EEE 309 Communication Theory

Semester: July 2014

D Md
Dr. Md. Farhad
F h d Hossain
H i
Assistant Professor
Department of EEE, BUET

Email: mfarhadhossain@eee.buet.ac.bd
Office: ECE 331, ECE Building
 Part 05

PulseCodeModulation
Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM)
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 Advantages of Digital Communication
Digitalsystemsarelesssensitivetonoiseandsignaldistortion.Forlongtransmissionline,thesignalmay
beregeneratedeffectivelyerrorfreeatdifferentpointsalongthepath.
Withdigitalsystems,itiseasiertointegratedifferentservices,e.g.,videoandtheaccompanying
soundtrack into the same transmission scheme
soundtrack,intothesametransmissionscheme.
Thetransmissionschemecanberelativelyindependentofthesource
Circuitryfordigitalsignalsiseasiertorepeatanddigitalcircuitsarelesssensitivetophysicaleffects
suchasvibrationandtemperature
p
Digitalsignalsaresimplertocharacterizeandtypicallydonothavethesameamplituderangeand
variabilityasanalogsignals.Thismakestheassociatedhardwaredesigneasier.
Variousmediasharingstrategies(knownasmultiplexing)aremoreeasilyimplementedwithdigital
t
transmissionstrategies
i i t t i
Sourcecodingtechniquescanbeusedforremovingredundancyfromdigitaltransmission
Errorcontrolcodingcanbeusedforaddingredundancy,whichcanbeusedtodetectandcorrect
errors at the receiver side
errorsatthereceiverside
Digitalcommunicationsystemscanbemadehighlysecurebyexploitingpowerfulencryptionalgorithms
Digitalcommunicationsystemsareinherentlymoreefficientthananalogcommunicationsystemsin
thetradeoffbetweentransmissionbandwidthandsignaltonoiseratio
Variouschannelcompensationtechniques,suchas,channelestimationandequalization,areeasierto
implement
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 Sampling (1)
Samplingisanoperationthatisbasictodigitalsignalprocessinganddigitalcommunications
Throughtheuseofsamplingprocess,ananalogsignalisconvertedintoacorresponding
q p y p y
sequenceofsamplesthatareusuallyspaceduniformlyintime

Message

Sampling Signal

T f f s
s f nf
s
n

Sampled Signal

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 Sampling (2)
Twotypesofpracticalsampling:
NaturalSampling
Flattopsampling
Fl t t li

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 Sampling (3)
Frequency Domain:

or,

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 Sampling (4)
fs > 2W:

fs = 2W:

fs < 2W:

Aliasing

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 Sampling Theorem
Sampling theorem is a fundamental bridge between continuous signals (analog
domain) and discrete signals (digital domain)
It only applies to a class of mathematical functions whose Fourier transforms are
zero outside of a finite region of frequencies

Nyquist Sampling Theorem / Nyquist-Shanon Sampling Theorem:

A signal whose bandwidth is limited to W Hz can be reconstructed exactly
(without any error) from its samples uniformly taken at a rate fs 2W Hz

fs = Sampling frequency
fs = 2W: Nyquist frequency / Nyquist rate / Minimum sampling frequency

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 Reconstruction Filter
fs = 2W:

Ideal LPF
1/2W 1/2W
characteristic:

(interpolation filter /
interpolation function)

Ts =1/2W

(interpolation formula)

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 Quantization (1)
It is the process of transforming the sample amplitude m(nTS) of a baseband signal at time t = nTS
into a discrete amplitude v(nTS) taken from a finite set of possible levels

Quantizer characteristic:

kth interval:
Here, k = 1, 2, 3, , L
L = Number of representation levels
(Number of intervals)
mk: Decision levels / Decision thresholds
vk: Representation levels / Reconstruction levels
=|vk +1 vk|: Step-size / quantum

Quantizer output equals to vk if the input signal sample m belongs to the interval Ik

v vk if m I k
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 Quantization(2): Two types
Midtreadquantization Midrisequantization

Midtreadquantizer: Midrisequantizer:
Reconstructionvalueisexactlyzero
i l i l Decisionthresholdvalueisexactlyzero
ii h h ld l i l

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 Quantization(3): Two types

Uniformquantization Nonuniformquantization 12
 Quantization Error for Uniform Quantization (1)
Quantizationerror(noise)
q=m v=>Q=M V

IfmeanofMiszeroandthequantizer is
symmetric,thenVisalsoaRVofzeromean
QisalsoaRVvariableofzeromeaninthe
range[ /2,/2]
If issufficientlysmall,Qcanbeassumed
auniformRV withzeromean
fQ(q)
1/
Quantizationnoisepower
/2
2
q f Q q dq
2
Q
2
/20/2q
/ 2
12

P 12 P
12P
Signaltonoseratio(SNR): SNR P =Averagepowerofm(t)
Q2 2
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 Quantization Error for Uniform Quantization (2)
Supposem(t)ofcontinuousamplitudeintherange[mmax,mmax]:
2mmax 2mmax

L 2R
3P 2 R 3P
SNR 2 2 SNRdB 6.02 R 10 log 2
mmax mmax
EachadditionalbitincreasestheSNRby6.02dBand
acorrespondingincreaseinrequiredchannelBW

Specialcase:
m(t)isasinusoidalsignalwithamplitudeequaltoAc
3
SNR 2 2 R SNRdB 6 R 1.8
2

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 Non-Uniform Quantization

SNRofweaksignalsismuchlowerthanthatofstrongsignal
SNR of weak signals is much lower than that of strong signal
InstantaneousSNRisalsolowerforthesmalleramplitudescomparedtothatofthe
largeramplitudes
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 Non-Uniform Quantization
Stepsizeincreasesastheseparationfromtheoriginoftheinputoutputamplitude
characteristicisincreased
First Compression andthenuniformquantization
and then uniform quantization

AchievemoreevenSNRoverthe
dynamicrangeusingfewerbits(e.g.,
8bitsinsteadof13/14bits)

Receiverside:Expansionrequired
Compression+Expansion=Companding

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 Non-Uniform Quantization
Law: UsedinNorthAmerica,Japan

MoreuniformSNRisachievedoveralargerdynamicrange
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 Non-Uniform Quantization
ALaw:UsedinEuropeandmanyothercountries

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 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
In PCM, a message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which is accomplished
by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude

Transmitter

ThreebasicoperationsinaPCMTransmitter:
Sampling
Quantization
Encoding

Transmission
Path

Receiver

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 PCM: Encoding
Each quantized samples is encoded into a code word
Each element in a code word is called code element / symbol

Binary code:
Each symbol is either of two distinct values,
customarily denoted as 0 and 1
Binary symbol withstands a relatively high
level of noise and also easy to regenerate
Each binary code word consists of R bits and
hence, this code can represent 2R distinct
numbers (i.e.,
(i e at best R bit quantizer can be
used)

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 Differential PCM (DPCM)
Thequantizedversionofthepredictionerrorareencodedinsteadofencodingthesamplesoftheoriginalsignal

ThiswillresultinmuchsmallerquantizationintervalsleadingtolessquantizationnoiseandmuchhigherSNR

Predictionerror
enTS mnTS m nTS

Transmitter

eq nTS
m ' nTS m ' nTS m nTS eq nTS

mnTS
Receiver Reconstructionerror
mnTS m ' nTS enTS eq nTS qnTS
=Quantizationerror
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 Delta Modulation (DM) (1)
DMencodesthedifferencebetweenthecurrentsampleandtheprevioussampleusingjustonebit
Correlationbetweensamplesareincreasedbyoversampling(i.e.,ataratemuchhigher,typically4times
higherthantheNyquist rate)
DMinvolvesthegenerationofthestaircaseapproximationoftheoversampledversionmessage
DM involves the generation of the staircase approximation of the oversampled version message

Thedifferencebetweentheinputandtheapproximationisquantizedintoonlytwolevels:
1bitversionofDPCM(i.e.,2levelquantization)requiringlessbandwidththanthatofDPCMandPCM

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 Delta Modulation (DM)(2)
Transmitter

Receiver
eq .

Digitalequivalentofintegration
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 Delta Modulation (DM)(3)
Two types of quantization error:
(1) Slope overload distortion/noise (2) Granular noise

mq(t)

eq(t)

Comments:
(1) For avoiding slope overload distortion: larger is desired

(2) For avoiding granular noise: smaller is desired and

An optimal step size () has to be chosen for minimum overall noise

Example: f
mt Am cos mt | m t |max m Am fs Am max s
Ts m
fs
A
r 2 800
r
m max Voice
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 Line Coding (1)
PCM, DPCM and DM are different strategies for source
encoding, which converts an analog signal into digital form

Once a binary sequence of 1s and 0s is produced, the

sequence is transformed into electrical pulses or
waveforms for transmission over a channel and this is
known as line coding

Multi-level line coding is possible

Variouslinecoding
(binary)methods:

(f) Split-phase
or Manchester
(0meanstransition)
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 Line Coding (2)
Desired properties (i.e., design criteria) for line coding:
Transmission bandwidth: should be as small as possible
Power efficiency: for a given bandwidth and given error probability, transmission power
requirement should be as small as possible
Error detection and correction capability: should be possible to detect and correct errors
Favorable power spectral density (PSD): should have zero PSD at zero (i.e., DC)
frequency, otherwise the ac coupling and the transformers used in communication systems
would block the DC component
Adequate timing information: should carry the timing or clock information which can be used
for synchronization
Transparency: should be possible to transmit a digital signal correctly regardless of the
patterns of 1s
1 s and 0s
0 s (by preventing long string of 0s and 1s)

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