 3)2/3 .
Hint. For the interval, put f (x) = 0, it gives the interval [2, 4]. Then, since f is
not differentiable at x = 3 (2, 4), so, the Rolles theorem cannot be verified.
(Q.4) Explain Rolles theorem for the function f (x) = (x a)m (x b)n in the interval
[a, b].
mb+na
Ans. c = m+n
(a, b).
(Q.5) Find the c of mean value theorem for the function f (x) = x3 in the interval [2, 2].
Ans. c = 23 .
(Q.6) Verifiy mean value theorem for the function f (x) = x3 3x 1 in the interval [0, 1].
Ans. c = 1 .
3
Taylor's Theorem. Suppose that the (n 1)th derivative f (n1) of f is continu-

ous on the interval [a, b] and the nth derivative f (n) of f exists in the open interval
(a, b). Then for each x 6= a in I there is a value c such that a < c < x and:
xa 0 (x a)2 00 (x a)n (n) (x a)n+1 (n+1)

f (x) = f (a)+ f (a)+ f (a)+ + f (a)+ f (c).
1! 2! n! (n + 1)!
(x a)n+1 (n+1)
The last term Rn = f (c) is called the remainder therm (Lagranges
(n + 1)!
form) after n terms.
If we take n = 1 the above theorem reduces into the mean value theorem, therefore
the above theorem is also called the generalized mean value theorem.
Taylors Series. Suppose Rn 0 as n , then the expression for f (x) in the

Taylors theorem reduces into an infinite series and this series is called the Taylors
series or Taylors series expansion of f (x) about the point x = a; and it is given by:
xa 0 (x a)2 00 (x a)n (n)

f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + + f (a) + .
1! 2! n!
Various forms of Taylors series:
Maclaurins series Put a = 0 in Taylors series obtain:
x 0 x2 00 xn (n)
f (x) = f (0) + f (0) + f (0) + + f (0) + .
1! 2! n!
Expansion of f (x + h) in powers of x Replace x by x + h and a by h in Taylors series

obtain:
x 0 x2 00 xn (n)
f (x + h) = f (h) + f (h) + f (h) + + f (h) + .
1! 2! n!
Expansion of f (x + h) in powers of h Replace x, h by h, x respectively, in the previous

series:
h 0 h2 00 hn (n)
f (x + h) = f (x) + f (x) + f (x) + + f (x) + .
1! 2! n!

1+x
Example 10. Expand ln using Maclaurins theorem.
1x

1+x
Sol: Here f (x) = ln . By Maclaurins theorem we know that
1x
x 0 x2 00 xn (n)
f (x) = f (0) + f (0) + f (0) + + f (0) + .
1! 2! n!
Putting y = f (x), (y)0 = f (0), (y1 )0 = f 0 (0), (y2 )0 = f 00 (0) etc., in the above we obtain:
x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + + (yn )0 + . (2)
1! 2! n!
Now differentiating successively and putting x = 0 we obtain:
y = f (x) = ln (1 + x) ln (1 x) = (y)0 = 0
1 1
y1 = + = (y1 )0 = 2
1+x 1x
1 1
y2 = + = (y2 )0 = 0
(1 + x) 2 (1 x)2
2 2
y3 = + = (y3 )0 = 4
(1 + x) 3 (1 x)3
6 6
y4 = + = (y4 )0 = 0
(1 + x) 4 (1 x)4
24 24
y5 = + = (y5 )0 = 48 and so on.
(1 + x) 5 (1 x)5
Putting these values in (2) we obtain:
x2 x3 x4 x5

1+x x
ln = 0+ (2) + (0) + (4) + (0) + (48) +
1x 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
2x3 2x5
= 2x + + + .
3 5
It is the required series.
1
Example 11. If ln sec x = x2 + Ax4 + Bx6 + , then find the values of A and B.
2
Sol: Since the given value of ln sec x is a series in powers of x, we will expand ln sec x by
Maclaurins series. Then, here f (x) = ln sec x and by Maclaurins theorem we know that
x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + + (yn )0 + . (3)
1! 2! n!
y = f (x) = ln sec x = (y)0 = 0

sec x tan x
y1 = = tan x = (y1 )0 = 0
sec x
y2 = sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + y12 = (y2 )0 = 1
y3 = 2y1 y2 = (y3 )0 = 2(y1 )0 (y2 )0 = 0
y4 = 2y1 y3 + 2y2 y2 = 2y1 y3 + 2y22 = (y4 )0 = 2(y1 )0 (y3 )0 + 2(y2 )20 = 2
y5 = 2y1 y4 + 2y2 y3 + 4y2 y3 = 2y1 y4 + 6y2 y3

= (y5 )0 = 2(y1 )0 (y4 )0 + 6(y2 )0 (y3 )0 = 0
y6 = 2y1 y5 + 2y2 y4 + 6y2 y4 + 6y3 y3 = 2y1 y5 + 8y2 y4 + 6y32
= (y6 )0 = 2(y1 )0 (y5 )0 + 8(y2 )0 (y4 )0 + 6y32 (0) = 16 and so on.
Putting these values in (3) we obtain:
x2 x3 x4 x5 x6

1+x x
ln = 0+ (0) + (1) + (0) + (2) + (0) + (16) +
1x 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
1 2 1 1
= x + x4 + x6 + .
2 12 45
On comparing the coefficients of various powers of x in the above and given series we
obtain
1 1
A= , B= .
12 45
Example 12. Find the first five terms in the expansion of esin x by Maclaurins series.
Sol: Here f (x) = esin x . By Maclaurins theorem we know that
x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + + (yn )0 + . (4)
1! 2! n!
y = f (x) = esin x = (y)0 = 1

y1 = cos xesin x = y cos x = (y1 )0 = 1
y2 = y1 cos x y sin x = (y2 )0 = 1
y3 = y2 cos x 2y1 sin x y cos x = y2 cos x 2y1 sin x y1 = (y3 )0 = 0
y4 = y3 cos x 3y2 sin x 2y1 cos x y2 = (y4 )0 = 3
y5 = y4 cos x 4y3 sin x 5y2 cos x + 2y1 sin x y3 = (y5 )0 = 8
and so on. Putting these values in (4) we obtain:
x x2 x3 x4 x5
esin x = 1 + (1) + (1) + (0) + (3) + (8) +
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
x3 x4 x5
= 1+x+ + .
2 8 15
Example 13. Expand eax cos(bx) by Maclaurins theorem.
Sol: Here f (x) = eax cos(bx). By Maclaurins theorem we know that
x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + + (yn )0 + . (5)
1! 2! n!
y = f (x) = eax cos(bx) = (y)0 = 1

y1 = aeax cos(bx) beax sin(bx) = ay beax sin(bx) = (y1 )0 = a
y2 = ay1 b2 eax cos(bx) abeax sin(bx) = ay1 b2 y + a(y1 ay) = 2ay1 (a2 + b2 )y
= (y2 )0 = a2 b2
y3 = 2ay2 (a2 + b2 )y1 = (y3 )0 = a(a2 3b2 )
and so on. Putting these values in (5) we obtain:

x x2 2 x3
esin x = 1 + (a) + (a b2 ) + a(a2 3b2 ) +
1! 2! 3!
2
x x3
= 1 + ax + (a2 b2 ) + a(a2 3b2 ) + .
2! 3!
1
Example 14. Expand ea sin x
by Maclaurins theorem. Hence show that
1 2
e = 1 + sin + sin2 + sin3 +
2! 3!
where = sin1 x.
1
Sol: Here f (x) = ea sin x
. By Maclaurins theorem we know that
x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + + (yn )0 + . (6)
1! 2! n!
1
Since y = f (x) = ea sin x
we have (y)0 = 1 .
Differentiating we get
1 a
y1 = ea sin x

1 x2
ay
= y1 =
1 x2
2 2 2 2
= (1 x )y1 = a y . (7)
Therefore, (y1 )0 = a . Again differentiating (7) we get:
(1 x2 )y2 2xy1 = 2a2 yy1

= (1 x2 )y2 xy1 a2 y = 0. (8)
Therefore, (y2 )0 a2 (y)0 = 0, i.e., (y2 )0 = a2 . Again differentiating (8) we get:
(1 x2 )y3 3xy2 (1 + a2 )y1 = 0.
Therefore, (y3 )0 (1 + a2 )(y1 )0 = 0, i.e., (y3 )0 = a(1 + a2 ) and so on. Putting these
values in (6) we obtain:
1 x x2 2 x3
ea sin x
= 1+ (a) + (a ) + (1 + a2 ) +
1! 2! 3!
a2 x2 a(1 + a2 )x3
= 1 + ax + + + .
2! 3!
Putting a = 1 and sin1 x = we get
sin2 2 sin3
e = 1 + sin + + + .
2! 3!
Example 15. Find the first five terms in the expansion of ln(1+sin x) by Maclaurins
series.
Sol: Here f (x) = ln(1 + sin x). By Maclaurins series we know that
x x2 xn
y = (y)0 + (y1 )0 + (y2 )0 + + (yn )0 + . (9)
1! 2! n!
Since y = f (x) = ln(1 + sin x) we have (y)0 = 0 .

Differentiating we get
cos x
y1 =
1 + sin x
= (1 + sin x)y1 = cos x. (10)
Therefore, (y1 )0 = 1 . Again differentiating (10) we get:
(1 + sin x)y2 + y1 cos x = sin x. (11)
Therefore, (1 + 0)(y2 )0 + (y1 )0 = 0, i.e., (y2 )0 = 1 . Again differentiating (11) we get:
(1 + sin x)y3 + 2y2 cos x y1 sin x = cos x. (12)
Therefore, (1 + 0)(y3 )0 + 2(y2 )0 0 = 1, i.e., (y3 )0 = 1 . Again differentiating (12) we

get:
(1 + sin x)y4 + 3y3 cos x 3y2 sin x y1 cos x = sin x. (13)
Therefore, (1 + 0)(y4 )0 + 3(y3 )0 0 (y1 )0 = 0, i.e., (y4 )0 = 2 . Again differentiating

(13) we get:
(1 + sin x)y5 + 4y4 cos x 6y3 sin x 4y2 cos x + y1 sin x = cos x. (14)
Therefore, (1 + 0)(y5 )0 + 4(y4 )0 0 4(y2 )0 + 0 = 1, i.e., (y5 )0 = 5 . Putting these values

in (9) we obtain:
x x2 x3 x4 x4
ln(1 + sin x) = 0 + (1) + (1) + (1) + (2) + (5) +
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
x2 x3 2x4 5x5
= x + + + .
2! 3! 4! 5!
Example 16. Expand tan1 x in the ascending powers of x 1.

Sol: By Taylors series we know that

xa 0 (x a)2 00
f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + .
1! 2!
Here f (x) = tan1 x and a = 1, therefore:
x1 0 (x 1)2 00
f (x) = f (1) + f (1) + f (1) + . (15)
1! 2!

Since f (x) = tan1 x we have f (1) = . Differentiating we get:
4
1 1
f 0 (x) = 2
= f 0 (1) = .
1+x 2
Rearranging the terms in the above we get:
(1 + x2 )f 0 (x) = 1.
Again differentiating we get:
(1 + x2 )f 00 (x) + 2xf 0 (x) = 0 = f 00 (1) = 1 .
On putting these values in (15) we get

x 1 (x 1)2
tan1 x = + + .
4 2 1! 2!

Example 17. Expand sin x in powers of x and hence evaluate sin 91 correct to
2
four places of decimals.

xa 0 (x a)2 00
f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + .
1! 2!

Here f (x) = sin x and a = , therefore:
2
2
x 2 0 x 2
f (x) = f + f + f 00 + . (16)
2 1! 2 2! 2

Since f (x) = sin x we have f = 1 . Differentiating we get:
2

0 0
f (x) = cos x = f =0.
2

00 00
f (x) = sin x = f = 1 .
2

f 000 (x) = cos x = f 000 =0.
2

f (iv) (x) = sin x = f (iv) =1.
2

2 4
x 2 x 2
sin x = 1 + . + .
2! 4!
Let x = 91 , so that,

x = 91 90 = 1 = radians = 0.0174 radians.
2 180

Putting the value of x in the above series we obtain:
2
(0.0174)2 (0.0174)4
sin 91 = 1 +
2! 4!
= 0.9999
correct up to four places of decimals.
Example 18. Expand ln x in powers of x 1 and hence evaluate ln(1.1) correct to

four decimal places.
xa 0 (x a)2 00 (x a)3 000 (x a)4 (iv)

f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + .
1! 2! 3! 4!
Here f (x) = ln x and a = 1, therefore:
x1 0 (x 1)2 00 (x 1)3 000 (x 1)4 (iv)

f (x) = f (1)+ f (1)+ f (1)+ f (1)+ f (1)+ . (17)
1! 2! 3! 4!
Since f (x) = ln x we have f (1) = 0 . Differentiating we get:
1
f 0 (x) = = f 0 (1) = 1 .
x
1
f 00 (x) = = f 00 (1) = 1 .
x2
2
f 000 (x) = = f 000 (1) = 2 .
x3
6 (iv)

f (iv) (x) = = f = 6 .
x4 2

1 1 1
ln x = x 1 (x 1)2 + (x 1)3 (x 1)4 + .
2 3 4
Putting x = 1.1 in the above we get:
1 1 1
ln(1.1) = 1.1 1 (1.1 1)2 + (1.1 1)3 (1.1 1)4 +
2 3 4
= 0.1 0.005 + 0.0003 0.00002
= 0.0953
correct up to four places of decimals.
Example 19. Expand 2x3 + 7x2 + x 1 in powers of x 2.
xa 0 (x a)2 00 (x a)3 000 (x a)4 (iv)

f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + .
1! 2! 3! 4!
Here f (x) = 2x3 + 7x2 + x 1 and a = 2, therefore:
x2 0 (x 2)2 00 (x 2)3 000 (x 1)4 (iv)

f (x) = f (2)+ f (2)+ f (2)+ f (2)+ f (1)+ . (18)
1! 2! 3! 4!
Since f (x) = 2x3 + 7x2 + x 1 we have f (2) = 45 . Differentiating we get:
f 0 (x) = 6x2 + 14x + 1 = f 0 (2) = 53 .
f 00 (x) = 12x + 14 = f 00 (2) = 38 .
f 000 (x) = 12 = f 000 (2) = 12 .
All other higher order derivatives are zero. On putting these values in (18) we get
2x3 + 7x2 + x 1 = 45 + 53(x 2) + 19(x 2)2 + 2(x 2)3 .
It is the required expansion.
Example 20. Use Taylors theorem to prove that

sin sin 2 sin 3
tan1 (x + h) = tan1 x + h sin (h sin )2 + (h sin )3
1 2 3
sin n
+ (1)n1 (h sin )n +
n
where = cot1 x.
h 0 h2 00 h3 000
f (x + h) = f (x) + f (x) + f (x) + f (x) + . (19)
1! 2! 3!
Here f (x + h) = tan1 (x + h), and so, f (x) = tan1 x therefore differentiating we get:
1 1
f 0 (x) = = = sin2 .
1+x 2 1 + cot2
Again differentiating (w.r.t. x) we get:
d d
f 00 (x) = 2 sin cos = sin 2 (cot1 x)
dx dx
1
= sin 2
1 + x2
= sin 2 sin2 (since x = cot ).

d
f 000 (x) =2 cos 2 sin2 2 sin sin 2 cos
dx
1
= 2 sin (cos 2 sin + sin 2 cos )
1 + x2
= 2 sin3 sin 3 (since x = cot ).
h h2 h3
tan1 (x + h) = tan1 x + (sin2 ) + ( sin 2 sin2 ) + (2 sin3 sin 3) +
1! 2! 3!
sin sin 2 sin 3
= tan1 x + h sin (h sin )2 + (h sin )3
1 2 3
sin n
+ (1)n1 (h sin )n +
n

Example 21. Expand tan x + as far as the term x4 and evaluate tan 46.5 to
4
four places of decimals.
Sol: By Taylors series we know that the expansion of f (x + h) in powers of x is:
x 0 x2 00 x3 000
f (x + h) = f (h) + f (h) + f (h) + f (h) + . (20)
1! 2! 3!

Here f (x + h) = tan x + , f (x) = tan x, h = , and so, f = 1. Differentiating
4 4 4
f (x) we get:

f 0 (x) = sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + [f (x)]2 = f 0 = 2.
4

00 0 00
f (x) = 2f (x)f (x) = f = 4.
4
f 000 (x) = 2f (x)f 00 (x) + 2f 0 (x)f 0 (x) = 2f (x)f 00 (x) + 2[f 0 (x)]2

= f 000 = 16.
4
f (iv) (x) = 2f (x)f 000 (x) + 2f 0 (x)f 00 (x) + 4f 0 (x)f 00 (x) = 2f (x)f 000 (x) + 6f 0 (x)f 00 (x)

= f (iv) = 80.
4
x x2 x3 x4
tan x + = 1+ (2) + (4) + (16) + (80) +
4 1! 2! 3! 4!
8x3 10x4
= 1 + 2x + 2x2 + + + .
3 3

On putting x = 1.5 = 1.5 radians = 0.0262 (approximately) in the above equation
180
we get:
8(0.0262)3 10(0.0262)4
tan (46.5 ) = 1 + 2(0.0262) + 2(0.0262)2 + + +
3 3
= 1.0538.
Thus, tan (46.5 ) = 1.0538 (correct to four places of decimals).

Example 22. Find the value of 10.

Sol: Let f (x + h) = x + h. By Taylors series we know that the expansion of f (x + h)
in powers of h is:
h 0 h2 00 h3 00
f (x + h) = f (x) +
f (x) + f (x) + f (x) + . (21)
1! 2! 3!

Here f (x + h) = x + h, and so, f (x) = x. Differentiating f (x) we get:
1
f 0 (x) = .
2 x

1
f 00 (x) = .
4x3/2
3
f 000 (x) = .
8x5/2
h h2 h3
x+h = x + 3/2 + + .
2 x 8x 16x5/2
On putting x = 9, h = 1 in the above equation we get:

1 1 1
10 = 9+ + +
2 9 89 3/2 16 95/2
= 3 + 0.16667 0.00463 + 0.00025
= 3.16229.

Thus, 10 = 3.1623 (correct to four places of decimals).
ex
(Q.1) Expand in Maclaurins series as far as the terms x3 .
1 + ex
ex 1 x 8x3
Ans. 1+ex
= 2
+ 4
3!
+ .
(Q.2) Expand ex cos x in Maclaurins series.

x2 x3
Ans. ex cos x = 1 + x + 2
3
.
2 2 2 22 4
2
(Q.3) Prove that: sin1 x x + = x + .
2! 4!
2
Hint. Use Maclaurins series for y = sin1 x .
1 1 1 4
(Q.4) Prove that: ln (1 + ex ) = ln(2) + x + x2 x + .
2 8 192
Hint. Use Maclaurins series for y = ln (1 + ex ) .
2 3 22 5
(Q.5) Prove that: ex sin x = x + x2 + x x + .
3! 5!
Hint. Use Maclaurins series for y = ex sin x.
(Q.6) Find the Maclaurins series for y = sin m sin1 x .

m(m2 1) 3
Ans. y = mx + x + .
3!

(Q.7) Expand tan x in powers of x .
4
2
Ans. tan x = 1 + 2 x 4 + 2 x 4 + .

(Q.8) Expand 7x6 3x5 + x2 + 2 in powers of x 1.

Ans. 7x6 3x5 + x2 + 2 = 7 + 29(x 1) + 76(x 1)2 + 110(x 1)3 + 90(x 1)4 +
39(x 1)5 + 7(x 1)6 .

(Q.9) Find the Taylors series expansion of ln(cos x) about the point .
3
2
Ans. ln(cos x) = ln 12 3 x 3 24! x 3 .

h h2 h3
(Q.10) Prove that ln(x + h) = ln x + 2 + 3 .
x 2x 3x
Hint. Use Taylors series and expand f (x + h) in powers of h.

(Q.11) Calculate the value of 5 correct to four places of decimals by taking first four
terms in Taylors series.

Hint. Use Taylors series and expand f (x + h) = x + h in powers of h, and put
x = 4, h = 1.

0
LHospitals Rule form . Let f 0 (t) and g 0 (t) exist and g 0 (t) 6= 0 for all t (a, b).
0
If f (c) = g(c) = 0 for some c (a, b), then
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 .
xc g(x) xc g (x)
Proof. Suppose a < c < x < b (or a < x < c < b). Define a new function h : [c, x] R
by:
f (x)
h(t) = f (t) g(t).
g(x)
Then h(c) = h(x) = 0 and the function h is continuous in the interval [c, x] and differ-
entiable in the interval (c, x). Therefore, by the Rolles theorem there exists such that
c < < x and h0 () = 0, i.e.,
f (x) 0
f 0 () g () = 0
g(x)
f (x) f 0 ()
= = 0 .
g(x) g ()
Since c < < x (or x < < c), as x c we have c, and so, the above inequality
yields:
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0
xc g(x) xc g (x)
which proves the required result.

Remark 1. If f (c) = g(c) = , then the LHospitals rule remains true ( form).

0
Also, the forms 0 , 00 , 0 , 1 etc., can be converted into either or form,
0
and then can be solved by LHospitals rule.
Example 23. Evaluate the following limits:

x 2x
(i) lim (ii) lim (1 + x)1/x (iii) lim
x0 tan x x0 x/2 cos x
x+3 R x
x+2 a f (t)dt
(iv) lim (v) lim [tan (x + /4)]1/x (vi) lim .
x x+1 x0 xa xa
x 0
Sol: (i) Given limits is: L = lim form
x0 tan x 0
1
= lim
x0 sec2 x
= 1.
(ii) Given limits is: L = lim (1 + x)1/x 1 form

x0
ln(1 + x) 0
= ln(L) = lim form
x0 x 0
1
= lim
x0 1 + x
= 1.
Thus, ln(L) = 1, and so, L = e.

(iii) Given limits is: 2x 0
L = lim form
x/2 cos x 0
2
= lim
x/2 sin x
= 2.
(iv) Given limits is:

x+3 x 3
x+2 1 + 2/x 1 + 2/x
L = lim = lim lim
x x+1 x 1 + 1/x x 1 + 1/x
x
1 + 2/x
= lim 1
x 1 + 1/x
x
1 + 2/x
= lim 1 form
x 1 + 1/x
Therefore:

1 + 2/x
ln
1 + 1/x 0
ln(L) = lim form
x 1/x 0
(1 + 1/x)x2 (1 + 1/x)(2/x2 ) + (1 + 2/x)(1/x2 )

= lim
x 1 + 2/x (1 + 1/x)2
2(1 + 1/x) + 1 + 2/x

= lim
x (1 + 2/x)(1 + 1/x)
2 + 1

= lim
x 11
= 1.
Thus, ln(L) = 1, and so, L = e.

(v) Given limits is: L = lim [tan (x + /4)]1/x 1 form
x0
ln [tan(x + /4)] 0
= ln(L) = lim form
x0 x 0
sec2 (x + /4)
= lim
x0 1 tan(x + /4)
= 2.
Thus, ln(L) = 2, and so, L = e2 .

(vi) Given limits is:

R x
a f (t)dt 0
L = lim form
xa xa 0
d R x

a f (t)dt
= lim dx

xa d
(x a)
dx
f (x)
= lim
xa 1
= f (a).
Rx
Here we assumed that the function is continuous so that the integral a f (t)dt exists and
lim f (x) = f (a).
xa
ax b x
Example 24. Evaluate: lim .
x0 x
Sol: Given limits is:

ax b x 0
L = lim form
x0
x 0
ax ln a bx ln b

= lim
xa 1
= ln a ln b.
Functions of Several Variables
Suppose, a particle is moving parallel to the earth surface, then at any instant its energy
depends only upon its velocity (surely, we neglect the effect of other celestial and terrestrial
bodies on the energy of particle). Precisely, the energy of particle
1
E(v) = mv 2 + K0
2
where v is the velocity of particle and K0 is its potential energy (which is constant).
Thus, the E(v) depends only on the velocity v. We say that the energy E of particle is
an output, while its velocity is the input for this output function, and for various values
of input we obtain the different outputs.
Now consider same particle but with a different situation. Suppose, the particle is
moving in such a way that its hight from the earth surface changes continuously. Then,
at any instant its energy depends upon its velocity v, as well as, its hight h from the earth
surface. Precisely, the energy of particle
1
E(v, h) = mv 2 + mgh.
2
What we see? We now see that the output function E depends on the two inputs, namely,
the velocity v and the hight h of the particle.
We say that the energy function E is a function of a single variable v, while the energy
function E is a function of two variables v, h.
In general, we say that a quantity y is a function f of n variables if its value depends

on n variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . Mathematically, we represent this fact by:
y = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).
Partial Derivatives. Suppose, y = f (x) is a function of single variable. If we draw a

graph of this function by taking the values of x on X-axis and of y on Y -axis, then we get
a two-dimensional curve. Clearly, the input x can change only along the X-axis (either
towards left or towards right), and so, we can find the rate of change of y only along
X-axis. This rate is called the derivative (total derivative) of y with respect to x and
dy
denoted by .
dx
Graph of a function of single variable Graph of a function of two variable
Y
Z
0.2
5
5
X 5
1 0.5 0.5 1
5 X
5 5
0.2 Y
We call the inputs as independent variable and the output as dependent variable. Now
consider a different case, when the dependent variable z is a function of two independent
variables (x, y). We write z = f (x, y). Now if we draw the graph of this function by
taking the values of x, y and z on three mutually perpendicular axes, we obtain a three
dimensional surface. Then, apart from the previous case the independent variables (x, y)
(the inputs) now can change in the XY -plane in any direction (right or left, up or down;
or in any direction different from these two), and so, we can find the rate of change of
z along any such direction. Such rate of change is called the directional derivative of f .
In particular, we are interested in finding the rate of change (directional derivative) of f
in two directions (i) along X-axis; and (ii) along Y -axis, and so, we get two directional
derivatives along these two axes. The rate of change of f (or z) along X-axis is called
f
the partial derivative of f (or z) with respect to x and it is denoted by . Similarly,
x
the rate of change of f (or z) along Y -axis is called the partial derivative of f (or z) with
f
respect to y and it is denoted by .
y
f
Because, in moving along X-axis y remains constant, and is the rate of change of
x
f along X axis, we have:
f f (x + h, y) f (x, y)
= lim .
x h0 h
f
Similarly, in moving along Y -axis x remains constant, and is the rate of change of f
y
along Y axis, we have:
f f (x, y + k) f (x, y)
= lim .
y k0 k
In similar way, we can define the partial derivatives of higher orders.
To find the partial derivative of z = f (x, y) with respect to x we differentiate z by

usual rules of differentiation with respect to x, but treat the variable y as constant.
Similarly, when we find the partial derivative of z = f (x, y) with respect to y
we differentiate z by usual rules of differentiation with respect to y, but treat the
variable x as constant. If u = f (x, y, z) is a function of three variables, then find
the partial derivative of u = f (x, y, z) with respect to x we differentiate u by usual
rules of differentiation with respect to x, but treat all other variables y and z as
constant, and so on..
Example 25. Find the first and second partial derivatives of the function z = x3 +
y 3 3axy.
Sol: Given function is

z = x3 + y 3 3axy. (22)
Differentiating (22) partially with respect to x we get:
z
= 3x2 3ay. (23)
x
Differentiating (22) partially with respect to y we get:
z
= 3y 2 3ax. (24)
y
Differentiating (23) partially with respect to x and y we get:
2z 2z 2z
= 6x; = = 3a.
x2 yx xy
2z
= 6y.
y 2
Example 26. If z(x + y) = x2 + y 2 , then show that

2
z z z z
=4 1 .
x y x y

x2 + y 2
z= . (25)
x+y
Differentiating (25) partially with respect to x we get:
z (x + y)2x (x2 + y 2 ) x2 + 2xy y 2

= = . (26)
x (x + y)2 (x + y)2
z (x + y)2y (x2 + y 2 ) y 2 + 2xy x2

= = . (27)
x (x + y)2 (x + y)2
From (26) and (27) we obtain:

2 2
x2 + 2xy y 2 y 2 + 2xy x2

z z
=
x y (x + y)2 (x + y)2
2 2
2x 2y 2
=
(x + y)2
2
2(x y)(x + y)

=
(x + y)2
4(x y)2
=
(x + y)2
and
x2 + 2xy y 2 y 2 + 2xy x2

z z
4 1 = 4 1
x y (x + y)2 (x + y)2
(x + y)2 (x2 + 2xy y 2 ) (y 2 + 2xy x2 )

= 4
(x + y)2
2
(x + y 2 + 2xy) (x2 + 2xy y 2 ) (y 2 + 2xy x2 )

= 4
(x + y)2
2
x + y 2 2xy

= 4
(x + y)2
4(x y)2
= .
(x + y)2
2
z z z z
Therefore: =4 1 .
x y x y
2u x2 y 2
y
2 1 2 1 x
Example 27. If u = x tan y tan , then show that = 2
x y xy x + y2
2u 2u
and = .
xy yx
Sol: Differentiating given function partially with respect to y we get:

u 2 1 1 1 x 2 1 x
= x 2y tan +y 2
y 1 + (y/x)2 x y 1 + (x/y)2 y
3 2

x x xy
= 2 2
2y tan1 + 2
x +y y x + y2

x
= x 2y tan1 .
y
Differentiating the above equation partially with respect to x we get:
2u

1 x
= x 2y tan
xy x y
1 1
= 1 2y
1 + (x/y)2 y
x2 y 2
= 2 .
x + y2
u y
Similarly, = 2x tan1 y. Differentiating with respect to y we get:
x x
2u 1 1 x2 y 2
= 2x 1 = .
yx 1 + (y/x)2 x x2 + y 2
Therefore:
2u 2u x2 y 2
= = 2 .
xy yx x + y2
1/2 2v 2v 2v
Example 28. If v = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) , then prove that + + = 0.
x2 y 2 z 2
Sol: Differentiating given function partially with respect to x we get:

v 1 3/2
= x2 + y 2 + z 2 2x
x 2
3/2
= x x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
Again differentiating with respect to x we obtain:
2v

2 2 2 3/2
3 2 2 2 5/2

= x + y + z x x + y + z 2x
x2 2
5/2 2
= x2 + y 2 + z 2 3x x2 + y 2 + z 2

5/2
= x2 + y 2 + z 2 2x2 y 2 z 2 .

Using symmetry of v in x, y and z we obtain:
2v 5/2
= x2 + y 2 + z 2 2y 2 x2 z 2

y 2
2v 2 2 2 5/2
2 2 2

and = x + y + z 2z x z .
z 2
Adding the above three we get:
2v 2v 2v 5/2 5/2
x2 + y 2 + z 2 2x2 y 2 z 2 + x2 + y 2 + z 2 2y 2 x2 z 2

+ + =
x2 y 2 z 2
5/2
+ x2 + y 2 + z 2 2z 2 x2 z 2

5/2
= x2 + y 2 + z 2 2x2 y 2 z 2 + 2y 2 x2 z 2 + 2z 2 x2 z 2

5/2
= x2 + y 2 + z 2 0
= 0.
Example 29. If u = ln (x3 + y 3 + z 3 3xyz), then show that

2
9
+ + u= .
x y z (x + y + z)2

u 3x2 3yz
= 3 .
x x + y 3 + z 3 3xyz
Using symmetry of u in x, y and z we obtain:
u 3y 2 3xz
= 3
y x + y 3 + z 3 3xyz
u 3z 2 3xy
and = .
z x3 + y 3 + z 3 3xyz
Adding the above three we get:
u u u 3x2 3yz 3y 2 3xz 3z 2 3xy
+ + = 3 + +
x y z x + y 3 + z 3 3xyz x3 + y 3 + z 3 3xyz x3 + y 3 + z 3 3xyz
3x2 3yz + 3y 2 3xz + 3z 2 3xy
=
x3 + y 3 + z 3 3xyz
3(x + y 2 + z 2 yz xz xy)
2
=
x3 + y 3 + z 3 3xyz
3(x2 + y 2 + z 2 yz xz xy)
=
(x + y + z)(x2 + y 2 + z 2 yz xz xy)
3
= .
x+y+z
Thus:
u u u 3
+ + = .
x y z x+y+z
Therefore:
2
u u u
+ + u = + + + +
x y z x y z x y z

3
= + +
x y z x+y+z

3 3 3
= + +
x x + y + z y x + y + z z x + y + z
3 3 3
= 2
2

(x + y + z) (x + y + z) (x + y + z)2
9
= .
(x + y + z)2
3u
Example 30. If u = exyz , then show that = (1 + 3xyz + x2 y 2 z 2 )exyz .
xyz

u
= exyz xy.
z
Again differentiating with respect to y we get:
2u
= (exyz xz) xy + exyz x
yz
= exyz x + x2 yz .

Again differentiating with respect to x we get:

3u
= exyz yz x + x2 yz + exyz (1 + 2xyz) .

xyz
= (1 + 3xyz + x2 y 2 z 2 )exyz .

2z
Example 31. If xx y y z z = c, then show that = (x ln ex)1 at point x = y = z.
xy
Sol: Given that: xx y y z z = c. Taking logarithm we obtain:
x ln x + y ln y + z ln z = ln c.
Differentiating given function partially with respect to x (note that, z is a function of x

and y both, so, it will not be treated as constant) we get:
1 1 z z
x + ln x + z + ln z = 0
x z x x
z
= 1 + ln x + (1 + ln z) = 0
x
z 1 + ln x
= = .
x 1 + ln z
By symmetry of the function z in the variables x and y we obtain:
z 1 + ln y
= .
y 1 + ln z
Differentiating the above equation partially with respect to x we obtain:
2z

1 + ln y
=
xy x 1 + ln z
1 1 z
= (1 + ln y) 2

(1 + ln z) z x

1 1 1 + ln x
= (1 + ln y)
(1 + ln z)2 z 1 + ln z
(1 + ln x)(1 + ln y)
= .
z(1 + ln z)3
Putting x = y = z in the above equation we get:
2z (1 + ln x)(1 + ln x)
=
xy z(1 + ln x)3
1
=
z(1 + ln x)
1
=
z(ln e + ln x)
= (x ln ex)1 .

Example 32. If v = rn , where r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , then show that
vxx + vyy + vzz = n(n + 1)rn2 .

Sol: Given that: r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 . Differentiating partially with respect to x we get:

r
2r = 2x
x
r x
= = .
x r
By symmetry of the function r in the variables x and y we obtain:
r y r z
= , = .
y r z r
Now, given that v = rn . Differentiating partially with respect to x we obtain:
v r x
= nrn1 = nrn1
x x r
n2
= nxr .
Again differentiating with respect to x we get:
2v r
2
= (nxrn2 ) = nrn2 + n(n 2)xrn3
x x x
n2 n3 x
= nr + n(n 2)xr
r
n4 2 2

= nr r + (n 2)x
Again by symmetry we obtain:
2v n4
2 2

= nr r + (n 2)y
y 2
and 2v
= nrn4 r2 + (n 2)z 2 .

z 2
Adding the above three equalities we obtain:
2v 2v 2v
vxx + vyy + vzz = + +
x2 y 2 z 2
nrn4 r2 + (n 2)x2 + nrn4 r2 + (n 2)y 2

=
+nrn4 r2 + (n 2)z 2

nrn4 3r2 + (n 2) x2 + y 2 + z 2

=
nrn4 3r2 + (n 2)r2

=
= nrn4 (n + 1) r2
= n(n + 1)rn2 .

Example 33. If u = f (r) and x = r cos , y = r sin , then prove that
2u 2u 1
2
+ 2 = f 00 (r) + f 0 (r).
x y r
Sol: Given that x = r cos and y = r sin . On squaring and adding these two we obtain
r 2 = x2 + y 2 .
r
Differentiating the above equation with respect to x partially we obtain: 2r = 2x, i.e.
x
r x
= .
x r
Similarly we obtain:
r y
= .
y r
Given that u = f (r). Differentiating u with respect to x partially we get:
u r
= f 0 (r)
x x
u x 0
= = f (r).
x r
Again differentiating the above equation with respect to x partially and using the formula
d
(f1 f2 f3 ) = f10 f2 f3 + f1 f20 f3 + f1 f2 f30 we get:
dx
2u hx 0 i
= f (r)
x2 x r
2u x 00 r 1 0 x r 0
= 2
= f (r) + f (r) 2 f (r)
x r x r r x
2u x2 00 1 0 x2 0
= = f (r) + f (r) f (r). (28)
x2 r2 r r3
Since the given functions are symmetric in x and y we obtain:
2u y 2 00 1 0 y2 0
= f (r) + f (r) f (r). (29)
y 2 r2 r r3
Adding equations (28) and (29) we obtain
2u 2u 1 2 1
+ 2 = 2 f 00 (r) x2 + y 2 + f 0 (r) 3 f 0 (r) x2 + y 2

x 2 y r r r
1 2 1
= 2 f 00 (r) r2 + f 0 (r) 3 f 0 (r) r2
r r r
2 1
= f 00 (r) + f 0 (r) f 0 (r)
r r
1
= f 00 (r) + f 0 (r).
r
r x 1 x
Example 34. If x = r cos , y = r sin , then prove that = and =r .
x r r x
Sol: Given that x = r cos (30)

y = r sin . (31)
Squaring and adding these two we obtain: r2 = x2 + y 2 . So, as we found in the previous
r x
example: = . Again dividing (31) by (30) we get
x r
y sin
= = tan
x cos
y
= = tan1 .
x
Differentiating the above equation partially with respect to we obtain:
1 y
= 2 2
x 1 + xy x
y r sin
= 2 2
= 2
x +y r
sin
= .
r
On differentiating equation (30) partially with respect to r we get:
x x
= cos =
r r
x r
= = .
r x
Again differentiating equation (30) partially with respect to we get:

x
= r sin = r r
x
1 x
= = r .
r x
Chain Rule for Partial Differentiation. Suppose z = f (x, y) be a function of two variable,
where x = x(t), y = y(t) are functions of another variable t. Suppose there is a small
change t in the variable t, due to which there are small changes x and y in the variables
x and y respectively. Because of these changes in x and y, suppose there is a small change
z
z in the function z = f (x, y). Then, the rate of change of z in X direction will be ,
x
z
and so the change in z along the X direction will be x. Similarly, the change in z in
x
z
Y direction will be y. Since the changes are very small the total approximate change
y
in z will be:
z z
z x + y.
x y
Therefore, the rate of change of z with respect to t:
z z x z y
+ .
t x t y t
For instantaneous rate of change, letting 0, and so, x, y 0 in the above inequality
we obtain:
dz z dx z dy
= + .
dt x dt y dt
In a general case, if z = f (x, y), x = x(r, s) and y = y(r, s), then we have:
z z x z y
= +
r x r y r
z z x z y
= + .
s x s y s
The above results can be generalized for a function of n variables.
Example 35. If u = f (x, y) and x = r cos , y = r sin , then prove that

2 2 2 2
u u u 1 u
+ = + 2 .
x y r r
Sol: Since x = r cos , y = r sin we have:

x x
= cos , = r sin
r
and y y
= sin , = r cos .
r
Now by chain rule we have:
u u x u y
= +
r x r y r
u u
= cos + sin
x y
and
u u x u y
= +
x y
u u
= r sin + r cos .
x y
Therefore:
2 2 2 2
u 1 u u u 1 u u
+ 2 = cos + sin + 2 r sin + r cos
r r x y r x y
2 2
u u
= cos2 + sin2 + sin2 + cos2
x y
2 2
u u
= + .
x y
u u u
Example 36. If u = f (x y, y z, z x), then prove that + + = 0.
x y z
Sol: Let
X = xy (32)
Y = yz (33)
Z = z x. (34)
Then we have u = f (X, Y, Z), i.e., u is a function of X, Y, Z. Differentiating (32), (33)

and (34) with respect to x, y, z we get:
X X X
= 1, = 1, =0
x y z
Y Y Y
= 0, = 1, = 1
x y z
Z Z Z
= 1, = 0, = 1.
x y z
Now by chain rule of partial differentiation we get:
u u X u Y u Z
= + +
x X x Y x Z x
u u u
= 1+ 0+ (1)
X Y Z
u u
= ,
X Z
u u X u Y u Z
= + +
y X y Y y Z y
u u u
= (1) + 1+ 0
X Y Z
u u
= +
X Y
and u u X u Y u Z
= + +
z X z Y z Z z
u u u
= 0+ (1) + 1
X Y Z
u u
= + .
Y Z
Adding the above three equalities we get
u u u u u u u u u
+ + = + +
x y z X Z X Y Y Z
= 0.
2u 2u
Example 37. Transform the Laplace equation + = 0 into the polar coordi-
x2 y 2
nates.
Sol: We know that the relation between cartesian coordinates (x, y) and the polar coor-
1 y

2 2 2
dinates (r, ) are given by x = r cos , y = r sin , i.e., r = x + y and = tan .
x
Therefore:
r x r y
= = cos , = = sin
x r y r
and sin cos
= , = .
x r y r
Now by chain rule we have:
u u r u u sin u
= + = cos
x r x x
r r
sin
= cos u.
r r
The above relation is true for all functions u, and so:

sin
cos .
x r r
Similarly, we have
u u r u u cos u
= + = sin +
y r y y r r

cos
= sin + u.
r r
The above relation is true for all functions u, and so:

cos
sin + .
y r r
Therefore:
2u

u
=
x2 x x

sin u sin u
= cos cos
r r r r

u sin u sin u sin u
= cos cos cos
r r r r r r
2 2
2u

2 u 1 u 1 u sin u
= cos 2 sin cos 2 + sin + cos
r r r r r r r
2

sin u u
+ 2 cos + sin 2
r
Similarly,
2u

u
=
y 2 y y

cos u cos u
= sin + sin +
r r r r
2
1 u 1 2 u 2u

2 u cos u
= sin 2 + sin cos 2 + + cos + sin
r r r r r r r
2

cos u u
+ 2 sin + cos 2 .
r
Therefore the Laplace equation will be:
2u 2u
+ =0
x2 y 2
2 u sin2 + cos2 u sin2 + cos2 2 u
= cos2 + sin2 + + =0
r2 r r r2 2
2 u 1 u 1 2u
= + + 2 2 = 0.
r2 r r r
(Q.1) If z = f (x, y), x = eu + ev , y = eu + ev , then prove that:

z z z z
=x y .
u v x y
Hint: Use the chain rule of partial differentiation.
Tangent Plane and Normal (Normal Line)
Definition 1. Given a point P on a surface S, the tangent plane of S at point P, is

the plane passing through P which contains the tangent lines of all the curves on
S passing through P.
Formula for tangent plane. Let f (x, y, z) = 0 be the equation of surface S, and P (x0 , y0 , z0 )
be a point on S. Then the equation of any plane passing through P is given by:
n(

r

r0 ) = 0 (35)
where
r = xi + y j + z k and

r0 = x0 i + y0 j + z0 k and n is the unit normal vector to the
surface S at point P . Since P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is given, the vector r0 is known and we have to
find only n. Then, it is sufficient to obtain the direction cosines/ratios of n. For this, we
know that the normal vector to the surface S at point P is given by:

f f f
gradf = f = i + j + k f = i + j + k ,
x y z x y z
where all the partial derivatives are calculated at point P . Therefore, it follows from (35)
that the equation of tangent plane:
h
f f f i
i + j + k i(x x0 ) + j(y y0 ) + k(z z0 ) = 0
x y z
or
f f f
(x x0 ) + (y y0 ) + (z z0 ) = 0. (36)
x y z
Definition 2. Given a point P on a surface S, the normal line or normal to S at

point P, is the line passing through P which is perpendicular to the tangent plane
at point P.
Formula for Normal. Let f (x, y, z) = 0 be the equation of surface S, and P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) be
a point on S. Then the equation normal to the surface S passing through P is given by:
x x0 y y0 z z0
= = (37)
fx fy fz
f f f
where fx = , fy = , fz = are calculated at point P . In parametric form:
x y z
x = x0 + f x t
y = y 0 + fy t
z = z0 + fz t.
Example 38. Find the equation of the tangent plane and the normal to the surface
z 2 = 4(1 + x2 + y 2 ) at point (2, 2, 6).
Sol. The equation of given surface can be written as f (x, y, z) = z 2 4(1 + x2 + y 2 ) = 0.

f f f f f
Therefore, = 8x, = 8y, = 2z. At point (2, 2, 6) we have = 16, =
x y z x y
f
16, = 12. Also, here x0 = 2, y0 = 2, z0 = 6, therefore, by (36) the equation of tangent
z
plane of the surface S will be:
f f f
(x x0 ) + (y y0 ) + (z z0 ) = 0
x y z
= 16(x 2) 16(y 2) + 12(z 6) = 0
= 4x + 4y 3z + 2 = 0.
By (37) the equation of normal at point P will be

x x0 y y0 z z0
= =
fx fy fz
x2 y2 z6
= = = .
4 4 3
Example 39. Find the equation of tangent plane and the normal to each of the
following surfaces at the given points:
(A) 2x2 + y 2 = 3 2z at (2, 1, 3);
(B) x3 + y 3 + 3xyz = 3 at (1, 1, 2).
Sol. (A). The equation of given surface is f (x, y, z) = 2x2 + y 2 3 + 2z = 0, and the point
f f f
is x0 = 2, y0 = 1, z0 = 3. Therefore, = 4x, = 2y, = 2 and at point (2, 1, 3),
x y z
f f f
= 8, = 2, = 2. Therefore, the equation of tangent plane at point (2, 1, 3) is
x y z
f f f
(x x0 ) + (y y0 ) + (z z0 ) = 0
x y z
= 8(x 2) + 2(y 1) + 2(z + 3) = 0
= 4x + y + z 6 = 0.

x x0 y y0 z z0
= =
fx fy fz
x2 y1 z+3
= = = .
4 2 2
Sol. (B). The equation of given surface is f (x, y, z) = x3 + y 3 + 3xyz 3 = 0, and the
f f f
point is x0 = 1, y0 = 2, z0 = 1. Therefore, = 3x2 + 3yz, = 3y 2 + 3xz, = 3xy
x y z
f f f
and at point (1, 2, 1), = 3, = 9, = 6. Therefore, the equation of tangent
x y z
plane at point (1, 2, 1) is

f f f
(x x0 ) + (y y0 ) + (z z0 ) = 0
x y z
= 3(x 1) + 9(y 2) + 6(z + 1) = 0
= x 3y 2z + 3 = 0.
x x0 y y0 z z0
= =
fx fy fz
x1 y2 z+1
= = = .
3 9 6
Example 40. Show that the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 touches the surface

a2 b 2
px2 + qy 2 + 2z = 0, if + + 2cd = 0.
p q
Sol. Given equations of surface and plane are:

f (x, y, z) = px2 + qy 2 + 2z = 0 (38)
ax + by + cz + d = 0. (39)
Suppose, plane (39) is a tangent plane of surface (38) at point P (x0 , y0 , z0 ). Then, we have
f f f f f f
= 2px, = 2qy, = 2 and at point P (x0 , y0 , z0 ), = 2px0 , = 2qy0 , = 2.
x y z x y z
Therefore, the equation of tangent plane to the surface (38) at point P will be:
f f f
(x x0 ) + (y y0 ) + (z z0 ) = 0
x y z
= 2px0 (x x0 ) + 2qy0 (y y0 ) + 2(z z0 ) = 0
= 2px0 x + 2qy0 y + 2z (2px20 + 2qy02 + 2z0 ) = 0. (40)
But, by assumption, the tangent plane of surface (38) at point P is the plane (39), so,
comparing the equations (39) and (40) we obtain:

a = 2px0

b = 2qy0

(41)
c =2

d = (2px20 + 2qy02 + 2z0 ).

Since point P (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is situated on the surface (38) it will satisfy (38), therefore we
have
px20 + qy02 + 2z0 = 0. (42)
Now,
a2 b 2
L.H.S. = + + 2cd
p q
(2px0 )2 (2qy0 )2
= + 2 2(2px20 + 2qy02 + 2z0 ) (using (41))
p q
= 4px20 + 4qy02 4(2px20 + 2qy02 + 2z0 )
= 4(px20 + qy02 + 2z0 )
= 0 (using (42))
= R.H.S.
(Q.1) Find the equation of the normal to the surface x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 at any point
P (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
(Q.2) Show that the plane 3x+12y6z17 = 0 touches the conicoid 3x2 6y 2 +9z 2 +17 =
0. Find also the point of contact.
(Q.3) Find the tangent plane and normal to the surface 2xz 2 3xy 4x = 7 at point
P (1, 1, 2).
(Q.4) Find the tangent plane and normal to the surface xyz = a2 at point P (x1 , y1 , z1 ).
(Q.5) Derive the formula for a tangent plane and normal to a given surface.
Maxima and Minima of function of two variables
Necessary condition for maxima or minima of a function of two variables: Suppose
z = f (x, y) is a function of two variables x and y. We say that there is a maxima of function
f at point (a, b) if f (a + h, b + k) f (a, b) < 0 for all h, k (positive or negative). Similarly,
say that there is a minima of function f at point (a, b) if f (a + h, b + k) f (a, b) > 0 for
all h, k (positive or negative). We discuss the necessary condition for maxima or minima
of f analytically and geometrically.
The Taylors series for the function f about the point (a, b) is given by:
2
1
f (a + h, b + k) = f (a, b) + h +k f (a, b) + h +k f (a, b) +
x y 2! x y
Neglecting the higher order terms we get:
1 2
h fxx (a, b) + 2hkfxy (a, b) + k 2 fyy (a, b)

f (a+h, b+k) = f (a, b)+hfx (a, b)+kfy (a, b)+
2!
or
1 2
h fxx (a, b) + 2hkfxy (a, b) + k 2 fyy (a, b) .

f (a + h, b + k) f (a, b) = hfx (a, b) + kfy (a, b) + (43)
2!
If there is a maxima (or minima) at (a, b) the LHS of the above equation is negative (or
positive). Therefore the RHS must be negative (or positive) for all values of h and k.
Note that, the first two terms of the RHS changes their sign with change in the signs of
h and k (as h and k becomes positive and negative), and so, LHS will be negative (or
positive) for all h and k if the first two terms becomes zero, i.e.,
fx (a, b) = fy (a, b) = 0.
Geometrically, since at maxima or minima, the

tangent plane to the surface z = f (x, y) be-
comes parallel to the XY -plane, its normal at
point (a, b) must be in Z-direction. Since the
direction ratios of normal are fx (a, b), fy (a, b)
and fz (a, b), at maxima or minima we must
have fx (a, b) = fy (a, b) = 0.
Second Derivative Test. Therefore putting fx (a, b) = fy (a, b) = 0 in equation (43) we

obtain:
1 2
h fxx (a, b) + 2hkfxy (a, b) + k 2 fyy (a, b) .

f (a + h, b + k) f (a, b) = (44)
2!
Let r = fxx (a, b), s = fxy (a, b), t = fyy (a, b), then:
h2 fxx (a, b) + 2hkfxy (a, b) + k 2 fyy (a, b) = h2 r + 2hks + k 2 t

s2

1 2 2
= (hr + ks) + k t .
r r
On putting this value in (44) we get:
s2

1 1 2 2
f (a + h, b + k) f (a, b) = (hr + ks) + k t .
2! r r
For maxima the LHS, and so the RHS should be negative and it is possible if r < 0 and
s2
t < 0, i.e., rt s2 > 0.
r
For minima the LHS, and so the RHS should be positive and it is possible if r > 0
s2
and t > 0, i.e., rt s2 > 0.
r
For saddle point the LHS, and so the RHS should be positive as well as negative
(should change the sign) and it is possible in the following two ways: (i) if r > 0 and
s2 s2
t < 0, i.e., rt s2 < 0. (ii) if r < 0 and t > 0, i.e., rt s2 < 0. Thus, for saddle
r r
point we must have rt s2 < 0.
Finally, if rt s2 = 0, then the neglected terms in the series becomes effective and we
need the further investigation.
Working Rules for finding the Maxima and Minima. Let

2
D(x, y) = fxx (x, y)fyy (x, y) fxy (x, y) .
We follow the following steps:
(1) Find the first derivatives fx (x, y) and fy (x, y) and solve the equations:
fx (x, y) = 0
fy (x, y) = 0.
Solution(s) of the above system is (are) the critical point(s). Suppose, a critical
point is (a, b);
(2) if D(a, b) > 0 and fxx (a, b) > 0, then f (x, y) has a local minimum at (a, b);
(3) if D(a, b) > 0 and fxx (a, b) < 0, then f (x, y) has a local maximum at (a, b);
(4) if D(a, b) < 0, then f (x, y) has a saddle point at (a, b);
(5) if D(a, b) = 0, then we cannot draw any conclusions and further investigations
are required.
Example 41. Discuss the maxima and minima of f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 3axy.
Sol: Given function is f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 3axy. Differentiating partially with respect to

x and y we get:
fx (x, y) = 3x2 3ay, fy (x, y) = 3y 2 3ax.
First we find the critical point. Then:
fx (x, y) = 0, fy (x, y) = 0 = 3x2 3ay = 0, 3y 2 3ax = 0.
Since f is symmetric in x and y, a solution of the above system is x = y. Putting x = y

in the above equation we get:
3x2 3ax = 0 = 3x(x a) = 0

= x = 0, a.
Since x = y, we get two critical points (0, 0) and (a, a). Now, by differentiating fx (x, y)
and fy (x, y) again with respect to x and y we get:
fxx (x, y) = 6x, fxy (x, y) = 3a, fyy (x, y) = 6y.
Now we find D at each critical point. Then:

(i). 2
D(0, 0) = fxx (0, 0)fyy (0, 0) fxy (0, 0)
2
= 0 0 3a
= 9a2
< 0.
Since D(0, 0) < 0, the critical point (0, 0) is a saddle point.

(ii). 2
D(a, a) = fxx (a, a)fyy (a, a) fxy (a, a)
2
= 6a 6a 3a
= 36a2 9a2 = 27a2
> 0.
Since D(0, 0) > 0, there is a maxima or minima at the critical point (a, a). We consider
two cases:
If a < 0, then fxx (a, a) = 6a < 0 and so there is a maxima of function f and its
maximum value is
fmax = f (a, a) = a3 + a3 3a a a = a3 .
If a > 0, then fxx (a, a) = 6a > 0 and so there is a minima of function f and its minimum
value is
fmin = f (a, a) = a3 + a3 3a a a = a3 .
a3 a3
Example 42. Discuss the maxima and minima of u = xy + + .
x y
a3 a3
Sol: Given function is u = xy + + . Differentiating partially with respect to x and
x y
y we get:
a3 a3
ux (x, y) = y , u y (x, y) = x .
x2 y2
a3 a3
ux (x, y) = 0, uy (x, y) = 0 = y = 0, x = 0.
x2 y2

a3
x =0 = x 3 a3 = 0
x2
= x = a.
Since x = y, we get the critical point (a, a). Now, by differentiating ux (x, y) and uy (x, y)
again with respect to x and y we get:
2a3 2a3
uxx (x, y) = , u xy (x, y) = 1, u yy (x, y) = .
x3 y3
2
D(a, a) = uxx (a, a)uyy (a, a) uxy (a, a)
2
= 22 1
= 3
> 0.
Since D(a, a) > 0, there is a maxima or minima at critical point (a, a). Then ux,x (a, a) =
2 > 0, and so, there is a minima of function u and its minimum value is
umin = u(a, a) = a2 + a2 + a2 = 3a2 .
Example 43. Discuss the maxima and minima of f (x, y) = xy(a x y).
Sol: Given function is f (x, y) = xy(axy) = axy x2 y xy 2 . Differentiating partially

with respect to x and y we get:
fx (x, y) = ay 2xy y 2 , fy (x, y) = ax x2 2xy.
fx (x, y) = 0, fy (x, y) = 0 = ay 2xy y 2 = 0, ax x2 2xy = 0.

ax x2 2x x = 0 = x(a 3x) = 0
a
= x = 0, .
3
a a
Since x = y, we get two critical points , and (a, a). Now, by differentiating fx (x, y)
3 3
and fy (x, y) again with respect to x and y we get:
fxx (x, y) = 2y, fxy (x, y) = a 2x 2y, fyy (x, y) = 2x.

(i). 2
D(0, 0) = fxx (0, 0)fyy (0, 0) fxy (0, 0)
2
= 00 a
= a2
< 0.
Since D(0, 0) < 0, the

acritical
point (0, a 0)a is a saddle
a a point.
(ii). a a a 2
D , = fxx , fyy , fxy ,
3 3 33 3 3 3 3
2a 2a a 2
=
3 3 3
2 2
4a a
=
9 9
> 0.
a a a a
Since D , > 0, there is a maxima or minima at the critical point , . We
3 3 3 3
consider two cases:
a a 2a
If a > 0, then fxx , = < 0 and so there is a maxima of function f and its
3 3 3
maximum value is a a a2 a a a3
fmax = f , = a = .
3 3 9 3 3 27
a a 2a
If a < 0, then fxx , = > 0 and so there is a minima of function f and its
3 3 3
minimum value is a a a2 a a a3
fmin = f , = a = .
3 3 9 3 3 27
Example 44. Discuss the maxima and minima of f (x, y) = x3 y 2 (1 x y).
Sol: Given function is f (x, y) = x3 y 2 (1 x y) = x3 y 2 x4 y 2 x3 y 3 . Differentiating

partially with respect to x and y we get:
fx (x, y) = 3x2 y 2 4x3 y 2 3x2 y 3 , fy (x, y) = 2x3 y 2x4 y 3x3 y 2 .
First we find the critical point. Then: fx (x, y) = 0, fy (x, y) = 0 implies
3x2 y 2 4x3 y 2 3x2 y 3 = 0;
2x3 y 2x4 y 3x3 y 2 = 0
= x2 y 2 (3 4x 3y) = 0;
x3 y(2 2x 3y) = 0
= 4x + 3y = 3;
2x + 3y = 2.
1 1
On solving the above equations we get x = , y = . Therefore, the critical point is
2 3
1 1
, . Now, by differentiating fx (x, y) and fy (x, y) again with respect to x and y we
2 3
get:
fxx (x, y) = 6xy 2 12x2 y 2 6xy 3 , fxy (x, y) = 6x2 y 8x3 y 9x2 y 2 ,
fyy (x, y) = 2x3 2x4 6x3 y.

1 1
Now at critical point , we have
2 3
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
2
1 1 1 1 1
= =
9 8 12 72 144
> 0.

1 1 1 1
Since D , > 0, there is a maxima or minima at the critical point , . Since
2 3 2 3
1 1 1
fxx , = < 0, there is a maxima of function f and its maximum value is
2 3 9
3 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
fmax = f , = 1 = = .
2 3 2 3 2 3 72 6 432
Example 45. Discuss the maxima and minima of f (x, y) = sin x sin y sin(x + y).
Sol: Given function is f (x, y) = sin x sin y sin(x+y). Differentiating partially with respect
to x and y we get:
fx (x, y) = cos x sin y sin(x + y) + sin x sin y cos(x + y)
= sin y sin(2x + y).
By symmetry of f in x and y we have
fy (x, y) = sin x sin(x + 2y).
fx (x, y) = 0, fy (x, y) = 0 = sin y sin(2x + y) = 0, sin x sin(x + 2y) = 0.
sin x sin 3x = 0 = sin x = 0 or sin 3x = 0
2
= x = 0, , , .
3 3

2 2
Since x = y, we get four critical points (0, 0), (, ), , and , . Now, by
3 3 3 3
differentiating fx (x, y) and fy (x, y) again with respect to x and y we get:
fxx (x, y) = 2 sin y cos(2x + y), fxy (x, y) = sin(2x + 2y), fyy (x, y) = 2 sin x cos(x + 2y).
(i).
D(0, 0) = fxx (0, 0)fyy (0, 0) fxy (0, 0)
2
= 0 0 0]2

= 0.
Since D(0, 0) = 0, we cannot draw any conclusions and further investigations are required.
(ii).
D(, ) = fxx (, )fyy (, ) fxy (, )
2
= 0 0 0]2

= 0.
(iii). h i2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
" #2
3 3 3
= 2 (1) 2 (1)
2 2 2
9
= .
4

Since D , > 0, there is a maxima or minima at the critical point , . Now
3 3 3 3
3
fxx , = 2 (1) = 3 < 0, and so, there is a maxima of function f and its
3 3 2
maximum value is
33
fmax = f , = sin sin sin + = .
3 3 3 3 3 3 8
(iv).
2 2

2 2

2 2

2 2
2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
" #2
3 3 3
= 2 12 1
2 2 2
9
= .
4

2 2 2 2
Since D , > 0, there is a maxima or minima at the critical point , .
3 3 3 3

2 2 3
Now fxx , = 2 1 = 3 > 0, and so, there is a maxima of function f and
3 3 2
its minimum value is

2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
fmin = f , = sin sin sin + = .
3 3 3 3 3 3 8
Example 46. Discuss the maxima and minima of f (x, y) = sin x + sin y + sin(x + y).
Sol: Given function is f (x, y) = sin x + sin y + sin(x + y). Differentiating partially with
respect to x and y we get:
fx (x, y) = cos x + cos(x + y).
fy (x, y) = cos y + cos(x + y).
fx (x, y) = 0, fy (x, y) = 0 = cos x + cos(x + y) = 0, cos y + cos(x + y) = 0.

cos x + cos(2x) = 0 =cos x + 2 cos2 x 1 = 0

=2 cos2 x + cos x 1 = 0
1 1 + 8 1
= cos x = = 1,
4 2

= x = , .
3

5 5
Since x = y, we two three critical points (, ), , and , . Now, by differ-
3 3 3 3
entiating fx (x, y) and fy (x, y) again with respect to x and y we get:
fxx (x, y) = sin x sin(x + y), fxy (x, y) = sin(x + y), fyy (x, y) = sin y sin(x + y).

(i). 2
D(, ) = fxx (, )fyy (, ) fxy (, )
= 0 0 0]2

= 0.
(ii).
2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
" #2
3
= ( 3) ( 3)
2
9
= > 0.
4

Since D , > 0, there is a maxima or minima at the critical point , . Now
3 3 3 3
fxx , = 3 < 0, and so, there is a maxima of function f and its maximum value
3 3
is
33
fmax = f , = sin + sin + sin + = .
3 3 3 3 3 3 2
(iii).
5 5

5 5

5 5

5 5 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
" #2
3
= ( 3) ( 3)
2
9
= > 0.
4

5 5 5 5
Since D , > 0, there is a maxima or minima at the critical point , .
3 3 3 3
5 5
Now fxx , = 3 > 0, and so, there is a minima of function f and its minimum
3 3
value is

5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3
fmin = f , = sin + sin + sin + = .
3 3 3 3 3 3 2
Example 47. Discuss the maxima or minima of sin x sin y sin z, where x, y and z are
the angles of triangle.
Sol: Since x, y and z are the angles of triangle, we have x + y + z = or z = (x + y).

Now the given function is f (x, y) = sin x sin y sin z. On putting the value of z we have
f (x, y) = sin x sin y sin [ (x + y)] = sin x sin y sin(x + y).
Now follow the process of Example 45.
Example 48. Find the point on the surface z 2 = xy + 1 nearest to the origin.
Sol: Suppose the required point on the surface z 2 = xy + 1 is (x, y, z). Then we have to
find this point such that its distance from origin, i.e.
p
d = x2 + y 2 + z 2
is minimum. Since d and d2 get their minimum values together, for simplicity, we calculate
the point of minima of
d 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
Since the point (x, y, z) is situated on the surface therefore z 2 = xy + 1. On putting
this value in the above equation we get: d2 = f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 + xy + 1. Differentiating
partially with respect to x and y we get:
fx (x, y) = 2x + y.
fy (x, y) = 2y + x.
fx (x, y) = 0, fy (x, y) = 0 = 2x + y = 0, 2y + x = 0.

3x = 0 = x = 0.
Since x = y, the critical point is (0, 0). Now, by differentiating fx (x, y) and fy (x, y) again
with respect to x and y we get:
fxx (x, y) = 2, fxy (x, y) = 1, fyy (x, y) = 2.
Now we find D at critical point (0, 0). Then:
2
D(0, 0) = fxx (0, 0)fyy (0, 0) fxy (0, 0)
= 2 2 1]2

= 3.
Since D(0, 0) = 3 > 0, there is a maxima or minima at the critical point (0, 0). Now
fxx (0, 0) = 2 > 0, and so, there is a minima of function f at point x = y = 0, and from
the equation of surface z 2 = xy + 1, at this point we have x = y = 0 and so z 2 = 0 01,
i.e., z = 1. Thus, the distance of point (0, 0, 1) of the surface will be minimum from
the origin.
Example 49. If the perimeter of a triangle is constant, prove that the area of this
triangle is maximum when the triangle is equilateral.
p
Sol: We know that the area of triangle is given by = s(s a)(s b)(s c), where
a, b, c are the sides of triangle and 2s = a + b + c. We have to maximize the area . Since
and 2 get their maximum values together, for simplicity, we calculate the point of
minima of
2 = s(s a)(s b)(s c).
Since the perimeter is constant we have c = 2s a b. On putting this value in the above
equation we get: 2 = f (a, b) = s(s a)(s b)(a + b s). Differentiating partially with
respect to a and b we get:
fa (a, b) = s(s b)[(a + b s) + (s a)]
= s(s b)(2s 2a b). (45)
fb (a, b) = s(s a)(2s 2b a).
fa (a, b) = 0, fb (a, b) = 0 = s(s b)(2s 2a b) = 0, s(s a)(2s 2b a) = 0.
Since f is symmetric in a and b, a solution of the above system is a = b. Putting a = b
2s
s(s a)(2s 2a a) = 0 = s(s a)(2s 3a) = 0 = s = 0, s = a, a = .
3
2s
Since s = 0, s = a are not possible, we have a = b = , and so, the critical point is
3
2s 2s
, . Now, by differentiating fa (a, b) and fb (a, b) again with respect to a and b we
3 3
get:
faa (a, b) = 2s(s b), fab (a, b) = s(2a + 2b 3s), fbb (a, b) = 2s(s a).
2
2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s
D , = faa , fbb , fab ,
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 2
2s2 2s2

s
=
3 3 3
4
s
= .
3
s4

2s 2s 2s 2s
Since D , = > 0, there is a maxima or minima at the critical point , .
3 3 3 3 3
2s2

2s 2s
Now faa , = < 0, and so, there is a maxima of function f at point x =
3 3 3
2s 2s 2s
y = , i.e., the area is maximum. Also, since 2s = a + b + c, at point , we have
3 3 3
2s 2s
c = 2s a b = . Therefore, for maximum area we have a = b = c = , i.e., the
3 3
triangle is equilateral.
(Q.1) Discuss the maxima or minima of the function f (x, y) = x3 3xy 2 15x2 15y 2 +
72x.
Ans. Critical point (6, 0) (minima), with fmin = f (6, 0) = 108, (4, 0) (maxima),
with fmax = f (4, 0) = 112, (5, 1) and (5, 1) are saddle points.
(Q.2) Discuss the maxima or minima of the function f (x, y) = x3 4xy + 2y 2 .

Ans. Critical point (0, 0) (saddle point) and (4/3, 4/3) (minima), with fmin =
32
f (4/3, 4/3) = 27 .
(Q.3) Discuss the maxima or minima of the function f (x, y) = cos x cos y cos z, where x, y
and z are the angles of a triangle.
Hint. Since x+y+z = the given function is reduced to f (x, y) = cos x cos y cos(x+
y).
(Q.4) Discuss the maxima or minima of the function f (x, y) = cos x + cos y + cos z, where
x, y and z are the angles of a triangle.
Hint. Since x + y + z = the given function is reduced to f (x, y) = cos x + cos y
cos(x + y).
(Q.5) Discuss the maxima and minima of f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 3xy.

Ans. Critical point (0, 0) (saddle point) and (1, 1) (minima), fmin = f (a, a) = 1.
(Q.6) Find the shortest distance from the origin to the surface xyz 2 = 2.

Ans. (1, 1, 2).
(Q.7) A rectangular box open at the top is with a given capacity. Find the dimensions
of the box requiring least material for its construction.
Hint. Suppose the dimension of box are x (length), y (width), z (height), then
given that the capacity (volume) xyz = c(constant). Since the top of box is open
the material required for its construction is equal to the total area of the surfaces
of the open box S = xy + 2yz + 2zx = xy + 2c x
+ 2c
y
.
Lagranges Method of Undetermined multipliers. This method is useful when we have

to find the maxima or minima of function under some given conditions. Suppose, we have
to find:
Extrema of u = f (x, y, z)
Subject to g(x, y, z) = 0.
Working Rule. Suppose:
F (x, y, z) = f (x, y, z) + g(x, y, z). (46)
Now differentiate (46) with respect to x, y, z and solve the equations Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0

with the constraint g(x, y, z) = 0 for the multiplier and the critical point x, y, z. The
undetermined multiplier is called the Lagranges multiplier.
Example 50. Find the maxima or minima of u = x2 + y 2 + z 2 under the condition

ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 = 1.

u = f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
We have to find the maximum value of u = f (x, y, z) under the condition ax2 +by 2 +cz 2 =
1. Therefore the given constraint is:
g(x, y, z) = ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 1 = 0.
Let
F (x, y, z) = f (x, y, z) + g(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 1 .

(47)
Differentiating the above equation with respect to x, y, z we get:
Fx = 2x + 2ax = 0 (48)
Fy = 2y + 2by = 0 (49)
Fz = 2z + 2az = 0. (50)
Multiplying the above equations by x, y and z respectively and adding we get:
2(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 2 ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 = 0

= 2u + 2 1 = 0
= = u.
On putting this value of in (48) we get
2x 2aux = 0
1
= u= .
a
Similarly by putting the value of in (49) and (50), we obtain
1 1
u= , u= .
b c
1 1 1
Therefore, there are three extreme values, u = , u = , u = .
a b c
Example 51. Find the maximum value of xm y n z p when x + y + z = a.

u = f (x, y, z) = xm y n z p .
We have to find the maximum value of u = f (x, y, z) under the condition x + y + z = a.
Therefore the given constraint is:
g(x, y, z) = x + y + z a = 0.
Let
F (x, y, z) = f (x, y, z) + g(x, y, z) = xm y n z p + [x + y + z a] . (51)
Fx = mxm1 y n z p + = 0 (52)
Fy = nxm y n1 z p + y = 0 (53)
Fz = pxm y n z p1 + z = 0. (54)
mxm y n z p + nxm y n z p + pxm y n z p + x + y + z = 0

(m + n + p)xm y n z p + (x + y + z) = 0
= (m + n + p)u + a = 0
(m + n + p)u
= = .
a

(m + n + p)u
mxm1 y n z p =0
a
mu (m + n + p)u
= =0
x a
ma
= x= .
m+n+p
na pa
y= , z= .
m+n+p m+n+p
Therefore, the maximum value of u will be:

ma na pa
umax = f , ,
m+n+p m+n+p m+n+p
m n p
ma na pa
=
m+n+p m+n+p m+n+p
m+n+p m n p
a m n p
= .
(m + n + p)m+n+p
Example 52. Show that the volume of the greatest rectangular parallelepiped that
x2 y 2 z 2 8abc
can be inscribed in the ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 is .
a b c 3 3
Sol: Take the eight points P (x, y, z) as the corners of the parallelepiped on the
ellipsoid, then the length of its edges will be 2x, 2y, 2z and its volume:
V = f (x, y, z) = 8xyz.
We have to find the maximum value of V = f (x, y, z). Since the corner points are on the
x2 y2 z2
ellipsoid we obtain from the equation of ellipsoid that 2 + 2 + 2 = 1, therefore the
a b c
given constraint is:
x2 y 2 z 2
g(x, y, z) = 2 + 2 + 2 1 = 0.
a b c x2 y 2 z 2

Let F (x, y, z) = f (x, y, z) + g(x, y, z) = 8xyz + 2 + 2 + 2 1 . (55)
a b c
2x
Fx = 8yz + =0 (56)
a2
2y
Fy = 8xz + 2 = 0 (57)
b
2z
Fz = 8xy + 2 = 0. (58)
c
2
y2 z2

x
24xyz + 2 2 + 2 + 2 = 0
a b c
= 24xyz + 2 = 0
= = 12xyz.

24x2 yz
8yz =0
a2
a
= x= .
3
b c
y= , z= .
3 3
Therefore, on putting the values of x, y, z in V the maximum volume will be:
a b c 8abc
Vmax = 8 = .
3 3 3 3 3
Example 53. Show that the volume of the greatest rectangular parallelepiped that
can be inscribed in sphere is a cube.
Sol: Suppose the equation of spare is x2 +y 2 +z 2 = a2 . Take the eight points P (x, y, z)
as the corners of the parallelepiped on the sphere, then the length of its edges will be
2x, 2y, 2z and its volume:
V = f (x, y, z) = 8xyz.
We have to show that for maximum value of V we have x = y = z. Since the corner
points are on the sphere we obtain from the equation of sphere that x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 ,
therefore the given constraint is:
g(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 a2 = 0.
Let F (x, y, z) = f (x, y, z) + g(x, y, z) = 8xyz + x2 + y 2 + z 2 a2 .

(59)
Fx = 8yz + 2x = 0 (60)
Fy = 8xz + 2y = 0 (61)
Fz = 8xy + 2z = 0. (62)
24xyz + 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0

= 24xyz + 2 a2 = 0
12xyz
= = 2 .
a
24x2 yz
8yz =0
a2
a
= x= .
3
a a
y= , z= .
3 3
a
Therefore, for maximum volume we have x = y = z = , and so, the rectangular
3
parallelepiped is a cube. On putting the values of x, y, z in V the maximum volume will
be:
a a a 8a3
Vmax = 8 = .
3 3 3 3 3
Exercise (Assignment) on Continuity and Differentiability
(Q.1) Discuss continuity and differentiability of the function f (x) = |x|

2 + 1 x2 , |x| 1;
(Q.2) Discuss continuity and differentiability of the function f (x) = 2
2e(1x) , |x| > 1.
(Q.3) Discuss continuity and differentiability of the function f (x) = tan2 x at x = 0.

x3 , x2 < 1;
(Q.4) Discuss continuity and differentiability of the function f (x) =
x, x2 1.
1
e x1 2
(Q.5) Discuss continuity and differentiability of the function f (x) = 1 , x 6= 1;
e x1 + 2
1, x = 1.

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Syllabus: Limits of functions, continuous functions, uniform continuity, monotone

Rolle's Theorem. Let f be a function which is continuous everywhere on the

Proof. We prove the Rolles theorem geometrically.

f (a) f (b) f (a) f (b) f (a) f (b)

(a) (b) (c)

Geometric Interpretation of Rolls Theorem

Example 2. Verify the Rolles theorem for f (x) = ex sin x in [0, ].

f 0 (c) = 0 = ec sin c + ec cos c = 0 = ec [sin c + cos c] = 0

f 0 (c) = 0 = 3 cos 3c = 0 = cos 3c = 0

f 0 (c) = 0 = 2 sin 2c = 0 = sin 2c = 0

Example 5. Verify the Rolles theorem for f (x) = 2 + (x 1)2/3 in [0, 2] .

Example 6. Verify the Rolles theorem for f (x) = x3 4x.

Mean Value Theorem OR Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem. Let f be

x=a x=c x=b

Geometric Interpretation of Mean Value Theorem

(I) Since f is continuous in [a, b] and x is a polynomial so it is continuous everywhere,

(II) Since f is differentiable in (a, b) and x is a polynomial so it is differentiable ev-

(III) Finally, since was an arbitrary constant, choose such that:

F (a) = F (b) = f (a) + a = f (b) + b

Hence the proof is completes.

f 0 (x) = (x 2)(x 3) + (x 1)(x 3) + (x 1)(x 2) = 3x2 12x + 11.

f (b) f (a) f (4) f (0)

If f (x) = x2 + x + , where , , are constants and 6= 0, then find the value

f (b) f (a) f (b) f (a)

Taylor's Theorem. Suppose that the (n 1)th derivative f (n1) of f is continu-

xa 0 (x a)2 00 (x a)n (n) (x a)n+1 (n+1)

Taylors Series. Suppose Rn 0 as n , then the expression for f (x) in the

xa 0 (x a)2 00 (x a)n (n)

Various forms of Taylors series:

Maclaurins series Put a = 0 in Taylors series obtain:

Expansion of f (x + h) in powers of x Replace x by x + h and a by h in Taylors series

Expansion of f (x + h) in powers of h Replace x, h by h, x respectively, in the previous

Putting these values in (2) we obtain:

y = f (x) = ln sec x = (y)0 = 0

y5 = 2y1 y4 + 2y2 y3 + 4y2 y3 = 2y1 y4 + 6y2 y3

Putting these values in (3) we obtain:

Sol: Here f (x) = esin x . By Maclaurins theorem we know that

y = f (x) = esin x = (y)0 = 1

and so on. Putting these values in (4) we obtain:

Example 13. Expand eax cos(bx) by Maclaurins theorem.

Sol: Here f (x) = eax cos(bx). By Maclaurins theorem we know that

Now differentiating successively and putting x = 0 we obtain:

y = f (x) = eax cos(bx) = (y)0 = 1

and so on. Putting these values in (5) we obtain:

Therefore, (y1 )0 = a . Again differentiating (7) we get:

(1 x2 )y2 2xy1 = 2a2 yy1

Therefore, (y2 )0 a2 (y)0 = 0, i.e., (y2 )0 = a2 . Again differentiating (8) we get:

(1 x2 )y3 3xy2 (1 + a2 )y1 = 0.

Putting a = 1 and sin1 x = we get

Since y = f (x) = ln(1 + sin x) we have (y)0 = 0 .

Therefore, (y1 )0 = 1 . Again differentiating (10) we get:

(1 + sin x)y2 + y1 cos x = sin x. (11)

Therefore, (1 + 0)(y2 )0 + (y1 )0 = 0, i.e., (y2 )0 = 1 . Again differentiating (11) we get:

(1 + sin x)y3 + 2y2 cos x y1 sin x = cos x. (12)

Therefore, (1 + 0)(y3 )0 + 2(y2 )0 0 = 1, i.e., (y3 )0 = 1 . Again differentiating (12) we

(1 + sin x)y4 + 3y3 cos x 3y2 sin x y1 cos x = sin x. (13)

Therefore, (1 + 0)(y4 )0 + 3(y3 )0 0 (y1 )0 = 0, i.e., (y4 )0 = 2 . Again differentiating

Therefore, (1 + 0)(y5 )0 + 4(y4 )0 0 4(y2 )0 + 0 = 1, i.e., (y5 )0 = 5 . Putting these values

Example 16. Expand tan1 x in the ascending powers of x 1.

Sol: By Taylors series we know that

Again differentiating we get: