M11A-Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures Ans Systems (B1.1) Rev.00

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for B1.1 certification

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te rty u re ine
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EASA Part-66 Basic Module

do gh o ote in
Module 11A
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
AERODYNAMICS,
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
TURBINE AEROPLANE
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
e x w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
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STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
or nt -A s. l.
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pa ts a
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ou
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without
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the
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prior
te rty u re ine
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do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in written
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
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m h d a e
permission
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
of
Sa n nt
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publisher.
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Rev.00| Pag.2
Al
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in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
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e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
THEORY OF FLIGHT
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.3
TURBINE AEROPLANE THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
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a
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t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The primary flight control surfaces on a
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
fixed wing aircraft include: ailerons,

em o ta co s, t a
w
elevators, and the rudder. The ailerons are
re ed e s e aw en
.
attached to the trailing edge of both wings
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
and when moved, rotate the aircraft
te b e w rig o
around the longitudinal axis. The elevator
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
is attached to the trailing edge of the
m
horizontal stabilizer. When it is moved, it
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
alters aircraft pitch, which is the attitude

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
about the horizontal or lateral axis. The

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
rudder is hinged to the trailing edge of the

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
vertical stabilizer. When the rudder

, d al uth nt on
changes position, the aircraft rotates

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
about the vertical axis

n
pi lec un e
li
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in A
Rev.00| Pag.4
Al
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in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
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primary control surfaces are simply smaller aerodynamic devices.
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
structure is often similar to an all metal wing. This is appropriate because the
only in size, shape, and methods of attachment. On aluminum light aircraft, their
Primary control surfaces are usually similar in construction to one another and vary
Rev.00| Pag.5
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
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a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Primary control surfaces constructed from
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
composite materials are also commonly used.
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
These are found on many heavy and high
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
performance aircraft, as well as gliders,
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
homebuilt, and light sport aircraft. The weight

r w d s te co in
and strength advantages over traditional
io de es on y in
construction can be significant. A wide variety of
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
materials and construction techniques are

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
employed.
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Performed to manufacturers instructions,

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
balancing usually consists of assuring that the

co tel ny Th form
center of gravity of a particular device is at or

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forward of the hinge point. Failure to properly

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balance a control surface could lead to

catastrophic failure.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.6
Al
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co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
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TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
AILERONS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
OPERATION AND EFFECT OF ROLL CONTROL DEVICES
pa ts a
of the wings surface area.
rt, ma gl
trailing edge of each of the
w y
wings. They are built into the
ith be
of the ailerons in flight causes
Ailerons are the primary flight
aircraft about the longitudinal

control surfaces that move the
the aircraft to roll. Ailerons are
ou
wing and are calculated as part
t
axis. In other words, movement
usually located on the outboard
Rev.00| Pag.7
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
Al
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in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
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TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
AILERONS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
increased. Conversely, on the other wing, the raised aileron decreases lift.
ou
t
the movement of the aircraft around the longitudinal axis. On the wing on
cockpit or a rotation of the control yoke. When the aileron on one wing
Ailerons are controlled by a side to side motion of the control stick in the
which the aileron trailing edge moves downward, camber is increased and lift is
deflects down, the aileron on the opposite wing deflects upward. This amplifies
Rev.00| Pag.8
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
employed.
movement
Al
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co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
and
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
roll
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
variety of ways depending on
are
The pilots request for aileron
transmitted from the cockpit to
combination of these can be

cables and pulleys, push pull
the actual control surface in a
the aircraft. A system of control
tubes, hydraulics, electric, or a

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
AILERONS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.9
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
AILERONS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
Simple, light aircraft usually do not have hydraulic or electric fly by wire aileron
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
control. These are found on heavy and high performance aircraft. Large aircraft and
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
some high performance aircraft may also have a second set of ailerons located

r w d s te co in
inboard on the trailing edge of the wings.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
These are part of a complex system of primary and secondary control surfaces used
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
to provide lateral control and stability in flight.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
-At low speeds, the ailerons may be augmented by the use of flaps and spoilers.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
-At high speeds, only inboard aileron deflection is required to roll the aircraft while
n
pi lec un e
li
the other control surfaces are locked out or remain stationary.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.10
Al
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in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
AILERONS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.11
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
SPOILERS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
A spoiler is a device found on the upper surface of
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
many heavy and high performance aircraft. It is stowed
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
flush to the wings upper surface. When deployed, it
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
raises up into the airstream and disrupts the laminar
te b e w rig o
airflow of the wing, thus reducing lift.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Spoilers are made with similar construction materials
m
and techniques as the other flight control surfaces on
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
the aircraft. Often, they are honeycomb core flat

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
panels. At low speeds, spoilers are rigged to operate

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
when the ailerons operate to assist with the lateral

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
movement and stability of the aircraft. On the wing

ed tu a co ati
where the aileron is moved up, the spoilers also raise

co tel ny Th form
thus amplifying the reduction of lift on that wing.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.12
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
OPERATION AND EFFECT OF PITCH CONTROL
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
DEVICES
ex w o io n o
of
ELEVATORS
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The elevator is the primary flight control surface that moves the aircraft around the
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
horizontal or lateral axis. This causes the nose of the aircraft to pitch up or down. The
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
elevator is hinged to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer and typically spans
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
most or all of its width. It is controlled in the cockpit by pushing or pulling the control
te b e w rig o
yoke forward or aft.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
Light aircraft use a system of control cables and pulleys or push pull tubes to transfer
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
cockpit inputs to the movement of the elevator.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
High performance and large aircraft typically employ more complex systems.
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
Hydraulic power is commonly used to move the elevator on these aircraft. On aircraft
n
equipped with fly by wire controls, a combination of electrical and hydraulic power is
pi lec un e
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used.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.13
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
DEVICES

STABILATORS
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
of the aircraft.
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
a
pa ts
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
horizontal axis to affect the pitch
also be rotated about the
horizontal stabilizer that can
the action of both the horizontal
Basically, a stabilator is a
section, called a stabilator, is a
A movable horizontal tail
control surface that combines
stabilizer and the elevator.
Rev.00| Pag.14
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
DEVICES
ex w o io n o
of
VARIABLE INCIDENCE STABILIZERS
h d a e
ro in t re m op
A variable incidence stabilizer refers to any horizontal stabilizer in which the angle of
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
incidence of the horizontal stabilizer is adjustable. Thus, a stabilator is a variable
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
incidence horizontal stabilizer. Various mechanisms and operating rigging are available.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Most large aircraft use a motorized jackscrew to alter the position of the stabilizer often
te b e w rig o
energized by the trim tab switch on the control yoke.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
The reason for a stabilator or any horizontal stabilizer variable incidence device is to
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
minimize drag when trimming the aircraft in flight.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Deflection of the elevator via the use of a trim tab causes drag and requires a relatively
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
large elevator on large aircraft to achieve all desired trim settings.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
By varying the angle of the horizontal stabilizer to adjust pitch, less drag is created and
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
elevator size and deflection may be reduced.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.15
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
DEVICES

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
VARIABLE INCIDENCE STABILIZERS
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
a
pa ts
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.16
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
DEVICES
CANARDS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
rotating downward.
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
a
pa ts
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
design which exerts downward force
A canard utilizes the concept of two
on the tail to prevent the nose from

design. The difference is that the
an airfoil similar to the horizontal
the nose up, as opposed to the aft tail

surface on a conventional aft tail
horizontal stabilizer located in front of
lifting surfaces. It functions as a
canard actually creates lift and holds

the main wings. In effect, the canard is
Rev.00| Pag.17
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
DEVICES
ex w o io n o
of
RUDDERS
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
The rudder is the primary control surface that causes an aircraft to yaw or move
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
about the vertical axis. This provides directional control and thus points the nose of
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the aircraft in the direction desired.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
Most aircraft have a single rudder hinged to the trailing edge of the vertical
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
stabilizer. It is controlled by a pair of foot operated rudder pedals in the cockpit.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
When the right pedal is pushed forward, it deflects the rudder to the right which
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
moves the nose of the aircraft to the right.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
The left pedal is rigged to simultaneously move aft. When the left pedal is pushed
n
pi lec un e
li
forward, the nose of the aircraft moves to the left.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.18
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
SECONDARY OR AUXILIARY CONTROL SURFACES
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
locations, and functions of those for most large aircraft are listed in the below figure
There are several secondary or auxiliary flight control surfaces. Their names,
Rev.00| Pag.19
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
OPERATION AND EFFECT OF TABS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
TRIM TABS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The force of the air against a control surface during the high speed of flight can make
ex w o io n o
of
it difficult to move and hold that control surface in the deflected position. A control
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
surface might also be too sensitive for similar reasons. Several different tabs are used
,
Sa n nt
ol
to aid with these types of problems. The table in the below figure summarizes the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
various tabs and their uses. While in flight, it is desirable for the pilot to be able to
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
take his or her hands and feet off of the controls and have the aircraft maintain its
te b e w rig o
flight condition.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.20
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
BALANCE TABS
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
The
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
over it
gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
due to its surface area and
Often, it is difficult to move
a primary control surface
exactly what occurs with
experience a force moving
cause the control surface to
trim tab in one direction to
the speed of the air rushing

phenomenon of moving a
aerodynamic
the use of balance tabs.

in the opposite direction is
Rev.00| Pag.21
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
BALANCE TABS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
A servo tab is similar to a balance tab in
em o ta co s, t a
w
location and effect, but it is designed to
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
operate the primary flight control
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
surface, not just reduce the force
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
needed to do so. It is usually used as a
m
means to back up the primary control
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
of the flight control surfaces. On heavy

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
aircraft, large control surfaces require

bu e ed a ta
too much force to be moved manually

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
and are usually deflected out of the

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
neutral position by hydraulic actuators.

co tel ny Th form
These power control units are signaled

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
via a system of hydraulic valves

connected to the yoke and rudder
in A
pedals.
Rev.00| Pag.22
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ANTI-SERVO/ANTI-BALANCE TABS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Anti-servo tabs, as the name suggests, are like servo tabs but move in the same
ex w o io n o
f
direction as the primary control surface. On some aircraft, especially those with a
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
movable horizontal stabilizer, the input to the control surface can be too sensitive.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
An Anti-servo tab tied through the control linkage creates an aerodynamic force that
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
increases the effort needed to move the control surface. This makes flying the
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
aircraft more stable for the pilot. The following figure shows an Anti-servo tab in the
te b e w rig o
near neutral position. Deflected in the same direction as the desired stabilator
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
movement, it increases the required control surface input. Anti servo tabs are also
m
known as anti-balance tabs.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.23
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
SPRING TABS
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
remainder of its travel.
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
control surface through the
beyond a certain point. When
control linkage aids in moving the

reached, a spring in line of the
made to move the control surface
excessive force to move only in the
A control surface may require
does not activate until an effort is

This is essentially a servo tab that
the case, a spring tab can be used.
final stages of travel. When this is
Rev.00| Pag.24
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE PANELS
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The following figure shows another way of assisting the movement of an aileron on a
ex w o io n o
of
large aircraft. It is called an aileron balance panel. Not visible when approaching the
h d a e
ro in t re m op
aircraft, it is positioned in the linkage that hinges the aileron to the wing. Balance
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
panels have been constructed typically of aluminum skin covered frame assemblies or
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
aluminum honeycomb structures. The trailing edge of the wing just forward of the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
leading edge of the aileron is sealed to allow controlled airflow in and out of the hinge
te b e w rig o
area where the balance panel is located.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.25
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
MASS BALANCE
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Flutter is an undesirable oscillation of an aircraft control surface which can have
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
catastrophic effect on controllability of the aircraft.
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
The center of lift on a control surface should be aft of the control surface center of
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
gravity to prevent control surface flutter.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Often, the addition of weight to the forward surface of an aileron, for example, is
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
sufficient to move the CG of the airfoil forward and prevent flutter. Some aircraft
do gh o ote in
designs, however, place the weight on a lever arm that extends forward of the control
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
surface.
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
This is known as a mass balance. Mass balances help prevent flutter and also reduce the
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
required control stick pressure used to move a control surface.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.26
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
HIGH LIFT DEVICES
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FLAPS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Flaps are one such high lift device found on most aircraft. They are usually inboard on
ex w o io n o
f
the wings trailing edges adjacent to the fuselage. Leading edge flaps are also
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
common. They extend forward and down from the inboard wing leading edge. The
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
flaps are lowered to increase the camber of the wings and provide greater lift and
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
control at slow speeds. They enable landing at slower speeds and shorten the
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
amount of runway required for takeoff and landing. The amount that the flaps extend
te b e w rig o
and the angle they form with the wing can be selected from the cockpit. Typically,
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
flaps can extend up to 4550. The below figure shows various aircraft with flaps in
m
the extended position.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.27
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
provides greater lift.

, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
lowered. This increases wing camber and

hinged so that the trailing edge can be
trailing edge of the flap essentially the
lower surfaces of the flap, making the
over the wing continues over the upper and
form the trailing edge of the wing when the
trailing edge of the wing. The plain flap is

flap is in the retracted position. The airflow
There are various kinds of flaps. Plain flaps
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
FLAPS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
HIGH LIFT DEVICES
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.28
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
lift.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
created by the lowered split flap, increasing
trailing edge of the wing. Airflow over the
top of the wing remains the same. Airflow
flap trailing edge lowers away from the
A split flap is normally housed under the
braced flat metal plate hinged at several

trailing edge of the wing. It is usually just a
under the wing now follows the camber

surface of the wing extends to the trailing
places along its leading edge. The upper
edge of the flap. When deployed, the split
em o ta co s, t a
FLAPS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
HIGH LIFT DEVICES
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.29
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
drive and flap tracks.

, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
FLAPS
Fowler flaps not only lower the trailing edge

of the wing when deployed but also slide aft,
This creates more lift via the increased
retracts up under the wing trailing edge

similar to a split flap. The sliding motion of a
effectively increasing the area of the wing.
fowler flap can be accomplished with a worm

surface area, as well as the wing camber.
When stowed, the fowler flap typically
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
HIGH LIFT DEVICES
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.30
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
delta wing or flying wing aircraft.

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
ELEVONS AND RUDDERVATORS
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
are typically used on aircraft that have no true separate empennage such as a
Elevons perform the combined functions of the ailerons and the elevator. They
Rev.00| Pag.31
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n
action of the rudder and elevator.

e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
adjustment. When moved in opposite
They are installed on the trailing edge
may also move differentially in the

direction, the elevons cause a pitch
of the wing. When moved in the same
same direction causing adjustments to
device. A ruddervator combines the

mechanical or electronic mixing
activated elevon movement through a
directions, the aircraft rolls. Elevons
roll and pitch. The control yoke or stick

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
ELEVONS AND RUDDERVATORS
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.32
THEORY OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROLS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
The boundary layer is a very thin layer of air lying over the surface of the wing and, for
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
that matter, all other surfaces of the aeroplane. Because air has viscosity, this layer of air
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
tends to adhere to the wing. As the wing moves forward through the air, the boundary
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
layer at first flows smoothly over the streamlined shape of the airfoil. This flow is called
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
the laminar layer. As the boundary layer approaches the center of the wing, it begins to
te b e w rig o
lose speed due to skin friction and it becomes thicker and turbulent. Here it is called the
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
turbulent layer.
m
The point at which the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent is called the
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
transition point. Where the boundary layer becomes turbulent, drag due to skin friction
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
is relatively high. As speed increases, the transition point tends to move forward. As the
bu e ed a ta
angle of attack increases, the transition point also tends to move forward. With higher
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
angles of attack and further thickening of the boundary layer, the turbulence becomes
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
so great the air breaks away from the surface of the wing. At this point, the lift of the
co tel ny Th form
wing is destroyed and a condition known as a stall has occurred.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
In Figure 1-32, view A shows a normal angle of attack and the airflow staying in contact
with the wing. View B shows an extreme angle of attack and the airflow separating and
in A
becoming turbulent on the top of the wing. In view B, the wing is in a stall.
Rev.00| Pag.33
BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROLS INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
As speed increases, the transition point tends to move forward. As the angle of
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
attack increases, the transition point also tends to move forward. With higher
ex w o io n o
angles of attack and further thickening of the boundary layer, the turbulence
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
becomes so great the air breaks away from the surface of the wing. At this point,
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the lift of the wing is destroyed and a condition known as a stall has occurred.

em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
In the below figure , view A shows a normal angle of attack and the airflow staying
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
in contact with the wing. View B shows an extreme angle of attack and the airflow
r w d s te co in
separating and becoming turbulent on the top of the wing. In view B, the wing is in
io de es on y in
m
a stall.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.34
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
GENERAL CONCEPTS
w y
ith be
ou
t
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
Rev.00| Pag.35
TURBINE AEROPLANE AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
STRUCTURAL STRENGTH
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Requirements for airworthiness are set by EASA as well as the certifying authority in
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
the country of manufacture if it is a non EASA country. The goal is to only allow
,
Sa n nt
ol
aircraft meeting established minimum standards to fly in an attempt to safeguard
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
aircrews and the general public.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
EASA Part 25, also known as Certification Standards 25 (CS25), states the
te b e w rig o
requirement for structural airworthiness for aircraft with maximum total weight
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
above 5 700 kg. Aircraft not meeting these standards cannot obtain a certificate of
m
e s
airworthiness. The standards are far reaching and specific.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Aircraft structure is divided into three categories for the purposes of assessing
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
damage and the application of repair protocol that are suitable for the structure
, d al uth nt on
under consideration. Manufacturer manuals designate which category a structure

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
falls under and the technician is required to repair and maintain that structure in
n
accordance with rules specified for the category under which it falls. The three
pi lec un e
li
Al
categories for structure are: primary, secondary and tertiary.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.36
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
PRIMARY STRUCTURE
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Primary structure is any portion of the aircraft structure that, if it fails, on the ground
ex w o io n o
of
or in flight, would likely cause any of the following:
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
A loss of control of the aircraft.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
Catastrophic structural collapse.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Injury to occupants.
te b e w rig o
Power unit failure.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Unintentional operation.
m
e s
Inability to operate a service.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Secondary structure is all non primary structure portions of the aircraft which have
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
integral structural importance and strength exceeding design requirements. These

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
structures weakening without risk of failure such as those described for primary
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
structure. Prominent examples of secondary structure are wing ribs, fuselage stringers
n
and specified sections of the aircraft skin

pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.37
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Tertiary structure is the remaining structure. Tertiary structures are lightly stressed
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
structures that are fitted to the aircraft for various reasons. Fairings, fillets, various

em o ta co s, t a
w
support brackets, etc. are examples of tertiary structure.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
DAMAGE TOLERANT CONCEPTS

r w d s te co in
FAIL SAFE
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Fail safe means the structure has been evaluated, usually by the manufacturer, to assure
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
that catastrophic failure is not probable after fatigue failure or obvious partial failure of a
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
single, principal structural element. It is designed so that the aircraft may continue to
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
operate safely until the defect is detected in a scheduled maintenance check.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
Manufacturer testing and fatigue analysis is used when developing fail safe structural
co tel ny Th form
elements. The elements are considered damage tolerant

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.38
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
DAMAGE TOLERANT CONCEPTS SAFE LIFE
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Safe life structural elements are those which have a very low risk of unacceptable
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
degradation or failure for a stated amount of time. The fatigue capability of the
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
structure is learned through testing. The stresses applied while in service are

em o ta co s, t a
w
designed to be significantly lower.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
Also, the calculated time in service before failure is greatly reduced so that failure of
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the structure before its safe life is highly unlikely. The affects of corrosion, wear and
r w d s te co in
fatigue are considered when operating under the safe life design principle.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
DAMAGE TOLLERANCE
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
Damage tolerance means that the structure has been evaluated to ensure that
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
should serious fatigue, corrosion, or accidental damage occur within the operational
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
life of the aeroplane, the remaining structure can withstand reasonable loads
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
without failure or excessive structural deformation until the damage is detected.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.39
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
STATION IDENTIFICATION AND ZONAL LOCATION SYSTEMS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
STATION NUMBERING
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Most manufacturers use some system of station marking.
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
To locate structures to the right or left of the center line of an aircraft, a similar
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
method is employed. Many manufacturers consider the center line of the aircraft to
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
be a zero station from which measurements can be taken to the right or left to locate
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
an airframe member. This is often used on the horizontal stabilizer and wings. The

r w d s te co in
applicable manufacturers numbering system and abbreviated designations or
io de es on y in
symbols should always be reviewed before attempting to locate a structural member.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
They are not always the same. The following list includes location designations
do gh o ote in
typical of those used by many manufacturers.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.40
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
STATION NUMBERING
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Fuselage stations (Fus. Sta. or FS) are numbered in inches from a reference or
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
zero point known as the reference datum. The reference datum is an imaginary
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
vertical plane at or near the nose of the aircraft from which all fore and aft

em o ta co s, t a
w
distances are measured. The distance to a given point is measured in inches
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
parallel to a center line extending through the aircraft from the nose through
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the center of the tail cone. Some manufacturers may call the fuselage station a

r w d s te co in
body station, abbreviated BS.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.41
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
STATION NUMBERING
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
the aircraft from which measurements left or right can be made.
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Buttock line or butt line (BL) is a vertical reference plane down the center of
Rev.00| Pag.42
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
referenced location.
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
STATION NUMBERING
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Water line (WL) is the measurement of height in inches perpendicular from a
horizontal plane usually located at the ground, cabin floor, or some other easily
Rev.00| Pag.43
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
locating a point on a particular aircraft.

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
STATION NUMBERING
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
In addition to the location stations listed above, other measurements are used,
manufacturers terminology and station location system should be consulted before

vertical stabilizer stations (VSS) or powerplant stations (PPS). In every case, the
especially on large aircraft. Thus, there may be horizontal stabilizer stations (HSS),
Rev.00| Pag.44
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
the component is a part.
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
o
ZONAL IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
Sa n nt
w , ig t-A
gl h no N n r T f
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.45
number are reserved and indexed to indicate the location and type of system of which
further divided into sequentially numbered zones and sub zones. The digits of the zone
aircraft. This involves dividing the aircraft into zones. Large areas or major zones are
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
Another method is used to facilitate the location of aircraft components on air transport
INTRODUCTION

Torsion
Bending
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
STRUCTURAL STRESSES
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
There are five major stresses to which all aircraft are subjected:
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Shear
Compression
Tension
Rev.00| Pag.46
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
HOOP STRESS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Hoop stress is the stress on the airframe structural components caused by pressurization.
ex w o io n o
All transport category aircraft are pressurized. A circumferential load is experience in hoop
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
stress. The structural fuselage framework resists this load with the aid of the stressed skin.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Note that axial loads in the fuselage are also partial resisted by the stressed skin

em o ta co s, t a
w
construction as well as the longitudinal structural members such as longhorns and
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
stringers.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
METAL FATIGUE
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Metal fatigue is experienced by a component or structural member when a load is

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
repeatedly applied and released or applied and reversed. This cycling weakens the
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
material over time even though the load applied may be well below that which causes
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
damage in a single application.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
All materials have an elastic limit. If applied loads do not exceed this limit, the material
co tel ny Th form
should be unaffected by the load and returns to its original state when the load is
n
pi lec un e
li
removed.
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.47
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
LIGHTENING STRIKE PROTECTION AND BONDING
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Precautions are taken to ensure safe and continuous operation of an aircraft should it
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
happen to be struck by lightening. A single lightening strike may contain 100 000
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
amperes of current. It must not be allowed to build up or arc from one point on the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
structure to another.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Aircraft use the predominantly aluminum structure as a ground path for operation of

r w d s te co in
electrical devices. Most components are therefore mounted to structure or attached
io de es on y in
to the structure with bonding straps. This ensures that all components are at the
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
same potential level electrically and that equal, low resistance paths for current flow
do gh o ote in
exist.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.48
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
LIGHTENING STRIKE PROTECTION AND BONDING
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.49
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
FUSELAGE
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed wing aircraft. It
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
provides space for cargo, controls, accessories, passengers, and other

em o ta co s, t a
w
equipment. In single engine aircraft, the fuselage houses the powerplant. In
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
multi engine aircraft, the engines may be either in the fuselage, attached to
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure. There are two general

r w d s te co in
types of fuselage construction: truss and monocoque.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
TRUSS TYPE
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, such as beams, struts,

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
and bars to resist deformation by applied loads. The truss framed fuselage
, d al uth nt on
is generally covered with fabric. The truss type fuselage frame is usually
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
constructed of steel tubing welded together in such a manner that all

n
pi lec un e
li
members of the truss can carry both tension and compression loads.
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.50
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
FUSELAGE

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
into one piece, with cross bracing achieved by using solid rods or tubes.
t
frames may be constructed of aluminum alloy and may be riveted or bolted
In some aircraft, principally the light, single engine models, truss fuselage
Rev.00| Pag.51
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
1.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
type construction.
2. Semimonocoque
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
and may be divided into two classes:
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
MONOCOQUE TYPE
STRESSED SKIN FUSELAGE
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the strength of the
skin or covering to carry the primary loads. The design is called stressed skin
classes, but most modern aircraft are considered to be of semimonocoque

Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to either of the two
Monocoque
Rev.00| Pag.52
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
STRESSED SKIN FUSELAGE
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
MONOCOQUE TYPE
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give
ex w o io n o
of
shape to the fuselage. The heaviest of these structural members, bulkheads, are partition
h d a e
ro in t re m op
type walls that typically span the entire fuselage diameter often with an opening for
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
access through the partition. They are located at intervals to carry concentrated loads and
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
at points where fittings are used to attach other units such as wings, powerplants, and
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
stabilizers. Since no other bracing members are present, the skin must carry the primary
te b e w rig o
stresses and keep the fuselage rigid. Thus, the biggest problem involved in monocoque
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within allowable
m
e s
limits.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.53
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SEMIMONOCOQUE TYPE
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
together prevent tension and compression from bending the fuselage.
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
alloy extrusions or formed aluminum. Stringers have some rigidity but are chiefly
They come in a variety of shapes and are usually made from single piece aluminum
members are typically more numerous and lighter in weight than the longerons.
used for giving shape and for attachment of the skin. Stringers and longerons
Stringers are also used in the semimonocoque fuselage. These longitudinal
Rev.00| Pag.54
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SEMIMONOCOQUE TYPE
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Other bracing between the longerons and stringers can also be used. Often
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
referred to as web members, these additional support pieces may be installed
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
vertically or diagonally. It must be noted that manufacturers use different
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
nomenclature to describe structural members. For example, there is often little
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
difference between some rings, frames, and formers.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The semimonocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of alloys of aluminum and
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
magnesium, although steel and titanium are sometimes found in areas of high
do gh o ote in
temperatures. Individually, no one of the aforementioned components is strong

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
enough to carry the loads imposed during flight and landing. But, when combined,
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
those components form a strong, rigid framework. This is accomplished with

, d al uth nt on
gussets, rivets, nuts and bolts, screws, and even friction stir welding. A gusset is a
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
type of connection bracket that adds strength.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.55
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SEMIMONOCOQUE TYPE
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.56
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
BEAMS FLOOR STRUCTURES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
In addition to the structural members already mentioned, additional beams,
of
h d a e
floor structural members and various other reinforcement members are also
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
used to construct an aircraft. A beam may be installed laterally or
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
longitudinally. Beams typically support the floor of the flight deck and the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
passenger compartment. They are situated to provide secure attachment of
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the floor panels and also the seats tracks into which the passenger seats are

r w d s te co in
secured. The floor itself is typically made up of numerous honeycomb
io de es on y in
constructed panels that are screwed to the floor support structure. Flight
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
deck floor panels may be constructed from sheet metal.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
STRUTS AND TIES

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
Struts and ties are also used in aircraft structure. A strut is a bar or rod
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
shaped reinforcement designed to resist compression loads. A tie is a rod or

n
pi lec un e
li
beam designed to take a tensile load. Both are used as needed to reinforce
Al
the aircraft structure throughout the fuselage to carry the loads

experienced.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.57
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
WING, EMPENNAGE AND ENGINE ATTACHMENT
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.58
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Engine attachments vary widely on aircraft depending on where the engines are
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
located and the size and design of the aircraft and engine. A typical arrangement found
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
on transport aircraft is to extend support structure forward and down from the wing
re ed e s e aw en
.
spars. The structure is called a pylon.The below figure is a rough cutaway drawing of a
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
turbofan engine pylon. It is built to be very strong to support the engine. Attached to
te b e w rig o
the pylon structure are engine mounts to which the engine is bolted or visa versa.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.59
in figure
Al
supporting
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
stainless steel, and are

typically located as illustrated
engine mounts are made of
engine to the pylon and
the loads imposed by the
turbofan engines, for example,
perform the basic functions of
The engine mounts on most
aircraft structure. Most turbine

the engine and transmitting
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.60
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
mounting
structure.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
the engine and the pylon

the engine and a single
systems use two mounts to
Some engine mounting
mount at the rear end. The

support the forward end of
depends on the position of

arrangement
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.61
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
STRUCTURE ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Bolts are used in many locations on aluminum aircraft when fastening large structural
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
members and when attaching both fixed and moveable components. Special bolts
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
such as Hi-loks, Jo-bolts and lock-bolts are common as are clevis bolts where hi shear

em o ta co s, t a
w
loads are present.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Close tolerance bolts are used where a tight drive fit is required.
r w d s te co in
Special fasteners called blind fasteners are used in areas where access to only one
io de es on y in
m
side of an assembly is possible.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
A variety of blind fasteners are used including several classified as rivets. Structural
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
sections and components of the aeroplane that are made from composite material
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
may be assembled and attached in a variety of ways. Sleeves and fitting incorporated
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
during construction of a panel, for example, facilitate the use of bolts.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.62
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
METHODS OF SURFACE PROTECTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
The manufacturers maintenance manual details the surface protection compounds that
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
must be applied by the technician for all of the various areas of the aircraft. Again, ATA

em o ta co s, t a
w
Chapter 51 in the maintenance manual and the SRM should be consulted. Different areas
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
on the aircraft may be prone to different contaminants and the recommended
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
treatments are designed accordingly. Do not assume that a product is suitable for

r w d s te co in
treatment of an area of the aircraft structure without consulting the manufacturers data.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.63
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ANODIZING
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Manufacturers use a variety of methods of surface protection on structural metals

em o ta co s, t a
w
and hardware. One of the most common for aluminum based alloys is anodizing.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
Anodizing is an electrolytic treatment that coats the metal with a hard, waterproof
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
and airtight, oxide film. Anodizing usually contains a dye. Various colors are used. This

r w d s te co in
permits easy identification that a part has be anodized. The oxide film acts as an
io de es on y in
m
isolator. When attaching a bonding lead, the film must carefully be removed to ensure
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
electrical conductivity.
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
Anodizing provides an excellent base for many finishes as well as for bonding
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
adhesives. Acrylic lacquers, and polyurethane paints adhere well to anodized parts
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
and provide good resistance to chemical attack and wear.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.64
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
CHROMATING
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
An alternative to anodizing used for surface protection on magnesium and zinc alloy
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
parts is chromate. When chromated, parts are generally immersed in a potassium

em o ta co s, t a
w
bichromate solution. The chromate coating protects the surface from corrosive elements
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
and has a yellowish appearance on magnesium alloys. Products are available to obtain a
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
chromate coating on a part in the field. Alocrom 1200 is one such product.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
CLADDING
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Cladding a material with another, non corrosive material is a popular means of material
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
surface protection. This is done as the raw material is formed into the product material.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
Sheet aluminum, for example, may be clad to protect the corrosive copper or zinc
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
aluminum alloy from which many aluminums products are made. Alclad is a process of
ed tu a co ati
cladding aluminum in which a pure aluminum skin is rolled onto the face of an alloy
co tel ny Th form
aluminum sheet. Pure aluminum forms a stable aluminum oxide surface when exposed to
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
air that protects the pure aluminum itself and the material that has been clad.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.65
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
PAINTING
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
Many aircraft structural elements and parts are painted to protect them from
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
corrosion. The paint acts as a barrier so that the agents of corrosion cannot reach
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the material being protected. To be effective, paint must be applied to a clean dry

r w d s te co in
surface. It must be compatible with the material composition so that a good bond is
io de es on y in
m
formed and it adheres when it is applied. Material surface treatments such as paint
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
primer and alodine are used before painting because they bond strongly to the base
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
material as well as to the paint.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.66
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
EXTERIOR AIRCRAFT CLEANING
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Aircraft are generally washed outside in an area with adequate and environmentally

em o ta co s, t a
w
responsible drainage. Washing with cleaning agents should not be performed in high
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
temperatures where the agent may dry before being rinsed off. In certain locations, this
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
may relegate washing to inside of a hangar.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
Use the ratio of agent to water that is recommended. Use of the wrong agent may cause
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
the agent to attack materials. Hydrogen embrittlement occurs when certain agents soak
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
into an aircraft metal. Minute cracks form and stress corrosion develops.
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Engine and wheel well areas may require a special washing technique or cleaning agents
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
due to dirt, oil, grease and exhaust debris buildup. Again, follow manufacturers
co tel ny Th form
instructions. Be aware that some cleaning procedures are followed by greasing various
n
pi lec un e
li
locations that may have had grease washed out during the cleaning process.
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.67
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ALIGNMENT AND SYMMETRY
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The position or angle of the main structural
ex w o io n o
of
components is related to a longitudinal datum line
h d a e
ro in t re m op
parallel to the aircraft center line and a lateral
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
datum line parallel to a line joining the wing tips.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
Before checking the position or angle of the main
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
components, the aircraft must be jacked and
te b e w rig o
leveled.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Small aircraft usually have fixed pegs or blocks
m
e s
attached to the fuselage parallel to or coincident
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
with the datum lines. A spirit level and a straight

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
edge are rested across the pegs or blocks to check

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
the level of the aircraft. This method of checking

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
aircraft level also applies to many of the larger

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
types of aircraft. However, the grid method is

n
sometimes used on large aircraft. The grid plate is a

pi lec un e
li
Al
permanent fixture installed on the aircraft floor or

supporting structure.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.68
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
ALIGNMENT AND SYMMETRY
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
There are several methods for checking structural alignment and rigging angles. Special
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
rigging boards that incorporate, or on which can be placed, a special instrument (spirit
of
h d a e
level or inclinometer) for determining the angle are used on some aircraft. On a number
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
of aircraft, the alignment is checked using a transit and plumb bobs or a theodolite and
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
sighting rods. The particular equipment to use is usually specified in the manufacturers
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
maintenance manual.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
When checking alignment, a suitable sequence should be developed and followed to be

r w d s te co in
certain that the checks are made at all the positions specified. The alignment checks
io de es on y in
specified usually include: pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
Wing dihedral angle

te rty u re ine
Wing incidence angle

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Verticality of the fin

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
Engine alignment
co tel ny Th form
A symmetry check
n
pi lec un e
li
Horizontal stabilizer incidence

Al
Horizontal stabilizer dihedral

in A
Rev.00| Pag.69
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CHECKING DIHEDRAL
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
The dihedral angle should be checked in the specified positions using the special boards
h d a e
ro in t re m op
provided by the aircraft manufacturer. If no such boards are available, a straight edge and
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
a inclinometer can be used. The methods for checking dihedral are shown the below
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
figure
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
It is important that the dihedral be checked at the positions specified by the

n
pi lec un e
manufacturer. Certain portions of the wings or horizontal stabilizer may sometimes

li
Al
be horizontal or, on rare occasions, anhedral angles may be present.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.70
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
CHECKING INCIDENCE
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Incidence is usually checked in at least two specified positions on the surface of the wing
ex w o io n o
of
to ensure that the wing is free from twist. A variety of incidence boards are used to check
h d a e
ro in t re m op
the incidence angle. Some have stops at the forward edge, which must be placed in
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
contact with the leading edge of the wing. Others are equipped with location pegs which
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
fit into some specified part of the structure. The purpose in either case is to ensure that
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
the board is fitted in exactly the position intended. In most instances, the boards are kept
te b e w rig o
clear of the wing contour by short extensions attached to the board.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.71
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CHECKING FIN VERTICALITY
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
After the rigging of the horizontal stabilizer has been checked, the verticality of the
h d a e
ro in t re m op
vertical stabilizer relative to the lateral datum can be checked. The measurements are
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
taken from a given point on either side of the top of the fin to a given point on the left
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
and right horizontal stabilizers. The measurements should be similar within prescribed
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
limits. When it is necessary to check the alignment of the rudder hinges, remove the
te b e w rig o
rudder and pass a plumb bob line through the rudder hinge attachment holes.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The line should pass centrally

do gh o ote in
through all the holes. It should

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
be noted that some aircraft have

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the leading edge of the vertical

, d al uth nt on
fin offset to the longitudinal

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
center line to counteract engine

n
pi lec un e
torque.
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.72
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
SYMMETRY CHECK
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The precise figures, tolerances, and
ex w o io n o
checkpoints for a particular aircraft are found
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
in the applicable service or maintenance
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
manual. On small aircraft, the measurements

em o ta co s, t a
w
between points are usually taken using a steel
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
tape. When measuring long distances, it is
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
suggested that a spring scale be used with the
r w d s te co in
tape to obtain equal tension. A five pound pull
io de es on y in
m
is usually sufficient.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
On large aircraft, the positions at which the

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
dimensions are to be taken are usually chalked

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
on the floor. This is done by suspending a

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
plumb bob from the checkpoints and marking

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
the floor immediately under the point of each

co tel ny Th form
plumb bob. The measurements are then taken

n
pi lec un e
li
between the centers of each marking.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.73
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
AEROPLANES
gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
Rev.00| Pag.74
TURBINE AEROPLANE AIRFRAME STRUCTURES AEROPLANES
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
FUSELAGE
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
PRESSURIZATION SEALING
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The fuselage contains some areas that are pressurized during flight. These include
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the flight deck and passenger compartments as well as the baggage compartments.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
Pressure bulkheads are used to enclosed the pressurized areas at the fore and aft
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
ends of the pressurized areas.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The airframe structure in pressurized areas must be sealed to prevent the flow of
m
gases and liquids through the numerous small gaps and cracks that exist. This is
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
done with specified sealing compounds and through the use of weatherstripping
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
type seals.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Typically, the area below the floor on a commercial passenger aircraft is

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
unpressurized with the exception of the baggage compartments. This requires that
co tel ny Th form
the cabin floor be sealed as well as the wall structure and top of the fuselage
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
circumference.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.75
during
being joined.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
assembly
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co by
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
manufacturer. Many fasteners are
the
Sealing of structure is done
flows to fill the gaps around the
Sealant may also be applied

fastener and fastener head.
are coated with wet sealant that
installed "wet" which means they
between structural members

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
PRESSURIZATION SEALING
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.76
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES AEROPLANES
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ATTACHMENTS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
Attached to the fuselage are wings, stabilizers and in some cases, engine
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
pylons and landing gear assemblies. Attach points vary widely in location and
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
method. Without exception, the structure in the area of major component
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
attachment must be reinforced to transmit loads from these attached

r w d s te co in
assemblies to the fuselage.
io de es on y in
m
WINGS
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Wings are attached either above or below the fuselage structure. The
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
fuselage may be notched or cut out to accept a center wing section. Strong
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
fuselage frames or bulkheads are used in the attach area to carry the loads
ed tu a co ati
from the wings and to transfer the loads to the remainder of the fuselage
co tel ny Th form
through longhorns and beams. Fittings or lugs mounted on the frame mate
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
with fittings or lugs mounted on the forward and aft wing spar for
attachment with bolts or other fasteners.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.77
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SEAT INSTALLATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
On airliners, seat attachment fittings consist of longitudinal tracks attached to the tops of
ex w o io n o
of
floor beams and seats that contain strong lightweight frames with quick-release
h d a e
ro in t re m op
fasteners that fit into the track at any location. With this system, operators adjust seat
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
pitch, the fore and aft space between each row of seats, to configure the aircraft with
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
more or fewer seat rows.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Coach and first class seat frames lock into the same tracks. Typically, the seats are ganged
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
together in the seat frame so that two, three or more seats have frame fittings that fit
m
e s
into two adjacent seat tracks.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Narrow body aircraft may have 4 longitudinal seat tracks into which two set of three
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
seats fit in coach or two sets of two seats fit in first class. Wide body aircraft have
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
additional tracks to accommodate three sections of seats across the width of the
ed tu a co ati
fuselage. The seat track fastener method may also be used to install cabin partitions
co tel ny Th form
including galley installations. Note that flight attendant seats are often attached this type
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
of partition. Flight crew seats are typically attached directly to the floor structure of the
flight deck.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.78
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SEAT INSTALLATION
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.79
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
MECHANISMS
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The design of aircraft doors can be broken down into two main types: plug doors
of
h d a e
and non-plug doors. Cabin entry doors are usually plug type doors. The size of the
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
door is slightly larger than the door opening where the door "plugs" into the
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
fuselage from the inside; so it cant go through the opening. This type of door
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
contacts the door frame structure and seals around the entire perimeter of the door.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
The loads from pressurization and flight are evenly distributed and the fit becomes
io de es on y in
more secure when pressurized. Emergency exit doors are the same.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Plug type, cabin passenger entry doors are hinged to open into the cabin because
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
they are slightly large than the door opening. When closing, the door moves
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
outward and mates into the door frame.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
Pressurization inflates the silicon rubber door seal and further pushes the door
co tel ny Th form
outward. Adjustable stops and guide rollers are mounted on the door around the
n
pi lec un e
li
perimeter face just inboard of the inflatable door seal to help align the door and
Al
make it seat properly when closed. It is adjusted to fit flush with the fuselage skin.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.80
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
MECHANISMS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.81
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
WINDOWS AND WINDSCREEN ATTACHMENT
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CONSTRUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Most small and unpressurized aircraft have
ex w o io n o
cabin windows constructed of a single
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
pane of acrylic plastic or other clear
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
plastic. The windshield is plastic as well.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
Pressurized, high performance and
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
transport aircraft have two basic sets of
te b e w rig o
windows: passenger cabin windows and
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
flight deck windows.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
On transport aircraft, passenger cabin

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
windows are made of acrylic plastic or

bu e ed a ta
similar.
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
There are two layers of plastic in most

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
windows - part of the fail safe design. A

co tel ny Th form
third non-structural pane mounted in the

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
interior sidewall panel protects the middle

window and reduces noise.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.82
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
OPERATION AND SAFETY DEVICES
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Flight deck windows on transport
ex w o io n o
f
aircraft are constructed of
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
laminations of tempered glass and
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
plastic. The order and thickness of
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
the lamination vary from aircraft to
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
aircraft however, typically, the outer
te b e w rig o
laminations are glass. A conductive
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
lamination or embedded conductor
m
is included to electrically heat the
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
window assembly, especially if it is a

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
forward facing window (windshield).

bu e ed a ta
The heated window is more

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
resistant to impact breakage. It also

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
anti-ices the windows. The window

co tel ny Th form
laminations are set in a sealed

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
frame which is bolted into the

fuselage structure.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.83
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
OPERATION AND SAFETY DEVICES
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Both fixed and sliding windows are
ex w o io n o
of
used on the flight deck. The sliding
h d a e
ro in t re m op
windows are located on the side of
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the control cabin and are used as
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
emergency exits in addition to
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
typical window usage during ground
te b e w rig o
and flight operations. A
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pressurization switch prevents the pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
windows from opening during flight.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Windscreens are used in passenger

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
transport aircraft to block weather

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
from entering the cabin when an

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
entry or service door is opened.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
They are strong, lightweight

n
partitions of honeycomb
pi lec un e
li
Al
construction. Some cabin

windscreens incorporate storage
in A
compartments.
Rev.00| Pag.84
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
ATTACHMENT
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Passenger cabin windows are fixed plug type windows. They are installed from inside the
ex w o io n o
of
aircraft between fuselage frame members with a single seal that accepts both the middle
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
and outer window panes. Retaining clips hold the assembly in place against the window
,
Sa n nt
ol
frame in the fuselage skin. The middle and outer window panes are each able to withstand
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
the forces of pressurization so if one breaks or is damaged, cabin pressurization is not lost.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
As stated, flight deck
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
window assemblies are pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
bolted to the fuselage
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
structure. Windscreens
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
use the longitudinal

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
seat track installed on

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
the cabin floor for

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
attachment. Support is
n
also given by
pi lec un e
li
Al
attachment to a ceiling
or wall bracket.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.85
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
WINGS
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
CONSTRUCTION
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.86
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
WINGS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CONSTRUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The internal structures of most wings are made up of spars and stringers running
of
h d a e
span-wise and ribs and formers or bulkheads running chord-wise (leading edge to
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
trailing edge). The spars are the principle structural members of a wing. They
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
support all distributed loads, as well as concentrated weights such as the fuselage,
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
landing gear, and engines. The skin, which is attached to the wing structure,
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
carries part of the loads imposed during flight. It also transfers the stresses to the

r w d s te co in
wing ribs. The ribs, in turn, transfer the loads to the wing spars.
io de es on y in
m
e s
In general, wing
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
construction is based
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
on one of three
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
fundamental designs:
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
1. Monospar
ed tu a co ati
2. Multispar
co tel ny Th form
3. Box beam
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.87
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
WINGS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CONSTRUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Modification of these basic designs may be adopted by various manufacturers.
of
h d a e
The monospar wing incorporates only one main span-wise or longitudinal
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
member in its construction. Ribs or bulkheads supply the necessary contour or
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
shape to the airfoil.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
Although the strict monospar wing is not common, this type of design modified by
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the addition of false spars or light shear webs along the trailing edge for support

r w d s te co in
of control surfaces is sometimes used. The multi-spar wing incorporates more
io de es on y in
than one main longitudinal member in its construction. To give the wing contour,
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
ribs or bulkheads are usually included. Air transport category aircraft often utilize
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
box beam wing construction.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
The box beam type of wing construction uses two main longitudinal members
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
with connecting bulkheads to furnish additional strength and to give contour to

co tel ny Th form
the wing. (Figure 3-13) A corrugated sheet may be placed between the bulkheads
n
pi lec un e
li
and the smooth outer skin so that the wing can better carry tension and
Al
compression loads. In some cases, heavy longitudinal stiffeners are substituted for
the corrugated sheets. A combination of corrugated sheets on the upper surface
in A
of the wing and stiffeners on the lower surface is also sometimes used.
Rev.00| Pag.88
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
WINGS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CONSTRUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The box beam type of wing construction uses two main longitudinal members with
of
connecting bulkheads to furnish additional strength and to give contour to the wing. A
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
corrugated sheet may be placed between the bulkheads and the smooth outer skin so
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
that the wing can better carry tension and compression loads. In some cases, heavy
re ed e s e aw en
.
longitudinal stiffeners are substituted for the corrugated sheets. A combination of
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
corrugated sheets on the upper surface of the wing and stiffeners on the lower surface is
te b e w rig o
also sometimes used.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.89
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
WING SPARS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
Spars are the principal structural members of the wing. They correspond to the
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
longerons of the fuselage. They run parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft, from
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
the fuselage toward the tip of the wing, and are usually attached to the fuselage
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
by wing fittings, plain beams, or a truss. Spars may be made of metal, wood, or

r w d s te co in
composite materials depending on the design criteria of a specific aircraft.
io de es on y in
Most wing spars are basically rectangular in shape with the long dimension of the
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
cross-section oriented up and down in the wing.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
The increased use of composites and the combining of materials should make
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
airmen vigilant for wings spars made from a variety of materials.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.90
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
WING SPARS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
A spar may be constructed completely from composite material.
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.91
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
WING SPARS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
In an Ibeam spar, the top and bottom of
ex w o io n o
of
the Ibeam are called the caps and the
h d a e
ro in t re m op
vertical section is called the web. The
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
entire spar can be extruded from one
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
piece of metal but often it is built up from
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
multiple extrusions or formed angles.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The web forms the principal depth portion
m
e s
of the spar and the cap strips (extrusions,
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
formed angles, or milled sections) are

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
attached to it. Together, these members

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
carry the loads caused by wing bending,

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
with the caps providing a foundation for

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
attaching the skin.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.92
web.
strength.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
Some
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
metal
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
beam concept but use a sine wave

and
composite wing spars retain the I-
reducing weight but maintaining
might contain flanged holes for
could also have no stiffeners but
stiffeners employed for strength. It
weight materials with vertical
It could be built up from light
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
WING SPARS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.93
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
failed member and permits continued operation.
WING SPARS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Additionally, fail-safe spar web design exists. Fail-safe means that should one member
of a complex structure fail, some other part of the structure assumes the load of the
Rev.00| Pag.94
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
WING RIBS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.95
INTRODUCTION
secure
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
method
wing attach fittings.

, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
fuselage is often covered

with a fairing to achieve
The fairing(s) can be

removed for access to the
between the wing and
fuselage. The interface
provide a strong and
At the inboard end of the
attaching the wing to the

illustrated in figure. These
wing spars is some form of
smooth airflow in this area.

for
wing attach fitting as
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
WING ROOTS AND TIPS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.96
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
WING ROOTS AND TIPS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.97
INTRODUCTION
WING SKIN INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
The skin on many wings is designed to carry part of the flight and ground loads in
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
combination with the spars and ribs. This is known as a stressed-skin design. The all-
ex w o io n o
f
metal, full cantilever wing section illustrated in the next figure shows the structure of
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
one such design. The lack of extra internal or external bracing requires that the skin
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
share some of the load. Notice the skin is stiffened to aid with this function.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The wing skin on an aircraft may be made from a wide variety of materials such as fabric,
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
wood, or aluminum. Most transport and high performance aircraft use aluminum and
m
composites to skin the wings. When using aluminum, a single thin sheet of material is
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
not always employed.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Chemically milled aluminum skin can provide skin of varied thicknesses. The wing skin is
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
stronger and carries more of the loads where it is milled thicker, usually near the wing
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
root. When milled thin, standard loading takes place and the milled skin may transition
co tel ny Th form
to sheet aluminum skin. On aircraft with stressed-skin wing design, honeycomb

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
structured wing panels are often used as skin.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.98
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
WING SKIN

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.99
INTRODUCTION
thin
panels.
following
outer
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
figure
pi lec un e
skin
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
laminated or sandwiched between
surfaces, as well as wing skin

components. Panels formed like
A honeycomb structure is built up
panels, bulkheads, and control

strong. They have a variety of uses
sheets.the
on the aircraft, such as floor

this are lightweight and very
from a core material resembling a
honeycomb panes and their

illustrates
bee hives honeycomb which is

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
WING SKIN

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.100
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
WING SKIN

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.101
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
FUEL STORAGE
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.102
INTRODUCTION
engines
wing spars.
Al
li
in A n
to
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
Addition bracing and
included. The entire

frame members are
the
developed by the
enough to attach the
constructed strong
airframe through the

It transfers the thrust
engine mounts to it.
pylon structure is
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
PYLONS
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
ATTACHMENTS
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
are often also called spars with an upper, middle and lower spar possible.
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.103
Engine pylons and nacelles may also attach to the wings. The pylon structure is built
INTRODUCTION
out and forward from the wing spars on most aircraft. The pylon structural members
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
STABILIZERS
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CONSTRUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Fixed surfaces that help stabilize the aircraft in
h d a e
ro in t re m op
flight are known as stabilizers. On most aircraft
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
designs these consist of a horizontal stabilizer
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
and a vertical stabilizer located at the aft end of
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
the fuselage known as the empennage. The
te b e w rig o
structure of the stabilizers is very similar to that
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
which is used in wing construction.The below
m
.
e s
figure shows a typical vertical stabilizer. Notice
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
the use of spars, ribs, stringers, and skin like

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
those found in a wing. They perform the same

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
functions shaping and supporting the stabilizer

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
and transferring stresses.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.104
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
BALANCING
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Flight control "flutter" is of great concern in that it can result in loss of control of the
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
aircraft. Balancing a flight control eliminates flutter. Two common methods of
re ed e s e aw en
.
balancing exist; mass balancing and aerodynamic balancing.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
MASS BALANCING
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
Mass balancing is accomplished by adding mass balance weights to the leading
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
edge of the control. This moves the center of gravity of the flight control forward
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
and makes the part of the control behind the hinge line as light as possible to
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
eliminate flutter.
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
AERODYNAMIC BALANCING
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
Aerodynamic balancing is accomplished by setting the hinge into the control surface
pi lec un e
li
Al
so that when deflected from neutral, the part of the surface forward of the hinge
line projects into the airstream. The force of the air on the forward portion of the
in A
control surface keeps it from fluttering.

Rev.00| Pag.105
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
21)
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
AIR CONDITIONING AND
ou
t
CABIN PRESSURIZATION (ATA
Rev.00| Pag.106
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
AIR SUPPLY
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
SOURCES OF SUPPLY AIR
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
The source of air to pressurize and air condition an aircraft varies mainly with
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
engine type. Reciprocating aircraft have pressurization sources different from
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
those of turbine-powered aircraft. Note that the compression of air raises its
te b e w rig o
temperature. A means for keeping cabin air cool is built into most
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pressurization systems. It may be in the form of a heat exchanger, using cold
m
e s
ambient air to modify the temperature of the air from the pressurization
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
source. However, a full air cycle air conditioning system with expansion
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
turbine is typically used on commercial transport aircraft. It provides the

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
advantage of cabin temperature control on the ground and at low altitudes.

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.107
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
AIR SUPPLY
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
BLEED AIR
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
There are different ways hot, high-pressure bleed air can be exploited for cabin
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
pressurization and air conditioning. Smaller turbine aircraft, or sections of a large aircraft,

em o ta co s, t a
w
may make use of a jet pump flow multiplier. With this device, bleed air is tapped off of the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
turbine engines compressor section. It is ejected into a venturi jet pump mounted in air
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
ducting that has one end open to the ambient air and the other end directed into the

r w d s te co in
compartment to be pressurized.
io de es on y in
m
Due to the low pressure
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
established in the venturi by

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the bleed air flow, air is drawn

bu e ed a ta
in from outside the aircraft. It

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
mixes with the bleed air and is

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
delivered to the pressure

co tel ny Th form
vessel to pressurize it. An

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
advantage of this type of

pressurization is the lack of
in A
moving parts.
Rev.00| Pag.108
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
AIR SUPPLY
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
BLEED AIR
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Disadvantages are that only a relatively small volume of space can be pressurized in this
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
manner and there is no means for cooling the ambient air. Another method of pressurizing

em o ta co s, t a
w
an aircraft using turbine engine compressor bleed air is to have the bleed air drive a
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
separate compressor that has an ambient air intake.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
A turbine turned by bleed air
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
rotates a compressor impeller pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
mounted on the same shaft.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Outside air is drawn in and

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
compressed. It is mixed with the

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
bleed air outflow from the

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
turbine and is sent to the

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
pressure vessel. Turboprop

n
aircraft often use this device,

pi lec un e
li
Al
known as a turbo-compressor.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.109
controlled.
Al
li
n
Air
in A
co tel ny Th form
greater detail below.

pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
cycle
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
conditioning is discussed in
exchangers, a compressor, and an
used, and through an elaborate
an air cycle air conditioning and
turbine-powered aircraft is with
temperature and pressure are

pressurizing and air conditioning
The most common method of
system that includes heat
air
expansion turbine, cabin air
pressurization system. Bleed air is
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
BLEED AIR

AIR SUPPLY
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.110
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
AIR SUPPLY
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
APU
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
The source of air for air conditioning does not always have to be bleed air from
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
the compressor section of the main engines. The aircrafts auxiliary power unit
re ed e s e aw en
.
(APU) is designed to deliver pressurized bleed air for engine starting and for
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
operation of the aircrafts air conditioning packages. Sufficient pneumatic air from
te b e w rig o
the APU is routed through ducting to the packs so that the cabin can be cooled
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
while the aircraft is on the ground with the engine not running. This is one
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
common method for keeping the cabin at a comfortable temperature which

do gh o ote in
passengers are boarding.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.111
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
AIR SUPPLY

io de es on y in
GROUND CART
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.112
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
There are two types of air conditioning systems commonly used on aircraft. Air
h d a e
ro in t re m op
cycle air conditioning is used on most turbine-powered aircraft. It makes use of
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
engine bleed air or APU pneumatic air during the conditioning process. Vapor cycle
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
air conditioning systems are often used on reciprocating aircraft. This type system is
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
similar to that found in homes and automobiles.
te b e w rig o
Note that some turbine-powered aircraft also use vapor cycle air conditioning.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
AIR CYCLE AIR CONDITIONING

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Air cycle air conditioning prepares engine bleed air to pressurize the aircraft cabin.
, d al uth nt on
The temperature and quantity of the air must be controlled to maintain a

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
comfortable cabin environment at all altitudes and on the ground. The air cycle
n
system is often called the air conditioning package or pack. It is usually located in
pi lec un e
li
Al
the lower half of the fuselage or in the tail section of turbine-powered aircraft.
(Figure 4-5)
in A
Rev.00| Pag.113
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
AIR CYCLE AIR CONDITIONING
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.114
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SYSTEM OPERATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Even with the frigid temperatures experienced at high altitudes, bleed air is too
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
hot to be used in the cabin without being cooled. It enters the air cycle system
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
and is routed through a heat exchanger where ram air cools the bleed air. This
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
cooled bleed air is directed into an air cycle machine. There, it is compressed
te b e w rig o
before flowing through a secondary heat exchanger that cools the air again with
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
ram air. The bleed air then flows back into the air cycle machine where it drives
m
e s
an expansion turbine and cools even further. Water is then removed and the air is
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
mixed with bypassed bleed air for final temperature adjustment. It is sent to the
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
cabin through the air distribution system. By examining the operation of each
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
component in the air cycle process, a better understanding can be developed of

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
how bleed air is conditioned for cabin use.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.115
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
SYSTEM OPERATION
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.116
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
pressurization system.
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
PNEUMATIC SYSTEM SUPPLY
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
psi. The air conditioning packs are supplied by this manifold as are
pneumatic manifold, valves, regulators and ducting. Typically, a
pneumatic system manifold contains hot air between 30 and 75
other critical airframe systems, such as the anti-ice and hydraulic

tap-offs located on each engine compressor section. It consists of a
During normal flight, the pneumatic system is supplied by bleed air
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.117
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SYSTEM OPERATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
COMPONENT OPERATION
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
Pack Valve
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
The pack valve is the valve that regulates bleed air from the pneumatic
te b e w rig o
manifold into the air cycle air conditioning system. It is controlled with a
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
switch from the air conditioning panel in the cockpit. Many pack valves are
m
electrically controlled and pneumatically operated. Also known as the
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
supply shutoff valve, the pack valve opens, closes, and modulates to allow
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the air cycle air conditioning system to be supplied with a designed

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
volume of hot, pressurized air. When an overheat or other abnormal

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
condition requires that the air conditioning package be shut down, a signal
ed tu a co ati
is sent to the pack valve to close.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.118
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SYSTEM OPERATION
ex w o io n o
COMPONENT OPERATION
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.119
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SYSTEM OPERATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
COMPONENT OPERATION
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
Bleed Air Bypass
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
A means for bypassing some of the pneumatic air supplied to the air cycle
te b e w rig o
air conditioning system around the system is present on all aircraft. This
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
warm bypassed air must be mixed with the cold air produced by the air
m
cycle system so the air delivered to the cabin is a comfortable
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
temperature. In the system shown in the next figure this is accomplished

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
by the mixing valve. It simultaneously controls the flow of bypassed air

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
and air to be cooled to meet the requirements of the auto temperature

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
controller. It can also be controlled manually with the cabin temperature

ed tu a co ati
selector in manual mode. Other air cycle systems may refer to the valve
co tel ny Th form
that controls the air bypassed around the air cycle cooling system as a
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
temperature control valve, trim air pressure regulating valve, or something

similar.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.120
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
Primary Heat Exchanger
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SYSTEM OPERATION
ex w o io n o
COMPONENT OPERATION
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
exchanger, which reduces the temperature of the air inside the system.
ou
t
passes through a primary heat exchanger. It acts similarly to the radiator in
an automobile. A controlled flow of ram air is ducted over and through the
Generally, the warm air dedicated to pass through the air cycle system first
Rev.00| Pag.121
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SYSTEM OPERATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
COMPONENT OPERATION
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Primary Heat Exchanger
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
A fan draws air through the ram air duct
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
when the aircraft is on the ground so
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
that the heat exchange is possible when

r w d s te co in
the aircraft is stationary. In flight, ram air
io de es on y in
doors are modulated to increase or
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
decrease ram air flow to the exchanger

do gh o ote in
according to the position of the wing

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
flaps. During slow flight, when the flaps

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
are extended, the doors are open. At

, d al uth nt on
higher speeds, with the flaps retracted,

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
the doors move toward the closed

n
pi lec un e
li
position reducing the amount of ram air

Al
to the exchanger. Similar operation is

accomplished with a valve on smaller
in A
aircraft.
Rev.00| Pag.122
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
SYSTEM OPERATION
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
COMPONENT OPERATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Refrigeration Turbine Unit or Air Cycle
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Machine and Secondary Heat Exchanger
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
The heart of the air cycle air conditioning system is the refrigeration turbine unit, also
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
known as the air cycle machine (ACM). It is comprised of a compressor that is driven
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
by a turbine on a common shaft. System air flows from the primary heat exchanger

r w d s te co in
into the compressor side of the ACM. As the air is compressed, its temperature rises.
io de es on y in
m
It is then sent to a secondary heat exchanger, similar to the primary heat exchanger
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
located in the ram air duct. The elevated temperature of the ACM compressed air
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
facilitates an easy exchange of heat energy to the ram air. The cooled system air, still
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
under pressure from the continuous system air flow and the ACM compressor, exits
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the secondary heat exchanger. It is directed into the turbine side of the ACM. The
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
steep blade pitch angle of the ACM turbine extracts more energy from the air as it
co tel ny Th form
passes through and drives the turbine. Once through, the air is allowed to expand at
n
pi lec un e
li
the ACM outlet, cooling even further. The combined energy loss from the air first
Al
driving the turbine and then expanding at the turbine outlet lowers the system air
in A
temperature to near freezing.
Rev.00| Pag.123
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SYSTEM OPERATION
ex w o io n o
COMPONENT OPERATION
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.124
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
SYSTEM OPERATION
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
COMPONENT OPERATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Water Separator
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
The cool air from the air cycle machine can no longer hold the quantity of water
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
it could when it was warm. A water separator is used to remove the water from
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the saturated air before it is sent to the aircraft cabin. The separator operates

r w d s te co in
with no moving parts. Foggy air from the ACM enters and is forced through a
io de es on y in
m
fiberglass sock that condenses and coalesces the mist into larger water drops.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The convoluted interior structure of the separator swirls the air and water. The
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
water collects on the sides of the separator and drains down and out of the unit,
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
while the dry air passes through. A bypass valve is incorporated in case of a
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
blockage.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.125
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
SYSTEM OPERATION
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
COMPONENT OPERATION
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.126
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
SYSTEM OPERATION
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
COMPONENT OPERATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Refrigeration Bypass Valve
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
As mentioned, air exiting the ACM turbine expands and cools. It becomes so
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
cold, it could freeze the water in the water separator, thus inhibiting or blocking
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
airflow. A temperature sensor in the separator controls a refrigeration bypass

r w d s te co in
valve designed to keep the air flowing through the water separator above
io de es on y in
m
freezing temperature. The valve is also identified by other names such as a
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
temperature control valve, 35 valve, anti-ice valve, and similar. It bypasses warm
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
air around the ACM when opened. The air is introduced into the expansion
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
ducting, just upstream of the water separator, where it heats the air just enough
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
to keep it from freezing. Thus, the refrigeration bypass valve regulates the
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
temperature of the ACM discharge air so it does not freeze when passing
co tel ny Th form
through the water separator.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al

in A
Rev.00| Pag.127
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
SYSTEM OPERATION
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
COMPONENT OPERATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Refrigeration Bypass Valve
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
All air cycle air conditioning systems use at least one ram air heat exchanger and
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
an air cycle machine with expansion turbine to remove heat energy from the
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
bleed air, but variations exist. An example of a system different from that

r w d s te co in
described above is found on the McDonnell Douglas DC-10. Bleed air from the
io de es on y in
m
pneumatic manifold is compressed by the air cycle machine compressor before it
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
flows to a single heat exchanger. Condensed water

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
from the water separator is sprayed into the ram air at its entrance to the
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
exchanger to draw additional heat from the compressed bleed air as the water
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
evaporates. A trim air valve for each cabin zone mixes bypassed bleed air with
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
conditioned air in response to individual temperature selectors for each zone.

co tel ny Th form
When cooling air demands are low, a turbine bypass valve routes some heat
n
pi lec un e
li
exchanger air directly to the conditioned air manifold.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.128
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SYSTEM OPERATION
ex w o io n o
COMPONENT OPERATION
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.129
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
THEORY OF REFRIGERATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Energy can be neither created nor
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
destroyed; however, it can be transformed
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
and moved. This is what occurs during
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
vapor cycle air conditioning. Heat energy is
te b e w rig o
moved from the cabin air into a liquid
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
refrigerant. Due to the additional energy,
m
e s
the liquid changes into a vapor. The vapor
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
is compressed and becomes very hot. It is

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
removed from the cabin where the very

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
hot vapor refrigerant transfers its heat

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
energy to the outside air. In doing so, the

ed tu a co ati
refrigerant cools and condenses back into a

co tel ny Th form
liquid. The refrigerant returns to the cabin

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
to repeat the cycle of energy transfer.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.130
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Heat is an expression of energy, typically measured by temperature. The higher the
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
temperature of a substance, the more energy it contains. Heat always flows from hot to
re ed e s e aw en
.
cold. These terms express the relative amount of energy present in two substances. They
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
do not measure he absolute amount of heat present. Without a difference in energy
te b e w rig o
levels, there is no transfer of energy (heat).
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Adding heat to a substance does not always raise its temperature. When a substance
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
changes state, such as when a liquid changes into a vapor, heat energy is absorbed. This
do gh o ote in
is called latent heat. When a vapor condenses into a liquid, this heat energy is given off.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
The temperature of a substance remains constant during its change of state. All energy
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
absorbed or given off, the latent heat, is used for the change process. Once the change
, d al uth nt on
of state is complete, heat added to a substance raises the temperature of the substance.
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
After a substance changes state into a vapor, the rise in temperature of the vapor caused
n
by the addition of still more heat is called superheat.

pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.131
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid into a vapor when heat is
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
added is known as its boiling point. This is the same temperature at which a vapor
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
condenses into a liquid when heat is removed. The boiling point of any substance varies

em o ta co s, t a
w
directly with pressure. When pressure on a liquid is increased, its boiling point increases,
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
and when pressure on a liquid is decreased, its boiling point also decreases. For example,
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
water boils at 212 F at normal atmospheric temperature (14.7 psi). When pressure on
r w d s te co in
liquid water is increased to 20 psi, it does not boil at 212 F. More energy is required to
io de es on y in
m
overcome the increase in pressure.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
It boils at approximately 226.4 F.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
The converse is also true. Water

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
can also boil at a much lower

is pr or en co
temperature simply by reducing

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
the pressure upon it. With only

co tel ny Th form
10 psi of pressure upon liquid

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
water, it boils at 194 F.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.132
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Vapor pressure is the pressure of the vapor that exists above a liquid that is in an
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
enclosed container at any given temperature. The vapor pressure developed by
re ed e s e aw en
.
various substances is unique to each substance. A substance that is said to be
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
volatile, develops high vapor pressure at standard day temperature (59 F). This is
te b e w rig o
because the boiling point of the substance is much lower. The boiling point of
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
tetrafluoroethane (R134a), the refrigerant used in most aircraft vapor cycle air
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
conditioning systems, is approximately -15 F. Its vapor pressure at 59 F is about

do gh o ote in
71 psi. The vapor pressure of any substance varies directly with temperature.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n

pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.133
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
REFRIGERANT
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
For many years, dichlorodifluoromethane (R12) was the standard refrigerant used
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
in aircraft vapor cycle air conditioning systems. Some of these systems remain in
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
use today. R12 was found to have a negative effect on the environment; in

em o ta co s, t a
w
particular, it degraded the earths protective ozone layer.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
In most cases, it has been replaced by tetrafluoroethane (R134a), which is safer

r w d s te co in
for the environment. R12 and R134a should not be mixed, nor should one be
io de es on y in
m
used in a system designed for the other.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
Possible damage to soft components, such as hoses and seals, could result
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
causing leaks and or malfunction. Use only the specified refrigerant when
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
servicing vapor cycle air conditioning systems. R12 and R134a behave so similarly
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
that the descriptions of the R134a vapor cycle air conditioning system and
co tel ny Th form
components in the following paragraphs also apply to an R12 system and its
n
pi lec un e
li
components.
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.134
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
REFRIGERANT
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
R134a is a halogen compound (CF3CFH2). As mentioned,
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
it has a boiling point of approximately -15 F. It is not
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
poisonous to inhale in small quantities, but it does
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
displace oxygen. Suffocation is possible if breathed in
te b e w rig o
mass quantity.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Regardless of manufacturer, refrigerants are sometimes
m
called Freon, which is a trade name owned by the
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Dupont Company. Caution should be used when handling

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
any refrigerant. Because of the low boiling points, liquid

bu e ed a ta
refrigerants boil violently at typical atmospheric

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
temperatures and pressure. They rapidly absorb heat

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
energy from all surrounding matter. If a drop lands on

co tel ny Th form
skin, it freezes, resulting in a burn. Similar tissue damage

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
can result if a drop gets in ones eye. Gloves and other

skin protection, as well as safety goggles, are required
in A
when working with refrigerant.

Rev.00| Pag.135
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
RECEIVER DRYER
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The receiver dryer acts as the reservoir of the vapor cycle system. It is located downstream
ex w o io n o
of
of the condenser and upstream of the expansion valve.
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
When it is very hot, more refrigerant is used by the system than when temperatures are
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
moderate. Extra refrigerant is stored in the receiver dryer for this purpose. Liquid refrigerant
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
from the condenser flows into the receiver dryer. Inside, it passes through filters and a
te b e w rig o
desiccant material.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
The filters remove any foreign particles that might be in the system. The desiccant captures
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
any water in the refrigerant. Water in the refrigerant causes two major problems.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
First, the refrigerant and water combine to form an acid. If left in contact with the inside of
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
the components and tubing, the acid deteriorates the materials from which these are
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
made.
The second problem with water is that it could form ice and block the flow of refrigerant
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
around the system, rendering it inoperative.

Ice is particularly a problem if it forms at the orifice in the expansion valve, which is the
in A
coldest point in the cycle.

Rev.00| Pag.136
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
VAPOR CYCLE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
RECEIVER DRYER
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
Occasionally, vapor may find its way into the receiver
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
dryer, such as when the gaseous refrigerant does not
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
completely change state to a liquid in the condenser. A
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
stand tube is used to remove refrigerant from the

r w d s te co in
receiver dryer. It runs to the bottom of the unit to
io de es on y in
ensure liquid is withdrawn and forwarded to the
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
expansion valve. At the top of the stand tube, a sight

do gh o ote in
glass allows the technician to see the refrigerant. When

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
enough refrigerant is present in the system, liquid flows

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
in the sight glass. If low on refrigerant, any vapor

, d al uth nt on
present in the receiver dryer may be sucked up the

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
stand tube causing bubbles to be visible in the sight

n
pi lec un e
li
glass. Therefore, bubbles in the sight glass indicate that

Al
the system needs to have more refrigerant added.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.137
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
EXPANSION VALVE
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
When too much liquid refrigerant is

em o ta co s, t a
w
released by the expansion valve, low-
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
temperature liquid refrigerant arrives at
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the outlet of the evaporator. The result is

r w d s te co in
low pressure inside the temperature bulb
io de es on y in
m
and above the expansion valve diaphragm.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The superheat spring in the valve moves

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
the needle valve toward the closed

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
position, reducing the flow of refrigerant

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
into the evaporator as the spring

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
overcomes the lower pressure above the

co tel ny Th form
diaphragm.
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.138
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
EXPANSION VALVE
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
Vapor cycle air conditioning systems that
,
Sa n nt
ol
have large evaporators experience
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
significant pressure drops while refrigerant
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
is flowing through them. Externally
te b e w rig o
equalized expansion valves use a pressure
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
tap from the outlet of the evaporator to
m
e s
help the superheat spring balance the
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
diaphragm. This type of expansion valve is

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
easily recognizable by the additional small-

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
diameter line that comes from the

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
evaporator into the valve (2 total). Better

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
control of the proper amount of

n
refrigerant allowed through the valve is

pi lec un e
li
Al
attained by considering both the

temperature and pressure of the
in A
evaporator refrigerant.
Rev.00| Pag.139
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
EVAPORATOR
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.140
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
VAPOR CYCLE AIR CONDITIONING
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
EVAPORATOR
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.141
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
COMPRESSOR
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The compressor is the heart of the vapor cycle air conditioning system. It circulates the
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
refrigerant around the vapor cycle system. It receives low-pressure, low-temperature
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
refrigerant vapor from the outlet of the evaporator and compresses it. As the pressure
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
is increased, the temperature also increases. The refrigerant temperature is raised
te b e w rig o
above that of the outside air temperature.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
The refrigerant then flows out of the compressor to the condenser where it gives off
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
the heat to the outside air.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
The compressor is the dividing point between the low side and the high side of the
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
vapor cycle system. Often it is incorporated with fittings or has fittings in the connecting
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
lines to it that are designed to service the system with refrigerant.

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
Access to the low and high sides of the system are required for servicing, which can be
accomplished with fitting upstream and downstream of the compressor.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.142
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
COMPRESSOR
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Modern compressors are either
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
engine-driven or driven by an electric
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
motor. Occasionally, a hydraulically
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
driven compressor is used. A typical
te b e w rig o
engine-driven compressor, similar to
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
that found in an automobile, is located
m
e s
in the engine nacelle and operated by
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
a drive belt off of the engine

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
crankshaft. An electromagnetic clutch

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
engages when cooling is required,

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
which causes the compressor to

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
operate. When cooling is sufficient,

n
power to the clutch is cut, and the

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
drive pulley rotates but the

compressor does not.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.143
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
COMPRESSOR
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Dedicated electric motor driven
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
compressors are also used on aircraft.

em o ta co s, t a
w
Use of an electric motor allows the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
compressor to be located nearly
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
anywhere on the aircraft, since wires

r w d s te co in
can be run from the appropriate bus
io de es on y in
m
to the control panel and to the
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
compressor. Hydraulically driven

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
compressors are also able to be

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
remotely located. Hydraulic lines from

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the hydraulic manifold are run through

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
a switch activated solenoid to the

co tel ny Th form
compressor. The solenoid allows fluid

n
pi lec un e
li
to the compressor or bypasses it. This

Al
controls the operation of the

in A
hydraulically driven compressor.

Rev.00| Pag.144
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
CONDENSER
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The condenser is the final component in the vapor cycle. It is a radiator-like heat
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
exchanger situated so that outside air flows over it and absorbs heat from the high-

em o ta co s, t a
w
pressure, high temperature refrigerant received from the compressor. A fan is usually
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
included to draw the air through the compressor during ground operation. On some
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
aircraft, outside air is ducted to the compressor. On others, the condenser is lowered into

r w d s te co in
the airstream from the fuselage via a hinged panel.
io de es on y in
m
Often, the panel is controlled by a
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
switch on the throttle levers. It is set

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
to retract the compressor and

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
streamline the fuselage when full

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
power is required.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.145
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
all the refrigerant flowing through the condenser.
CONDENSER
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The heat loss causes the refrigerant to change state back into a liquid. The high-
The outside air absorbs heat from the refrigerant flowing through the condenser.
dryer. A properly engineered system that is functioning normally fully condenses

pressure liquid refrigerant then leaves the condenser and flows to the receiver
Rev.00| Pag.146
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
SERVICE VALVES
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
All vapor cycle air conditioning systems are closed
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
systems; however, access is required for servicing. This is
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
accomplished through the use of two service valves. One

em o ta co s, t a
w
valve is located in the high side of the system and the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
other in the low side. A common type of valve used on
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
vapor cycle systems that operate with R12 refrigerant is
r w d s te co in
the Schrader valve. It is similar to the valve used to inflate
io de es on y in
m
tires. A central valve core seats and unseats by
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
depressing a stem attached to it. A pin in the servicing

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
hose fitting is designed to do this when screwed onto the

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
valves exterior threads. All aircraft service valves should

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
be capped when not in use. R134a systems use valves

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
that are very similar to the Schrader valve in function,

co tel ny Th form
operation, and location. As a safety device to prevent

n
pi lec un e
li
inadvertent mixing of refrigerants, R134a valve fittings

Al
are different from Schrader valve fittings and do not

in A
attach to Schrader valve threads. The R134a valve fittings

are a quick disconnect type.
Rev.00| Pag.147
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
SERVICE VALVES

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.148
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
MANIFOLD SET, GAUGES, HOSES, AND
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
FITTINGS
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
In the past, the main servicing device for vapor cycle air conditioning systems was
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
the manifold set. It contains three hose fittings, two O-ring sealed valves, and two
re ed e s e aw en
.
gauges. It is essentially a manifold into which the gauges, fittings, and valves are
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
attached.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The valves are positioned to connect or isolate the center hose with either fitting.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Hoses attach to the right and left manifold set fittings and the other ends of those
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
hoses attach to the service valves in the vapor cycle system. The center fitting also
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
has a hose attached to it. The other end of this hose connects to either a refrigerant
, d al uth nt on
supply or a vacuum pump, depending on the servicing function to be performed. All

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
servicing operations are performed by manipulating the valves.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.149
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
FITTINGS
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The gauges on the manifold set are
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
dedicated - one for the low side of
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
the system and the other for the
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
high side. The low-pressure gauge is
te b e w rig o
a compound gauge that indicates
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pressures above or below
m
atmospheric pressure (0 gauge
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
pressure). Below atmospheric

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
pressure, the gauge is scaled in

bu e ed a ta
inches of mercury down to 30

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
inches. This is to indicate vacuum.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
29.92 inches equals an absolute

co tel ny Th form
vacuum (absolute zero air pressure).

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
Above atmospheric pressure, gauge

pressure is read in psi.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.150
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
FITTINGS
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
(pressure lower than atmospheric).

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
up to 150 psi. The high-pressure
60 psi, although some gauges extend
The scale typically ranges from 0 to
It does not indicate vacuum

gauge usually has a range from zero
up to about 500 psi gauge pressure.
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.151
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FULL SERVICE REFRIGERANT RECOVERY, RECYCLING,
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
EVACUATION, AND RECHARGING UNITS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Integral solenoid valves, reservoirs, filters, and smart controls allow the entire servicing
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
procedure to be controlled from the unit panel once the high side and low side services

em o ta co s, t a
w
hoses are connected. A built-in compressor enables complete system refrigerant
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
purging. A built-in vacuum pump performs system evacuation. A container and
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
recycling filters for the refrigerant and the lubricating oil allow total recovery and

r w d s te co in
recycling of these fluids. The pressure gauges used on the service unit panel are the
io de es on y in
m
same as those on a manifold set.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Top-of-the-line units have an

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
automatic function that

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
performs all of the servicing

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
functions sequentially and

ed tu a co ati
automatically once the hoses

co tel ny Th form
are hooked up to the vapor

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
cycle air conditioning system

and the system quantity of
in A
refrigerant has been entered.

Rev.00| Pag.152
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
REFRIGERANT SOURCE
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
R134a comes in containers measured by the weight of the refrigerant they hold. Small
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
12-ounce to 212-pound cans are common for adding refrigerant. Larger 30 and 50
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
pound cylinders equipped with shutoff valves are often used to charge an evacuated
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
system, and they are used in shops that service vapor cycle systems frequently.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
These larger cylinders are also
r w d s te co in
used in the full servicing carts
io de es on y in
m
described above. The amount of
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
refrigerant required for any system

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
is measured in pounds. Check the

bu e ed a ta
manufacturers service data and

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
charge the system to the level

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
specified using only the approved

co tel ny Th form
refrigerant from a known source.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.153
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
VACUUM PUMPS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Vacuum pumps used with a manifold set, or as part of a service cart, are connected to
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
the vapor cycle system so that the system pressure can be reduced to a near total
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
vacuum. The reason for doing this is to remove all of the water in the system. As
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
mentioned, water can freeze, causing system malfunction and can also combine with
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the refrigerant to create corrosive compounds.

Once the system has been purged of its
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
refrigerant and it is at atmospheric pressure,
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
the vacuum pump is operated. It gradually

do gh o ote in
reduces the pressure in the system. As it does,

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the boiling point of any water in the system is

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
also reduced. Water boils off or is vaporized

, d al uth nt on
under the reduced pressure and is pulled

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
from the system by the pump, leaving the

n
pi lec un e
system moisture free to be recharged with

li
Al
refrigerant.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.154
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
a vapor cycle air conditioning system.
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
manufacturers. Generally, the best established
manufacturers instructions when evacuating

water is removed from the system. Follow the
varies as does the amount of time to hold the
vacuum is held for 15-30 minutes to ensure all

system at reduced pressure specified by
The strength and efficiency of vacuum pumps

t f ed in de de pr
VACUUM PUMPS
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.155
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
LEAK DETECTORS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Even the smallest leak in a vapor cycle air conditioning system can cause a loss of
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
refrigerant. When operating normally, little or no refrigerant escapes. A system that
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
requires the addition of refrigerant should be suspected of having a leak.
re ed e s e aw en
.
Electronic leak detectors are safe, effective devices used to find leaks.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
There are many types available that
te b e w rig o
are able to detect extremely small
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
amounts of escaped refrigerant. The
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
detector is held close to component

do gh o ote in
and hose connections where most

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
leaks occur. Audible and visual alarms

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
signal the presence of refrigerant.

, d al uth nt on
A detector specified for the type of

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
refrigerant in the system should be

n
pi lec un e
chosen. A good leak detector is

li
Al
sensitive enough to detect leaks that

would result in less than 12-ounce of
in A
refrigerant to be lost per year.

Rev.00| Pag.156
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
LEAK DETECTORS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Other leak detection methods exist. A soapy solution can also be applied to fittings and
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
inspected for the formation of bubbles indicating a leak. Special leak detection dyes
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
compatible for use with refrigerant can be injected into the vapor cycle system and can
re ed e s e aw en
.
be seen when they are forced out at a leak. Many of these are made to be visible under
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
UV light. Occasionally, a leak can be detected upon close visual inspection. Oil in the
te b e w rig o
system can be forced out of a leak, leaving a visible residue that is usually on the
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
bottom side of a leaky fitting. pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Old hoses may become slightly porous and leak a significant amount of refrigerant over
do gh o ote in
time. Because of the length and area through which the refrigerant is lost, this type of
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
leak may be difficult to detect, even with leak detecting methods. Visibly deteriorated
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
hoses should be replaced.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.157
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
VISUAL INSPECTION
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.158
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
VISUAL INSPECTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Be sure the capillary temperature feedback sensor to the expansion valve is securely
of
h d a e
attached to the evaporator outlet. Also, check the security of the pressure sensor and
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
thermostat sensor if the system has them. The evaporator should not have ice on the
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
outside. This prevents proper heat exchange to the refrigerant from the warm cabin air
re ed e s e aw en
.
blown over the unit. The fan blower should be checked to ensure it rotates freely.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Depending on the system, it should run whenever the cooling switch is selected and should

change speeds as the selector is rotated to more or less cooling. Sometimes systems low on
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
refrigerant can cause ice on the evaporator, as can a faulty expansion valve or feedback
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
control line. Ice formation anywhere on the outside of a vapor cycle air conditioning system
do gh o ote in
should be investigated for cause and corrected.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.159
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
LEAK TEST
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
-The most obvious sign of a possible leak is a low refrigerant level.
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
To locate the leak point, the system needs to be partially charged with refrigerant so leak
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
detection methods can be employed. About 50 psi of refrigerant in the high and low sides

em o ta co s, t a
w
should be sufficient for a leak check. By introducing the refrigerant into the high side,
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
pressure indicated on the low side gauge verifies the orifice in the expansion valve is not
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
clogged.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
-When all refrigerant is lost due to a leak, the entire system should be checked. Each fitting
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
and connection should be inspected visually and with a leak detector. When a vapor cycle
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
air conditioning system loses all of its refrigerant charge, air may enter the system. Water
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
may also enter since it is in the air. This means that a full system evacuation must be
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
performed after the leak is found and repaired.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
-By establishing only a 50 psi charge in a depleted system, the leak(s) becomes detectable,
n
pi lec un e
li
but time and refrigerant are not wasted prior to evacuation. System evacuation is discussed
Al
below.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.160
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
PERFORMANCE TEST
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
A key indication of performance is the temperature of the air that is cooled by the
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
evaporator. This can be measured at the air outflow from the evaporator or at a
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
nearby delivery duct outlet. An ordinary thermometer should read 40-50 F, with

em o ta co s, t a
w
the controls set to full cold after the system has been allowed to operate for a few
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
minutes.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
Manufacturers instructions include information on where to place the
io de es on y in
m
thermometer and the temperature range that indicates acceptable performance.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Pressures can also be observed to indicate system performance.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Typically, low side pressure in a vapor cycle system operating normally is 10-50 psi,
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
depending on ambient temperature. High side pressure is between 125 and 250
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
psi, again, depending on ambient temperature and the design of the system. All
co tel ny Th form
system performance tests are performed at a specified engine rpm (stable

n
pi lec un e
li
compressor speed) and involve a period of time to stabilize the operation of the
Al
vapor cycle.
in A
Consult the manufacturers instructions for guidance.

Rev.00| Pag.161
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FEEL TEST
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
A quick reference field test can be performed on a vapor cycle air conditioning system
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
to gauge its health. In particular, components and lines in the high side (from the

em o ta co s, t a
w
compressor to the expansion valve) should be warm or hot to the touch.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The lines on both sides of the receiver dryer should be the same temperature. Low

r w d s te co in
side lines and the evaporator should be cool. Ice should not be visible on the outside
io de es on y in
m
of the system.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
If any discrepancies exist, further investigation is needed

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
On hot, humid days, the cooling output of the vapor cycle system may be slightly
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
compromised due to the volume of water condensing on the evaporator.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.162
adding oil.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
by the manufacturer. Be certain to

proper range using oil recommended
should be maintained within the
vapor cycle system that is lubricated
replace the filler plug after checking or

plug and using a dip stick. Oil quantity
The compressor is a sealed unit in the
it is an opportunity to check the oil

with oil. Any time the system is purged,
quantity in the compressor crankcase.

This is often done by removing a filler
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
CHECKING COMPRESSOR OIL
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.163
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.164
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Large aircraft may be divided into zones for air distribution. Each zone has its own
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
temperature selector and associated valve to mix conditioned and bleed air so that
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
each zone can be maintain at a temperature independent of the others.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The air distribution system on most aircraft makes provisions for ducting and
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
circulating cooling air to electronics equipment bays. It also contains a gasper air
m
e s
system.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
This is air ducted from the cold air manifold or duct to an overhead adjustable
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
delivery nozzle at each passenger station.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
An inline fan controlled from the cockpit supplies a steady stream of gasper air that
ed tu a co ati
can be regulated or shut off with the delivery nozzle(s).

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.165
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.166
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FLOW CONTROL
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Adjustments to engine speeds affects bleed air flow. Output from the air conditioning
h d a e
ro in t re m op
pack varies.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
Altitude and air density vary. To ensure a stable mass of air flow through the cabin a mass
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
airflow controller adjusts the flow to a predetermined level. Flow from the cabin air
te b e w rig o
source is regulated to meet these demands. Flow of air leaving the cabin is also
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
controlled. Mechanisms to control the flow of bleed air vary on different aircraft and
m
e s
different engines.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Bleed ports at three stages of the compressor is common on turbofan engines

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
Control of which bleed port delivers air to the pneumatic system is accomplished in a
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
variety of ways. Typically, a high pressure shutoff valve closes when low-stage bleed air
n
pressure rises with throttle setting increase. This causes bleed air to automatically be
pi lec un e
li
Al
extracted from a higher stage port.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.167
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Cabin temperature pickup units and duct temperature sensors used in the temperature
h d a e
ro in t re m op
control system are thermistors. Their resistance changes as temperature changes. The
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
temperature selector is a rheostat that varies its resistance as the knob is turned. In the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
temperature controller, resistances are compared in a bridge circuit.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The bridge output feeds a temperature regulating function. An electric signal output is
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
prepared and sent to the valve that mixes hot and cold air.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
On large aircraft with separate temperature zones, trim air modulating valves for each
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
zone are used. The valves modulate to provide the correct mix required to match the
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
selected temperature.
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
Cabin, flight deck, and duct temperature sensors are strategically located to provide
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
useful information to control cabin temperature.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.168
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.169
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Rev.00| Pag.170
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
HUMIDITY CONTROL
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Control of cabin humidity primarily occurs during the air cycle air conditioning
h d a e
ro in t re m op
process. Moisture condensed from the cool air exiting the expansion turbine is
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
removed by the water separator.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Most water separators remove water by swilling the air in some fashion so that the
te b e w rig o
heavier water can be drawn off. However, at high altitudes, air from the air cycle air
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
conditioners could be too dry for passenger and crew comfort.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
A water infiltration system can then be used to introduce moisture into the
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
conditioned air. In a water infiltration system, the humidity level in the cabin is
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
monitored. Water is pumped from a holding tank and sprayed into the conditioned
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
air before it is directed into the cabin.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
An electronic humidity controller is used to signal the pump to operate.

pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.171
psi.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
PRESSURIZATION
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.172
The gases of the atmosphere (air), although invisible, have weight. A one square inch
column of air stretching from sea level into space weighs 14.7 pounds. Therefore, it can be
stated that the pressure of the atmosphere, or atmospheric pressure, at sea level is 14.7
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
measured with a barometer.

d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
atmosphere is what is measured
The weight exerted by a 1 square
sea level to the top of the

inch column of air stretching from
per square inch. Atmospheric

when it is said that atmospheric
pressure is also known as

pressure is equal to 14.7 pounds
barometric pressure and is

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
PRESSURIZATION
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.173
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
PRESSURIZATION TERMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The following terms should be understood for the discussion of pressurization
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
and cabin environmental systems that follows:
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
1. Cabin altitude - given the air pressure inside the cabin, the altitude on a
te b e w rig o
standard day that has the same pressure as that in the cabin. Rather than
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
saying the pressure inside the cabin is 10.92 psi, it can be said that the cabin
m
e s
altitude is 8 000 feet (MSL).
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
2. Cabin differential pressure - the difference between the air pressure inside
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
the cabin and the air pressure outside the cabin. Cabin pressure (psi) -
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ambient pressure (psi) = cabin differential pressure (psid or ? psi).

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
3. Cabin rate of climb - the rate of change of air pressure inside the cabin,
pi lec un e
li
Al
expressed in feet per minute (fpm) of cabin altitude change.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.174
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
PRESSURIZATION SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
Pressurizing an aircraft cabin assists in making flight possible in the hostile
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
environment of the upper atmosphere. The degree of pressurization and
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the operating altitude of any aircraft are limited by critical design factors. A
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
cabin pressurization system must accomplish several functions if it is to
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
ensure adequate passenger comfort and safety. It must be capable of
te b e w rig o
maintaining a cabin pressure altitude of approximately 8 000 feet or lower
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
regardless of the cruising altitude of the aircraft. This is to ensure that
m
passengers and crew have enough oxygen present at sufficient pressure to
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
facilitate full blood saturation. A pressurization system must also be

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
designed to prevent rapid changes of cabin pressure, which can be

bu e ed a ta
uncomfortable or injurious to passengers and crew. Additionally, a

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
pressurization system should circulate air from inside the cabin to the
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
outside at a rate that quickly eliminates odors and to remove stale air.
co tel ny Th form
Cabin air must also be heated or cooled on pressurized aircraft. Typically,

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
these functions are incorporated into the pressurization source.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.175
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
To pressurize, a portion of the aircraft designed to contain air at a pressure
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
higher than outside atmospheric pressure must be sealed. A wide variety
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
of materials facilitate this. Compressible seals around doors combine with
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
various other seals, grommets, and sealants to essentially establish an air
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
tight pressure vessel. This usually includes the cabin, flight compartment,
te b e w rig o
and the baggage compartments. Air is then pumped into this area at a
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
constant rate sufficient to raise the pressure slightly above that which is
m
needed. Control is maintained by adjusting the rate at which the air is
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
allowed to flow out of the aircraft.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
A key factor in pressurization is the ability of the fuselage to withstand the

bu e ed a ta
forces associated with the increase in pressure inside the structure versus
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the ambient pressure outside. This differential pressure can range from 3.5
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
psi for a single Engine reciprocating aircraft, to approximately 9 psi on high

co tel ny Th form
performance jet aircraft.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.176
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.177
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CONTROL OF CABIN PRESSURE
PRESSURIZATION MODES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Aircraft cabin pressurization can be controlled via two different modes of
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
operation.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
-The first is the isobaric mode, which works to maintain cabin altitude at a
te b e w rig o
single pressure despite the changing altitude of the aircraft.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
For example, the flight crew may select to maintain a cabin altitude of 8 000
m
feet (10.92 psi). In the isobaric mode, the cabin pressure is established at the 8
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
000 foot level and remains at this level, even as the altitude of the aircraft
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
fluctuates.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
-The second mode of pressurization control is the constant differential mode,

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
which controls cabin pressure to maintain a constant pressure difference

co tel ny Th form
between the air pressure inside the cabin and the ambient air pressure,
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
regardless of aircraft altitude changes. The constant differential mode pressure

differential is lower than the maximum differential pressure for which the
in A
airframe is designed, keeping the integrity of the pressure vessel intact.

Rev.00| Pag.178
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CONTROL OF CABIN PRESSURE
PRESSURIZATION MODES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
When in isobaric mode, the pressurization system maintains the cabin altitude selected
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
by the crew. This is the condition for normal operations. But when the aircraft climbs
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
beyond a certain altitude, maintaining the selected cabin altitude may result in a

em o ta co s, t a
w
differential pressure above that for which the airframe was designed.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
-In this case, the mode of pressurization automatically switches from isobaric to

r w d s te co in
constant differential mode. This occurs before the cabins max differential pressure limit
io de es on y in
m
is reached.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
-A constant differential pressure is then maintained, regardless of the selected cabin

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
altitude. In addition to the modes of operation described above, the rate of change of
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the cabin pressure, also known as the cabin rate of climb or descent, is also controlled.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
This can be done automatically or manually by the flight crew. Typical rates of change
n
pi lec un e
li
for cabin pressure are 300 to 500 fpm. Also, note that modes of pressurization may also
Al
refer to automatic versus standby versus manual operation of the pressurization system.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.179
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pressurization panel in the cockpit.

io de es on y in
altitude change, and barometric
The cabin pressure controller is the
desired cabin altitude, rate of cabin

cabin pressure. Selections for the
to the pressure controller from

pressure setting are all made directly
pneumatic means for controlling
pressure. Older aircraft use strictly
device used to control the cabin air
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
CABIN PRESSURE CONTROLLERS
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.180
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.181
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Modern pressurization control is fully automatic once variable selections are made on
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
the pressurization control panel if, in fact, there are any to be made.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Entering or selecting a flight plan into the FMS of some aircraft automatically supplies

em o ta co s, t a
w
the pressurization controller with the parameters needed to establish the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
pressurization schedule for the entire flight.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
No other input is needed from the crew
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
All pressurization systems contain a manual mode that can override automatic control.
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
This can be used in flight or on the ground during maintenance. The operator selects
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the manual mode on the pressurization control panel. A separate switch is used to
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
position the outflow valve open or closed to control cabin pressure.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.182
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.183
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CONTROL VALVE (OUTFLOW VALVE)
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Controlling cabin pressurization is accomplished through regulating the amount of air that
ex w o io n o
f
flows out of the cabin. A cabin outflow valve opens, closes, or modulates to establish the
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
amount of air pressure maintained in the cabin. Some outflow valves contain the pressure
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
regulating and the valve mechanism in a single unit. They operate pneumatically in
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
response to the settings on the cockpit pressurization panel that influence the balance
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
between cabin and ambient air pressure.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.184
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
CONTROL VALVE (OUTFLOW VALVE)
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
Pneumatic operation of outflow valves is
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
common. It is simple, reliable, and eliminates
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
the need to convert air pressure operating
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
variables into some other form.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Diaphragms, springs, metered orifices, jet
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
pumps, bellows, and poppet valves are used to

do gh o ote in
sense and manipulate cabin and ambient air

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
pressures to correctly position the outflow

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
valve without the use of electricity.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
Outflow valves that combine the use of

n
pi lec un e
li
electricity with pneumatic operation have all-

Al
pneumatic standby and manual modes, as

shown in the next figure
in A
Rev.00| Pag.185
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CABIN AIR PRESSURE SAFETY VALVE OPERATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The figure shows cabin air pressure safety valves on a
ex w o io n o
f
large transport category aircraft. On most aircraft,
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
safety valves are set to open between 8 and 10 psid.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Pressurization safety valves are used to prevent the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
over pressurization of the aircraft cabin.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
They open at a preset differential pressure and allow
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
air to flow out of the cabin. Wide-body transport
m
category aircraft cabins may have more than one
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
cabin pressurization safety valve.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Some outflow valves incorporate the safety valve

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
function into their design. This is common on some

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
corporate jets when two outflow valves are used.

co tel ny Th form
One outflow valve operates as the primary and the

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
other as a secondary. Both contain a pilot valve that

opens when the pressure differential increases to a
in A
preset value. This, in turn, opens the outflow valve(s)

to prevent further pressurization. Rev.00| Pag.186
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
PRESSURIZATION INDICATION
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
On modern aircraft equipped with digital aircraft monitoring systems with LCD displays,
ex w o io n o
of
such as Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) or Electronic Centralized
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Aircraft Monitor (ECAM), the pressurization panel may contain no gauges. The
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
environmental control system (ECS) page of the monitoring system is selected to
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
display similar information. Increased use of automatic redundancy and advanced
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
operating logic simplifies operation of the pressurization system. It is almost completely
te b e w rig o
automatic. The cabin pressurization panel remains in the cockpit primarily for manual
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
control.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.187
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
PRESSURIZATION OPERATION
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The normal mode of operation for most pressurization control systems is the
ex w o io n o
of
automatic mode. A standby mode can also be selected. This also provides automatic
h d a e
ro in t re m op
control of pressurization, usually with different inputs, a standby controller, or
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
standby outflow valve operation.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
A manual mode is available should the automatic and standby modes fail. This
te b e w rig o
allows the crew to directly position the outflow valve through pneumatic or electric
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
control, depending on the system.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Coordination of all pressurization components during various flight segments is

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
essential. A weight-on-wheels (WOW) switch attached to the landing gear and a

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
throttle position switch are integral parts of many pressurization control systems.
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
During ground operations and prior to takeoff, the WOW switch typically controls
co tel ny Th form
the position of the pressurization safety valve, which is held in the open position
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
until the aircraft takes off.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.188
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
PRESSURIZATION OPERATION
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
In an advanced system, the WOW switch may give input to the pressurization controller,
ex w o io n o
of
which in turn controls the positions and operation of all pressurization components. In
h d a e
ro in t re m op
other systems, the WOW switch may directly control the safety valve or a pneumatic
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
source valve that causes the safety valve to be held open until the source is cut at takeoff
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
when the WOW switch opens.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Throttle position switches can be used to cause a smooth transition from an
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
unpressurized cabin to a pressurized cabin. A partial closing of the outflow valve(s) when
m
e s
the WOW switch is closed (on the ground) and the throttles are advanced gradually
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
initiates pressurization during rollout.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
Once in flight, the pressurization controller automatically controls the sequence of

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
operation of the pressurization components until the aircraft lands. When the WOW
ed tu a co ati
switch closes again at landing, it opens the safety valve(s) and, in some aircraft, the
co tel ny Th form
outflow valve(s) makes pressurizing impossible on the ground in the automatic

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
pressurization mode. Maintenance testing of the system is done in manual mode. This
allows the technician to control the position of all valves from the cockpit panel.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.189
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
PROTECTION AND WARNING DEVICES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
One of the major concerns with pressurization and air conditioning systems is
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
overheating. A leak anywhere in pneumatic system ducting can pose a fire hazard.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Often a continuous loop fire detector will be run the length of pneumatic ducting
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
or around a bay containing pneumatic lines such as the air conditioning and APU
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
bays.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Warning annunciations occur in the cockpit on the central warning panel should
m
an over heat caused by a pneumatic leak be detected. Typically the flow of
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
pneumatic air in the indicated section of the pneumatic system is shut off. This is
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
done by closing an isolation valve or shutoff valve. System redundancy permits

bu e ed a ta
safe operation with the remaining (functioning) portion of the pneumatic system.
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.190
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
PROTECTION AND WARNING DEVICES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Most air conditioning pack operation is protected by thermal switch monitoring.
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
At the pack outlet before the air enters the distribution system, temperature
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
detection switches shut down the pack should an overheat occur. The pack can
re ed e s e aw en
.
typically be reset and operated again manually in case the overheat occurred due
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
to a failure of the automatic temperature control system. Smoke detection is
te b e w rig o
sometimes used in the cabin, cargo bays, lavatories and other areas of the aircraft
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
with controlled operating environments.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Warnings are indicated on the central warning system.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
Cabin altitude must be maintained in the range of human survival. Failure of the
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
pressurization system could put this in jeopardy. Most pressurized aircraft are fitted
n
pi lec un e
with excess cabin altitude sensors. When cabin air pressure becomes insufficient at
li
Al
around 10 000 feet cabin altitude, a warning is annunciated on the central warning
system. The warning may be aural or visual. Flight crew may immediately utilize
in A
emergency oxygen to maintain control of the aircraft and to avoid hypoxia.

Rev.00| Pag.191
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SYSTEMS N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
INSTRUMENTS/AVIONIC
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.192
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
navigation, and communication.

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
now exist to provide information on the condition
From that simple beginning, a wide variety of
attitude in the sky, weather, cabin environment,

of the aircraft, engine, components, the aircrafts
crews of different parameters. Instrument systems
instruments have been developed to inform flight
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.193
INSTRUMENTS/AVIONIC SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
cockpit.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
The ability to capture and convey all of the
sensory overload or over cluttering the

grown, so too have the size and complexity of
easily understood manner, has been a
information a pilot may want, in an accurate,
As the range of desired information has

challenge throughout the history of aviation.
modern aircraft, thus expanding even further

the need to inform the flight crew without
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.194
INTRODUCTION
method.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
These are called direct-sensing instruments. Remote-sensing requires the
information to be sensed, or captured, and then sent to a separate display
unit in the cockpit. Both analog and digital instruments make use of this
both of these functions often take place in a single unit or instrument (case).
senses the situation and the other part displays it. In analog instruments,
There are usually two parts to any instrument or instrument system. One part
Rev.00| Pag.195
INTRODUCTION
TURBINE AEROPLANE INSTRUMENTS/AVIONIC SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The relaying of important bits of information can be done in various ways.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Electricity is often used by way of wires that carry sensor information into the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
cockpit. Sometimes pneumatic lines are used. An added bonus is the
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
increased reliability inherent in these solid-state systems. It is the job of the
te b e w rig o
aircraft technician to understand and maintain all aircraft, including these
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
various instrument systems. Accordingly, in this chapter, discussions begin
m
with analog instruments and refer to modern digital instrumentation when
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
appropriate.
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.196
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
CLASSIFYING INSTRUMENTS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The instruments used in controlling the aircrafts
of
h d a e
flight attitude are known as the flight instruments.
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
There are basic flight instruments, such as the
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
altimeter that displays aircraft altitude; the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
airspeed indicator; and the magnetic direction
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
indicator, a form of compass. Additionally, an

r w d s te co in
artificial horizon, turn coordinator, and vertical
io de es on y in
speed indicator are flight instruments present in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
most aircraft.
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Much variation exists for these instruments, which

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
is explained throughout this chapter. Over the

, d al uth nt on
years, flight instruments have come to be situated

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
similarly on the instrument panels in most aircraft.

n
pi lec un e
li
This basic T arrangement for flight instruments is

Al
shown in the figure.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.197
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The open end of this coiled tube is fixed in place and the other end is sealed and free to
of
h d a e
move. When a fluid that needs to be measured is directed into the open end of the
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
tube, the unfixed portion of the coiled tube tends to straighten out. The higher the
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
pressure of the fluid, the more the tube straightens. When the pressure is reduced, the
re ed e s e aw en
.
tube recoils. A pointer is attached to this moving end of the tube, usually through a
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
linkage of small shafts and gears. By calibrating this motion of the straightening tube, a
te b e w rig o
face or dial of the instrument can be created. Thus, by observing the pointer movement
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
along the scale of the instrument face positioned behind it, pressure increases and
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
decreases are communicated to the pilot.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.198
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Bourdon tube gauges are simple and
h d a e
ro in t re m op
reliable. Some of the instruments that use a
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Bourdon tube mechanism include the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
engine oil pressure gauge, hydraulic
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
pressure gauge, oxygen tank pressure
te b e w rig o
gauge, and de-ice boot pressure gauge.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Since the pressure of the vapor produced by
m
e s
a heated liquid or gas increases as
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
temperature increases, Bourdon tube

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
mechanisms can also be used to measure

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
temperature. This is done by calibrating the

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
pointer connecting linkage and relabeling

ed tu a co ati
the face of the gauge with a temperature

co tel ny Th form
scale. Oil temperature gauges often employ

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
Bourdon tube mechanisms.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.199
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
The diaphragm and bellows are two
h d a e
ro in t re m op
other basic sensing mechanisms
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
employed in aircraft instruments for
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
pressure measurement. The
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
diaphragm is a hollow, thin-walled
te b e w rig o
metal disk, usually corrugated. When
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pressure is introduced through an
m
opening on one side of the disk, the
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
entire disk expands. By placing linkage

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
in contact against the other side of the

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
disk, the movement of the pressurized

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
diaphragm can be transferred to a

ed tu a co ati
pointer that registers the movement

co tel ny Th form
against the scale on the instrument

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
face.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.200
most
instruments.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
common
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
altimeter, airspeed indicator, and
the air for their indications. The
points to the instruments that require
connecting these air pressure pickup
vertical speed indicator are the three

On simple aircraft, this may consist of
pitot-static
pressure ports and leak-free tubing
tube with impact and static air
a pitot-static system head or pitot
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
PITOT TUBES AND STATIC VENTS
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.201
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
. It is open and faces into the airstream to receive the full force of the impact air
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
pressure as the aircraft moves forward. This air passes through a baffled plate designed
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
to protect the system from moisture and dirt entering the tube.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Below the baffle, a drain
te b e w rig o
hole is provided, allowing
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
moisture to escape. The
m
ram air is directed aft to a
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
chamber in the shark fin of

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the assembly. An upright

bu e ed a ta
tube, or riser, leads this

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
pressurized air out of the

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
pitot assemble to the

co tel ny Th form
airspeed indicator.
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.202
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
opposite sides of the fuselage and connected with Y tubing for input to the instruments.
Separate static vents are used to collect static air pressure information. Usually, these
are located flush on the side of the fuselage. (Figure 5-26) There may be two or more
for the pilot and first officers instruments. Also, two primary vents may be located on
vents. A primary and alternate source vent is typical, as well as separate dedicated vents
Rev.00| Pag.203
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.204
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.205
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Remote Indicating Fuel and Oil Pressure Gauges
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
Fuel and oil pressure indications can be conveniently obtained through the use of
,
Sa n nt
ol
synchro systems. As stated previously, running fuel and oil lines into the cabin to
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
direct reading gauges is not desirable. Increased risk of fire in the cabin and the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
additional weight of the lines are two primary deterrents. By locating the transmitter
te b e w rig o
of a synchro system remotely, fluid pressure can be directed into it without a long
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
tubing run. Inside the transmitter, the motion of a pressure bellows can be geared to
m
e s
the transmitter rotor in such a way as to make the rotor turn.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
As in all synchros, the transmitter rotor turns proportional to the pressure sensed,
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
which varies the voltages set up in the resistor windings of the synchro stator. These
, d al uth nt on
voltages are transmitted to the indicator coils that develop the magnetic field that
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
positions the pointer.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.206
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
Remote Indicating Fuel and Oil Pressure Gauges
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.207
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
STALL WARNING AND ANGLE OF
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
ATTACK (AOA) INDICATORS
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
An aircrafts angle of attack (AOA) is the angle formed between the wing cord
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
centerline and the relative wind. At a certain angle, airflow over the wing surfaces is
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
insufficient to create enough lift to keep the aircraft flying, and a stall occurs. An
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
instrument that monitors the AOA allows the pilot to avoid such a condition.
te b e w rig o
The simplest form of AOA indicator is a stall warning device that does not have a
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
gauge located in the cockpit. It uses an aural tone to warn of an impending stall due to
m
e s
an increase in AOA. This is done by placing a reed in a cavity just aft of the leading
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
edge of the wing. The cavity has an open passage to a precise point on the leading
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
edge. In flight, air flows over and under a wing. The point on the wing leading edge
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
where the oncoming air diverges is known as the point of stagnation. As the AOA of
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
the wing increases, the point of stagnation moves down below the open passage that
ed tu a co ati
leads inside the wing to the reed. Air flowing over the curved leading edge speeds up
co tel ny Th form
and causes a low pressure. This causes air to be sucked out of the inside of the wing
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
through the passage. The reed vibrates as the air rushes by making a sound audible in
the cockpit.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.208
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ATTACK (AOA) INDICATORS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
STALL WARNING AND ANGLE OF
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.209
INTRODUCTION
S
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Remote Indicating Slaved Gyro Compass
of
h d a e
(Flux Gate Compass)
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
An elaborate and very accurate method of direction indication has been
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
developed that combines the use of a gyro, a magnetic compass, and a remote
re ed e s e aw en
.
indicating system. It is called the slaved gyro compass or flux gate compass
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
system. A study of the gyroscopic instruments section of this chapter assists in

understanding this device.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
A gyroscopic direction indicator is augmented by magnetic direction information
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
from a remotely located compass. The type of compass used is called a flux
do gh o ote in
valve or flux gate compass. It consists of a very magnetically permeable circular

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
segmented core frame or spider. The earths magnetic field flows through this
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
iron core and varies its distribution through segments of the core as the flux
, d al uth nt on
valve is rotated via the movement of the aircraft. Pickup coil windings are
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
located on each of the cores spider legs that are positioned 120 apart.
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.210
(Flux
Al
li Remote
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
Indicating
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
Gate
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
Slaved

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , o ig t-A
Gyro
gl h no N n r T f
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Compass)
Compass
Rev.00| Pag.211
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
SYNCHRO TYPE REMOTE-INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
A synchro system is an electric system used for transmitting information from
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
one point to another. The word synchro is a shortened form of the word
of
h d a e
synchronous and refers to any one of a number of similarly operating two unit
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
electrical systems capable of measuring, transmitting, and indicating a certain
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
parameter on the aircraft
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
DC Selsyn Systems

r w d s te co in
On aircraft with direct current (DC) electrical systems, the DC selsyn system is
io de es on y in
m
widely used. As mentioned, the selsyn system consists of a transmitter, an
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
indicator, and connecting wires. The transmitter consists of a circular resistance

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
winding and a rotatable contact arm

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.212
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
SYNCHRO TYPE REMOTE-INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
Aircraft with alternating current (AC) electrical power systems make use of autosyn or
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
magnasysn synchro remote indicating systems. Both operate in a similar way to the
of
h d a e
DC selsyn system, except that AC power is used. Thus, they make use of electric
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
induction, rather than resistance current flows defined by the rotor brushes.
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
Magnasyn systems use permanent magnet rotors such a those found in the DC selsyn
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
system. Usually, the transmitter magnet is larger than the indicator magnet, but the
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
electromagnetic response of the indicator rotor magnet and pointer remains the

r w d s te co in
same. It aligns with the magnetic field set up by the coils, adopting the same angle of
io de es on y in
deflection as the transmitter rotor
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.213
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
Turbine Gas Temperature Indicating Systems
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.214
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
MAGNETIC COMPASS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.215
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
PRINCIPLES OF GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Gyroscopic rigidity depends upon several design factors:
of
h d a e
1. Weight for a given size - a heavy mass is more resistant to disturbing forces than a
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
light mass.
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
2. Angular velocity - the higher the rotational speed, the greater the rigidity or
re ed e s e aw en
.
resistance is to deflection.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
3. Radius at which the weight is concentrated - maximum effect is obtained from a
te b e w rig o
mass when its principal weight is concentrated near the rim, rotating at high speed.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
4. Bearing friction - any friction applies a deflecting force to a gyro. Minimum
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
bearing friction keeps deflecting forces at a minimum.

do gh o ote in
This characteristic of gyros to remain rigid in space is exploited in the attitude-

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
indicating instruments and the directional indicators that use gyros

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.216
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
PRINCIPLES OF GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Precession is a second important characteristic of gyroscopes. By applying a force to
of
h d a e
the horizontal axis of the gyro, a unique phenomenon occurs. The applied force is
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
resisted. Instead of responding to the force by moving about the horizontal axis, the
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
gyro moves in response about its vertical axis. an applied force to the axis of the
re ed e s e aw en
.
spinning gyro does not cause the axis to tilt. Rather, the gyro responds as though the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
force was applied 90 around in the direction of rotation of the gyro rotor.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.217
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ATTITUDE INDICATOR
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.218
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The gyro spins in a vertical plane aligned with the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
do gh o ote in
When the aircraft rotates about its vertical axis during a turn, the force experienced by
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the spinning gyro is exerted about the vertical axis. Due to precession, the reaction of
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the gyro rotor is 90 further around the gyro in the direction of spin. This means the
, d al uth nt on
reaction to the force around the vertical axis is movement around the longitudinal axis
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
of the aircraft. This causes the top of the rotor to tilt to the left or right. The pointer is
n
pi lec un e
li
attached with linkage that makes the pointer deflect in the opposite direction, which
Al
matches the direction of turn. So, the aircrafts turn around the vertical axis is indicated
around the longitudinal axis on the gauge. This is intuitive to the pilot when regarding
in A
the instrument, since the pointer indicates in the same direction as the turn
Rev.00| Pag.219
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
GLASS COCKPIT
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
systems monitor the processes and components of an operating
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
have replaced individual mechanical gauges. Moreover, computers and computer
instrumentation. In reality, it also refers to the use of computer-produced images that
"Glass cockpit" is a term that refers to the use of flat-panel display screens in cockpit
Rev.00| Pag.220
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
AUTO FLIGHT
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
The primary purpose of an autopilot system is to reduce the work strain and fatigue of
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
controlling the aircraft during long flights. Most autopilots have both manual and
re ed e s e aw en
.
automatic modes of operation. In the manual mode, the pilot selects each maneuver
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
and makes small inputs into an autopilot controller. The autopilot system moves the
te b e w rig o
control surfaces of the aircraft to perform the maneuver. In automatic mode, the pilot
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
selects the attitude and direction desired for a flight segment. The autopilot then
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
moves the control surfaces to attain and maintain these parameters

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Autopilot systems provide for one , two , or three axis control of an aircraft. Those that
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
manage the aircraft around only one axis control the ailerons
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.221
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
AUTO FLIGHT

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.222
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
AUTO FLIGHT
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
The output elements of an autopilot system are the servos that cause actuation of the
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
flight control surfaces. They are independent devices for each of the control channels
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
that integrate into the regular flight control system. Autopilot servo designs vary widely
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
depending on the method of actuation of the flight controls. Cable-actuated systems

co tel ny Th form
typically utilize electric servo motors or electro-pneumatic servos. Hydraulic actuated

n
pi lec un e
li
flight control systems use electro-hydraulic autopilot servos.

Al
Digital fly-by-wire aircraft utilize the same actuators for carrying out manual and
in A
autopilot maneuvers. When the autopilot is engaged, the actuators respond to

commands from the autopilot rather than exclusively from the pilot
Rev.00| Pag.223
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
AUTO FLIGHT
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
Aircraft with cable actuated control surfaces use two basic types of electric motor
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
operated servos. In one, a motor is connected to the servo output shaft through
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
reduction gears. The motor starts, stops, and reverses direction in response to the
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
commands of autopilot computer. The other type of electric servo uses a constantly
co tel ny Th form
running motor geared to the output shaft through two magnetic clutches. The clutches
n
pi lec un e
li
are arranged so that energizing one clutch transmits motor torque to turn the output
Al
shaft in one direction; energizing the other clutch turns the shaft in the opposite
in A
direction
Rev.00| Pag.224
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
AUTO FLIGHT
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Command Elements
of
h d a e
The command unit, called a flight controller, is the human
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
interface of the autopilot. It allows the pilot to tell the
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
autopilot what to do. Flight controllers vary with the
re ed e s e aw en
.
complexity of the autopilot system. By pressing the desired
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
function buttons, the pilot causes the controller to send

instruction signals to the autopilot computer, enabling it to
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
activate the proper servos to carry out the command(s).
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Level flight, climbs, descents, turning to a heading, or flying

do gh o ote in
a desired heading are some of the choices available on most

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
autopilots. Many aircraft make use of a multitude of radio

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
navigational aids. These can be selected to issue commands

, d al uth nt on
directly to the autopilot computer

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.225
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
AUTO FLIGHT
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Feedback or Follow up Element
of
h d a e
As an autopilot maneuvers the flight controls to attain a desired flight attitude, it must
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
reduce control surface correction as the desired attitude is nearly attained so the
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
controls and aircraft come to rest on course. Without doing so, the system would
re ed e s e aw en
.
continuously over correct. Surface deflection would occur until the desired attitude is
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
attained. But movement would still occur as the surface(s) returned to pre-error

position. The attitude sensor would once again detect an error and begin the correction
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
process all over again. pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Various electric feedback, or follow up signals, are generated to progressively reduce

do gh o ote in
the error message in the autopilot so that continuous over correction does not take
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
place. This is typically done with transducers on the surface actuators or in the autopilot
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
servo units
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.226
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM (AFCS)
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
An aircraft autopilot with many features and various autopilot related systems
ex w o io n o
of
integrated into a single system is called an automatic flight control system (AFCS).
h d a e
ro in t re m op
These were formerly found only on high-performance aircraft. Currently, due to
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
advances in digital technology for aircraft, modern aircraft of any size may have AFCS.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
AFCS capabilities vary from system to system. Some of the advances beyond ordinary
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
autopilot systems are the extent of programmability, the level of integration of
te b e w rig o
navigational aids, the integration of flight director and autothrottle systems, and
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
combining of the command elements of these various systems into a single integrated
m
e s
flight control human interface
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
It is at the AFCS level of integration that an autothrottle system is integrated into the
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
flight director and autopilot systems with glide scope modes so that auto landings are
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
possible. Small general aviation aircraft being produced with AFCS may lack the
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
throttle-dependent features
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.227
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
A flight director system is an instrument system consisting of electronic components
ex w o io n o
of
that compute and indicate the aircraft attitude required to attain and maintain a
h d a e
ro in t re m op
preselected flight condition. A command bar on the aircrafts attitude indicator shows
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the pilot how much and in what direction the attitude of the aircraft must be changed
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
to achieve the desired result. The computed command indications relieve the pilot of
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
many of the mental calculations required for instrument flights, such as interception
te b e w rig o
angles, wind drift correction, and rates of climb and descent. Essentially, a flight
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
director system is an autopilot system without the servos.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
The instrument that displays the f light director commands is known as a flight
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
director indicator (FDI), attitude director indicator (ADI), or electronic attitude

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
director indicator (EADI). It may even be referred to as an artificial horizon with flight
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
director. This display element combines with the other primary components of the
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
flight director system. Like an autopilot, these consist of the sensing elements, a
n
computer, and an interface panel. Integration of navigation features into the attitude
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
indicator is highly useful

in A
Rev.00| Pag.228
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
VOR NAVIGATION SYSTEM
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
VOR uses VHF radio waves (108-117.95 MHz) with 50
ex w o io n o
of
kHz separation between each channel. This keeps
h d a e
ro in t re m op
atmospheric interference to a minimum but limits the
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
VOR to line-of-sight usage. To receive VOR VHF radio
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
waves, generally a V-shaped, horizontally polarized, bi-
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
pole antenna is used. A typical location for the V dipole is
te b e w rig o
in the vertical fin. Other type antennas are also certified.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Follow the manufacturers instructions for installation
m
e s
location.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
The signals produced by a VOR transmitter propagate

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
360 from the unit and are used by aircraft to navigate to

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
and from the station with the help of an onboard VOR

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
receiver and display instruments. A pilot is not required

n
to fly a pattern to intersect the signal from a VOR station

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
since it propagates out in every direction. The radio

waves are received as long as the aircraft is in range of
in A
the ground unit and regardless of the aircrafts direction

of travel. Rev.00| Pag.229
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
VOR NAVIGATION SYSTEM
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
A VOR transmitter produces two signals that a receiver on board an aircraft uses to
ex w o io n o
of
locate itself in relation to the ground station. One signal is a reference signal. The
h d a e
ro in t re m op
second is produced by electronically rotating a variable signal. The variable signal is in
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
phase with the reference signal when at magnetic north, but becomes increasingly
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
out of phase as it is rotated to 180. As it continues to rotate to 360 (0), the signals
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
become increasingly in phase until they are in phase again at magnetic north. The
te b e w rig o
receiver in the aircraft deciphers the phase difference and determines the aircrafts
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
position in degrees from the VOR ground based unit.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.230
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF)
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
An automatic direction finder (ADF) operates off of a ground signal transmitted from
ex w o io n o
of
a NDB. Early radio direction finders (RDF) used the same principle.
h d a e
ro in t re m op
A vertically polarized antenna was used to transmit LF frequency radio waves in the
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
190 kHz to 535 kHz range. A receiver on the aircraft was tuned to the transmission
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
frequency of the NDB. Using a loop antenna, the direction to (or from) the antenna
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
could be determined by monitoring the strength of the signal received. This was
te b e w rig o
possible because a radio wave striking a loop antenna broadside induces a null signal.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
When striking it in the plane of the loop, a much stronger signal is induced. The NDB
m
e s
signals were modulated with unique Morse code pulses that enabled the pilot to
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
identify the beacon to which he or she was navigating.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.231
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
RMI
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) To save space in the instrument
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
panel and to consolidate related information into one easy to use
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
location, the radio magnetic RMI combines indications from a
ex w o io n o
magnetic compass, VOR, and ADF into one instrument.
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
The azimuth card of the RMI is rotated by a remotely located flux

em o ta co s, t a
w
gate compass. Thus, the magnetic heading of the aircraft is always
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
indicated. The lubber line is usually a marker or triangle at the top
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
of the instrument dial. The VOR receiver drives the solid pointer to
r w d s te co in
indicate the magnetic direction TO a tuned VOR station. When the
io de es on y in
m
ADF is tuned to an NDB, the double, or hollow pointer, indicates
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
the magnetic bearing TO the NDB.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
Since the flux gate compass continuously adjusts the azimuth card
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
so that the aircraft heading is at the top of the instrument, pilot

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
workload is reduced. The pointers indicate where the VOR and ADF
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
transmission stations are located in relationship to where the

co tel ny Th form
aircraft is currently positioned. Push buttons allow conversion of

n
pi lec un e
li
either pointer to either ADF or VOR for navigation involving two of

Al
one type of station and none of the other

in A
Rev.00| Pag.232
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEMS (ILS)
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
An ILS is used to land an aircraft when visibility is poor. This radio navigation system
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
guides the aircraft down a slope to the touch down area on the runway. Multiple radio
ex w o io n o
of
transmissions are used that enable an exact approach to landing with an ILS. A localizer
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
is one of the radio transmissions. It is used to provide horizontal guidance to the center
,
Sa n nt
ol
line of the runway. A separate glideslope broadcast provides vertical guidance of the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
aircraft down the proper slope to the touch down point. Compass locator transmissions
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
for outer and middle approach marker beacons aid the pilot in intercepting the
te b e w rig o
approach navigational aid system
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Localizer pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
The localizer broadcast is a VHF broadcast in the lower range of the VOR frequencies
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
(108 MHz-111.95 MHz) on odd frequencies only. Two modulated signals are produced
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
from a horizontally polarized antenna complex beyond the far end of the approach
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
runway. They create an expanding field that is 21/2 wide (about 1 500 feet) 5 miles
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
from the runway. The field tapers to runway width near the landing threshold. The left
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
side of the approach area is filled with a VHF carrier wave modulated with a 90 Hz
n
signal.
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.233
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEMS (ILS)
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Glideslope
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The vertical guidance required for an aircraft to descend
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
for a landing is provided by the glideslope of the ILS.

em o ta co s, t a
w
Radio signals funnel the aircraft down to the touchdown
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
point on the runway at an angle of approximately 3.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The transmitting glideslope antenna is located off to the
r w d s te co in
side of the approach runway approximately 1 000 feet
io de es on y in
m
from the threshold. It transmits in a wedge-like pattern
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
with the field narrowing as it approaches the runway.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
The glideslope transmitter antenna is horizontally

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
polarized. The transmitting frequency range is UHF

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
between 329.3 MHz and 335.0 MHz. The frequency is

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
paired to the localizer frequency of the ILS.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.234
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The DME is useful because with the bearing (from the VOR) and the distance to a
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
known point (the DME antenna at the VOR), a pilot can positively identify the location

em o ta co s, t a
w
of the aircraft. DME operates in the UHF frequency range from 962 MHz to 1 213
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
MHz. A carrier signal transmitted from the aircraft is modulated with a string of
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
integration pulses. The ground unit receives the pulses and returns a signal to the
r w d s te co in
aircraft.
io de es on y in
m
The time that transpires for the signal to be sent and returned is calculated and
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
converted into nautical miles for display. Time to station and speed are also
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
calculated and displayed. DME readout can be on a dedicated DME display or it can
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
be part of an EHSI, EADI, EFIS, or on the primary flight display in a glass cockpit
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.235
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
Area Navigation (RNAV)
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Area navigation (RNAV) is a general term used to describe the navigation from point A
ex w o io n o
of
to point B without direct over flight of navigational aids, such as VOR stations or ADF
h d a e
ro in t re m op
nondirectional beacons. It includes VORTAC and VOR/DME based systems, as well as
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
systems of RNAV based around LORAN, GPS, INS, and the FMS of transport category
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
aircraft. However, until recently, the term RNAV was most commonly used to describe
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
the area navigation or the process of direct flight from point A to point B using
te b e w rig o
VORTAC and VOR/DME based references which are discussed in this section.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
All RNAV systems make use of waypoints. A waypoint is a designated geographical
m
e s
location or point used for route definition or progress-reporting purposes. It can be
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
defined or described by using latitude/longitude grid coordinates or, in the case of

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
VOR based RNAV, described as a point on a VOR radial followed by that points
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
distance from the VOR.

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.236
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
RADAR BEACON TRANSPONDER
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
A radar beacon transponder, or simply, a transponder, provides positive identification
ex w o io n o
of
and location of an aircraft on the radar screens of ATC. For each aircraft equipped
h d a e
ro in t re m op
with an altitude encoder, the transponder also provides the pressure altitude of the
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
aircraft to be displayed adjacent to the on-screen blip that represents the aircraft.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Radar capabilities at airports vary. Generally, two types of radar are used by air traffic
te b e w rig o
control (ATC). The primary radar transmits directional UHF or SHF radio waves
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
sequentially in all directions. When the radio waves encounter an aircraft, part of
m
e s
those waves reflect back to a ground antenna. Calculations are made in a receiver to
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
determine the direction and distance of the aircraft from the transmitter
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
A secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is used by ATC to verify the aircrafts position
ed tu a co ati
and to add the third dimension of altitude to its location.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
SSD radar transmits coded pulse trains that are received by the transponder on board
the aircraft. Mode 3/A pulses, as they are known, aid in confirming the location of the
in A
aircraft.
Rev.00| Pag.237
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
When verbal communication is established with ATC, a pilot is instructed to select
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
one of 4 096 discrete codes on the transponder. These are digital octal codes. The
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
ground station transmits a pulse of energy at 1 030 MHz and the transponder

em o ta co s, t a
w
transmits a reply with the assigned code attached at 1 090 MHz.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
This confirms the aircraft's location typically by altering its target symbol on the radar
r w d s te co in
screen. As the screen may be filled with many confirmed aircraft, ATC can also ask the
io de es on y in
m
pilot to ident
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
By pressing the IDENT button on the transponder, it transmits in such a way that the
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
aircrafts target symbol is highlighted on the PPI to be distinguishable.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
To gain altitude clarification, the transponder control must be placed in the ALT or
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
Mode C position. The signal transmitted back to ATC in response to pulse

co tel ny Th form
interrogation is then modified with a code that places the pressure altitude of the
n
pi lec un e
li
aircraft next to the target symbol on the radar screen. The transponder gets the
Al
pressure altitude of the aircraft from an altitude encoder that is electrically

in A
connected to the transponder

Rev.00| Pag.238
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Altitude Encoders
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Altitude encoders convert the aircrafts pressure altitude into a code sent by the

em o ta co s, t a
w
transponder to ATC. Increments of 100 feet are usually reported. Encoders have
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
varied over the years.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
Some are built into the altimeter instrument used in the instrument panel and
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
connected by wires to the transponder. Others are mounted out of sight on an

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
avionics rack or similar out of the way place. These are known as blind encoders. On
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
transport category aircraft, the altitude encoder may be a large black box with a static
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
line connection to an internal aneroid. Modern general aviation encoders are smaller
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
and more lightweight, but still often feature an internal aneroid and static line
co tel ny Th form
connection.
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.239
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Altitude Encoders
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
When a transponder selector is set on ALT, the digital pulse message sent in response

em o ta co s, t a
w
to the secondary surveillance radar interrogation becomes the digital representation
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
of the pressure altitude of the aircraft. There are 1 280 altitude codes, one for each
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
100 feet of altitude between 1 200 feet mean sea level (MSL) and 126 700 feet MSL.
r w d s te co in
Each altitude increment is assigned a code. While these would be 1280 of the same
io de es on y in
m
codes used for location and IDENT, the Mode C (or S) interrogation deactivates the 4
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
096 location codes and causes the encoder to become active. The correct altitude
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
code is sent to the transponder that replies to the interrogation. The SSR receiver
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
recognized this as a response to a Mode C (or S) interrogation and interprets the code
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
as altitude code.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.240
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEMS
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The ever increasing volume of air traffic has caused a corresponding increase in
ex w o io n o
of
concern over collision avoidance. no longer adequate in todays increasingly crowded
h d a e
ro in t re m op
sk ies. Onboard col lision avoidance equipment, long a staple in larger aircraft, is now
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
common in general aviation aircraft. New applications of electronic technology
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
combined with lower costs make this possible.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS)
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Traffic collision avoidance systems (TCAS) are transponder based air-to-air traffic
m
e s
monitoring and alerting systems. There are two classes of TCAS. TCAS I was developed
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
to accommodate the general aviation community and regional airlines. This system
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
identifies traffic in a 35-40 mile range of the aircraft and issues Traffic Advisories (TA)
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
to assist pilots in visual acquisition of intruder aircraft. TCAS I is mandated on aircraft

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
with 10 to 30 seats.
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.241
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS)
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
TCAS II is a more sophisticated system. It is required internationally in aircraft with
ex w o io n o
of
more than 30 seats or weighing more than 15 000 kg. TCAS II provides the
h d a e
ro in t re m op
information of TCAS I, but also analyzes the projected flightpath of approaching
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
aircraft. If a collision or near miss is imminent, the TCAS II computer issues a
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
Resolution Advisory (RA). This is an aural command to the pilot to take a specific
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
evasive action (i.e., DESCEND). The computer is programmed such that the pilot in
te b e w rig o
the encroaching aircraft receives an RA for evasive action in the opposite direction (if
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
it is TCAS II equipped).
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.242
ADS-B INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Collision avoidance is a significant part of the FAAs NextGen plan for transforming the
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
U.S. National Airspace System (NAS). Increasing the number of aircraft using the same
ex w o io n o
quantity of airspace and ground facilities requires the implementation of new
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
technologies to maintain a high level of performance and safety. The successful
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
proliferation of global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), such as GPS, has led to the

em o ta co s, t a
w
development of a collision avoidance system known as automatic dependent
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
surveillance broadcast (ADS-B). ADS-B is an integral part of NextGen program. The
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
implementation of its ground and airborne infrastructure is currently underway. ADS-B

r w d s te co in
is active in parts of the United States and around the world.
io de es on y in
m
ADS-B is considered in two segments: ADS-B OUT and ADS-B IN. ADS-B OUT combines
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
the positioning information available from a GPS receiver with on-board flight status
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
information, i.e. location including altitude, velocity, and time. It then broadcasts this
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
information to other ADS-B equipped aircraft and ground stations.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.243
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ADS-B
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Two different frequencies are used to carry these broadcasts with data link capability.
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The first is an expanded use of the 1 090 MHz Mode-S transponder protocol known as
ex w o io n o
of
1 090 ES. The second, largely being introduced as a new broadband solution for
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
general aviation implementation of ADS-B, is at 978 MHz. A 978 universal access
,
Sa n nt
ol
transceiver (UAT) is used to accomplish this. An omni-directional antenna is required in
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
addition to the GPS antenna and receiver. Airborne receivers of an ADS-B broadcast
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
use the information to plot the location and movement of the transmitting aircraft on a
te b e w rig o
flight deck display similar to TCAS
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.244
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER (ELT)
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
An emergency locator transmitter (ELT) is an independent
ex w o io n o
of
battery powered transmitter activated by the excessive G-forces
h d a e
ro in t re m op
experienced during a crash. It transmits a digital signal every 50
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
seconds on a frequency of 406.025 MHz at 5 watts for at least 24
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
hours.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
The signal is received anywhere in the world by satellites in the
te b e w rig o
COSPAS-SARSAT satellite system. Two types of satellites, low
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
earth orbiting (LEOSATs) and geostationary satellites (GEOSATs)
m
e s
are used with different, complimentary capability. The signal is
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
partially processed and stored in the satellites and then relayed

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
to ground stations known as local user terminals (LUTs). Further

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
deciphering of a signal takes place at the LUTs, and appropriate

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
search and rescue operations are notified through mission

ed tu a co ati
control centers (MCCs) set up for this purpose. NOTE: Maritime

co tel ny Th form
vessel emergency locating beacons (EPIRBs) and personal locator

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
beacons (PLBs) use the exact same system. The United States
portion of the COSPAS-SARSAT system is maintained and
in A
operated by NOAA.
Rev.00| Pag.245
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Global positioning system navigation (GPS) is the fastest growing type of navigation in
ex w o io n o
of
aviation. It is accomplished through the use of NAVSTAR satellites set and maintained in
h d a e
ro in t re m op
orbit around the earth by the U.S. Government. Continuous coded transmissions from
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the satellites facilitate locating the position of an aircraft equipped with a GPS receiver
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
with extreme accuracy. GPS can be utilized on its own for en route navigation, or it can
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
be integrated into other navigation systems, such as VOR/RNAV, inertial reference, or
te b e w rig o
flight management systems.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
There are three segments of GPS: the space segment, the control segment, and the
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
user segment. Aircraft technicians are only involved with user segment equipment such
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
as GPS receivers, displays, and antennas. Twenty-four satellites (21 active, 3 spares) in
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
six separate plains of orbit 12 625 feet above the planet comprise what is known as the
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
space segment of the GPS system.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
The satellites are positioned such that in any place on earth at any one time, at least
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
four will be a minimum of 15 above the horizon. Typically, between 5 and 8 satellites
are in view
in A
Rev.00| Pag.246
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Two signals loaded with digitally coded information are transmitted from each satellite.
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The L1 channel transmission on a 1 575.42 MHz carrier frequency is used in civilian
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
aviation. Satellite identification, position, and time are conveyed to the aircraft GPS
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
receiver on this digitally modulated signal along with status and other information. An
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
L2 channel 1 227.60 MHz transmission is used by the military.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The amount of time it takes for signals to reach the aircraft GPS receiver from
m
e s
transmitting satellites is combined with each satellites exact location to calculate the
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
position of an aircraft. The control segment of the GPS monitors each satellite to
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
ensure its location and time are precise.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
This control is accomplished with five ground-based receiving stations, a master control
ed tu a co ati
station, and three transmitting antenna. The receiving stations forward status
co tel ny Th form
information received from the satellites to the master control station. Calculations are
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
made and corrective instructions are sent to the satellites via the transmitters.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.247
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The GPS receiver measures the time it takes for a signal
ex w o io n o
of
to arrive from three transmitting satellites. Since radio
h d a e
ro in t re m op
waves travel at 186 000 miles per second, the distance
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
to each satellite can be calculated.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
The intersection of these ranges provides a two
te b e w rig o
dimensional position of the aircraft. It is expressed in
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
latitude/longitude coordinates. By incorporating the
m
e s
distance to a fourth satellite, the altitude above the
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
surface of the earth can be calculated as well. This

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
results in a three dimensional fix. Additional satellite

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
inputs refine the accuracy of the position.

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
Having deciphered the position of the aircraft, the GPS

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
unit processes many useful navigational outputs such as

speed, direction, bearing to a waypoint, distance
in A
traveled, time of arrival, and more.

Rev.00| Pag.248
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
ELECTRICAL POWER
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.249
TURBINE AEROPLANE BATTERIES
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
PRIMARY CELL
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The dry cell is the most common type of primary cell battery and is similar in its
ex w o io n o
of
characteristics to that of an electrolytic cell.
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
This type of a battery is basically designed with a metal electrode or graphite rod
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
acting as the cathode (+) terminal, immersed in an electrolytic paste. This
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
electrodeelectrolytic build-up is then encased in a metal container, usually made of
te b e w rig o
zinc, which itself acts as the anode () terminal. When the battery is in a discharge
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
condition an electrochemical reaction takes place resulting in one of the metals being
m
e s
consumed.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Because of this consumption, the charging process is not reversible. Attempting to

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
reverse the chemical reaction in a primary cell by way of recharging is usually

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
dangerous and can lead to a battery explosion

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
The most common primary cells today are found in alkaline batteries, silver-oxide and
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
lithium batteries
in A
Rev.00| Pag.250
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SECONDARY CELL
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
A secondary cell is any kind of electrolytic cell in which the electrochemical reaction
ex w o io n o
of
that releases energy is reversible. The lead-acid car battery is a secondary cell battery
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
The electrolyte is sulphuric acid (battery acid), the positive electrode is lead peroxide,
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
and the negative electrode is lead.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
A typical lead-acid battery consists of six lead-acid cells in a case. Each cell produces 2
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
volts, so the whole battery produces a total of 12 volts
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Other commonly used secondary cell chemistry types are nickel cadmium (NiCd),
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and Lithium ion polymer (Li-ion)
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
polymer
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.251
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SECONDARY CELL
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The lead acid battery is made up of a series of
ex w o io n o
f
identical cells each containing sets of positive and
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
negative plates
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
The following illustrates each cell contains positive
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
plates of lead dioxide (PbO2), negative plates of
te b e w rig o
spongy lead, and electrolyte (sulfuric acid and
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
water).
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
A practical cell is constructed with many more

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
plates than just two in order to get the required

bu e ed a ta
current output
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
-All positive plates are connected together as well

co tel ny Th form
as all the negatives

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
-Because each positive plate is always positioned

in A
between two negative plates, there are always one

or more negative plates than positive plates Rev.00| Pag.252
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SECONDARY CELL
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Between the plates are porous separators that
ex w o io n o
f
keep the positive and negative plates from
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
touching each other and shorting out the cell. The
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
separators have vertical ribs on the side facing the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
positive plate.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
This construction permits the electrolyte to
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
circulate freely around the plates. In addition, it
m
provides a path for sediment to settle to the
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
bottom of the cell

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
-Each cell is seated in a hard rubber casing through

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the top of which are terminal posts and a hole into

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
which is screwed a non-spill vent cap.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
-The hole provides access for testing the strength

of the electrolyte and adding water
in A
Rev.00| Pag.253
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
SECONDARY CELL
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The individual cells of the battery are connected in
ex w o io n o
f
series by means of cell straps
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
The complete assembly is enclosed in an acid
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
resisting metal container (battery box), which
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
serves as electrical shielding and mechanical
te b e w rig o
protection
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
The battery box has a removable top. It also has a
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
vent tube nipple at each end

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
When the battery is installed in an airplane, a vent

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
tube is attached to each nipple One tube is the

ed tu a co ati
intake tube and is exposed to the slipstream. The

co tel ny Th form
other is the exhaust vent tube and is attached to

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
the battery drain sump, which is a glass jar

containing a felt pad moistened with a
in A
concentrated solution of sodium bicarbonate

(baking soda) Rev.00| Pag.254
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
BATTERY RATINGS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The voltage of a battery is determined by the number of cells connected in series to
ex w o io n o
of
form the battery.
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Although the voltage of one lead acid cell just removed from a charger is
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
approximately 2.2 volts, a lead acid cell is normally rated at approximately 2 volts.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
A battery rated at 12 volts consists of 6 lead acid cells connected in series, and a
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
battery rated at 24 volts is composed of 12 cells
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
The most common battery rating is the amp-hour rating

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
This is a unit of measurement for battery capacity. It is determined by multiplying a

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
current flow in amperes by the time in hours that the battery is being discharged
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
A battery with a capacity of 1 amp-hour should be able to continuously supply a

pi lec un e
li
Al
current of 1 amp to a load for exactly 1 hour, or 2 amps for 1/2 hour, or 1/3 amp for 3
hours, etc., before becoming completely discharged
in A
Rev.00| Pag.255
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
LIFE CYCLE OF A BATTERY
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Battery life cycle is defined as the number of complete charge/discharge cycles a
ex w o io n o
of
battery can perform before its normal charge capacity falls below 80% of its initial
h d a e
ro in t re m op
rated capacity.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
Battery life can vary anywhere from 500 to 1 300 cycles. Various factors can cause
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
deterioration of a battery and shorten its service life
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
-The first is overdischarging, which causes excess sulphation; second, too rapid
m
e s
charging or discharging which can result in overheating of the plates and shedding of
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
active material
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
-The accumulation of shed material, in turn, causes shorting of the plates and results
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
in internal discharge. A battery that remains in a low or discharged condition for

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
a long period of time may be permanently damaged

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
The deterioration can continue to a point where cell capacity can drop to 80% after
1000 cycles
in A
Rev.00| Pag.256
NI-CA
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Active materials in nickel-cadmium cells (Ni-
ex w o io n o
of
Cad) are nickel hydrate (NiOOH) in the
h d a e
ro in t re m op
charged positive plate
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
(Anode) and sponge cadmium (Cd) in the
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
charged negative plate (Cathode).
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The electrolyte is a potassium hydroxide
m
e s
(KOH) solution in concentration of 20-34
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
percent by weight pure KOH in distilled water.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Sintered nickel-cadmium cells have relatively

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
thin sintered nickel matrices forming a plate

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
grid structure
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
The grid structure is highly porous and is

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
impregnated with the active positive material

(nickel-hydroxide) and the negative material
in A
(cadmium-hydroxide)
Rev.00| Pag.257
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES
and then formed
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
powder to fine-mesh wire screen
ith be
ou
t
cycles of impregnation and formation
In general, there are many steps to these
chemically, or thermally, to an active state
very high rate charge and discharge service

material in the sintered matrix is converted
In other variations of the process the active
Thin sintered plate cells are ideally suited for

The plates are then formed by sintering nickel
Rev.00| Pag.258
NI-CA
BATTERIES
LEAD-ACID
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SEALED LEAD ACID BATTERIES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
In many applications, sealed lead acid (SLA) batteries are gaining in use over the Ni-
of
h d a e
Cad batteries. One leading characteristic of Ni-Cad batteries is that they perform
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
well in low voltage, full-discharge, high cycle applications. However, they do not
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
perform as well in extended standby applications, such as auxiliary or as emergency
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
battery packs used to power inertial reference units or stand-by equipment
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
(attitude gyro)

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
It is typical during the servicing of a Ni-Cad battery to match as many as twenty
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
individual cells in order to prevent unbalance and thus cell reversal during end
do gh o ote in
of discharge.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
When a Ni-Cad does reverse, very high pressure and heat can result. The result is
, d al uth nt on
often pressure seal rupture, and in the worst case, a cell explosion. With SLA
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
batteries, cell matching is inherent in each battery

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
Ni-Cads also have an undesirable characteristic caused by constant overcharge and

infrequent discharges, as in standby applications.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.259
amperes.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ALTERNATOR RECTIFIER UNIT
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
The output of the alternator portion of the unit is three phase alternating
ou
three phases, full-wave bridge rectifier This unit operates in a speed range
t
from 2 100 to 9 000 rpm, with a DC output voltage of 26 29 volts and 125
current, derived from a three phase, delta connected system incorporating a
Rev.00| Pag.260
AC GENERATOR
GENERAL
TURBINE AEROPLANE AC GENERATOR
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
BRUSHLESS ALTERNATOR
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
This design is more efficient because there are no brushes to wear down or to
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
arc at high altitudes. This generator consists of a pilot exciter, an exciter, and
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the main generator system. The need for brushes is eliminated by using an
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
integral exciter with a rotating armature that has its AC output rectified for the
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
main AC field, which is also of the rotating type
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The pilot exciter is an 8 pole, 8 000 rpm, 533 cps, AC generator. The pilot
m
exciter field is mounted on the main generator rotor shaft and is connected in
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
series with the main generator field. The pilot exciter armature is mounted on
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the main generator stator. The AC output of the pilot exciter is supplied to the
bu e ed a ta
voltage regulator, where it is rectified and controlled, and is then impressed on

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the exciter field winding to furnish excitation for the generator.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.261
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
resistance at the regulator output terminals
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
stator and its three phase armature mounted on the generator rotor shaft
ith be
stator between the exciter poles.The exciter field resistance is temperature
ou
t
compensated by a thermistor. This aids regulation by keeping a nearly constant
The exciter is a small AC generator with its field mounted on the main generator
Included in the exciter field are permanent magnets mounted on the main generator
Rev.00| Pag.262
AC GENERATOR
GENERAL
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The AC generator shown in figure is a 6 pole, 8000 rpm unit having a rating of 31.5
ex w o io n o
f
kilovoltamperes (kVA), 115200 volts, 400 cps. This generator is three phase, 4 wire,
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
wye connected with grounded neutrals. By using an integral AC exciter, the necessity
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
for brushes within the generator has been eliminated.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
The AC output of the rotating exciter armature is fed directly into the three phase,
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
full-wave, rectifier bridge located inside the rotor shaft, which uses high temperature
te b e w rig o
silicon rectifiers. The DC output from the rectifier bridge is fed to the main AC
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
generator rotating field
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.263
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ALTERNATOR CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Alternators are not always connected directly to the airplane engine like DC
ex w o io n o
f
generators. Since the various electrical devices operating on AC supplied by
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
alternators are designed to operate at a certain voltage and at a specified frequency,
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the speed of the alternators must be constant; however, the speed of an airplane
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
engine varies. Therefore, the engine, through a constant speed drive installed
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
between the engine and the alternator, drives some alternators
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
A typical hydraulic-type drive is shown in the
m
following figure:
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.264
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
HYDRAULIC TRANSMISSION
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
The transmission is mounted between the generator and the aircraft engine. Its
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
name denotes that hydraulic oil is used, although some transmissions may use
of
h d a e
engine oil
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
The input shaft D is driven from the
,
Sa n nt
ol
drive shaft on the accessory section
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
of the engine. The output drive F, on
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
the opposite end of the
te b e w rig o
transmission, engages the drive
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
shaft of the generator. The input
m
e s
shaft is geared to the rotating
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
cylinder block gear which it drives,

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
as well as to the makeup and

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
scavenger gear pumps E. The

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
makeup (charge) pump delivers oil

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
(300 psi) to the pump and motor

n
cylinder block, to the governor

pi lec un e
li
Al
system, and to the pressurized case,

whereas the scavenger pump
in A
returns the oil to the external

reservoir. Rev.00| Pag.265
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
The motor block assembly has 16 cylinders, each with its piston and pushrod. These
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
are constantly receiving charge pressure of 300 psi. The position of the piston
of
h d a e
depends upon the point at which each pushrod touches the motor wobble plate.
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
These rods cause the wobble plate to rotate by the pressure they exert against its
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
sloping surface.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
The piston and pushrod of the motor are pushed outward as oil is forced through the
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
motor valve plate from the pump cylinder. The pushrods are forced against the

r w d s te co in
motor wobble plate, which is free to rotate but cannot change the angle at which it is
io de es on y in
set. Since the pushrods cannot move sideways, the pressure exerted against the
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
motor wobble plate's sloping face causes it to rotate.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
In the actual transmission, there is an adjustable wobble plate. The control cylinder
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
assembly determines the tilt of the pump wobble plate. For example, it is set at
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
an angle which causes the motor cylinders to turn the motor wobble plate faster
co tel ny Th form
than the motor assembly, if the transmission is in overdrive. The greater pressure in
n
pi lec un e
li
the pump and motor cylinders produces the result described

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.266
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.267
AC GENERATOR
GENERAL
Al
li
in A n pumping action.
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
what is known as hydraulic lock
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
transmission is considered to be in straight drive
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
For this condition, the input and output speed will be about the same, and the
angle, the pumping action will be at a minimum and the transmission will have
the output speed of the transmission. When the pump wobble plate is not at an
The subsequent slippage between the pushrods and motor wobble plate reduces
With the transmission in underdrive, the angle is arranged so there is a reduction in
Rev.00| Pag.268
AC GENERATOR
GENERAL
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
VOLTAGE REGULATION OF ALTERNATORS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The problem of voltage regulation in an AC system does not differ basically from
ex w o io n o
that in a DC system. In each case, the function of the regulator system is to
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
control voltage, maintain a balance of circulating current throughout the system,
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
and eliminate sudden changes in voltage (anti-hunting) when a load is applied to

em o ta co s, t a
w
the system.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
However, there is one important difference between the regulator system of DC

r w d s te co in
generators and alternators operated in a parallel configuration
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The load carried by any particular DC generator in either a two or four generator
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
system depends on its voltage as compared with the bus voltage, while the division
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
of load between alternators depends upon the adjustments of their speed

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
governors, which are controlled by the frequency and droop circuits discussed in
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
the previous section on alternator constant-speed drive systems.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
When AC generators are operated in parallel, frequencyand voltage must both be

Al
equal.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.269
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
INVERTERS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
An inverter is used in some aircraft systems to convert a portion of the aircraft's DC
ex w o io n o
power to AC. This AC is used mainly for instruments, radio, radar, lighting, and
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
other accessories.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
These inverters are usually built to supply current at a frequency of 400 cps, but
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
some are designed to provide more than one voltage; for example,
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
26 volt AC in one winding and 115 volts in another.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
There are two basic types of inverters: the rotary and the static. Either type can be
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
single phase or multiphase.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
The multiphase inverter is lighter for the same power rating than the single phase,
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
but there are complications in distributing multiphase power and in keeping the
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
loads balanced
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.270
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
PERMANENT MAGNET ROTARY INVERTER
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
A permanent magnet inverter is composed of a DC motor and a permanent magnet
ex w o io n o
AC generator assembly.
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Each has a separate stator mounted within a common housing. The motor

em o ta co s, t a
w
armature is mounted on a rotor and connected to the DC supply through a
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
commutator and brush assembly. The motor field windings are mounted
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
on the housing and connected directly to the DC supply

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
A permanent magnet rotor is mounted at the opposite end of the same shaft as the
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
motor armature, and the stator windings are mounted on the housing, allowing
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
AC to be taken from the inverter without the use of brushes.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.271
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
When the motor field and armature are
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
excited, the rotor will begin to turn. As the
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
rotor turns, the permanent magnet will
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
rotate within the AC stator coils, and the
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
magnetic flux developed by the permanent
te b e w rig o
magnets will be cut by the conductors in
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
the AC stator coils. An AC voltage will be
m
produced in the windings whose polarity
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
will change as each pole passes the

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
windings.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
This type inverter may be made

ed tu a co ati
multiphase by placing more AC stator coils

co tel ny Th form
in the housing in order to shift the phase

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
the proper amount in each coil

in A
Rev.00| Pag.272
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
The DC motor in this inverter is a four pole,
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
compound wound motor. The four field
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
coils consist of many turns of fine wire,
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
with a few turns of heavy wire placed on
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
top. The fine wire is the shunt field,
te b e w rig o
connected to the DC source through a
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
filter and to ground through a
m
centrifugal governor
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
The heavy wire is the series field, which is

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
connected in series with the motor

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
armature
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
The centrifugal governor controls the

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
speed by shunting a resistor that is in

series with the shunt field when the
in A
motor reaches a certain speed

Rev.00| Pag.273
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
STATIC INVERTERS
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
In many applications where continuous DC voltage must be converted to alternating
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
voltage, static inverters are used in place of rotary inverters or motor generator sets.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
The rapid progress made by the semiconductor industry is extending the range of
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
applications of such equipment into voltage and power ranges that would have been
te b e w rig o
impractical a few years ago.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
Some such applications are power supplies for frequency sensitive military and
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
commercial AC equipment, aircraft emergency AC

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
systems, and conversion of wide frequency range power to precise frequency power.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.274
GENERAL
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
STATIC INVERTERS
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
The use of static inverters in small aircraft also has increased rapidly in the last few
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
years, and the technology has advanced to the point that static inverters are
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
available for any requirement filled by rotary inverters
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
For example, 250 VA emergency AC supplies operated from aircraft batteries are in
te b e w rig o
production, as are 2 500 VA main AC supplies operated from a varying frequency
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
generator supply.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
This type of equipment has certain advantages for aircraft applications, particularly
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the absence of moving parts and the adaptability to

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
conduction cooling
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.275
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
POWER DISTRIBUTION ON SMALL MULTI-ENGINE AIRCRAFT
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.276
AC GENERATOR
GENERAL
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
POWER DISTRIBUTION ON SMALL MULTI-ENGINE AIRCRAFT
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.277
AC GENERATOR
GENERAL
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
FIRE PROTECTION
gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.278
TURBINE AEROPLANE FIRE PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
FIRE PROTECTION
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Three things are required for a fire:
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
-Fuel something that will, in the presence
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
of heat, combine with oxygen, thereby

em o ta co s, t a
w
releasing more heat and as a result reduces
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
itself to other chemical compounds;
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
-Heat accelerates the combining of
io de es on y in
m
oxygen with fuel, in turn releasing more heat;
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
-Oxygen the element which combines

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
chemically with another substance through

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the process of oxidation. Rapid oxidation,

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
accompanied by a noticeable release of heat

co tel ny Th form
and light, is called combustion or burning.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
Remove any one of these things and the fire

in A
extinguishes
Rev.00| Pag.279
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
For commercial purposes, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
ex w o io n o
has classified fires into three basic types: Class A, Class B, and Class C.
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
-Class A fires occur in ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, cloth,
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
paper, upholstery materials, and so forth

em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
-Class B fires occur in flammable petroleum products of other flammable or
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
combustible liquids, greases, solvents, paints, and so forth

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
-Class C fires involve energized electrical wiring and equipment
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
A fourth class of fire, with which the technician should be familiar, the Class D
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
fire, is defined as fire in flammable metal. Class D fires are not commercially
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
considered by the National Fire Protection Association to be a basic type or

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
category of fire since they are caused by a Class A, B, or C fire. Usually Class
co tel ny Th form
D fires involve magnesium in the shop or in aircraft wheels and brakes, or are
n
pi lec un e
li
the result of improper or poorly conducted welding operations

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.280
system are:
Wheel wells
Al
li
in A n
Bleed air ducts

Electronic bays
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
Lavatories on transport aircraft

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
Cargo and baggage compartments

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
Engines and auxiliary power unit (APU)
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.281
FIRE PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION
Typical zones on aircraft that have a fixed fire detection and/or fire extinguisher
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
Optical detectors
Smoke detectors
, d al uth nt on
Overheat detectors
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
Carbon monoxide detectors

Radiation sensing detectors
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
Combustible mixture detectors

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
these different detection methods.

Rate-of-temperature-rise detectors
Observation of crew or passengers

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
FIRE DETECTION AND WARNING SYSTEMS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
large turbine engine and high performance aircraft incorporate several of
To detect fires or overheat conditions, detectors are placed in the various
zones to be monitored. The complete aircraft fire protection systems of most
Rev.00| Pag.282
FIRE PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
THERMAL SWITCH SYSTEMS
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.283
FIRE PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
THERMAL SWITCH SYSTEMS
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.284
FIRE PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FENWAL SYSTEM
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The Fenwal system uses a slender Inconel tube packed
ex w o io n o
with thermally sensitive eutectic salt and a nickel wire
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
center conductor. Lengths of these sensing elements are
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
connected in series to a control unit. The elements may
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
be of equal or varying length and of the same or
.
ag h is l b t l m
different temperature settings
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The Fenwal system control unit, operating directly from
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
the power source, applies a small voltage on the sensing
m
e s
elements. When an overheat condition occurs at any
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
point along the element length, the resistance of the

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
eutectic salt within the sensing element drops sharply,

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
causing current to flow between the outer sheath and

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
the center conductor. This current flow is sensed by the

ed tu a co ati
control unit, which produces a signal to actuate the

co tel ny Th form
output relay and activate the alarms. When the fire has
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
been extinguished or the critical temperature lowered

below the set point, the Fenwal system automatically
in A
returns to standby alert, ready to detect any subsequent

fire or overheat condition Rev.00| Pag.285
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SMOKE DETECTORS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
A smoke detection system monitors the lavatories and cargo baggage compartments
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
for the presence of smoke, which is indicative of a fire condition. Smoke detection
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
instruments that collect air for sampling are mounted in the compartments in

em o ta co s, t a
w
strategic locations. A smoke detection system is used where the type of fire
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
anticipated is expected to generate a substantial amount of smoke before
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
temperature changes are sufficient to actuate a heat detection system. Two common
r w d s te co in
types used are light refraction and ionization.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
LIGHT REFRACTION TYPE

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
The light refraction type of smoke detector contains a photoelectric cell that detects
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
light refracted by smoke particles. Smoke particles refract the light to the
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
photoelectric cell and, when it senses enough of this light, it creates an electrical
co tel ny Th form
current that sets off a light.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.286
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
SMOKE DETECTORS
ex w o io n o
of
IONIZATION TYPE
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Some aircraft use an ionization type smoke detector. The system generates an alarm
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
signal (both horn and indicator) by detecting a change in ion density due to smoke in
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
the cabin. The system is connected to the 28 volt DC electrical power supplied from
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
the aircraft. Alarm output and sensor sensitive checks are performed simply with the
te b e w rig o
test switch on the control panel.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
FLAME DETECTORS
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Optical sensors, often referred to as flame detectors, are designed to a larm when
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
they detect the presence of prominent, specific radiation emissions from hydrocarbon
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
flames.
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
The two types of optical sensors available are infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV), based
ed tu a co ati
on the specific emission wavelengths that they are designed to detect. IR-based
co tel ny Th form
optical flame detectors are used primarily on light turboprop aircraft and helicopter
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
engines. These sensors have proven to be very dependable and economical for these
applications.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.287
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
CONTAINERS
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
Most fixed fire extinguishing agent containers on high performance and transport
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
aircraft are the high-rate-of discharge (HRD) type. They typically store a liquid
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
halogenated extinguishing agent (or other) and a pressurized gas (typically nitrogen)
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
to assist in the propulsion of the agent from the container. The containers are

em o ta co s, t a
w
normally manufactured from stainless steel. Depending upon design considerations,
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
alternate materials are available, including titanium.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Fixed fire agent containers are available in a wide range of capacities. They are
r w d s te co in
produced under department
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.288
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
CONTAINERS
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.289
FIRE PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
fact the type
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
IDENTIFYING FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
place in the vicinity of the fire
ith be
ou
t
should be placed on the fire
Fire extinguishers should be marked
class of fire. The markings on figure

to indicate suitability for a particular
extinguisher kept at that location is in

be taken to ensure that the fire
marked, however extreme care must
extinguisher. When the location is
extinguisher and in a conspicuous
Rev.00| Pag.290
FIRE PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
FUEL SYSTEMS (ATA 28)
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.291
TURBINE AEROPLANE FUEL SYSTEMS (ATA 28)
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
FUEL SYSTEM LIGHTNING
ex w o io n o
f
PROTECTION
o
The fuel system must be designed and arranged to prevent the ignition of fuel vapor
h d a e
ro in t re m op
within the system by direct lightning strikes or swept lightning strokes (where highly
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
probable).
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Swept strokes occur when the lightning strike is deformed by interaction with
te b e w rig o
aerodynamic forces and propagates in a unique manner due to the material and
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
shape of the airframe surfaces. pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Corona and streamering must also be inhibited at fuel vent outlets since they may
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
ignite the fuel-air mixture. A corona is a luminous discharge that occurs as a result of
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
an electrical potential difference between the aircraft and the surrounding area.
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
Streamering is a branch-like ionized path that occurs in the presence of a direct

n
stroke or under conditions when lightning strokes are imminent.

pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.292
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
FUEL TANK EXPANSION SPACE
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Each fuel tank must have an expansion space of not less than two percent of the tank
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
capacity. This is waved if the tank vent discharges clear of the airplane, in which case no
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
expansion space is required. It must be impossible to fill the expansion space
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
inadvertently with the airplane in the normal ground attitude.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
FUEL TANK SUMP
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Keeping contaminants out of the fuel delivered to the engine begins with the proper
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
construction and installation of the fuel tank(s). Each tank must have a drainable sump
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
with an effective capacity, in the normal ground and flight attitudes, of 0.25 percent of
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
the tank capacity, or gallon, whichever is greater. Each fuel tank must allow drainage of
any hazardous quantity of water from any part of the tank to its sump with the airplane
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in the normal ground attitude.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.293
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
FUEL TANK FILLER CONNECTION
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Each fuel tank filler connection must be specifically marked. Aircraft with engines that
of
h d a e
use only gasoline fuel must have filler openings no larger than 2.36 inches in diameter.
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
Turbine fuel aircraft filler openings must be no smaller than 2.95 inches. Spilled fuel must
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
not enter the fuel tank compartment or any part of the airplane other than the tank
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
itself. Each filler cap must provide a fuel-tight seal for the main filler opening. However,
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
there may be small openings in the fuel tank cap for venting purposes or for the purpose

r w d s te co in
of allowing passage of a fuel gauge through the cap.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
FUEL TANK VENTS

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
To allow proper fuel flow, each fuel tank must be vented from the top part of the
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
expansion space. Vent outlets must be located and constructed in a manner that
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
minimizes the possibility of being obstructed by ice or other foreign matter. Siphoning of
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
fuel during normal operation must not occur. Venting capacity must allow the rapid relief
co tel ny Th form
of excessive differences of pressure between the interior and exterior of the tank. The
n
pi lec un e
li
airspaces of tanks with interconnected outlets must also be interconnected. There must
Al
be no point in any vent line where moisture can accumulate either on the ground or
in A
during level flight (unless drainage is provided by an accessible drain valve).
Rev.00| Pag.294
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
PRESSURE FUELING SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Pressure fueling systems are used on many large, high performance, and air carrier
of
h d a e
aircraft. Each pressure fueling system fuel manifold connection must have means to
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
prevent the escape of hazardous quantities of fuel from the system if the fuel entry
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
valve fails.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
A means for automatic shutoff must be provided to prevent the quantity of fuel in

r w d s te co in
each tank from exceeding the maximum quantity approved for that tank.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
A means must also be provided to prevent damage to the fuel system in the event
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
of failure of the automatic shutoff means prescribed in this section.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
All parts of the fuel system up to the tank that are subjected to fueling pressures
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
must have a proof pressure of 1.33 times and an ultimate pressure of at least 2.0
n
pi lec un e
li
times the surge pressure likely to occur during fueling.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.295
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FUEL PUMPS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Fuel pumps are part of most aircraft fuel systems. Standards exist for main pumps
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
and emergency pumps. Operation of any fuel pump may not affect engine
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
operation by creating a hazard, regardless of the engine power or thrust setting or
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
the functional status of any other fuel pump. Turbine engines require dedicated fuel
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
pumps for each engine. Any pump required for operation is considered a main fuel

r w d s te co in
pump. The power supply for the main pump for each engine must be independent
io de es on y in
of the power supply for each main pump for any other engine. There must also be a
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
bypass feature for each positive displacement pump.

do gh o ote in
Emergency pumps are used and must be immediately available to supply fuel to the
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
engine if any main pump fails. The power supply for each emergency pump must be
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
independent of the power supply for each corresponding main pump. If both the
, d al uth nt on
main fuel pump and the emergency pump operate continuously, there must be a
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
means to indicate a malfunction of either pump to the appropriate flight crew

n
pi lec un e
li
member.
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.296
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
OTHER FUEL SYSTEM
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
COMPONENTS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Fuel system components in an engine nacelle or in the fuselage must be
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
protected from damage that could result in spillage of enough fuel to
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
constitute a fire hazard as a result of a wheels-up landing on a paved runway.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
FUEL VALVES AND CONTROLS

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
There must be a means to allow appropriate flight crew members to rapidly
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
shut off the fuel to each engine individually in flight. No shutoff valve may be
do gh o ote in
on the engine side of any firewall. There must be means to guard against
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
inadvertent operation of each shutoff valve and means to reopen each valve
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
rapidly after it has been closed. Each valve and fuel system control must be
, d al uth nt on
supported so that loads resulting from its operation, or from accelerated

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
flight conditions, are not transmitted to the lines connected to the valve.
n
pi lec un e
li
Gravity and vibration should not affect the selected position of any valve.
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.297
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FUEL STRAINER OR FILTER
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
In addition to fuel tank strainers already discussed, there must be a fuel
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
strainer, or filter, between the fuel tank outlet and the inlet of either the fuel
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
metering device or an engine driven positive displacement pump, whichever
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
is nearer the fuel tank outlet. This fuel strainer, or filter, must be accessible for
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
draining and cleaning and must incorporate a screen or element that is easily

r w d s te co in
removable. The fuel strainer should have a sediment trap and drain, except
io de es on y in
that it need not have a drain if the strainer or filter is easily removable for
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
drain purposes. The fuel strainer should also be mounted so that its weight is
do gh o ote in
not supported by the connecting lines.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
It should have the capacity to ensure that engine fuel system function is not
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
impaired when fuel is contaminated to a degree that is greater than that

, d al uth nt on
established for the engine during its type certification. Commuter category
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
airplanes must have a means to automatically maintain the fuel flow if ice
n
pi lec un e
li
clogs a filter.
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.298
follows:
Al
li
5. Indicating
in A n
3. Distribution
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
4. Feed
2. Vent
1. Storage
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEM LAYOUT
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Jet transport fuel systems can be regarded as a handful of fuel subsystems as
Rev.00| Pag.299
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
INTEGRAL FUEL TANKS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
When an aircraft maneuvers, the long horizontal nature of an integral wing tank requires
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
baffling to keep the fuel from sloshing. The wing ribs and box beam structural members
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
serve as baffles and others may be added specifically for that purpose. Baffle check valves
re ed e s e aw en
.
are commonly used. These valves allow fuel to move to the low, inboard sections of the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
tank but prevent it from moving outboard. They ensure that the fuel boost pumps located
te b e w rig o
in the bottom of the tanks at the lowest points above the sumps always have fuel to
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pump regardless of aircraft attitude.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.300
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
maintenance.
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
INTEGRAL FUEL TANKS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
electrostatic bonding.
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
bottom surface of the wing for this purpose.
These aluminum panels are each sealed into

a dozen oval access panels or tank plates on the
Transport category aircraft often have more than
fuel system components. On large aircraft,
place with an O-ring and an aluminum gasket for

technicians physically enter the tank for
inspection and repairs of the tanks and other
Integral fuel tanks must have access panels for
Rev.00| Pag.301
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
INTEGRAL FUEL TANKS
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.302
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
BLADDER FUEL TANKS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
A fuel tank made out of a reinforced flexible
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
material called a bladder tank can be used
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
instead of a rigid tank.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
A bladder tank contains most of the features

r w d s te co in
and components of a rigid tank but does not
io de es on y in
require as large an opening in the aircraft skin
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
to install.
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
The tank, or fuel cell as it is sometimes called,

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
can be rolled up and put into a specially

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
prepared structural bay or cavity through a

co tel ny Th form
small opening, such as an inspection opening.

n
pi lec un e
li
Once inside, it can be unfurled to its full size.

Al
Bladder tanks must be attached to the

structure with clips or other fastening devices.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.303
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
FUEL FEED
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
The fuel feed system is the heart of the fuel supply system since it delivers fuel to the
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
engines. Jet transport aircraft supply fuel to the engines via in-tank fuel boost pumps,
of
h d a e
usually two per tank. They pump fuel under pressure through a shutoff valve for each
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
engine.
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
A manifold or connecting tubing typically allows any tank to supply any engine through
re ed e s e aw en
.
the use of cross-feed valves.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Boost pump bypass valves allow fuel flow should a pump fail and check valves allow fuel
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
flow only in the proper direction towards the engines. Note that the engines are designed
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
to be able to run without any fuel boost pumps operating. However, each engines fuel
do gh o ote in
shutoff valve must be open to allow any flow to the engines from the tanks.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.304
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
FUEL FEED

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.305
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CROSS-FEED AND TRANSFER SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
It is important for the flight crew as well as technicians to manage the location of fuel
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
between tanks.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
The fuel transfer system is the series of fuel lines and valves that permits movement of
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
fuel from one tank to another on board the aircraft. Fuel boost pumps or dedicated
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
transfer pumps move fuel from the tank in which the pump is located into a manifold

r w d s te co in
containing valves for the other tanks.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
By opening the fuel valve (or refueling valve) to the tank into which fuel is desired, the
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
fuel is transferred from one tank, into the manifold, and then into to the desired tank.
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
The next figure shows the fuel system diagram for a DC- 10.
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
Dedicated transfer boost pumps move fuel into he transfer manifold. Opening the fuel
co tel ny Th form
valve on one of the tanks transfers the fuel into that tank. Note that the transfer
n
pi lec un e
li
manifold and boost pumps are also used to jettison fuel overboard by opening the
Al
proper dump valves with a transfer boost pump(s) operating. Additionally, the transfer
in A
system can function to supply the engines if the normal engine fuel feed malfunctions.
Rev.00| Pag.306
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
CROSS-FEED AND TRANSFER SYSTEMS
gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.307
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
FUEL DUMPING, VENTING AND DRAINING
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
FUEL SYSTEM DRAINS
ex w o io n o
f
Aircraft fuel systems must be fitted with at least one drain to allow safe drainage
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
of the entire fuel system with the airplane in its normal ground attitude. The
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
drain must discharge the fuel clear of all parts of the aircraft. A readily
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
accessible drain valve that can easily be opened and closed is required. It must
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
have a manual or automatic means for locking in the closed position, and it
te b e w rig o
must be observable that it is closed. Fuel should be collectible from the system
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
drain valve so it can be examined. The location of the valve should be such that
m
spillage is prevented should a gear up landing be made.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
FUEL VENT SYSTEMS

bu e ed a ta
Transport category fuel systems require venting similar to reciprocating engine

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
aircraft fuel systems. A series of vent tubing and channels exists that connects
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
all tanks to vent space in the surge tanks (if present) or vent overboard. Venting
co tel ny Th form
must be configured to ensure the fuel is vented regardless of the attitude of the
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
aircraft or the quantity of fuel on board. This sometimes requires the

installation of various check valves, float valves, and multiple vent locations in
in A
the same tank

Rev.00| Pag.308
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.309
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
FUEL JETTISONING SYSTEM
ex w o io n o
of
. Fuel jettisoning systems are required on these aircraft so
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
that fuel can be jettisoned in flight to avoid structural
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
damage cause by landing the aircraft when it is too heavy.
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
Fuel jettisoning systems are also referred to as fuel dump
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
systems.
te b e w rig o
Fuel jettisoning systems must meet several standards. The
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
average rate of fuel jettisoning must be at least 1 percent
m
e s
of the maximum weight per minute, except that the time
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
required to jettison the fuel need not be less than 10

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
minutes. Fuel jettisoning must be demonstrated at

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
maximum weight with flaps and landing gear up and in a

, d al uth nt on
power-off glide at 1.4 VS1 It must also be demonstrated

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
during a climb with a critical engine inoperative and the

n
remaining engines at maximum continuous power. Finally,

pi lec un e
li
Al
the fuel jettisoning system must be performed during level

flight at 1.4 VS1 if the glide and climb tests show that this
in A
condition could be critical.

Rev.00| Pag.310
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
To better understand aircraft fuel systems and their operation, the following
h d a e
ro in t re m op
discussion of various components of aircraft fuel systems is included. Fuel tanks
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
are a key component that have already been discussed above.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
FUEL LINES AND FITTINGS
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Aircraft fuel lines can be rigid or flexible depending on location and application.
m
e s
Rigid lines are often made of aluminum alloy and are connected with
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Army/Navy (AN) or military standard (MS) fittings.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
However, in the engine compartment, wheel wells, and other areas, subject to
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
damage from debris, abrasion, and heat, stainless steel lines are often used.
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.311
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Flexible fuel hose has a synthetic rubber interior with a reinforcing fiber braid wrap
ex w o io n o
f
covered by a synthetic exterior. (Figure 10-13) The hose is approved for fuel and no other
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
hose should be substituted. Some flexible fuel hose has a braided stainless steel exterior.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
The diameters of all fuel hoses and line are determined by the fuel flow requirements of
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the aircraft fuel system. Flexible hoses are used in areas where vibration exists between
, d al uth nt on
components, such as between the engine and the aircraft structure.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.312
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Sometimes manufacturers wrap either flexible or rigid fuel lines to provide even further
of
h d a e
protection from abrasion and especially from fire.
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
A fire sleeve cover is held over the line with steel clamps at the end fittings. As
re ed e s e aw en
.
mentioned, aircraft fuel line fitting are usually either AN or MS fittings. Both flared and
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
flareless fitting are used. Problems with leaks at fittings can occur.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Technicians are cautioned to not over tighten a leaky fitting. If the proper torque does
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
not stop a leak, depressurize the line, disconnect the fitting and visually inspect it for a
do gh o ote in
cause. The fitting or line should be replaced if needed. Replace all aircraft fuel lines and
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
fittings with approved replacement parts from the manufacturer. If a line is

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
manufactured in the shop, approved components must be used.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.313
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.314
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Metal fuel lines and all aircraft fuel system components need to be electrically bonded
of
h d a e
and grounded to the aircraft structure. This is important because fuel flowing through
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
the fuel system generates static electricity that must have a place to flow to ground
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
rather than build up. Special bonded cushion clamps are used to secure rigid fuel lines
re ed e s e aw en
.
in place.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
All fuel lines should be supported so that

r w d s te co in
there is no strain on the fittings. Clamp
io de es on y in
lines so that fittings are aligned. Never
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
draw two fittings together by threading.

do gh o ote in
They should thread easily and a wrench

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
should be used only for tightening.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Additionally, a straight length of rigid fuel

, d al uth nt on
line should not be made between two

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
components or fitting rigidly mounted to

n
pi lec un e
li
the airframe. A small bend is needed to

Al
absorb any strain from vibration or

expansion and contraction due to
in A
temperature changes.
Rev.00| Pag.315
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
FUEL VALVES
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
There are many fuel valves used in aircraft fuel systems. They are used to shut off fuel
of
h d a e
flow or to route the fuel to a desired location. Large aircraft fuel systems have
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
numerous valves. Most simply open and close and are know by different names related
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
to their location and function in the fuel system (e.g., shutoff valve, transfer valve,
re ed e s e aw en
.
cross-feed valve). Fuel valves can be manually operated, solenoid operated, or
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
operated by electric motor. A feature of all aircraft fuel valves is a means for positively

identifying the position of the valve at all times. Motor and solenoid-operated valves
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
use position annunciator lights to indicate valve position in addition to the switch
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
position. Flight management system (FMS) fuel pages also display the position of the
do gh o ote in
fuel valves graphically in diagrams called up on the flat screen monitors. (Figure 10-17)
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Note that many valves have an exterior position handle, or lever, that indicates valve
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
position. When maintenance personnel directly observe the valve, it can be manually
, d al uth nt on
positioned by the technician using this same lever. (Figure 10-18)

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.316
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
FUEL VALVES
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.317
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
FUEL VALVES
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.318
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
MOTOR OPERATED VALVES
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The use of electric motors to operate fuel system valves is common on large aircraft
of
h d a e
due to the remote location from the cockpit of fuel system components. The types of
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
valves used are basically the same as the manually operated valves, but electric motors
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
are used to actuate the units.
re ed e s e aw en
.
The two most common electric motor operated fuel valves are the gate valve and the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
plug type valve.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The motor operated gate valve uses a geared, reversible electric motor to turn the
do gh o ote in
actuating arm of the valve that moves the fuel gate into or out of the path of the fuel.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
As with the manually operated gate valve, the gate or blade is sealed. A manual
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
override lever allows the technician to observe the position of the valve or manually
, d al uth nt on
position it.
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Less common is the use of a motorized plug type fuel valve; an electric motor is used to
Al
rotate the plug or drum rather than it being rotated manually. Regardless of the type of
valve used, large aircraft fuel system valves either allow fuel to flow or shut off flow.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.319
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
SOLENOID-OPERATED VALVES
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
An additional way to operate a remotely located fuel valve is through the use of electric
of
h d a e
solenoids. A poppet type valve is opened via the magnetic pull developed when an
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
opening solenoid is energized. A spring forces a locking stem into a notch in the stem of
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
the poppet to lock the valve in the open position. Fuel then flows through the opening
re ed e s e aw en
.
vacated by the poppet.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
To close the poppet and shut

r w d s te co in
off fuel flow, a closing solenoid
io de es on y in
m
is energized. Its magnetic pull
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
overcomes the force of the

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
locking stem spring and pulls

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
the locking stem out of the

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
notch in the poppet stem. A

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
spring behind the poppet

co tel ny Th form
forces it back onto its seat. A

n
pi lec un e
li
characteristic of solenoid-
Al
operated fuel valves is that

they open and close very
in A
quickly.
Rev.00| Pag.320
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
CENTRIFUGAL BOOST PUMPS
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
removed without draining the fuel tank.

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
FUEL PUMPS
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The most common type of auxiliary fuel pump used on aircraft, especially large and
tank with the inlet of the pump extending into the tank. If the pump is mounted
frequently is submerged in the fuel tank or located just outside of the bottom of the
outside the tank, a pump removal valve is typically installed so the pump can be
high-performance aircraft, is the centrifugal pump. It is electric motor driven and most
Rev.00| Pag.321
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
FUEL PUMPS
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
outside as the impeller turns.
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
impeller and expels it to the
takes in fuel at the center of an
A centrifugal boost pump is a
variable displacement pump. It
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.322
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FUEL PUMPS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
An outlet check valve prevents fuel from flowing back through the pump. A fuel feed
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
line is connected to the pump outlet. A bypass valve may be installed in the fuel feed
re ed e s e aw en
.
system to allow the engine-driven pump to pull fuel from the tank if the boost pump is
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
not operating. The centrifugal boost pump is used to supply the engine-driven fuel
te b e w rig o
pump, back up the engine driven fuel pump, and transfer fuel from tank to tank if the
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
aircraft is so designed. pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Some centrifugal fuel pumps operate at more than one speed, as selected by the pilot,
do gh o ote in
depending on the phase of aircraft operation. Single-speed fuel pumps are also
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
common. Centrifugal fuel pumps located in fuel tanks ensure positive pressure
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
throughout the fuel system regardless of temperature, altitude, or flight attitude thus
, d al uth nt on
preventing vapor lock. Submerged pumps have fuel proof covers for the electric motor
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
since the motor is in the fuel. Centrifugal pumps mounted on the outside of the tank do
n
not require this but have some sort of inlet that is located in the fuel.
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.323
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
matter.
FUEL PUMPS
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
prevent the ingestion of foreign
both types of centrifugal pump
is covered with a screen to
draining the tank. The inlet of
shutoff valve is located so the
This can be a tube in which a
pump can be changed without
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.324
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FUEL PUMPS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
EJECTOR PUMPS
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Fuel tanks with in-tank fuel pumps, such as centrifugal pumps, are constructed to
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
maintain a fuel supply to the pump inlet at all times. This ensures that the pump does
re ed e s e aw en
.
not cavitate and that the pump is cooled by the fuel. The section of the fuel tank
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
dedicated for the pump installation may be partitioned off with baffles that contain
te b e w rig o
check valves, also known as flapper valves. These allow fuel to flow inboard to the
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pump during maneuvers but does not allow it to flow outboard.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Some aircraft use ejector pumps to help ensure that liquid fuel is always at the inlet of
do gh o ote in
the pump. A relatively small diameter line circulates pump outflow back into the
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
section of the tank where the pump is located. The fuel is directed through a venturi
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
that is part of the ejector. As the fuel rushes through the venturi, low pressure is
, d al uth nt on
formed.
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
An inlet, or line that originates outside of the tank pump area, allows fuel to be drawn
n
into the ejector assembly where it is pumped into the fuel pump tank section.
pi lec un e
li
Al
Together, with baffle check valves, ejector pumps keep a positive head of fuel at the
inlet of the pump.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.325
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
FUEL PUMPS
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.326
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FUEL FILTERS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Two main types of fuel cleaning device are utilized on aircraft. Fuel strainers are usually
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
constructed of relatively coarse wire mesh. They are designed to trap large pieces of
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
debris and prevent their passage through the fuel system. Fuel strainers do not inhibit
re ed e s e aw en
.
the flow of water. Fuel filters are usually fine mesh. In various applications, they can
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
trap fine sediment that can be only thousands of an inch in diameter and also help trap
te b e w rig o
water. The technician should be aware that the terms strainer and filter are
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
sometimes used interchangeably even though they are not the same thing. Micronic
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
filters are commonly used on turbine- powered aircraft.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
This is a type of filter that captures

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
extremely fine particles in the

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
range of 10 - 25 microns. A micron

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
is 1/1000 of a millimeter. (Figure

co tel ny Th form
10-26)
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.327
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FUEL FILTERS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Turbine engine fuel control units are extremely close tolerance devices. It is imperative
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
that fuel delivered to them is clean and contaminant free. The used of micronic filters
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
makes this possible. The changeable cellulose filter mesh type shown in the below
re ed e s e aw en
.
figure can block particles 10-200 microns in size and absorbs water if it is present. The
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
small size of the mesh raises the possibility of the filter being blocked by debris or
te b e w rig o
water. Therefore, a relief valve is included in the filter assembly that bypasses fuel
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
through the unit should pressure build up from blockage.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
In addition to a fuel filter installed

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
between the fuel tank and the engine

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
driven fuel pump, fuel filters are often

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
used between the engine-driven fuel

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
pump and the fuel metering device

n
(fuel control) on turbine-engine

pi lec un e
li
Al
aircraft.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.328
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
FUEL FILTERS
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.329
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
FUEL FILTERS
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
by frozen water.
gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
possibility of a blockage caused
bypass to open or the inlet and
significantly. Fuel temperature

can also be monitored for the
should a blockage cause the
Thus, an indicator is illuminated
outlet pressures to vary
Rev.00| Pag.330
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FUEL QUANTITY INDICATING SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
All aircraft fuel systems must have some form of fuel quantity indicator. These devices
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
vary widely depending on the complexity of the fuel system and the aircraft on which
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
they are installed.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
RATIOMETER TYPE
te b e w rig o
Electric fuel quantity indicators are common in aircraft. Most of these units operate
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
with direct current (DC) and use variable resistance in a circuit to drive a ratiometer
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
type indicator. The movement of a float in the tank moves a connecting arm to the
do gh o ote in
wiper on a variable resistor in the tank unit. This resistor is wired in series with one of
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the coils of the ratiometer type fuel gauge in the instrument panel. Changes to the
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
current flowing through the tank unit resistor change the current flowing through one
, d al uth nt on
of the coils in the indicator. This alters the magnetic field in which the indicating pointer
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
pivots. The calibrated dial indicates the corresponding fuel quantity. (Figure 10-30)
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.331
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.332
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
display in the cockpit instrument head.
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
a computer and displayed on a flat screen panel.
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
aircraft, convert the variable resistance into a digital signal to be processed in
Digital indicators are available that work with the same variable resistance
signal from the tank unit. They convert the variable resistance into a digital
Fully digital instrumentation systems, such as those found in a glass cockpit
Rev.00| Pag.333
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
HYDRAULIC POWER (ATA 29)
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.334
STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS HYDRAULIC POWER (ATA 29)
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC POWER
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
The word "hydraulics" is based on the Greek word for water and originally meant
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
the study of the physical behavior of water at rest and in motion. Today, the
ex w o io n o
of
meaning has been expanded to include the physical behavior of all liquids,
h d a e
ro in t re m op
including hydraulic fluid. Hydraulic systems are not new to aviation. Early aircraft
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
had hydraulic brake systems. As aircraft became more sophisticated, newer
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
systems with hydraulic power were developed.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
A basic system consists of a pump, reservoir, directional valve, check valve,
io de es on y in
pressure relieve valve, selector valve, actuator, and filter
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.335
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
OPEN-CENTER HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
An open-center system is one having fluid flow, but
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
no pressure in the system when the actuating
ex w o io n o
of
mechanisms are idle. The pump circulates the fluid
h d a e
ro in t re m op
from the reservoir, through the selector valves, and
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
back to the reservoir.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
The open-center system may employ any number of
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
subsystems, with a selector valve for each
te b e w rig o
subsystem.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Unlike the closed center system, the selector valves

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
of the open center system are always connected in

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
series with each other.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
In this arrangement, the system pressure line goes

co tel ny Th form
through each selector valve. Fluid is always allowed

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
free passage through each selector valve and back to

the reservoir until one of the selector valves is
in A
positioned to operate a mechanism

Rev.00| Pag.336
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
When one of the selector valves is positioned to
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
operate an actuating device, fluid is directed from
ex w o io n o
of
the pump through one of the working lines to the
h d a e
ro in t re m op
actuator.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
With the selector valve in this position, the flow of
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
fluid through the valve to the reservoir is blocked.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
The pressure builds up in the system to overcome
te b e w rig o
the resistance and moves the piston of the actuating
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
cylinder; fluid from the opposite end of the actuator
m
e s
returns to the selector valve and flows back to the
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
reservoir.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Operation of the system following actuation of the

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
component depends on the type of selector valve

, d al uth nt on
being used. Several types of selector valves are used

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
in conjunction with the open center system.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.337
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
pressure
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
back to the reservoir.
ex w o io n o
to the neutral position.
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
the system pressure to drop to line resistance

The system pressure remains at the relief valve set
The relief valve unseats and allows the fluid to flow
This action reopens the open center flow and allows

pressure until the selector valve is manually returned
Rev.00| Pag.338
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CLOSED-CENTER HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
In the closed-center system, the fluid is under pressure whenever the power pump
ex w o io n o
is operating. The three actuators are arranged in parallel and actuating units B and
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
C are operating at the same time, while actuating unit A is not operating.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
This system differs from the open-center system in that the selector or directional
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
control valves are arranged in parallel and not in series.
te b e w rig o
The means of controlling pump pressure varies in the closed-center system. If a
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
constant delivery pump is used, the system pressure is regulated by a pressure
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
regulator. A relief valve acts as a backup safety device in case the regulator fails
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.339
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CLOSED-CENTER HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
If a variable displacement pump is used, system pressure is controlled by the
ex w o io n o
pumps integral pressure mechanism compensator. The compensator automatically
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
varies the volume output. When pressure approaches normal system pressure, the
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
compensator begins to reduce the flow output of the pump.

em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
The pump is fully compensated (near zero flow) when normal system pressure is
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
attained. When the pump is in this fully compensated condition, its internal bypass
te b e w rig o
mechanism provides fluid circulation through the pump for cooling and lubrication.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
A relief valve is installed in the system as a safety backup

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.340
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
EVOLUTION OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
HYDRAULIC POWER PACK SYSTEM
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
A hydraulic power pack is a compact unit that
,
Sa n nt
ol
consists of an electric pump, a reservoir, valves,
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
filters, and pressure relief valve all in one assembly.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
The advantage of the power pack is that there is no
te b e w rig o
need for a centralized hydraulic power supply system
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
and long stretches of hydraulic lines. This reduces
m
e s
weight. Power packs are driven by either an engine
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
gearbox or electric motor. Integration of essential

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
valves, filters, sensors, and transducers virtually

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
eliminates any opportunity for external leakage, and

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
simplifies troubleshooting. Some power pack systems

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
have an integrated actuator. These systems are used

n
to control the stabilizer trim, landing gear, or flight

pi lec un e
li
Al
control surfaces directly, thus eliminating the need

for a centralized hydraulic system
in A
Rev.00| Pag.341
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
HYDRAULIC FLUID
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Hydraulic system liquids are used primarily to transmit and distribute forces to
ex w o io n o
various units to be actuated. Liquids are able to do this because they are almost
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
incompressible. Pascals Law states that pressure applied to any part of a confined
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
liquid is transmitted with undiminished intensity to every other part. Thus, if a

em o ta co s, t a
w
number of passages exist in a system, pressure can be distributed through all of
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
them by means of the liquid.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
PROPERTIES
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
VISCOSITY
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
One of the most important properties of any hydraulic fluid is its viscosity. Viscosity
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
is internal resistance to f low. A liquid such as gasoline that has a low viscosity flows
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
easily, while a liquid such as tar that has a high viscosity flows slowly
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
CHEMICAL STABILITY
co tel ny Th form
Chemical stability is another property that is exceedingly important in selecting a

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
hydraulic liquid. It is the liquids ability to resist oxidation and deterioration for long
periods. All liquids tend to undergo unfavorable chemical changes under severe
in A
operating conditions
Rev.00| Pag.342
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
PROPERTIES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
FLASH POINT
ex w o io n o
f
Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid gives off vapor in sufficient quantity
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
to ignite momentarily or flash when a flame is applied. A high flash point is
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
desirable for hydraulic liquids because it indicates good resistance to combustion
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
and a low degree of evaporation at normal temperatures.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
FIRE POINT
te b e w rig o
Fire point is the temperature at which a substance gives off vapor in sufficient
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
quantity to ignite and continue to burn when exposed to a spark or flame. Like f
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
lash point, a high fire point is required of desirable hydraulic liquids.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
The three principal categories of hydraulic fluids are:

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
-Minerals
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
-Polyalphaolefins
n
pi lec un e
-Phosphate esters
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.343
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
POLYALPHAOLEFIN-BASED FLUIDS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
MIL-H-83282 is a fire-resistant hydrogenated polyalphaolefin based fluid developed
ex w o io n o
in the 1960s to overcome the flammability characteristics of MIL-H-5606. MIL-H-
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
83282 is significantly more flame resistant than MIL-H-5606, but a disadvantage is
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the high viscosity at low temperature. It is generally limited to -40 F. However, it
em o ta co s, t a
w
can be used in the same system and with the same seals, gaskets, and hoses as
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
MIL-H-5606. MIL-H-46170 is the rust-inhibited version of MIL-H-83282
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
PHOSPHATE ESTER-BASED FLUID (SKYDROL)
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
These fluids are used in most commercial transport category aircraft and are
do gh o ote in
extremely fire-resistant. However, they are not fireproof and under certain
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
conditions, they burn. The earliest generation of these fluids was developed after
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
World War II as a result of the growing number of aircraft hydraulic brake fires that
, d al uth nt on
drew the collective concern of the commercial aviation industry.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.344
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
HYDRAULIC FLUID CONTAMINATION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
-Experience has shown that trouble in a hydraulic system is inevitable whenever
ex w o io n o
the liquid is allowed to become contaminated. The nature of the trouble, whether
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
a simple malfunction or the complete destruction of a component, depends to
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
some extent on the type of contaminant. Two general contaminants are:

em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
-Abrasives, including such particles as core sand, weld spatter, machining chips, and
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
rust.
te b e w rig o
-Non-abrasives, including those resulting from oil oxidation and soft particles worn
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
or shredded from seals and other organic components.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
Large particles of impurities in the hydraulic system are indications that one or
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
more components are being subjected to excessive wear. Isolating the defective
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
component requires a systematic process of elimination. Fluid returned to the

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
reservoir may contain impurities from any part of the system. To determine which
co tel ny Th form
component is defective, liquid samples should be taken from the reservoir and
n
pi lec un e
li
various other locations in the system.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.345
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CONTAMINATION CONTROL
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Filters provide adequate control of the contamination problem during all normal
ex w o io n o
hydraulic system operations. Control of the size and amount of contamination
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
entering the system from any other source is the responsibility of the people who
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
service and maintain the equipment. Therefore, precautions should be taken to

em o ta co s, t a
w
minimize contamination during maintenance, repair, and service operations. If the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
system becomes contaminated, the filter element should be removed and cleaned
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
or replaced.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
-As an aid in controlling contamination, the following maintenance and servicing
m
procedures should be followed at all times:
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
-Maintain all tools and the work area (workbenches and test equipment) in a clean,
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
dirt-free condition.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
-A suitable container should always be provided to receive the hydraulic liquid that
, d al uth nt on
is spilled during component removal or disassembly procedures.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
-Before disconnecting hydraulic lines or fittings, clean the affected area with dry
n
pi lec un e
li
cleaning solvent.
Al
-All hydraulic lines and fittings should be capped or plugged immediately after
in A
disconnecting.
Rev.00| Pag.346
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FILTERS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Contamination, both particulate and chemical, is detrimental to the performance
ex w o io n o
and life of components in the aircraft hydraulic system. Contamination enters the
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
system through normal wear of components, by ingestion through external seals
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
during servicing, or maintenance, when the system is opened to replace/ repair

em o ta co s, t a
w
components, etc. To control the particulate contamination in the system, filters are
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
installed in the pressure line, in the return line, and in the pump case drain line of
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
each system.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
In the absence of specific replacement instructions, a recommended service life of
m
the filter elements is:
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Pressure filters - 3 000 hours

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Return filters - 1 500 hours

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Case drain filters - 600 hours

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.347
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
HYDRAULIC RESERVOIRS AND ACCUMULATORS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
RESERVOIRS
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
The reservoir is a tank in which an adequate supply of fluid for the system is stored.
,
Sa n nt
ol
Fluid flows from the reservoir to the pump, where it is forced through the system
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
and eventually returned to the reservoir. The reservoir not only supplies the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
operating needs of the system, but it also replenishes fluid lost through leakage.
te b e w rig o
Furthermore, the reservoir serves as an overflow basin for excess fluid forced out
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
of the system by thermal expansion (the increase of fluid volume caused by
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
temperature changes), the accumulators, and by piston and rod displacement

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
The reservoir came split in:

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
-non-pressurized reservoir
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
-pressurized reservoir
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.348
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
HYDRAULIC RESERVOIRS AND
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
ACCUMULATORS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
NON-PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
Non-pressurized reservoirs are used in
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
aircraft that are not designed for violent
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
maneuvers, do not fly at high altitudes, or in
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
which the reservoir is located in the

r w d s te co in
pressurized area of the aircraft. High altitude
io de es on y in
in this situation means an altitude where
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
atmospheric pressure is inadequate to

do gh o ote in
maintain sufficient flow of fluid to the

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
hydraulic pumps. Most non-pressurized

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
reservoirs are constructed in a cylindrical

, d al uth nt on
shape. The outer housing is manufactured

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
from a strong corrosion-resistant metal.

n
pi lec un e
li
Filter elements are normally installed within

Al
the reservoir to clean returning system

hydraulic fluid
in A
Rev.00| Pag.349
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS
of
h d a e
Reservoirs on aircraft designed for high-altitude flight
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
are usually pressurized. Pressurizing assures a positive
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
flow of section of the engine. On others, the reservoir
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
may be pressurized by hydraulic system pressure
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Air-Pressurized Reservoirs

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Air-pressurized reservoirs are used in many
m
commercial transport type aircraft. Pressurization of
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
the reservoir is required because the reservoirs are

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
often located in wheel wells or other non-pressurized

bu e ed a ta
areas of the aircraft and at high altitude there is not

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
enough atmospheric pressure to move the fluid to the

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
pump inlet. Engine bleed air is used to pressurize the

co tel ny Th form
reservoir. The reservoirs are typically cylindrical in

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
shape
in A
Rev.00| Pag.350
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The following components are installed on a typical
ex w o io n o
f
reservoir:
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Reservoir pressure relief valve - prevents over
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
pressurization of the reservoir. Valve opens at a preset
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
value.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Sight glasses (low and overfull) - provides visual
te b e w rig o
indication for f light crews and maintenance personnel
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
that the reservoir needs to be serviced.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Reservoir sample valve - used to draw a sample of

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
hydraulic fluid for testing.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Reservoir drain valve - used to drain the fluids out of

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the reservoir for maintenance operation.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
Reservoir temperature transducer - provides hydraulic

co tel ny Th form
fluid temperature information for the flight deck.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
Reservoir quantity transmitter - transmits fluid quantity

to the flight deck so that the flight crew can monitor
in A
fluid quantity during flight.

Rev.00| Pag.351
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Fluid-Pressurized Reservoirs
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Some aircraft hydraulic system reservoirs are pressurized
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
by hydraulic system pressure. Regulated hydraulic pump
re ed e s e aw en
.
output pressure is applied to a movable piston inside the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
cylindrical reservoir. This small piston is attached to and
te b e w rig o
moves a larger piston against the reservoir fluid. The
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
reduced force of the small piston when applied by the
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
larger piston is adequate to provide head pressure for high

do gh o ote in
altitude operation. The small piston protrudes out of the

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
body of the reservoir. The amount exposed is used as a

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
reservoir fluid quantity indicator. The following figure

, d al uth nt on
illustrates the concept behind the fluid-pressurized

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
hydraulic reservoir. The reservoir has five ports: pump

n
pi lec un e
suction, return, pressurizing, overboard drain, and bleed

li
Al
port. Fluid is supplied to the pump through the pump

suction port
in A
Rev.00| Pag.352
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ACCUMULATORS
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The accumulator is a steel sphere divided into two chambers by a synthetic rubber
ex w o io n o
f
diaphragm. The upper chamber contains fluid at system pressure, while the lower
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
chamber is charged with nitrogen or air. Cylindrical types are also used in high-
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
pressure hydraulic systems. Many aircraft have several accumulators in the hydraulic
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
system. There may be a main system accumulator and an emergency system
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
accumulator. There may also be auxiliary accumulators located in various sub-systems.
te b e w rig o
The functions of an accumulator are to:
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
-Dampen pressure surges in the hydraulic system caused by actuation of a unit and the
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
effort of the pump to maintain pressure at a preset level.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
-Aid or supplement the power pump when several units are operating at once by
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
supplying extra power from its accumulated, or stored, power.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
-Store power for the limited operation of a hydraulic unit when the pump is not
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
operating.
co tel ny Th form
-Supply fluid under pressure to compensate for small internal or external (not desired)
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
leaks that would cause the system to cycle continuously by action of the pressure
switches continually kicking in.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.353
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
ACCUMULATORS
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Spherical
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The spherical type accumulator is constructed in two halves that are fastened and
of
h d a e
threaded, or welded, together. Two threaded openings exist. The top port accepts
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
fittings to connect to the pressurized hydraulic system to the accumulator. The bottom
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
port is fitted with a gas servicing valve, such as a Schrader valve. A synthetic rubber
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
diaphragm, or bladder, is installed in the sphere to create two chambers. Pressurized
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
hydraulic fluid occupies the upper chamber and nitrogen or air charges the lower

r w d s te co in
chamber. A screen at the fluid pressure port keeps the diaphragm, or bladder, from
io de es on y in
extruding through the port when the lower chamber is charged and hydraulic fluid
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
pressure is zero. A rigid button or disc may also be attached to the diaphragm, or
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
bladder, for this purpose .

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.354
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
ACCUMULATORS
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Cylindrical
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Cylindrical accumulators consist of a cylinder and piston assembly. End caps are
of
h d a e
attached to both ends of the cylinder. The internal piston separates the fluid and air/
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
nitrogen chambers. The end caps and piston are sealed with gaskets and packings to
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
prevent external leakage around the end caps and internal leakage between the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
chambers. In one end cap, a hydraulic fitting is used to attach the fluid chamber to the
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
hydraulic system. In the other end cap, a filler valve is installed to perform the same

r w d s te co in
function as the filler valve installed in the spherical accumulator.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.355
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE GENERATION
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND PNEUMATIC-DRIVEN PUMPS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Mechanically driven pumps are the primary source of pressure generation on most
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
aircraft. Typically, the pump is mounted on the accessory gearbox of the main engine
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
and is rotated by a shaft. When the engine is operating, the pump supplies ample fluid
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
flow to generate pressure within the hydraulic system. Electrical motor driven pumps
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
also exist. Often, these are the same pumps as the mechanically driven pumps but the

r w d s te co in
drive shaft is turned by an electrical motor. As such, electrically driven pumps can be
io de es on y in
mounted away from the engine(s). pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
On large aircraft, they are usually mounted in the wheel well or in a hydraulics bay
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
near the root of the wings. Electrically driven pumps are installed for use in
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
emergencies or during ground operation when engines are not running. Pneumatically
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
driven pumps also exist on aircraft.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
Typically these pumps are used as demand pumps to supplement the primary pumps
co tel ny Th form
and are driven by air from the pneumatic system or by ram air in the case of a ram air
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
turbine (RAT)
in A
Rev.00| Pag.356
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND PNEUMATIC-DRIVEN PUMPS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Mechanically driven pumps are the primary source of pressure generation on most
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
aircraft. Typically, the pump is mounted on the accessory gearbox of the main engine
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
and is rotated by a shaft. When the engine is operating, the pump supplies ample fluid
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
flow to generate pressure within the hydraulic system. Electrical motor driven pumps
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
also exist. Often, these are the same pumps as the mechanically driven pumps but the

r w d s te co in
drive shaft is turned by an electrical motor. As such, electrically driven pumps can be
io de es on y in
mounted away from the engine(s). pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
On large aircraft, they are usually mounted in the wheel well or in a hydraulics bay
bu e ed a ta
near the root of the wings. Electrically driven pumps are installed for use in
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
emergencies or during ground operation when engines are not running. Pneumatically
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
driven pumps also exist on aircraft.

co tel ny Th form
Typically these pumps are used as demand pumps to supplement the primary pumps
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
and are driven by air from the pneumatic system or by ram air in the case of a ram air
turbine (RAT)
in A
Rev.00| Pag.357
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
HAND PUMPS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
The hydraulic hand pump is used in some older aircraft for the
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
operation of hydraulic subsystems and in a few newer aircraft
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
systems as a backup unit. Hand pumps are generally installed for
re ed e s e aw en
.
testing purposes, as well as for use in emergencies. Hand pumps
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
are also installed to service the reservoirs from a single refilling
te b e w rig o
station. The single refilling station reduces the chances for the
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
introduction of fluid contamination
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
Double-action hand pumps produce fluid flow and pressure on

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
each stroke of the handle.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
The double action hand pump consists essentially of a housing

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
that has a cylinder bore and two ports, a piston, two spring-
co tel ny Th form
loaded check valves, and an operating handle

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.358
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
CONSTANT DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
A constant-displacement pump, regardless of pump rotations per minute, forces a fixed
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
or unvarying quantity of fluid through the outlet port during each revolution of the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
pump. Constant displacement pumps are sometimes called constant-volume or
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
constant-delivery pumps. They deliver a fixed quantity of fluid per revolution, regardless

r w d s te co in
of the pressure demands. Since the constant-delivery pump provides a fixed quantity of
io de es on y in
fluid during each revolution of the pump, the quantity of fluid delivered per minute
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
depends upon pump rotations per minute. When a constant displacement pump is used
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
in a hydraulic system in which the pressure must be kept at a constant value, a pressure
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
regulator is required.
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.359
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
CONSTANT DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
A constant-displacement pump, regardless of pump rotations per minute, forces a fixed
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
or unvarying quantity of fluid through the outlet port during each revolution of the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
pump. Constant displacement pumps are sometimes called constant-volume or
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
constant-delivery pumps. They deliver a fixed quantity of fluid per revolution, regardless

r w d s te co in
of the pressure demands. Since the constant-delivery pump provides a fixed quantity of
io de es on y in
fluid during each revolution of the pump, the quantity of fluid delivered per minute
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
depends upon pump rotations per minute. When a constant displacement pump is used
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
in a hydraulic system in which the pressure must be kept at a constant value, a pressure
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
regulator is required.
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.360
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
GEAR PUMP GEOROTOR PUMP
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.361
INTRODUCTION
Al
Piston Pumps
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
accessory drive cases of aircraft engines.
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
common features of design and operation that are applicable to all piston type
Piston pumps can be constant-displacement or variable displacement pumps. The
pumps have flanged mounting bases for the purpose of mounting the pumps on the
hydraulic pumps are described in the following paragraphs. Piston type power-driven
Rev.00| Pag.362
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
Piston Pumps
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
A pump drive shaft, which turns the mechanism, extends through the pump housing
of
h d a e
slightly beyond the mounting base.
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Torque from the driving unit is transmitted to the pump drive shaft by a drive coupling.

em o ta co s, t a
w
The drive coupling is a short shaft with a set of male splines on both ends.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
The splines on one end engage with female splines in a driving gear; the splines on the
te b e w rig o
other end engage with female splines in the pump drive shaft.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Pump drive couplings are designed to serve as safety devices.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The shear section of the drive coupling, located midway between the two sets of
do gh o ote in
splines, is smaller in diameter than the splines

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.363
turned
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
Bent Axis Piston Pump
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
A typical constant-displacement axial type pump is shown in the following figure. The
angular configuration of the pump that causes the pistons to stroke as the pump shaft is
angular housing of the pump causes a corresponding angle to exist between the
cylinder block and the drive shaft plate to which the pistons are attached. It is this
Rev.00| Pag.364
INTRODUCTION
Vane Pump
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
a coupling to turn the rotor
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The vane type power pump is also a constant displacement pump. It consists of a
Rev.00| Pag.365
housing containing four vanes (blades), a hollow steel rotor with slots for the vanes, and
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt o ig t-A
VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
w ,
gl h no N n r T f
. ol S
that boosts the pressure before the fluid enters the piston pump.
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
demands of the system. The pump output is changed automatically by a pump
A variable displacement pump has a f luid output that is varied to meet the pressure
compensator within the pump. The following paragraph discusses a two stage Vickers
variable displacement pump. The first stage of the pump consists of a centrifugal pump
Rev.00| Pag.366
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt o ig t-A
VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
w ,
gl h no N n r T f
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.367
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
RAM AIR TURBINE (RAT)
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
A RAT is installed in the aircraft to provide electrical and hydraulic power if the primary
of
h d a e
sources of aircraft power are lost. Ram air is used to turn the blades of a turbine that, in
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
turn, operates a hydraulic pump and generator. The turbine and pump assembly is
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
generally installed on the inner surface of a door installed in the fuselage.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
The door is hinged, allowing the assembly to be extended into the slipstream by pulling
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
a manual release in the flight deck. In some aircraft, the RAT automatically deploys
r w d s te co in
when the main hydraulic pressure system fails and/or electrical system malfunction
io de es on y in
m
occurs
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.368
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
HYDRAULIC MOTORS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Just as a rotating shaft drives a hydraulic pump workings to move fluid, fluid forced
of
h d a e
through the pump can rotate the attached shaft. This is the principle behind a hydraulic
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
motor. Hydraulic f luid forced through the pump rotates the shaft of the pump, which as
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
a result, makes the pump a motor. The motion of the shaft is then used to drive
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
something to which it is attached
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The most commonly used hydraulic motor is the fixed-displacement bent-axis type.
r w d s te co in
These types of motors are used for the activation of trailing edge flaps, leading edge
io de es on y in
m
slats, and stabilizer trim
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.369
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
POWER TRANSFER UNITS (PTUS)
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Hydraulic motors are also used in power transfer units (PTUs). In a PTU, two units, a
ex w o io n o
hydraulic pump an hydraulic motor, are connected via a single drive shaft so that power
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
can be transferred between two hydraulic systems. Depending on the direction of
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
power transfer, each unit works as either a motor or a pump. The pressurized hydraulic
em o ta co s, t a
w
system forces fluid through the motor which turns the shaft of the pump that moves
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
fluid through the second hydraulic system. Thus, power is transferred from one system
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
to the other.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
-While the PTU transfers power, it does not transfer any fluid from one system to the
m
e s
other
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.370
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
PRESSURE CONTROL
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The safe and efficient operation of fluid power systems, system components, and
of
h d a e
related equipment requires a means of controlling pressure. There are many types of
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
automatic pressure control valves designed for this purpose. Some of them are an

em o ta co s, t a
w
escape for pressure that exceeds a set pressure; some only reduce the pressure to a
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
lower pressure system or subsystem; and some keep the pressure in a system within a
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
required range

r w d s te co in
RELIEF VALVES
io de es on y in
m
Hydraulic pressure must be regulated in order to use it to perform the desired tasks. A
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
pressure relief valve is used to limit the amount of pressure being exerted on a confined
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
liquid. This is necessary to prevent failure of components or rupture of hydraulic lines

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
under excessive pressures. The pressure relief valve is, in effect, a system safety valve.
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
The design of pressure relief valves incorporates adjustable spring-loaded valves. They
ed tu a co ati
are installed in such a manner as to discharge fluid from the pressure line into a
co tel ny Th form
reservoir return line when the pressure exceeds the predetermined maximum for which
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
the valve is adjusted. Various makes and designs of pressure relief valves are in use, but,
in general, they all employ a spring-loaded valving device operated by hydraulic
in A
pressure and spring tension

Rev.00| Pag.371
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
RELIEF VALVES
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Pressure relief valves are adjusted by increasing or
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
decreasing the tension on the spring to determine the
ex w o io n o
f
pressure required to open the valve. They may be
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
classified by type of construction or uses in the system.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
The most common types of valve are:
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
-Ball type - in pressure relief valves with a ball type
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
valving device, the ball rests on a contoured seat.
te b e w rig o
Pressure acting on the bottom of the ball pushes it off its
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
seat, allowing the fluid to bypass.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
-Sleeve type - in pressure relief valves with a sleeve type

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
valving device, the ball remains stationary and a sleeve

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
type seat is moved up by the fluid pressure. This allows

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the fluid to bypass between the ball and the sliding sleeve
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
type seat.
co tel ny Th form
-Poppet type - in pressure relief valves with a poppet type

n
pi lec un e
li
valving device, a cone shaped poppet may have any of

Al
several design configurations; however, it is basically a

in A
cone and seat machined at matched angles to prevent

leakage.
Rev.00| Pag.372
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
PRESSURE REGULATORS/PRESSURE REDUCERS
gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.373
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
POWER DISTRIBUTION
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Power distribution in a hydraulic system is controlled through the use of variety of flow
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
control valves. These valves control the speed and/or direction of fluid flow in the
ex w o io n o
of
hydraulic system. They provide for the operation of various components when desired
h d a e
ro in t re m op
and the speed at which the component operates. Examples of flow control valves
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
include: selector valves, check valves, sequence valves, priority valves, shuttle valves,
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
quick disconnect valves, hydraulic fuses and shutoff valves.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
SHUTOFF VALVES
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
Shutoff valves are used to shutoff the flow of fluid to a particular system, sub-system
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
or component. In general, these types of valves are electrically powered. They are
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
used to distribute hydraulic power to various components in the system.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.374
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt o ig t-A
SEQUENCE VALVES /CHECK VALVES
w ,
gl h no N n r T f
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.375
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
PRIORITY VALVES
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
A priority valve gives priority to the critical
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
hydraulic subsystems over noncritical systems
ex w o io n o
when system pressure is low. For instance, if the
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
pressure of the priority valve is set for 2 200 psi, all
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
systems receive pressure when the pressure is
em o ta co s, t a
w
above 2 200 psi. If the pressure drops below 2 200
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
psi, the priority valve closes and no fluid pressure
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
flows to the noncritical systems
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
SHUTTLE VALVES
m
e s
The emergency system usually actuates only
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
essential components. The main purpose of the

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
shuttle valve is to isolate the normal system from

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
an alternate or emergency system. It is small and

, d al uth nt on
simple; yet, it is a very important component. The

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
housing contains three ports - normal system inlet,

n
alternate or emergency system inlet, and outlet. A

pi lec un e
li
Al
shuttle valve used to operate more than one

actuating unit may contain additional unit outlet
in A
ports
Rev.00| Pag.376
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
LINEAR ACTUATORS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
A single-action actuating cylinder is illustrated in
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
the following figure. Fluid under pressure enters
of
h d a e
the port at the left and pushes against the face of
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
the piston, forcing the piston to the right. As the
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
piston moves, air is forced out of the spring
re ed e s e aw en
.
chamber through the vent hole, compressing the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
spring. When pressure on the fluid is released to
te b e w rig o
the point it exerts less force than is present in the
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
compressed spring, the spring pushes the piston
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
toward the left

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
A double-action (two ports) actuating cylinder is

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
illustrated in the bottom figure. The operation of a

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
double-action actuating cylinder is usually

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
controlled by a four-way selector valve

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.377
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ROTARY ACTUATORS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Rotary actuators can mount right at the part
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
without taking up the long stroke lengths required
of
h d a e
of cylinders. Rotary actuators are not limited to the
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
90 pivot arc typical of cylinders; they can achieve
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
arc lengths of 180, 360, or even 720 or more,
re ed e s e aw en
.
depending on the configuration. An often used
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
type of rotary actuator is the rack and pinion
te b e w rig o
actuator used for many nose wheel steering
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
mechanisms. In a rack-and-pinion actuator, a long
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
piston with one side machined into a rack engages

do gh o ote in
a pinion to turn the output shaft

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.378
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
FILTERS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
A filter is a screening or straining device used to
of
h d a e
clean the hydraulic fluid, preventing foreign particles
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
and contaminating substances from remaining in the

em o ta co s, t a
w
system. If such objectionable material were not
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
removed, the entire hydraulic system of the aircraft
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
could fail through the breakdown or malfunctioning

r w d s te co in
of a single unit of the system
io de es on y in
m
FILTER BYPASS VALVE
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Filter modules are often equipped with a bypass

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
relief valve. The bypass relief valve opens if the filter

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
clogs, permitting continued hydraulic flow and

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
operation of aircraft systems. Dirty oil is preferred

ed tu a co ati
over no flow at all. The bottom figure shows the

co tel ny Th form
principle of operation of a filter bypass valve. Ball

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
valve opens when the filter becomes clogged and the

pressure over the filter increases.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.379
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
HYDRAULIC SEALS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Seals are used to prevent fluid from passing a certain
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
point, and to keep air and dirt out of the system in which
of
h d a e
they are used. The increased use of hydraulics and
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
pneumatics in aircraft systems has created a need for
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
packings and gaskets of varying characteristics and
re ed e s e aw en
.
design to meet the many variations of operating speeds
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
and temperatures to which they are subjected.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
No one style or type of seal is satisfactory for all
io de es on y in
m
installations
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Some of the reasons for this are:

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Pressure at which the system operates.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
The type fluid used in the system.

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
The metal finish and the clearance between adjacent

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
parts.
n
pi lec un e
li
The type motion (rotary or reciprocating), if any

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.380
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
O-RING INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
WIPERS
w y
ith be
behind a metallic wiper
ou
t
They are sometimes used
and help protect the piston
shaft against scoring. Wipers
Wipers are used to clean and
dirt from entering the system
may be either metallic or felt.

of piston shafts. They prevent
together, a felt wiper installed

lubricate the exposed portions
Rev.00| Pag.381
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
HYDRAULIC INDICATING AND WARNING
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
There are just a few hydraulic system indications on the flight deck. Fluid pressure and
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
temperature are the primary parameters monitored as well as fluid quantity. Reservoir
ex w o io n o
of
pressurization air pressure may also be monitored. Typically, electro-hydraulic
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
transducers are mounted in the system in key locations so that hydraulic pressure and
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
temperature can be displayed on a gauge or LCD screen. A separate transmitter and
re ed e s e aw en
.
indication is used for brake pressure. For servicing and maintenance, direct reading
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
indicators are installed so that maintenance technicians can observe system status while
te b e w rig o
on the ramp
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.382
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION (ATA 30)
Rev.00| Pag.383
STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION (ATA 30)
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
ICE FORMATION, CLASSIFICATION, AND EFFECTS
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
There are two types of ice are encountered during flight: clear ice and rime ice. Clear
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ice forms when the remaining liquid portion of the water drop flows out over the
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
aircraft surface, gradually freezing as a smooth sheet of solid ice. Formation occurs
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
when droplets are large, such as in rain or in cumuliform clouds. Clear ice is hard,
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
heavy, and tenacious. Its removal by de-icing equipment is especially difficult.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
Rime ice forms when water drops are small, such as those in stratified clouds or light
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
drizzle. The liquid portion remaining after initial impact freezes rapidly before the drop
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
has time to spread over the aircraft surface. The small frozen droplets trap air giving
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
the ice a white appearance. Rime ice is lighter in weight than clear ice, however its
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
weight is of little significance. The irregular shape and rough surface of rime ice
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
decrease the effectiveness and efficiency of the aerodynamic airfoils. This reduces lift
co tel ny Th form
and increases drag. Rime ice is brittle and more easily removed than clear ice
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.384
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
ICING EFFECTS
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Ice or frost forming on aircraft creates hazards
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
detrimental to safe flight. The resulting malformation of
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
the airfoil when ice adheres to it decreases the amount
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
of lift. The additional weight and unequal formation of
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the ice may also cause unbalancing of the aircraft,

r w d s te co in
making it hard to control. Enough ice to cause an
io de es on y in
m
unsafe flight condition can form in a very short period
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
of time, thus some method of ice prevention or

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
removal is necessary.
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Ice buildup increases drag and reduces lift. It causes

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
destructive vibration and hampers true instrument

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
readings. Control surfaces become unbalanced or

co tel ny Th form
frozen. Fixed slots are filled and movable slots jammed.

n
pi lec un e
li
Radio reception is hampered and engine performance

Al
is affected.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.385
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
ICE DETECTION
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
As can be seen in figure, ice detectors are
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
mounted on the sides of the forward
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
fuselage to receive impact air as the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
aircraft moves forward. Two independent
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
detectors and detector systems is normal.

r w d s te co in
The typical anti-ice detector contains a
io de es on y in
m
probe which is vibrated at an established
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
rate. For detectors on the Boeing 777, the

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
vibration rate is 40 000 Hz. Inside the

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
probe housing are circuit cards and a

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
microprocessor. The probe is electrically

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
connected to the ice protection control

co tel ny Th form
unit and the aircraft data buses

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.386
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Chemical anti-icing is used on smaller turbine powered aircraft. Once activated, most
of
h d a e
systems are automatically operated.
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
THERMAL PNEUMATIC ANTI-ICING
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Thermal pneumatic systems used for the purpose of preventing the formation of ice

r w d s te co in
on airfoil leading edges usually use heated air ducted span-wise along the inside of
io de es on y in
m
the leading edge of the airfoil and distributed around its inner surface.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
These thermal pneumatic anti-icing systems are used for wings, leading edge slats,
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
horizontal and vertical stabilizers, engine inlets, and more

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
As stated, the most common source of the heated air is the turbine engine
co tel ny Th form
compressor bleed air

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.387
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
WING ANTI-ICE (WAI) SYSTEM
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Thermal wing anti-ice (WAI or TAI) systems for
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
business jet and large-transport category
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
aircraft take advantage of the relatively large
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
amounts of very hot air that can be bled off of
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
turbine engine compressors to provide a

r w d s te co in
satisfactory source of anti-icing heat. The hot
io de es on y in
m
air is routed through ducting, manifolds, and
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
valves to the leading edges of the wings. The

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
bottom figure shows a typical WAI system

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
schematic for a business jet. The bleed air is

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
routed to each wing leading edge by an ejector

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
in each wing inboard area. The ejector

co tel ny Th form
discharges the bleed air into piccolo tubes for

n
pi lec un e
li
distribution along the leading edge

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.388
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The ducting of WAI systems on large aircraft
of
h d a e
usually consists of aluminum alloy, titanium,
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
stainless steel, or molded fiberglass tubes. The
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
tube, or duct, sections are attached to each other
re ed e s e aw en
.
by bolted end flanges or by band type V-clamps. In
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
some locations, the ducting is covered with a fire-
te b e w rig o
resistant, heat-insulating material, such as
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
fiberglass. Thin stainless steel expansion bellows
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
are used at strategic positions in the ducting to

do gh o ote in
absorb any distortion or expansion of the ducting

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
that may occur due to temperature variations. The

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
joined sections of ducting are hermetically sealed

, d al uth nt on
by sealing rings. These seals are fitted into annular

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
recesses in the duct joint faces.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.389
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.390
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
WAI Control
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Modern aircraft use several onboard computers to
of
h d a e
control aircraft systems. The WAI system is controlled by
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the ACIPS computer card. The ACIPS computer card

em o ta co s, t a
w
controls both WAI valves. The required positions of the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
WAI valves change as bleed air temperature and altitude
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
change. The left and right valves operate at the same

r w d s te co in
time to heat both wings equally. This keeps the airplane
io de es on y in
m
aerodynamically stable in icing conditions. The WAI
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
pressure sensors supply feedback information to the

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
WAI ACIPS computer card for WAI valve control and

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
position indication
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
The valves close after a 3-minute delay when the ice

co tel ny Th form
detector no longer detects ice. The time delay prevents

n
pi lec un e
li
frequent ON/OFF cycles during intermittent icing

Al
conditions. With the selector ON and no operational

in A
mode inhibits, the WAI valves open. With the selector

OFF, the WAI valves close.
Rev.00| Pag.391
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
ENGINE ANTI-ICE (EAI)
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
In addition to thermal pneumatic wing anti-ice, large
of
h d a e
turbine powered aircraft also have thermal pneumatic
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
engine inlet anti-ice (EAI). It is extremely important that

em o ta co s, t a
w
ice not be allowed to build on the engine inlet cowl.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
Should ice form and then break off, it is ingested by the
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
engine and could cause engine damage. This is why

r w d s te co in
Boeing engine anti-ice is automatically turned on before
io de es on y in
m
wing anti-ice when the ice detection system begins to
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
cycle the probe heat. The EAI operates similarly to the

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
WAI. Bleed air supplied from a high stage compressor

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
bleed port is ducted to the leading edge of the engine

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
inlet cowls. It exits the cowl through overboard vents. A

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
pneumatically actuated EAI valve controls the flow of the

co tel ny Th form
warm bleed air to the inlet cowl. The valve is supplied

n
pi lec un e
li
control pressure from an EAI controller. The controller has

Al
a torque motor that moves in response to ACIPS - EAI

in A
logic card signals. It regulates activation pressure to the

EAI valve
Rev.00| Pag.392
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
THERMAL ELECTRIC ANTI-ICING
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
Electricity is used to heat various components on an aircraft so that ice does not form.
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
This type of anti-ice is typically limited to small components due to high amperage
of
h d a e
draw. Effective thermal electric anti-ice is used on most air data probes, such as pitot
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
tubes, static air ports, TAT and AOA probes, ice detectors, and engine P2/T2 sensors.

em o ta co s, t a
w
Water lines, waste water drains, and some turboprop inlet cowls are also heated with
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
electricity to prevent ice from forming. Transport category and high performance
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
aircraft use thermal electric anti-icing in windshields

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.393
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
conductive films and heated gaskets
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m
PROBE ANTI-ICE
h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
In devices that use thermal electric anti-ice, current flows through an integral
conductive element that produces heat. The temperature of the component is
used, such as an internal coil wire, externally wrapped blankets or tapes, as well as
elevated above the freezing point of water so ice cannot form. Various schemes are
Rev.00| Pag.394
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m
PROBE ANTI-ICE
h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.395
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
WINDSHIELD ANTI-ICE
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The laminations create the strength and impact resistance of the windshield assembly.
of
h d a e
These are critical feature for windshields as they are subject to a wide range of
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
temperatures and pressures. They must also withstand the force of a 4 pound bird
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
strike at cruising speed to be certified. The laminated construction facilitates the
re ed e s e aw en
.
inclusion of electric heating elements into the glass layers, which are used to keep the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
windshield clear of ice, frost, and fog. The elements can be in the form of resistance
te b e w rig o
wires or a transparent conductive material may be used as one of the window plies. To
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
ensure enough heating is applied to the outside of the windshield, heating elements
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
are placed on the inside of the outer glass ply. Windshields are typically bonded
do gh o ote in
together by the application of pressure and heat without the use of cement
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.396
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
DE-ICING SYSTEMS
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
When ice, snow or frost are allowed to accumulate on aircraft surfaces and then are
of
h d a e
removed, the process is known as de-icing. Smaller turbine powered aircraft and
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
reciprocating aircraft often incorporate de-ice systems rather anti-ice system although
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
some aircraft my use a combination of de-ice and anti-ice for overall ice protection
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
PNEUMATIC DE-ICE BOOTS
te b e w rig o
The most common means for de-icing wings and stabilizers on small turbine powered
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
aircraft and reciprocating engine aircraft is with pneumatic de-ice boots. The leading
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
edges of the wings and stabilizers have inflatable boots attached to them. The boots
do gh o ote in
expand when inflated by pneumatic pressure, which breaks away ice accumulated on
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the boot. Most boots are inflated for 6 to 8 seconds. They are deflated by vacuum
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
suction. The vacuum is continuously applied to hold the boots tightly against the
, d al uth nt on
aircraft while not in use

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.397
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
De-icer boots are made of soft, pliable rubber, or rubberized fabric, and contain
of
h d a e
tubular air cells. The outer ply of the de-icer boot is of conductive neoprene to provide
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
resistance to deterioration by the elements and many chemicals. The neoprene also
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
provides a conductive surface to dissipate static electricity charges. These charges, if
re ed e s e aw en
.
allowed to accumulate, would eventually discharge through the boot to the metal skin
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
beneath, causing static interference with the radio equipment.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.398
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
General aviation reciprocating engine aircraft,
of
h d a e
especially twin-engine models, are commonly
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
equipped with pneumatic de-icer systems. Rubber
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
boots are attached with glue to the leading edges of
re ed e s e aw en
.
the wings and stabilizers. These boots have a series of
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
inflatable tubes. During operation, the tubes are
te b e w rig o
inflated and deflated in an alternating cycle. This
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
inflation and deflation causes the ice to crack and
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
break off. The ice is then carried away by the

do gh o ote in
airstream. Boots used in GA aircraft typically inflate

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
and deflate along the length of the wing.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.399
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.400
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
DE-ICE SYSTEM FOR TURBOPROP AIRCRAFT
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.401
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
DE-ICE SYSTEM FOR TURBOPROP AIRCRAFT
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.402
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
THROUBLESHOOTING DE-ICE SYSTEM
gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.403
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
ELECTRIC AIRFOIL DE-ICE BOOTS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
A few modern aircraft are equipped with
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
electric de-ice boots on wing sections or on
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the horizontal stabilizer. These boots

em o ta co s, t a
w
contain electric heating elements which are
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
bonded to the leading edges similarly to
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
pneumatic de-ice boots. When activated,
r w d s te co in
the boots heat up and melt the ice off of
io de es on y in
m
leading edge surfaces. The elements are
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
controlled by a sequence timer in a de-ice

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
controller. Ice detector and ram air

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
temperature probe inputs initiate operation

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
when other f light condition parameters

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
exist. The boot elements turn ON and OFF

co tel ny Th form
in paired sections to avoid aerodynamic

n
pi lec un e
li
imbalance. The system is inoperative while

Al
the aircraft is on the ground.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.404
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CHEMICAL DE-ICE SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
WINDSHIELD CHEMICAL DE-ICE
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
As previously mentioned in this chapter,
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
chemical anti-ice systems exist generally for

em o ta co s, t a
w
small aircraft. This type of anti-ice is also
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
used on windshields.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The liquid chemical is sprayed through a
r w d s te co in
nozzle onto the outside of the windshield
io de es on y in
m
which prevents ice from forming. The
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
chemical can also de-ice the windshield of

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
ice that may have already formed. Systems

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
such as these have a fluid reservoir, pump,

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
control valve, filter, and relief valve. Other

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
components may exist. The following figure

co tel ny Th form
shows a set of spray tubes for application of

n
pi lec un e
li
chemical anti-ice on an aircraft windshield

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.405
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
THE ICE FLUID
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.406
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
WINDSHIELD WIPER SYSTEMS
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
In an electrical windshield wiper system, the blades are driven by an electric motor(s)
ex w o io n o
of
that receive (s) power from the aircrafts electrical system. On some aircraft, the pilots
h d a e
ro in t re m op
and copilots windshield wipers are operated by separate systems to ensure that clear
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
vision is maintained through one of the windows should one system fail. Each
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
windshield wiper assembly consists of a wiper, wiper arm and a wiper
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
motor/converter. Almost all windshield wiper systems use electrical motors. Some
te b e w rig o
older aircraft might be equipped with hydraulic wiper motors
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.407
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
CHEMICAL RAIN REPELLENT
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Water poured onto clean glass spreads out evenly. Even when the glass is held at a
ex w o io n o
of
steep angle or subjected to air velocity, the glass remains wetted by a thin film of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
water. However, when glass is treated with certain chemicals, a transparent film is
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
formed that causes the water to behave very much like mercury on glass. The water
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
draws up into beads that cover only a portion of the glass and the area between beads
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
is dry. The water is readily removed from the glass. This principle lends itself quite
te b e w rig o
naturally to removing rain from aircraft windshields. The high-velocity slipstream
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
continually removes the water beads, leaving a large part of the window dry.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.408
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Water poured onto clean glass spreads out evenly. Even when the glass is held at a
ex w o io n o
of
steep angle or subjected to air velocity, the glass remains wetted by a thin film of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
water. However, when glass is treated with certain chemicals, a transparent film is
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
formed that causes the water to behave very much like mercury on glass. The water
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
draws up into beads that cover only a portion of the glass and the area between beads
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
is dry. The water is readily removed from the glass. This principle lends itself quite
te b e w rig o
naturally to removing rain from aircraft windshields. The high-velocity slipstream
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
continually removes the water beads, leaving a large part of the window dry.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.409
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Water poured onto clean glass spreads out
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
evenly. Even when the glass is held at a steep
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
angle or subjected to air velocity, the glass

em o ta co s, t a
w
remains wetted by a thin film of water.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
However, when glass is treated with certain
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
chemicals, a transparent film is formed that

r w d s te co in
causes the water to behave very much like
io de es on y in
m
mercury on glass. The water draws up into
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
beads that cover only a portion of the glass

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
and the area between beads is dry. The

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
water is readily removed from the glass. This

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
principle lends itself quite naturally to

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
removing rain from aircraft windshields. The

co tel ny Th form
high-velocity slipstream continually removes

n
pi lec un e
li
the water beads, leaving a large part of the

Al
window dry.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.410
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
LANDING GEAR (ATA 32)
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.411
STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS LANDING GEAR (ATA 32) )
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATIONS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Three basic arrangements of landing gear are used: tail wheel type landing gear (also
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
known as conventional gear), tandem landing gear, and tricycle type landing gear

em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
TAIL WHEEL TYPE LANDING GEAR
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Tail wheel type landing gear is also known as conventional gear because many early

r w d s te co in
aircraft use this type of arrangement. The main gear are located forward of the center
io de es on y in
m
of gravity, causing the tail to require support from a third wheel assembly. A few early
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
aircraft designs use a skid rather than a tail wheel.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.412
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
TANDEM LANDING GEAR
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Few aircraft are designed with tandem landing gear. As the name implies, this type of
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
landing gear has the main gear and tail gear aligned on the longitudinal axis of the

em o ta co s, t a
w
aircraft. Sailplanes commonly use tandem gear, although many only have one actual
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
gear forward on the fuselage with a skid under the tail. A few military bombers, such
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
as the B-47 and the B-52, have tandem gear, as does the U2 spy plane. The VTOL

r w d s te co in
Harrier has tandem gear but uses small outrigger gear under the wings for support.
io de es on y in
m
Generally, placing the gear only under the fuselage facilitates the use of very flexible
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
wings. .
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.413
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
TRICYCLE TYPE LANDING GEAR
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle type landing gear. It
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
is comprised of main gear and nose gear

em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
Tricycle type landing gear is used on large and small aircraft with the following
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
benefits:

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
-Allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when braking,
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
which enables higher landing speeds

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
-Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially during landing and ground
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
maneuvering
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
-Prevents ground looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft center of gravity is forward
n
pi lec un e
li
of the main gear, forces acting on the center of gravity keep the aircraft moving
Al
forward rather than looping, such as with a tail wheel type landing gear
in A
Rev.00| Pag.414
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
TRICYCLE TYPE LANDING GEAR
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.415
LANDING GEAR (ATA 32) )
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
LANDING GEAR ALIGNMENT AND SUPPORT
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Retractable landing gear consist of several components that enable it to function.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Typically, these are the torque links, trunnion and bracket arrangements, drag strut

em o ta co s, t a
w
linkages, electrical and hydraulic gear retraction devices, as well as locking, sensing,
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
and indicating components. Additionally, nose gear have steering mechanisms
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
attached to the gear.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
ALIGNMENT
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
As previously mentioned, a torque arm or torque links assembly keeps the lower strut
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
cylinder from rotating out of alignment with the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. In
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
some strut assemblies, it is the sole means of retaining the piston in the upper strut
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
cylinder. The link ends are attached to the fixed upper cylinder and the moving lower
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
cylinder with a hinge pin in the center to allow the strut to extend and compress
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.416
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ALIGNMENT
ex w o io n o
Alignment of the wheels of an aircraft is also a consideration. Normally, this is set by
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
the manufacturer and only requires occasional attention such as after a hard landing.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
On some smaller aircraft, the main wheels must be inspected and adjusted, if

em o ta co s, t a
w
necessary, to maintain the proper tow-in or tow-out and the correct camber. Tow-in
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
and tow-out refer to the path a main wheel would take in relation to the airframe
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
longitudinal axis or centerline if the wheel was free to roll forward. Three possibilities

r w d s te co in
exist. The wheel would roll either: 1) parallel to the longitudinal axis (aligned); 2)
io de es on y in
m
converge on the longitudinal axis (tow-in); or 3) veer away from the longitudinal axis
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
(tow-out).
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.417
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
CAMBER
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Camber is the alignment of a main wheel in the vertical
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
plain. It can be checked with a bubble protractor held

em o ta co s, t a
w
against the wheel assembly. The wheel camber is said to
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
be positive if the top of the wheel tilts outward from
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
vertical. Camber is negative if the top of the wheel tilts

r w d s te co in
inward.)
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
Adjustments can be made to correct small amounts of

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
wheel misalignment. On aircraft with spring steel gear,

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
tapered shims can be added or removed between the

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
bolt-on wheel axle and the axle mounting flange on the

co tel ny Th form
strut. Aircraft equipped with air/oil struts typically use

n
pi lec un e
li
shims between the two arms of the torque links as a

Al
means of aligning tow-in and tow-out. Follow all

in A
manufacturers instructions
Rev.00| Pag.418
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SUPPORT
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Aircraft landing gear are attached to the wing
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
spars or other structural members, many of
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
which are designed for the specific purpose of

em o ta co s, t a
w
supporting the landing gear. Retractable gear
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
must be engineered in such a way as to
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
provide strong attachment to the aircraft and
r w d s te co in
still be able to move into a recess or well
io de es on y in
m
when stowed.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
A trunnion arrangement is typical. The

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
trunnion is a fixed structural extension of the

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
upper strut cylinder with bearing surfaces that

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
allow the entire gear assembly to move. It is

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
attached to aircraft structure in such a way

co tel ny Th form
that the gear can pivot from the vertical

n
pi lec un e
li
position required for landing and taxi to the

Al
stowed position used during flight

in A
Rev.00| Pag.419
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SHOCK ABSORBING
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Aircraft landing gear are attached to the wing spars or other structural members,
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
many of which are designed for the specific purpose of supporting the landing gear.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Retractable gear must be engineered in such a way as to provide strong attachment to

em o ta co s, t a
w
the aircraft and still be able to move into a recess or well when stowed.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
A trunnion arrangement is typical. The trunnion is a fixed structural extension of the
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
upper strut cylinder with bearing surfaces that allow the entire gear assembly to
r w d s te co in
move. It is attached to aircraft structure in such a way that the gear can pivot from the
io de es on y in
m
vertical position required for landing and taxi to the stowed position used during flight
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
SHOCK STRUTS
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
True shock absorption occurs when the shock energy of landing impact is converted
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
into heat energy, as in a shock strut landing gear. This is the most common method of
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
landing shock dissipation in aviation. It is used on aircraft of all sizes. Shock struts are
co tel ny Th form
self-contained hydraulic units that support an aircraft while on the ground and protect
n
pi lec un e
li
the structure during landing. They must be inspected and serviced regularly to ensure
Al
proper operation
in A
Rev.00| Pag.420
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SHOCK ABSORBING
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.421
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SHOCK ABSORBING
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.422
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SHOCK ABSORBING
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Insufficient fluid, or air in the strut, cause the
ex w o io n o
of
compression stroke to not be properly limited. The
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
strut could bottom out, resulting in impact forces to
,
Sa n nt
ol
be transferred directly to the airframe through the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
metallic structure of the strut. In a properly serviced
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
strut, the extension stroke of the shock strut
te b e w rig o
operation occurs at the end of the compression
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
stroke. Energy stored in the compressed air in the
m
e s
upper cylinder causes the aircraft to start moving
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
upward in relation to the ground and lower strut

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
cylinder as the strut tries to rebound to its normal

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
position. Fluid is forced back down into the lower

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
cylinder through restrictions and snubbing orifices.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
The snubbing of fluid flow during the extension stroke

n
dampens the strut rebound and reduces oscillation

pi lec un e
li
Al
caused by the spring action of the compressed air. A

sleeve, spacer, or bumper ring incorporated into the
in A
strut limits the extension stroke.

Rev.00| Pag.423
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SHOCK ABSORBING
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.424
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
EXTENSION AND RETRACTION SYSTEMS: NORMAL
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.425
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
EMERGENCY EXTENSION SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The emergency extension system lowers the landing gear if
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
the main power system fails. There are numerous ways in
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
which this is done depending on the size and complexity of

em o ta co s, t a
w
the aircraft. Some aircraft have an emergency release handle
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
in the flight deck that is connected through a mechanical
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
linkage to the gear up locks. When the handle is operated, it
r w d s te co in
releases the up locks and allows the gear to free-fall to the
io de es on y in
m
extended position under the force created by gravity acting
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
upon the gear. Other aircraft use a non-mechanical back-up,

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
such as pneumatic power, to unlatch the gear. Large and

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
high performance aircraft are equipped with redundant

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
hydraulic systems. This makes emergency extension less

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
common since a different source of hydraulic power can be

co tel ny Th form
selected if the gear does not function normally. If the gear

n
pi lec un e
li
still fails to extend, some sort of unlatching device is used to

Al
release the up locks and allow the gear to free fall.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.426
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
LANDING GEAR SAFETY DEVICES
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
the gear from retracting or collapsing while on the ground (ground locks)
ith be
ou
t
There are numerous landing gear safety devices. Most common are those that prevent
Rev.00| Pag.427
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SAFETY SWITCHES
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.428
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
PROXIMITY SENSORS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.429
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
WOW
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The newest airliners use strain gauge load sensors mounted on the landing gear beam
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
structure to detect when the weight of the aircraft is on the main landing gear wheels
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
(ground condition).

em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
As the gear beam structure bends under the weight of the aircraft, corresponding
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
electrical signals from the load sensors are sent to a unit or card file in the equipment
r w d s te co in
bay for processing.
io de es on y in
m
There, weight on wheels (WOW) integrated circuit logic cards communicate the air-
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
ground information with the other systems on the aircraft through a digital data bus.
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Responding to signal from the WOW cards, air-ground relays control the distribution
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
of electrical power to the appropriate systems and devices on the aircraft.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.430
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
WOW
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Note that the WOW cards are electrostatic sensitive and all electrostatic sensitive
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
material precautions must be observed by the technician.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
The WOW load sensors are two piece, variable reluctance strain measurement
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
devices. They are attached by mounting brackets to the landing gear beam.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
As the gear beam bends with the weight of the aircraft, the distance between the two
io de es on y in
m
pieces changes.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The distance between sensor parts is what varies the signal sent to the WOW cards
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
because one of the sensor parts is a target and the other contains two electric coils.
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Thus, the varied electric signal sent to the WOW cards is analog
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
Communication with most other aircraft systems by the WOW cards is digital. The load
co tel ny Th form
sensors are covered for protection from the elements. Replacement of a sensor
n
pi lec un e
li
requires calibration of the sensor. Replacement of the WOW cards requires that all
Al
sensors be calibrated.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.431
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
NOSE WHEEL STEERING
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The nose wheel on most aircraft is steerable from the flight deck via a nose wheel
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
steering system. This allows the aircraft to be directed during ground operation. A few
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
simple aircraft have nose wheel assemblies that caster. Such aircraft are steered

em o ta co s, t a
w
during taxi by differential braking.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic connections transmit the controller input
r w d s te co in
movement to a steering control unit.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The control unit is a hydraulic metering or control valve. It directs hydraulic fluid under
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
pressure to one or two actuators designed with various linkages to rotate the lower
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
strut.
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
An accumulator and relief valve, or similar pressurizing assembly, keeps fluid in the
co tel ny Th form
actuators and system under pressure at all times.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.432
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
NOSE WHEEL STEERING
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
This permits the steering actuating cylinders to also act as shimmy dampers. A follow
ex w o io n o
up mechanism consists of various gears, cables, rods, drums, and/or bell-crank, etc. It
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
returns the metering valve to a neutral position once the steering angle has been
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
reached.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
Many systems incorporate an input subsystem from the rudder pedals for small
.
ag h is l b t l m
degrees of turns made while directing the aircraft at high speed during takeoff and
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
landing. Safety valves are typical in all systems to relieve pressure during hydraulic
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
failure so the nose wheel can swivel
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The nose wheel steering wheel connects through a shaft to a steering drum located
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
inside the flight deck control pedestal.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
The rotation of this drum transmits the steering signal by means of cables and pulleys
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
to the control drum of the differential assembly.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
Movement of the differential assembly is transmitted by the differential link to the

metering valve assembly where it moves the selector valve to the selected position.
in A
This provides the hydraulic power for turning the nose gear
Rev.00| Pag.433
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
NOSE WHEEL STEERING
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.434
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SHIMMY DAMPERS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Torque links attached from the stationary upper cylinder of a nose wheel strut to the
ex w o io n o
of
bottom moveable cylinder or piston of the strut are not sufficient to prevent most
h d a e
ro in t re m op
nose gear from the tendency to oscillate rapidly, or shimmy, at certain speeds. This
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
vibration wheel shimmy must be controlled through hydraulic damping. The damper
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
can be built integrally within the nose gear, but most often it is an external unit
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
attached between the upper and lower shock struts. It is active during all phases of
te b e w rig o
ground operation while permitting the nose gear steering system to function normally
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
PISTON TYPE
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Aircraft not equipped with hydraulic nose wheel steering utilize an additional external
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
shimmy damper unit. The case is attached firmly to the upper shock strut cylinder. The
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
shaft is attached to the lower shock strut cylinder and to a piston inside the shimmy
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
damper. As the lower strut cylinder tries to shimmy, hydraulic fluid is forced through a
ed tu a co ati
bleed hole in the piston. The restricted flow through the bleed hole dampens the
co tel ny Th form
oscillation
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.435
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
PISTON TYPE
ex w o io n o
of
A piston type shimmy damper may contain a fill port to add
h d a e
ro in t re m op
fluid or it may be a sealed unit. Regardless, the unit should be
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
checked for leaks regularly. To ensure proper operation, a
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
piston type hydraulic shimmy damper should be filled to
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
capacity.
te b e w rig o
VANE TYPE
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
A vane type shimmy damper uses fluid chambers created by
m
e s
the vanes separated by a valve orifice in a center shaft. As the
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
nose gear tries to oscillate, vanes rotate to change the size of

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
internal chambers filled with fluid. The chamber size can only
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
change as fast as the fluid can be forced through the orifice.

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
Thus, the gear oscillation is dissipated by the rate of fluid

ed tu a co ati
flow. An internal spring loaded replenishing reservoir keeps

co tel ny Th form
pressurized fluid in the working chambers and thermal

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
compensation of the orifice size is included. As with the

piston type shimmy damper, the vane type damper should be
in A
inspected for leaks and kept serviced. A fluid level indicator

protrudes from the reservoir end of the unit Rev.00| Pag.436
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
VANE TYPE
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.437
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
NON-HYDRAULIC SHIMMY DAMPER
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Non-hydraulic shimmy dampers are currently
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
certified for many aircraft. They look and fit
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
similar to piston type shimmy dampers but
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
contain no fluid inside.
te b e w rig o
In place of the metal piston, a rubber piston
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
presses out against the inner diameter of the
m
e s
damper housing when the shimmy motion is
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
received through the shaft. The rubber piston

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
rides on a very thin film of grease and the

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
rubbing action between the piston and the

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
housing provides the damping. This is known as

ed tu a co ati
surface effect damping. The materials use to

co tel ny Th form
construct this type of shimmy damper provide a

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
long service life without the need to ever add

fluid to the unit
in A
Rev.00| Pag.438
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
LANDING GEAR SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The moving parts and dirty environment of the landing gear make this an area of
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
regular maintenance. Because of the stresses and pressures acting on the landing
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
gear, inspection, servicing, and other maintenance becomes a continuous process.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
The most important job in the maintenance of the aircraft landing gear system is
te b e w rig o
thorough accurate inspections. To properly perform inspections, all surfaces should
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
be cleaned to ensure that no trouble spots are undetected.
m
e s
Periodically, it is necessary to inspect shock struts, trunnion and brace assemblies
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
and bearings, shimmy dampers, wheels, wheel bearings, tires, and brakes. Landing
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
gear position indicators, lights, and warning horns must also be checked for proper
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
operation. During all inspections and visits to the wheel wells, ensure all ground
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
safety locks are installed.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.439
Al
li .
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. S
ol
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.440
INTRODUCTION
Al
li .
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. S
ol
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.441
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Each landing gear has specific adjustments and tolerances per the manufacturer that
h d a e
ro in t re m op
permit the gear to function as intended.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
A common geometry used to lock a landing gear in the down position involves a
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
collapsible side brace that is extended and held in an over center position through
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
the use of a locking link.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Springs and actuators may also contribute to the motion of the linkage. Adjustments
m
e s
and tests are needed to ensure proper operation.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
The below figure illustrates a landing gear on a small aircraft with such a side brace.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
It consists of an upper and lower link hinged at the center that permits the brace to
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
jackknife during retraction of the gear.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
The upper end pivots on a trunnion attached to structure in the wheel well
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
overhead.
in A
.
Rev.00| Pag.442
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.443
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
aluminum alloy.
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
AIRCRAFT WHEELS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. S
construction, much the same as the modern automobile wheel
ol
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
mounted upon them, they support the entire weight of the aircraft during taxi,
Aircraft wheels are an important component of a landing gear system. With tires
Some magnesium alloy wheels also exist. Early aircraft wheels were of single piece
takeoff, and landing. The typical aircraft wheel is lightweight, strong, and made from
Rev.00| Pag.444
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on wheel was developed.
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
AIRCRAFT WHEELS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
rim to allow mounting access for the tire. These are still found on older aircraft.
Stretching such a tire over a single piece wheel rim was not possible. A two piece
Early two piece aircraft wheels were essentially one piece wheels with a removable
better absorb the forces of landing without blowing out or separating from the rim.
As aircraft tires were improved for the purpose they serve, they were made stiffer to
Rev.00| Pag.445
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
AIRCRAFT WHEELS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.446
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
WHEEL CONSTRUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
The typical modern two piece aircraft wheel is cast
h d a e
ro in t re m op
or forged from aluminum or magnesium alloy
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
INBOARD WHEEL HALF
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Wheel halves are not identical. The primary reason
te b e w rig o
for this is that the inboard wheel half must have a
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
means for accepting and driving the rotor(s) of the
m
e s
aircraft brakes that are mounted on both main
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
wheels. Tangs on the rotor are fitted into steel

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
reinforced keyways on many wheels. Other wheels

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
have steel keys bolted to the inner wheel halves.

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
These are made to fit slots in the perimeter of the

ed tu a co ati
brake rotor. Some small aircraft wheels have

co tel ny Th form
provisions for bolting the brake rotor to the inner

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
wheel half. Regardless, the inner wheel half is

distinguishable from the outer wheel half by its
in A
brake mounting feature.

Rev.00| Pag.447
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
WHEEL CONSTRUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
OUTBOARD WHEEL HALF
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
The outboard wheel half bolts to the inboard wheel
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
half to make up the wheel assembly upon which the
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
tire is mounted. The center boss is constructed to
te b e w rig o
receive a bearing cup and bearing assembly as it
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
does on the inboard wheel half. The outer bearing
m
e s
and end of the axle is capped to prevent
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
contaminants from entering this area

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
The outboard wheel half provides a convenient

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
location of the valve stem used to inflate and deflate

ed tu a co ati
tubeless tires. Alternately, it may contain a hole

co tel ny Th form
through which a valve stem extension may pass from

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
the inner wheel half or the valve stem itself may fit
through such a hole if a tube type tire is used.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.448
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
WHEEL CONSTRUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Axle Nut Torque
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Axle nut torque is of extreme importance on an
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
aircraft wheel installation. If the nut is too loose,
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
the bearing and wheel assembly may have
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
excessive movement. The bearing cup(s) could
te b e w rig o
loosen and spin, which could damage the wheel.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
There could also be impact damage from the
m
e s
bearing rollers which leads to bearing failure.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
An over torqued axle nut prevents the bearing

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
from properly accepting the weight load of the

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
aircraft. The bearing spins without sufficient

ed tu a co ati
lubrication to absorb the heat caused by the

co tel ny Th form
higher friction level. This too leads to bearing

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
failure. All aircraft axle nuts must be installed

and torqued in accordance with the airframe
in A
manufacturers maintenance procedures

Rev.00| Pag.449
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
WHEEL CONSTRUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Inspection of the Wheel Halves
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
A thorough visual inspection of each wheel half should be conducted for
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
discrepancies specified in the wheel manufacturers maintenance data. Use of a
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
magnifying glass is recommended.
te b e w rig o
Corrosion is one of the most common problems encountered while inspecting
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
wheels. Locations where moisture is trapped should be checked closely. It is possible
m
e s
to dress out some corrosion according to the manufacturers instructions. An
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
approved protective surface treatment and finish must be applied before returning
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the wheel to service. Corrosion beyond stated limits is cause for rejection of the
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
wheel.
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
In addition to corrosion, cracks in certain areas of the wheel are particularly

co tel ny Th form
prevalent. One such area is the bead seat area

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.450
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
WHEEL CONSTRUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Inspection of the Wheel Halves
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
The high stress of landing is transferred to the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
wheel by the tire in this contact area. Hard landings
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
produce distortion or cracks that are very difficult
te b e w rig o
to detect. This is a concern on all wheels and is
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
most problematic in high-pressure, forged wheels.
m
e s
Dye penetrant inspection is generally ineffective
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
when checking for cracks in the bead area. There is

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
a tendency for cracks to close up tightly once the

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
tire is dismounted, and the stress is removed from

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
the metal. Eddy current inspection of the bead seat

ed tu a co ati
area is required. Follow the wheel manufacturers

co tel ny Th form
instruction when performing the eddy current

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
check
in A
Rev.00| Pag.451
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Balance Weights
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
The balance of an aircraft wheel assembly is
h d a e
ro in t re m op
important. When manufactured, each wheel set is
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
statically balanced. Weights are added to
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
accomplish this if needed. They are a permanent
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
part of the wheel assembly and must be installed to
te b e w rig o
use the wheel. The balance weights are bolted to
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
the wheel halves and can be removed when
m
e s
cleaning and inspecting the wheel. They must be
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
re-fastened in their original position. When a tire is

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
mounted to a wheel, balancing of the wheel and

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
tire assembly may require that additional weights

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
be added. These are usually installed around the

ed tu a co ati
circumference of the outside of the wheel and

co tel ny Th form
should not be taken as substitutes for the factory

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
wheel set balance weights

in A
Rev.00| Pag.452
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
WHEEL BEARINGS
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.453
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION OF AIRCRAFT BRAKES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Modern aircraft typically use disc brakes. The disc rotates with the turning wheel
h d a e
ro in t re m op
assembly while a stationary caliper resists the rotation by causing friction against the
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
disc when the brakes are applied. The size, weight, and landing speed of the aircraft
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
influence the design and complexity of the disc brake system. Single, dual, and
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
multiple disc brakes are common types of brakes. Segmented rotor brakes are used
te b e w rig o
on large aircraft. Expander tube brakes are found on older large aircraft. The use of
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
carbon discs is increasing in the modern aviation fleet.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.454
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FLOATING DISC BRAKES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
A floating disk brake is illustrated in the below figure. The caliper straddles the disc. It
h d a e
ro in t re m op
has three cylinders bored through the housing, but on other brakes this number may
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
vary. Each cylinder accepts an actuating piston assembly comprised mainly of a
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
piston, a return spring, and an automatic adjusting pin. Each brake assembly has six
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
brake linings or pucks. Three are located on the ends of the pistons, which are in the
te b e w rig o
outboard side of the caliper. They are designed to move in and out with the pistons
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
and apply pressure to the outboard side of the disc. Three more linings are located
m
e s
opposite of these pucks on the inboard side of the caliper. These linings are
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
stationary.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.455
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.456
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
the outboard cylinders and their pucks contact the disc.
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
is known as a floating disk. When the brakes are applied, the pistons move out from
The brake disc is keyed to the wheel. It is free to move laterally in the key slots. This
Rev.00| Pag.457
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
MULTIPLE DISC BRAKES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Large, heavy aircraft require the use of multiple disc brakes. Multiple disc brakes are
h d a e
ro in t re m op
heavy duty brakes designed for use with power brake control valves or power boost
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
master cylinders, which is discussed later in this chapter. The brake assembly consists
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
of an extended bearing carrier similar to a torque tube type unit that bolts to the
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
axle flange. It supports the various brake parts, including an annular cylinder and
te b e w rig o
piston, a series of steel discs alternating with copper or bronze plated discs, a
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
backplate, and a backplate retainer.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
The steel stators are keyed to the bearing carrier, and the copper or bronze plated
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
rotors are keyed to the rotating wheel. Hydraulic pressure applied to the piston
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
causes the entire stack of stators and rotors to be compressed. This creates
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
enormous friction and heat and slows the rotation of the wheel
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.458
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
SEGMENTED ROTOR DISC BRAKES
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The large amount of heat generated while slowing the rotation of the wheels on
ex w o io n o
of
large and high performance aircraft is problematic. To better dissipate this heat,
h d a e
ro in t re m op
segmented rotor disc brakes have been developed. Segmented rotor disc brakes are
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
multiple disc brakes but of more modern design than the type discussed earlier.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
There are many variations. Most feature numerous elements that aid in the control
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
and dissipation of heat.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Segmented rotor disc brakes are heavy-duty brakes especially adapted for use with
m
e s
the high pressure hydraulic systems of power brake systems. Braking is accomplished
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
by means of several sets of stationary, high friction type brake linings that make
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
contact with rotating segments.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
The rotors are constructed with slots or in sections with space between them, which
ed tu a co ati
helps dissipate heat and give the brake its name.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
Segmented rotor multiple disc brakes are the standard brake used on high
performance and air carrier aircraft
in A
Rev.00| Pag.459
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.460
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
A pressure plate is a flat, circular, high-strength steel, non-rotating plate notched on
ex w o io n o
of
the inside circumference to fit over the stator drive sleeves or torque tube spines.
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
The brake actuating pistons contact the pressure plate. Typically, an insulator is used
,
Sa n nt
ol
between the piston head and the pressure plate to impede heat conduction from the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
brake discs. The pressure plate transfers the motion of the pistons to the stack of
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
rotors and stators that compress to slow the rotation of the wheels. On most
te b e w rig o
designs, brake lining material attached directly to the pressure plate contacts the first
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
rotor in the stack to transfer the motion of the piston(s).
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
An auxiliary stator plate with brake lining material on the side opposite the pressure
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
plate can also be used.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
Any number of alternating rotors and stators are sandwiched under hydraulic
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
pressure against the backing plate of the brake assembly when the brakes are
n
applied. The backing plate is a heavy steel plate bolted to the housing or torque tube
pi lec un e
li
Al
at a fixed dimension from the carrier housing. In most cases, it has brake lining
material attached to it and contacts the last rotor in the stack.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.461
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.462
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.463
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
CARBON BRAKES
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The segmented multiple disc brake has given many years of reliable service to the
ex w o io n o
of
aviation industry. It has evolved through time in an effort to make it lightweight and
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
to dissipate the frictional heat of braking in a quick, safe manner. The latest iteration
,
Sa n nt
ol
of the multiple disc brake is the carbon disc brake. It is currently found on high
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
performance and air carrier aircraft.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Carbon brakes are so named because carbon fiber materials are used to construct
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
the brake rotors. pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
Carbon brakes are approximately forty percent lighter than conventional brakes. On a
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
large transport category aircraft, this alone can save several hundred pounds in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
aircraft weight. The carbon fiber discs are noticeably thicker than sintered steel
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
rotors but are extremely light

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
They are able to withstand temperatures fifty percent higher than steel component
n
brakes. The maximum designed operating temperature is limited by the ability of

pi lec un e
li
Al
adjacent components to withstand the high temperature. Carbon brakes have been
shown to withstand two to three times the heat of a steel brake in non-aircraft
in A
applications.
Rev.00| Pag.464
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
BRAKE ACTUATING SYSTEMS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The various brake assemblies, described in the previous section, all use hydraulic
ex w o io n o
of
power to operate.
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Different means of delivering the required hydraulic fluid pressure to brake
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
assemblies are discussed in this section. There are three basic actuating systems:
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
An independent system not part of the aircraft main hydraulic system;
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
A booster system that uses the aircraft hydraulic system intermittently when needed;
m
e s
and
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
A power brake system that only uses the aircraft main hydraulic system(s) as a source
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
of pressure.
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.465
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
BOOSTED BRAKES
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
In an independent braking system, the pressure applied to the brakes is only as great
ex w o io n o
of
as the foot pressure applied to the top of the rudder pedal. Boosted brake actuating
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
systems augment the force developed by the pilot with hydraulic system pressure
,
Sa n nt
ol
when needed. The boost is only during heavy braking. It results in greater pressure
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
applied to the brakes than the pilot alone can provide.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Boosted brakes are used on medium and larger aircraft that do not require a full
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
power brake actuating system. pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
A boosted brake master cylinder for each brake is mechanically attached to the
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
rudder pedals. The boosted brake master cylinder operates differently

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.466
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
POWER BRAKES
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Large and high performance aircraft are equipped with power brakes to slow, stop,
ex w o io n o
of
and hold the aircraft. Power brake actuating systems use the aircraft hydraulic
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
system as the source of power to apply the brakes. The pilot presses on the top of
,
Sa n nt
ol
the rudder pedal for braking as with the other actuating systems. The volume and
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
pressure of hydraulic fluid required cannot be produced by a master cylinder.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Instead, a power brake control valve or brake metering valve receives the brake
te b e w rig o
pedal input either directly or through linkages. The valve meters hydraulic fluid to
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
the corresponding brake assembly in direct relation to the pressure applied to the
m
e s
pedal. Many power brake system designs are in use
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Most are similar to the simplified system illustrated in the below figure. Power brake
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
systems are constructed to facilitate graduated brake pressure control, brake pedal
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
feel, and the necessary redundancy required in case of hydraulic system failure.
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
Large aircraft brake systems integrate anti-skid detection and correction devices.
n
These are necessary because wheel skid is difficult to detect on

pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.467
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
POWER BRAKES
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.468
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Brake Control Valve/ Brake Metering Valve
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The key element in a power brake system is the brake control valve, sometimes
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
called a brake metering valve. It responds to brake pedal input by directing aircraft

em o ta co s, t a
w
system hydraulic fluid to the brakes. As pressure is increased on the brake pedal,
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
more fluid is directed to the brake causing a higher pressure and greater braking
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
action.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
A brake metering valve from a Boeing 737 is illustrated in the next.Two sources of
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
hydraulic pressure provide redundancy in this brake system. A brake input shaft,
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
connected to the rudder/brake pedal through mechanical linkages, provides the

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
position input to the metering valve. As in most brake control valves, the brake input
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
shaft moves a tapered spool or slide in the valve so that it allows hydraulic system
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
pressure to flow to the brakes. At the same time, the slide covers and uncovers
co tel ny Th form
access to the hydraulic system return port as required

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.469
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.470
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
When the rudder/brake pedal is depressed, the slide in the metering valve moves to
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
the left. It covers the return port so pressure can build in the brake system. The

em o ta co s, t a
w
hydraulic supply pressure chamber is connected to the brake system pressure
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
chamber by the movement of the slide, which due to its taper, unblocks the passage
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
between these two. As the pedal is depressed further, the valve slide moves farther
r w d s te co in
to the left. This enables more fluid to flow to the brakes due to the narrowing shape
io de es on y in
m
of the slide. Brake pressure increases with the additional fluid
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.471
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The majority of the rudder/brake pedal
ex w o io n o
f
feel is supplied by the brake control or
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
brake metering valve in a power brake
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
system. Many aircraft refine the feel of the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
pedal with an additional feel unit. The
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
brake valve feel augmentation unit, in the
te b e w rig o
above system, uses a series of internal
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
springs and pistons of various sizes to
m
create a force on the brake input shaft
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
movement. This provides feel back

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
through the mechanical linkages

bu e ed a ta
consistent with the amount of

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
rudder/brake pedal applied. The request

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
for light braking with slight pedal

co tel ny Th form
depression results in a light feel to the

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
pedal and a harder resistance feel when

the pedals are pushed harder during
in A
heavy braking
Rev.00| Pag.472
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
EMERGENCY BRAKE SYSTEMS
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The brake metering valves not only receive
ex w o io n o
f
hydraulic pressure from two separate
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
hydraulic systems, they also feed two
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
separate brake assemblies. Each main
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
wheel assembly has two wheels. The
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
inboard wheel brake and the outboard
te b e w rig o
wheel brake, located in their respective
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
wheel rims, are independent from each
m
other. In case of hydraulic system failure or
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
brake failure, each is independently

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
supplied to adequately slow and stop the

bu e ed a ta
aircraft without the other. More

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
complicated aircraft may involve another

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
hydraulic system for back-up or use a

co tel ny Th form
similar alternation of sources and brake

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
assemblies to maintain braking in case of

hydraulic system or brake failure
in A
Rev.00| Pag.473
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
In addition to supply system redundancy,
ex w o io n o
f
the brake accumulator is also an
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
emergency source of power for the brakes
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
in many power brake systems. The
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
accumulator is pre-charged with air or
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
nitrogen on one side of its internal
te b e w rig o
diaphragm. Enough hydraulic fluid is
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
contained on the other side of the
m
diaphragm to operate the brakes in case of
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
an emergency. It is forced out of the

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
accumulator into the brakes through the

bu e ed a ta
system lines under enough stored

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
pressure to slow the aircraft. Typically, the

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
accumulator is located upstream of the

co tel ny Th form
brake control/metering valve to capitalize

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
on the control given by the valve

in A
Rev.00| Pag.474
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Brake deboosters are simple devices that use the application of force over different
ex w o io n o
f
sized pistons to reduce pressure.
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
High-pressure hydraulic system input pressure acts on the small end of a piston. This
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
develops a force proportional to the area of the piston head. The other end of the
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
piston is larger and housed in a separate cylinder.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The force from the smaller piston head is transferred to the larger area of the other end
m
of the piston.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
The amount of pressure conveyed by the larger end of the piston is reduced due to the
bu e ed a ta
greater area over which the force is spread. The volume of output fluid increases since
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
a larger piston and cylinder are used.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.475
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
The reduced pressure is delivered to the brake
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
assembly.
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
The spring in the debooster aids in returning the
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
piston to the ready position. If fluid is lost
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
downstream of the deboost cylinder, the piston
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
travels further down into the cylinder when the

brakes are applied.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The pin unseats the ball and allows fluid into the
do gh o ote in
lower cylinder to replace what was lost. Once

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
replenished, the piston rises up in the cylinder

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
due to pressure build-up. The ball reseats as the

, d al uth nt on
piston travels above the pin and normal braking

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
resumes.
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
This function is not meant to permit leaks in the

brake assemblies. Any leak discovered must be
in A
repaired by the technician.

Rev.00| Pag.476
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
ANTI-SKID
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
Large aircraft with power brakes require anti-skid systems. It is not possible to
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
immediately ascertain in the flight deck when a wheel stops rotating and begins to skid,
of
h d a e
especially in aircraft with multiple wheel main landing gear assemblies. A skid not
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
corrected can quickly lead to a tire blowout, possible damage to the aircraft, and
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
control of the aircraft may be lost
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
SYSTEM OPERATION

The anti-skid system not only detects wheel skid, it also detects when wheel skid is
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
imminent. It automatically relieves pressure to the brake pistons of the wheel in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
question by momentarily connecting the pressurized brake fluid area to the hydraulic
do gh o ote in
system return line. This allows the wheel to rotate and avoid a skid. Lower pressure is
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
then maintained to the brake at a level that slows the wheel without causing it to skid.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Maximum braking efficiency exists when the wheels are decelerating at a maximum
, d al uth nt on
rate but are not skidding.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.477
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
SYSTEM OPERATION
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
If a wheel decelerates too fast, it is an indication that the brakes are about to lock and
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
cause a skid. To ensure that this does not happen, each wheel is monitored for a
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
deceleration rate faster than a preset rate. When excessive deceleration is detected,
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
hydraulic pressure is reduced to the brake on that wheel. To operate the anti-skid

system, flight deck switches must be placed in the ON position
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
ANTI-SKID CONTROL VALVES

do gh o ote in
Anti-skid control valves are fast-acting, electrically controlled hydraulic valves that
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
respond to the input from the anti-skid control unit. There is one control valve for each
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
brake assembly. A torque motor uses the input from the valve driver to adjust the
, d al uth nt on
position of a flapper between two nozzles. By moving the flapper closer to one nozzle
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
or the other, pressures are developed in the second stage of the valve. These pressures
n
pi lec un e
li
act on a spool that is positioned to build or reduce pressure to the brake by opening
Al
and blocking fluid ports.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.478
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
ANTI-SKID CONTROL VALVES
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.479
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
BRAKE INSPECTION AND SERVICE
gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.480
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
AIRCRAFT TIRES AND TUBES
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
TIRE CLASSIFICATION
of
h d a e
Aircraft tires are classified in various ways including by: type, ply rating, whether they
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
are tube type or tubeless, and whether they are bias ply tires or radials. Identifying a
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
tire by its dimensions is also used. Each of these classifications is discussed as follows.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
TYPES

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
A common classification of aircraft tires is by type as classified by the United States Tire
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
and Rim Association. While there are nine types of tires, only Types I, III, VII, and VIII,
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
also known as a Three Part Nomenclature tires, are still in production.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Type I tires are manufactured, but their design is no longer active.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
They are used on fixed gear aircraft and are designated only by their nominal overall
n
pi lec un e
li
diameter in inches. These are smooth profile tires that are obsolete for use in the
Al
modern aviation fleet.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.481
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
TYPES
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
Type III tires are common general aviation tires. They are
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
typically used on light aircraft with landing speeds of
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
160 miles per hour (mph) or less. Type III tires are
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
relatively low pressure tires that have small rim

r w d s te co in
diameters when compared to the overall width of the
io de es on y in
m
tire. They are designed to cushion and provide flotation
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
from a relatively large footprint. Type III tires are

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
designated with a two number system. The first number

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
is the nominal section width of the tire, and the second

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
number is the diameter of the rim the tire is designed to

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
mount upon.
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.482
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
TYPES
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
of the tire. The second number designates the section width.
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
- The section width of Type VII tires is typically narrower than Type III tires.
ith be
ou
t
Identification of Type VII aircraft tires involves a two number system. An X is used
between the two numbers. The first number designates the nominal overall diameter
Rev.00| Pag.483
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
TUBE TYPE OR TUBELESS
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
As stated, aircraft tires can be tube type or tubeless. This is often used as a means of
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
tire classification. Tires that are made to be used without a tube inserted inside have
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
an inner liner specifically designed to hold air. Tube type tires do not contain this inner
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
liner since the tube holds the air from leaking out of the tire. Tires that are meant to be

r w d s te co in
used without a tube have the word tubeless on the sidewall. If this designation is
io de es on y in
m
absent, the tire requires a tube. Consult the aircraft manufacturers maintenance
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
information for any allowable tire damage and the use of a tube in a tubeless tire
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.484
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
BIAS PLY OR RADIAL
pa ts
Another means of classifying an aircraft tire is by the
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
direction of the plies used in construction of the tire,
of
h d a e
either bias or radial. Traditional aircraft tires are bias ply
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
tires. The plies are wrapped to form the tire and give it
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
strength. The angle of the plies in relation to the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
direction of rotation of the tire varies between 30 and
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
60. In this manner, the plies have the bias of the fabric

r w d s te co in
from which they are constructed facing the direction of
io de es on y in
rotation and across the tire. Hence, they are called bias
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
tires. The result is flexibility as the sidewall can flex with

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
the fabric plies laid on the bias. (Some modern aircraft

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tires are radial tires.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
The plies in radial tires are laid at a 90 angle to the

co tel ny Th form
direction of rotation of the tire. This configuration puts

n
pi lec un e
li
the non-stretchable fiber of the plies perpendicular to

Al
the sidewall and direction of rotation. This creates

strength in the tire allowing it to carry high loads with
in A
less deformation
Rev.00| Pag.485
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
BIAS PLY OR RADIAL
pa ts
Another means of classifying an aircraft tire is by the
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
direction of the plies used in construction of the tire,
of
h d a e
either bias or radial. Traditional aircraft tires are bias ply
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
tires. The plies are wrapped to form the tire and give it
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
strength. The angle of the plies in relation to the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
direction of rotation of the tire varies between 30 and
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
60. In this manner, the plies have the bias of the fabric

r w d s te co in
from which they are constructed facing the direction of
io de es on y in
rotation and across the tire. Hence, they are called bias
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
tires. The result is flexibility as the sidewall can flex with

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
the fabric plies laid on the bias. (Some modern aircraft

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tires are radial tires.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
The plies in radial tires are laid at a 90 angle to the

co tel ny Th form
direction of rotation of the tire. This configuration puts

n
pi lec un e
li
the non-stretchable fiber of the plies perpendicular to

Al
the sidewall and direction of rotation. This creates

strength in the tire allowing it to carry high loads with
in A
less deformation
Rev.00| Pag.486
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , o ig t-A
LIGHTS (ATA 33)
gl h no N n r T f
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.487
STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS LIGHTS (ATA 33)
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
AIRCRAFT LIGHTING SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Aircraft lighting systems provide illumination for both exterior and interior use. Lights
of
h d a e
on the exterior provide illumination for such operations as landing at night,
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
inspection of icing conditions, and safety from midair collision. Interior lighting
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
provides illumination for instruments, cockpits, cabins, and other sections occupied
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
by crew-members and passengers. Certain special lights, such as indicator and
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
warning lights, indicate the operation status of equipment.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
EXTERIOR LIGHTS
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Position, anti-collision, landing, and taxi lights are common examples of aircraft
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
exterior lights. Some lights are required for night operations. Other types of exterior
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
lights, such as wing inspection lights, are of great benefit for specialized flying
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
operations.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.488
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
NAVIGATION/POSITION LIGHTS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Aircraft operating at night must be equipped with position lights that meet minimum
of
h d a e
requirements. A set of position lights consist of one red, one green, and one white
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
light
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
On many aircraft, each light unit contains a single lamp mounted on the surface of
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
the aircraft. Other types of position light units contain two lamps and are often
co tel ny Th form
streamlined into the surface of the aircraft structure. The green light unit is always
n
pi lec un e
li
mounted at the extreme tip of the right wing. The red unit is mounted in a similar
Al
position on the left wing. The white unit is usually located on the vertical stabilizer in
a position where it is clearly visible through a wide angle from the rear of the aircraft.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.489
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
ANTI-COLLISION LIGHTS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
An anti-collision light system may consist of one or more
of
h d a e
lights. They are rotating beam lights that are usually
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
installed on top of the fuselage or tail in such a location that
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
the light does not affect the vision of the crew member or
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
detract from the visibility of the position lights. Large
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
transport type aircraft use an anti-collision light on top and

r w d s te co in
one on the bottom of the aircraft. The following figure
io de es on y in
shows a typical anti-collision light installation in a vertical
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
stabilizer.
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
An anti-collision light unit usually consists of one or two

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
rotating lights operated by an electric motor. The light may

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
be fixed but mounted under rotating mirrors inside a

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
protruding red glass housing. The mirrors rotate in an arc,

co tel ny Th form
and the resulting flash rate is between 40 and 100 cycles

n
pi lec un e
li
per minute. Newer aircraft designs use a LED type of anti-

Al
collision light. The anti-collision light is a safety light to warn

other aircraft, especially in congested areas
in A
Rev.00| Pag.490
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
LANDING LIGHTS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Landing lights are installed in aircraft to
of
h d a e
illuminate runways during night landings. These
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
lights are very powerful and are directed by a
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
parabolic reflector at an angle providing a
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
maximum range of illumination. Landing lights of
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
smaller aircraft are usually located midway in

r w d s te co in
the leading edge of each wing or streamlined
io de es on y in
into the aircraft surface. Landing lights for larger
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
transport category aircraft are usually located in

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
the leading edge of the wing close to the

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
fuselage light may be controlled by a relay, or it

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
may be connected directly into the electric

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
circuit. On some aircraft, the landing light is

co tel ny Th form
mounted in the same area with a taxi light

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.491
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
hangar area
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
TAXI LIGHTS
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
on the ground while taxiing or towing the
Taxi lights are designed to provide illumination
aircraft to or from a runway, taxi strip, or in the
Rev.00| Pag.492
LIGHTS (ATA 33)
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
hangar area
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
TAXI LIGHTS
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
on the ground while taxiing or towing the
Taxi lights are designed to provide illumination
aircraft to or from a runway, taxi strip, or in the
Rev.00| Pag.493
LIGHTS (ATA 33)
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
INTERIOR LIGHTS
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
FLIGHT DECK/CONTROL CABIN LIGHTING
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
On an airliner flight deck, it is normal to have lighting for general illumination of the
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
control cabin as well local lighting for panels, instruments and controls. Fluorescent
,
Sa n nt
ol
background lights are also used. A centrally located panel, typically an overhead
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
panel, houses the controls for many interior and exterior lights. Independent light
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
controls may also be located on appropriate panels.
te b e w rig o
Normal lighting requirements are met using 28 VAC power with key lights positioned
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
for part-power and no power situations typically run off a 28 VDC bus. On Boeing
m
e s
Aircraft, 115 VAC is used for fluorescent lights
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
PASSENGER CABIN LIGHTS

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Independent lighting systems are used in the passengers cabin. A combination of

, d al uth nt on
incandescent and fluorescent lights in overhead and window positions provide

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
general illumination.These normally use AC power. Threshold and doorway entry

n
lights are used as well as a variety of illuminated information signs. Galley and
pi lec un e
li
Al
lavatories have their own lighting circuits. Overhead passenger service units (PSUs) in
each seat row contain independent reading lights and service call lights for each seat
in A
Rev.00| Pag.494
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
INTERIOR LIGHTS
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CARGO COMPARTMENT LIGHTING
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Cargo and service compartments also have lighting. Dome lights, f lood lights and
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
explosion-proof lights as required are installed with independent circuits protected
,
Sa n nt
ol
by circuit breakers. The lights are controlled by switches near the entrance to each
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
area or inside the compartments
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Often, a control panel for a cargo area includes light switches in addition to door and
te b e w rig o
cargo system operating controls. Sidewall, overhead and door mounted lights are
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
common. Door and door sill lights are positioned so that they illuminate the cargo
m
e s
compartment doorway as well as the area just outside the compartment to facilitate
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
work while loading cargo

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.495
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
OXYGEN (ATA 35)
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.496
STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS OXYGEN (ATA 35)
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
OXYGEN AND THE ATMOSPHERE
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
The mixture of gases that make up the earths atmosphere is
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
commonly called air. It is composed principally of 78 percent
ex w o io n o
of
nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen. The remaining 1 percent is made
h d a e
ro in t re m op
up of various gases in smaller quantities. Some of these are
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
important to human life, such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, and
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
ozone.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
OXYGEN STORAGE
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
GASEOUS OXYGEN TANKS
m
e s
Pure gaseous oxygen, or nearly pure gaseous oxygen, is stored and
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
transported in high-pressure cylinders that are typically painted

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
green. Technicians should be cautious to keep pure oxygen away

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
from fuel, oil, and grease to prevent unwanted combustion. Not all
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
oxygen in containers is the same. Aviators breathing oxygen is

ed tu a co ati
tested for the presence of water. This is done to avoid the

co tel ny Th form
possibility of it freezing in the small passage ways of valves and

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
regulators. Ice could prevent delivery of the oxygen when needed.

Aircraft often operate in subzero temperatures, increasing the
in A
possibility of icing. The water level should be a maximum of .02ml

per liter of oxygen. Rev.00| Pag.497
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CHEMICAL OR SOLID OXYGEN
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Sodium chlorate has a unique characteristic. When
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
ignited, it produces oxygen as it burns. This can be
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
filtered and delivered through a hose to a mask that

em o ta co s, t a
w
can be worn and breathed directly by the user. Solid
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
oxygen candles, as they are called, are formed
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
chunks of sodium chlorate wrapped inside insulated
r w d s te co in
stainless steel housings to control the heat produced
io de es on y in
m
when activated. The chemical oxygen supply is often
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
ignited by a spring-loaded firing pin that when

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
pulled, releases a hammer that smashes a cap

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
creating a spark to light the candle. Electric ignition

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
via a current-induced hot wire also exists. Once lit, a

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
sodium chlorate oxygen generator cannot be

co tel ny Th form
extinguished. It produces a steady flow of breathable

n
pi lec un e
li
oxygen until it burns out, typically generating 10-20

Al
minutes of oxygen
in A
Rev.00| Pag.498
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
ONBOARD OXYGEN GENERATING SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
(OBOGS)
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The molecular sieve method of separating
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
oxygen from the other gases in air has

em o ta co s, t a
w
application in flight, as well as on the ground.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
The sieves are relatively light in weight and
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
relieve the aviator of a need for ground support
r w d s te co in
for the oxygen supply. Onboard oxygen
io de es on y in
m
generating systems on military aircraft pass
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
bleed air from turbine engines through a sieve

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
that separates the oxygen for breathing use.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Some of the separated oxygen is also used to

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
purge the sieve of the nitrogen and other gases

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
that keep it fresh for use. Use of this type of

co tel ny Th form
oxygen production in civilian aircraft is

n
pi lec un e
li
anticipated
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.499
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
temperature
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
LIQUID OXYGEN
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
This special container is used to store and
liquid oxygen under pressure at a very low

double-walled insulation design to keep the
transport liquid oxygen. It uses an evacuated,
of these is accomplished with a Dewar bottle.
liquid. Oxygen can be made liquid by lowering
Liquid oxygen (LOX) is a pale blue, transparent
the temperature to below -183 C or by placing

gaseous oxygen under pressure. A combination
Rev.00| Pag.500
OXYGEN (ATA 35)
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
via a hose to a regulator on the bottle
ou
t
The use of gaseous oxygen in aviation is
aircraft, it may consist of a small carry-on

OXYGEN SYSTEMS AND SUPPLY REGULATION
portable cylinder with a single mask attached

common; however, applications vary. On a light
Rev.00| Pag.501
OXYGEN (ATA 35)
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SYSTEM LAYOUT: CABIN (CONTINUOUS FLOW)
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Many continuous-flow systems include a fixed location for the oxygen cylinders with
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
permanent delivery plumbing installed to all passenger and crew stations in the
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
cabin. Fully integrated oxygen systems usually have separate, remotely mounted

em o ta co s, t a
w
components to reduce pressure and regulate flow. A pressure relief valve is also
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
typically installed in the system, as is some sort of filter and a gauge to indicate the
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
amount of oxygen pressure remaining in the storage cylinder(s).
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.502
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Built-in continuous-f low gaseous oxygen systems accomplish a final flow rate to
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
individual user stations through the use of a calibrated orifice in each mask. Larger
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
diameter orifices are usually used in crew masks to provide greater flow than that for

em o ta co s, t a
w
passengers. Special oxygen masks provide even greater flow via larger orifices for
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
passengers traveling with medical conditions requiring full saturation of the blood
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
with oxygen.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
Allowing oxygen to continuously flow from the storage cylinder can be wasteful.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
Lowest sufficient flow rates can be accomplished through the use of rebreather
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
apparatus.
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
Oxygen and air that is exhaled still contains usable oxygen. By capturing this oxygen
co tel ny Th form
in a bag, or in a cannula with oxygen absorbing reservoirs, it can be inhaled with the
n
pi lec un e
li
next breath, reducing waste.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.503
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.504
OXYGEN (ATA 35)
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
DEMAND-FLOW SYSTEMS
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
When oxygen is delivered only as the user
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
inhales, or on demand, it is known as a
ex w o io n o
of
demand-flow system. During the hold and
h d a e
ro in t re m op
exhalation periods of breathing, the oxygen
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
supply is stopped. Thus, the duration of the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
oxygen supply is prolonged as none is wasted.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Demand-flow systems are similar to
te b e w rig o
continuous-flow systems in that a cylinder
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
delivers oxygen through a valve when opened.
m
e s
The tank pressure gauge, filter(s), pressure
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
relief valve, and any plumbing installed to refill

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the cylinder while installed on the aircraft are

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
all similar to those in a continuous flow system.

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
The high-pressure oxygen also passes through

ed tu a co ati
a pressure reducer and a regulator to adjust

co tel ny Th form
the pressure and flow to the user. But,

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
demand-flow oxygen regulators differ

significantly from continuous-flow oxygen
in A
regulators.
Rev.00| Pag.505
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
CHEMICAL OXYGEN SYSTEMS
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
The two primary types of chemical oxygen systems
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
are the portable type, much like a portable carry-on
ex w o io n o
of
gaseous oxygen cylinder, and the fully integrated
h d a e
ro in t re m op
supplementary oxygen system used as backup on
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
pressurized aircraft in case of pressurization failure.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
This latter use of solid chemical oxygen generators is
te b e w rig o
most common on airliners. The generators are
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
stored in the overhead PSU attached to hoses and
m
e s
masks for every passenger on board the aircraft.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
When a depressurization occurs, or the flight crew

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
activates a switch, a compartment door opens and

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
the masks and hoses fall out in front of the

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
passengers. The action of pulling the mask down to

ed tu a co ati
a usable position actuates an electric current, or

co tel ny Th form
ignition hammer, that ignites the oxygen candle and

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
initiates the flow of oxygen. Typically, 10 to 20

minutes of oxygen is available for each user
in A
Rev.00| Pag.506
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
ELECTRONIC PULSE DEMAND SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
A recent development in general aviation oxygen systems is the electronic pulse
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
demand oxygen delivery system (EDS). A small, portable EDS unit is made to connect
,
Sa n nt
ol
between the oxygen source and the mask in a continuous flow oxygen system. It
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
delivers timed pulses of oxygen to the wearer on demand, saving oxygen normally
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
lost during the hold and exhale segments of the breathing cycle. Advanced pressure
te b e w rig o
sensing and processing allows the unit to deliver oxygen only when an inhalation
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
starts. It can also sense differences in users breathing cycles and physiologies and
m
e s
adjust the flow of oxygen accordingly. A built-in pressure sensing device adjusts the
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
amount of oxygen released as altitude changes.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.507
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
PNEUMATIC/VACUUM (ATA 36)
Rev.00| Pag.508
STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS PNEUMATIC/VACUUM (ATA 36)
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
VACUUM SYSTEMS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Large transport aircraft powered by reciprocating engines may contain original
ex w o io n o
of
instrument technology that includes gyroscopic instruments powered by a vacuum
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
system
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEMS
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
In the past, some aircraft manufacturers equipped their aircraft with a high pressure
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pneumatic system (3 000 psi). An aircraft that utilizes this type of system is the
m
e s
Fokker F27. Such systems operate a great deal like hydraulic systems, except they
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
employ air instead of a liquid for transmitting power. High pressure pneumatic
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
systems are sometimes used for:

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
-Brakes
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
-Opening and closing doors

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
-Driving hydraulic pumps, alternators, starters, water injection pumps, etc.

n
-Operating emergency devices such as brakes and landing gear

pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.509
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
SYSTEM LAYOUT
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Many high pressure pneumatic systems are installed for one time emergency or
ex w o io n o
of
back-up use and are completely discharged when used. They use pressurized air or
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
nitrogen containers with no on-board means provided to re-pressurize the system
,
Sa n nt
ol
once deployed. Other high pressure pneumatic systems use pressurized containers
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
that are re-charged during flight through the action of compressors installed in the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
system. This type of installation allows the pneumatic system to operate components
te b e w rig o
repeatedly rather than just once in a manner similar to a hydraulic system
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
The next figure shows a typical layout of a high pressure pneumatic system on a twin
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
reciprocating engine aircraft equipped with on-board compressors

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.510
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
SYSTEM LAYOUT
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.511
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
SOURCES
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Sources for high pressure pneumatic systems include engine-driven and other on-
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
board compressors, ground air, and ground nitrogen sources.
,
Sa n nt
ol
As stated, some aircraft employ permanently installed air compressors which
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
recharge air bottles whenever pressure is used for operation of a unit. Several types
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
of compressors are used for this purpose. Some have two stages of compression,
te b e w rig o
while others have three, depending on the maximum desired operating pressure.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Details on compressor operation are found in the aircraft maintenance manual. They
m
e s
are typically oil lubricated thus the system plumbing may contain an oil separator of
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
some type as well as a means for removing moisture in the system

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
STORAGE
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
For high-pressure systems, air is usually stored in metal bottles at pressures ranging
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
from 1 000 to 3 000 psi, depending on the particular system. The high pressure
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
storage cylinder is typically a light weight, wire-wrapped, steel-constructed reservoir.

n
The date of manufacture and safe working pressure should be on the reservoir as
pi lec un e
li
Al
well as a date stamped for the performance of the last hydrostatic test. It is common
practice for these high pressure containers to be inspected often and removed
in A
periodically for hydrostatic checks

Rev.00| Pag.512
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
DISTRIBUTION
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Pneumatic power is distributed through high pressure steel or stainless steel lines.
ex w o io n o
of
The use of check valves is common to prevent back flow. The lines are routed in the
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
same manner as hydraulic lines to reach the components. In systems that operate
,
Sa n nt
ol
one time and emergency systems, a shuttle valve is often used to close off the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
normal system flow and allow flow of high pressure pneumatic air to operate the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
component
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
SUPPLY REGULATION
m
e s
A pressure regulator maintains system pressure with a relief valve to limit pressure in
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
case of regulator failure.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
Check valves are used to prevent back flow to the compressor.

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
In addition to the use of a selector valve or control valve to direct the air to the
n
portion of the system through which it must be distributed, isolation valves are often
pi lec un e
li
Al
installed in the distribution system to isolate working components from those that
are inoperative or to isolate part of the system that has a leak.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.513
Al
li
n
by pneumatic
in A
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
SUPPLY REGULATION
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
operate at full system pressure. Pressure reducing valves are used to lower the
Note that all components in a high pressure pneumatic system do not necessarily
and variable restrictors are use to control the speed of the component(s) operated
system pressure to that require by a particular component or sub system. Restrictors
Rev.00| Pag.514
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
pneumatic system that uses a
ith be
SUPPLY REGULATION
air from a reservoir (not shown)
ou
t
independent of the normal system
application, a completely redundant
brake operation. For emergency brake
are either one time use or multi-use or
on aircraft that the technician encounters
The few high pressure pneumatic systems
distribution system supplies high pressure

rechargeable system for normal operation
both. The below figure illustrates part of a
of gear extension and retraction as well as
Rev.00| Pag.515
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
EMERGENCY BACK-UP SYSTEMS/ PNEUDRAULICS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Many aircraft use a high-pressure pneumatic back-up source of power to extend the
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
landing gear or actuate the brakes if the main hydraulic braking system fails. High
,
Sa n nt
ol
pressure nitrogen is not directly used to actuate the landing gear actuators or brake
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
units but, instead, it applies the pressurized nitrogen to move hydraulic fluid to the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
actuator. This process is called pneudraulics. The following paragraph discusses the
te b e w rig o
components and operation of an emergency pneumatic landing gear extension
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
system used on a business jet pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Nitrogen Bottles
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Nitrogen used for emergency landing gear extension is stored in two bottles, one
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
bottle located on each side of the nose wheel well. Nitrogen from the bottles is
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
released by actuation of an outlet valve. Once depleted, the bottles must be

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
recharged by maintenance personnel. Fully serviced pressure is approximately 3 100

n
psi at 70 F (21 C) enough for only one extension of the landing gear
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.516
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.517
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
Dump Valve
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
As compressed nitrogen is released to the landing gear selector/dump valve during
,
Sa n nt
ol
emergency extension, the pneudraulic pressure actuates the dump valve portion of
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
the landing gear selector/dump valve to isolate the landing gear system from the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
remainder of hydraulic system. When activated, a blue DUMP legend is illuminated
te b e w rig o
on the LDG GR DUMP V switch, located on the flight deck overhead panel. A dump
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
valve reset switch is used to reset the dump valve after the system has been used
m
e s
and serviced.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.518
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
MEDIUM PRESSURE PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
SYSTEM LAYOUT
ex w o io n o
of
Medium pressure pneumatic systems on large passenger aircraft are typically
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
designed around the sources for pneumatic air that feed a common manifold. Each
,
Sa n nt
ol
engine contains an independent bleed air subsystem that is designed to extract and
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
regulate pneumatic bleed air from the engine. It is then forwarded to the pneumatic
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
manifold for use. The pneumatic manifold contains the control valves that are
te b e w rig o
operated to supply the systems that require pneumatic power.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
An isolation valve separates the pneumatic manifold from each engine bleed air
m
e s
supply and regulation subsystem so as to be able to turn the supply ON and OFF
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
from that engine. The APU is similarly designed although the APU may turn a
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
dedicated load compressor to supply the air rather than tapping bleed air off the
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
compressor section of the engine. A pneumatic power supply cart provides already
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
regulated air pressure. When it is used to supply the manifold, the aircraft engines
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
are not operated. A ground pneumatic air supply adapter with check valve is located
n
directly in the pneumatic manifold. Closing the engine and APU isolation valves
pi lec un e
li
Al
isolates the ground air supply. The supply cart must be powered down to de-
energize the pneumatic manifold and remove the hose.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.519
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
MEDIUM PRESSURE PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
SOURCES
ex w o io n o
of
A medium pressure pneumatic system (35-150 psi) does not include an air
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
bottle/storage reservoir. Instead, it draws air from the compressor section of a
,
Sa n nt
ol
turbine engine. This is known as bleed air and is used to provide pneumatic power
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
for engine starts, engine de-icing, wing de-icing, air conditioning and more. In some
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
cases, it provides hydraulic power to the aircraft systems (if the hydraulic system is
te b e w rig o
equipped with an air driven hydraulic pump).
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
Engine bleed air is also used to pressurize the aircrafts hydraulic reservoirs, anti-ice
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
the TAT probe and other applications specific to particular aircraft.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
Ground sources of pneumatic air also are used. Fixed and portable cart type units
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
containing engine-driven air supply compressors are connected into the pneumatic
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
manifold to power the pneumatic system without running the engines. A ground air
n
supply connector and check valve is provided in the manifold for the duct-diameter
pi lec un e
li
Al
sized hose from the ground source.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.520
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
DISTRIBUTION
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The engine bleed air distribution system interconnects the engine bleeds of the
ex w o io n o
of
engines and APU and contains the necessary valves to shut off bleed air at each
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
engine and isolate various ducts.
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
The medium pressure pneumatic system is generally characterized by the use of 3-4
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
inch diameter ducting.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The pneumatic manifold, which is itself ducting, distributes the air through the use
m
e s
of control valves leading to various pneumatic systems components and sub-
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
systems. The ducts into which the control valves direct the air are of various sizes.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
High volume ducting (3-4 inch diameter) is used for engine starting and wing anti-ice
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
and air conditioning

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.521
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
DISTRIBUTION
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.522
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
DISTRIBUTION
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.523
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
DISTRIBUTION
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Smaller diameter ducting is used for many other
of
h d a e
components such as windscreen anti fogging and
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
total air temp gauge anti-ice.
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
The temperature of pneumatic air is controlled
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
within an acceptable range. Typically, some sort of
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
heat exchanger is located in the bleed air portion of

r w d s te co in
the pneumatic system for this purpose. A working
io de es on y in
temperature in the pneumatic manifold of close to
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
400 F in normal. By controlling the quantity of the

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
overall volume of air that passes through the heat

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
exchanger, the pneumatic manifold temperature is

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
regulated.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
Air conditioning systems accepted air from the

co tel ny Th form
pneumatic manifold that is too hot to be released

n
pi lec un e
li
directly into the cabin. Air conditioning packages use

Al
heat exchangers and well as an air cycle machine to

adjust the temperature of the pneumatic air so that
in A
it is comfortable in the cabin

Rev.00| Pag.524
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
There are few indications and warnings associated with the pneumatic system.
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Pneumatic manifold pressure is a key parameter monitored on the flight deck. Twin
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
engine airliners typically have a pressure transmitter mounted in each section of the

em o ta co s, t a
w
pneumatic manifold associated with an engine.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
These transducers send an electric signal to a dual gauge on the pneumatic control
r w d s te co in
panel. Isolation valve control switches are located nearby. A low or no pressure
io de es on y in
m
situation can be handled by closing an isolation valve and using the remaining
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
pressure to supply all pneumatic requirements.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
One transmitter is used for each engine. Both pressure transmitters are connected to
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
a dual pressure indicator on the overhead panel.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.525
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
For the pneumatic system, the air synoptic display
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
shows the following information:
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Ground air in use.

em o ta co s, t a
w
Duct pressures.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
Engine bleed air pressure regulating and shutoff
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
valve position.
r w d s te co in
Isolation valve position.
io de es on y in
m
APU shutoff valve position.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
An on an isolation valve symbol or the APU

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
shutoff valve symbol shows the valve has failed or

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the switch on the bleed air/pressurization panel

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
for the valve is in the non-normal position. An air

co tel ny Th form
supply maintenance page viewable on the

n
pi lec un e
li
multifunctional display is shown in the figure.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.526
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
WATER/WASTE (ATA 38)
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.527
TURBINE AEROPLANE WATER/WASTE (ATA 38)
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
WATER/WASTE SYSTEMS
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Large passenger aircraft are fitted with food preparation galleys and lavatories for
ex w o io n o
of
passenger comfort. To support these installations, potable water, toilet and waste
h d a e
ro in t re m op
water/ drainage systems are also installed.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
LAYOUT
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
The potable water system stores,
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
delivers, monitors and controls potable
r w d s te co in
(drinkable) water for galley and lavatory
io de es on y in
m
components. The toilet system provides
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
sanitary toilets in the lavatory

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
compartments and a means to dispose

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
of toilet waste. The waste water system

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
disposes of all waste water from the

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
lavatory compartments. A water tank

co tel ny Th form
pressurization system is used to

n
pi lec un e
li
pressurize the potable water system.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.528
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
SUPPLY
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
The potable water system is the water supply system for the aircraft. Potable water is
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
stored below the cabin floor in a single or multiple tanks. Typically, the aircraft pneumatic
of
h d a e
system pressurizes the tank(s).
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
-Pressure inside the tanks pushes the water through distribution lines to the lavatories and
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
galleys.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
-Potable water also goes to the toilets in lavatories equipped with vacuum flush toilet
io de es on y in
bowls pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
The water servicing panels are usually heated to prevent icing

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
The water tank pressurization system passes air through an air filter and pressure
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
regulator on way to the water tank. The air filter prevents contamination. A replaceable
co tel ny Th form
10-micron filtration cellulose element is common. The pressure regulator reduces the air
n
pi lec un e
li
pressure and maintains approximately 20-50 psi in the water tank depending on the
Al
system. Check valves in the system prevent reverse pressurization. A system pressure relief
valve prevents damage to the tank from over pressurization
in A
Rev.00| Pag.529
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
SUPPLY

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.530
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
DISTRIBUTION
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
Plumbing lines connect the water supply tank(s) to the lavatory and galley sink
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
faucets. They are typically reinforced plastic hoses sometimes enclosed in protective
of
h d a e
conduit. In-line electric element heaters are installed just upstream of all hot water
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
faucets.
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
-The units have a small reservoir and high wattage electric heating elements with
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
overheat protection.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
-Distribution lines are typically run behind the cabin ceiling panels.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
-Shutoff valves are use to isolate sections of the water system for maintenance.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
-Water lines pass near or through cold sections of the fuselage. In these areas, the
, d al uth nt on
plumbing must be insulated or heated. Heat tapes, inline heaters and heated hoses
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
are all used to prevent ice in the water system.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.531
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
SERVICING
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
-The water should be drained at least every 3 days and fresh water added to the system to
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
prevent the growth of bacteria.
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
-Use of a disinfectant regularly in the potable water system is standard. Disinfection is also

em o ta co s, t a
w
accomplished after completion of certain maintenance procedures or if the water system
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
is contaminated.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
-The water servicing panel contains a fitting for the attachment of a fill hose
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
- Once the hose is attached, a fill valve is positioned to allow the water to flow into the
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
tank. The quantity indicator on the panel is used to fill the tank
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
-The panel is located in the lower side of the fuselage, usually positioned in an area that
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
does not interfere with other servicing and loading activities during turn-around checks.
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.532
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
DRAINING
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Waste water is either drained directly
ex w o io n o
of
overboard or to a holding tank. The tank is
h d a e
ro in t re m op
usually the same tank used for collecting toilet
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
waste. The waste water drainage system
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
disposes of all waste water from the lavatory
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
compartments sinks. The system consists of
te b e w rig o
plumbing necessary to drain the waste water
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
into the toilet tank and moisture condensation
m
e s
and seepage to the toilet drain tube. Sink
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
stoppers are spring loaded to the CLOSED

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
position to maintain the integrity of cabin

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
pressurization. Check valves are commonly

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
used to prevent odors from backing up into the

ed tu a co ati
lavatory. Cabin pressure is used to close the

co tel ny Th form
drain system until needed and to force waste

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
water overboard through a drain mast(s)

mounted on the lower outside of the fuselage.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.533
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
DRAINING

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.534
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
TOILET SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Large passenger aircraft and freight aircraft are fitted with lavatories. These lavatories
of
h d a e
include a flushable toilet system. For many years, toilet flushing systems used an electric
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
motor driven flushing mechanism to remove toilet waste into a holding tank positioned
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
directly under the toilet. The most modern aircraft incorporate a vacuum flush system
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
with remote waste holding tank(s)
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
A waterproof floor pan or catch basin with
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
drain makes up the floor of the lavatory unit

do gh o ote in
which is installed on top of the passenger

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
cabin floor.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
Tiedowns attach the unit to aircraft structure.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
Drain and vent lines extend through the floor

n
pi lec un e
li
to the outside of the aircraft.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.535
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Vacuum waste systems remove FLUSHING
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
waste from the toilet with suction
of
h d a e
and deposits it in a waste holding
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
tank. Potable water is injected for
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
approximately one second to rinses
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
the toilet when flushed. The waste
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
tanks are remotely located below the

r w d s te co in
cabin floor. The suction for flushing is
io de es on y in
made by an electric vacuum blowerpr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
below 16 000 feet and by the

do gh o ote in
differential pressure between the

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
cabin pressure and the outside air

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
pressure above 16 000 feet. A

, d al uth nt on
barometric switch controls the

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
blower. Vacuum check valves are

n
pi lec un e
li
used to prevent reverse airflow

Al
through the vacuum blower bypass

lines
in A
Rev.00| Pag.536
described.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
LAYOUT

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
There are a variety of lavatory system layouts owing to the number and
configuration of lavatories on any particular aircraft. The basic systems remains as
Rev.00| Pag.537
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
LAYOUT
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Each lavatory is positioned near an external service panels to which the waste tank drain
of
and flush lines as well as the waste tank vent line are routed. Waste is removed from the
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
waste tanks through the waste service panel. A "T" handle in the service panel opens the
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
waste tank drain ball valve which permits the waste tank to drain. The flush line is used to
re ed e s e aw en
.
rinse the waste holding tank.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
A vacuum blower is associated
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
with each waste tank pr loa Unl e c d b tra
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
regardless of the number of

do gh o ote in
toilets that drain to the tank.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Drain and flush lines run from

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the tank to the exterior

, d al uth nt on
servicing panel as usual. Also

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
plumbed into the system are

n
pi lec un e
li
the potable water lines used

Al
to delivery a small quantity of

water with each flush.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.538
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
SERVICING

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.539
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CORROSION ASPECTS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
The presence of water in lavatories and galleys makes the structure around and
h d a e
ro in t re m op
below these areas highly susceptible to corrosion. Most structure is aluminum
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
although some manufacturers include titanium structure because it is much
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
more resistant to corrosive effects. Waterproof flooring, built in catch basins
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
and drains help reduce corrosion by controlling where water can flow. But
te b e w rig o
operation with thousands of passengers over time typically results in the loss of
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
water and corrosion of the entire area around a lav or galley installation. Anti-
m
e s
corrosion measures are increased around and under lavatories and galleys.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
Some common actions are as follows:

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Corrosion Preventative Fluids (CPFs) applied to the structure.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Floor panel clips taped to prevent scratching.

, d al uth nt on
Floor panels cushioned to prevent damage.

ed tu a co ati
Floor panels sealed to prevent fluid getting into the structure.

co tel ny Th form
Moisture barriers applied over the entire area.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
Leaks in the toilet system traced and cured at an early stage.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.540
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
SYSTEMS (ATA 45)
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
ON BOARD MAINTENANCE
Rev.00| Pag.541
TURBINE AEROPLANE ON BOARD MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS (ATA 45)
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CENTRAL MAINTENANCE COMPUTERS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The central maintenance computer (CMC) is the main processing unit for an on
of
h d a e
board maintenance system. Like all computers, the CMC has inputs and
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
outputs and it is programmable. Inputs to the CMC come from the various
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
systems being monitored, which are located all over the aircraft. Outputs from
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
the CMC are provided in the form of visual displays, printed text, and digital
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
data that may be downloaded. The next figure shows a block diagram of the

r w d s te co in
Airbus A330 central maintenance system. It is common for an aircrafts on
io de es on y in
board maintenance system to have two redundant CMCs installed. With dual
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
CMCs, all data inputs are available to both units. One CMC will be "active" at
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
any given time.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
The system monitors itself, and when it senses the failure of the active CMC, it
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
automatically switches to the standby CMC. The switching can also be done
co tel ny Th form
manually.
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
CMCs are controlled by control units in the cockpit, such as the MCDUs
(multipurpose control display units) found on the Airbus A330.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.542
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.543
ON BOARD MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS (ATA 45)
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
about each fault that was sensed, such as the date and time the fault occurred.
t
Rev.00| Pag.544
and an electrical system fault. The menus allow the user to access specific information
ON BOARD MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS (ATA 45)
In this example, there are three faults: A bleed air system fault, and anti-ice system fault,
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The minimum equipment list (MEL) determines which faults must be corrected before
of
h d a e
further flight, and which faults may be deferred for correction later. The fault indications
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
provided by the CMC should be compared with the MEL to determine whether the
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
aircraft can be dispatched
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The CMC classifies faults according to their severity. More severe faults will trigger cockpit

r w d s te co in
indications for the flight crew so that their effect on operations can be evaluated. Less
io de es on y in
severe faults will not be displayed to the flight crew; that fault information will simply be
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
stored and dealt with by maintenance personnel after the flight.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
As an example, the CMC in the Airbus A330 divides faults into three classes: Class 1, Class
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
2, and Class 3. Class 1 faults are the most serious, and involve something listed in the
co tel ny Th form
MEL. A Class 1 fault may ground the aircraft (a NO GO condition), or it may limit the
n
pi lec un e
li
conditions under which the aircraft may fly (a GO IF condition). An example of a GO IF

Al
Class 1 fault would be the failure of a pressurization system component that limits the
aircraft to unpressurized operation only.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.545
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
BITE
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Units that are monitored by the CMC contain special circuits known as built in test
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
equipment (BITE). BITE is installed in many systems throughout the aircraft including
ex w o io n o
navigation systems, flight control systems, environmental control systems, and
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
others. Within each system, the BITE circuitry tests numerous individual parameters
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
to determine whether the system is functioning properly.
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
The individual system BITE circuits are connected to the CMC by a digital data bus.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
ARINC 429 buses are used for this purpose in many aircraft. Other data buses, such
r w d s te co in
as ARINC 629, may also be used.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Whenever a system that contains BITE is first powered on, the BITE automatically
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
performs a test of that system. This is referred to as an initialization test or a power-

bu e ed a ta
up check. If any fault is detected by the BITE during this test, an output is generated
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
and sent to the CMC. If the system passes the initial test, BITE begins its regular
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
monitoring of the system parameters. This monitoring is sometimes referred to as a

co tel ny Th form
"watchdog" function. During operation, the monitoring process is continuous. If

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
anything that is being monitored fails, BITE will alert the CMC automatically.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.546
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
BITE
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
In some aircraft, the user can run the BITE power-up check for a given system from
of
h d a e
the CMC control unit at any time. This capability is provided as a CMC menu item.
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
This function can be useful when troubleshooting the system. Some LRUs containing
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
BITE have indicator lights that indicate the status of the LRU. Green lights indicate a
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
normal condition, red lights indicate that the BITE detected a fault in the LRU.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
BITE systems also have the
io de es on y in
m
capability of storing fault
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
history. The history is kept

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
in non-volatile memory.
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Non-volatile memory
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
holds the stored

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
information even after the

co tel ny Th form
system has been powered

n
pi lec un e
li
off.
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.547
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
DATA LOADING SYSTEMS
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
An aircrafts data loading system provides a means to upload data to, and
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
download data from, the on board maintenance system. The data loading

em o ta co s, t a
w
system connects to other onboard systems, as well. The data loading system
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
can be used with any digital system that requires data uploads and
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
downloads while installed in the aircraft.
r w d s te co in
Early data loading systems used floppy disks as the data storage medium. An
io de es on y in
m
example of this is the MDDU (multipurpose disk drive unit) used on many
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Airbus models. The MDDU uses 3.5 inch floppy disks for uploading,
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
downloading, and data storage. In the Airbus system, a Data Loader Selector
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
switches the MDDU to the various systems that require a data upload or
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
download.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.548
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
DATA LOADING SYSTEMS
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
Data loading systems also allow for the use of other forms of storage media. Newer
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
systems can be connected to a laptop computer through a USB (universal serial bus) cable.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
A CD-ROM disk, or a USB memory stick or "flash drive" may also be used. In some aircraft,
em o ta co s, t a
w
there are multiple locations to connect external devices to the data loading system.
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
For example, the 777 has two laptop maintenance access terminal interfaces.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
One is located on the flight deck, and one is located in the main equipment center below
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
the flight deck. The primary uses for the data loading system are the uploading of program
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
updates, the uploading of database updates, and the downloading of reports.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
An example of a database that requires updating is the navigation database which forms a
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
part of the flight management system (FMS). The navigation database contains a great
co tel ny Th form
deal of information used by the flight crew.. Because changes to this information occur
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
from time to time, the navigation database requires periodic updates. These updates are
uploaded through the data loading system. The standard frequency for navigation
in A
database updates is every 28 days

Rev.00| Pag.549
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
ELECTRONIC LIBRARY SYSTEM
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
An electronic library system (ELS) consists of databases containing information
of
h d a e
used by flight crews and maintenance personnel. These databases can include
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
maintenance manuals, illustrated parts catalogs, wiring diagram manuals, flight
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
manuals, service bulletins, and many other kinds of documentation from the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
manufacturer or the aircraft operator. The ELS takes the place of paper manuals.
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
This results in a weight savings, and can make accessing the information in the

r w d s te co in
manuals quicker and easier.
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
They can also be accessed by an external personal computer, or through another

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
digital device such as a tablet or smart phone. The laptop or other external device
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
is typically connected to the system using a serial bus cable. The databases in an
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
ELS must be updated periodically as revisions are made to the technical data
co tel ny Th form
contained in the manuals.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
These revisions can be input through the data loading system.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.550
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
STRUCTURE MONITORING
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
Structure monitoring, also known as damage tolerance monitoring, has been recognized
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
as an important function in aircraft maintenance. As aircraft age, their structures
of
h d a e
becomes more susceptible to damage caused by fatigue. Repeated cabin pressurization
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
cycles cause fatigue. Repairs and alterations can change the structural characteristics of
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
an aircraft, introducing different stresses than were present with the original design.
re ed e s e aw en
.
Corrosion can seriously weaken an aircrafts structure.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Certification regulations require aircraft manufacturers to identify critical areas of the
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
aircrafts structure. These areas are known as fatigue critical structures (FCS). These
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
critical structures are identified by performing fatigue testing on test articles, which are
do gh o ote in
subjected to repeated load cycles until they fail. The results of this testing are analyzed
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
to determine the FCS for the aircraft. Aircraft operators are required to monitor all FCS
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
on their aircraft. This monitoring is intended to detect cracks and other structural
, d al uth nt on
deformations before they reach critical proportions, resulting in catastrophic failure. The
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
FCS monitoring process is accomplished by performing damage tolerance inspections

n
pi lec un e
(DTIs).
li
Al
DTIs are inspections focused specifically on fatigue critical structures.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.551
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
AVIONICS (ATA 42)
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
INTEGRATED MODULAR
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.552
TURBINE AEROPLANE INTEGRATED MODULAR AVIONICS (ATA 42)
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
INTRODUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
The following is just a partial list of functions that may be Integrated into
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
an IMA System:
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
Bleed Management
re ed e s e aw en
.
Air Pressure Control
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Air Ventilation and Control

r w d s te co in
Avionics and Cockpit Ventilation Control
io de es on y in
Air pr loa Unl e c d b tra
Traffic Communication
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Avionics Communication Router

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
Electrical Load Management

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Circuit Breaker Monitoring

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Electrical System Built In Test Equipment (BITE) Fuel Management

, d al uth nt on

ed tu a co ati
Braking Control
co tel ny Th form
Steering Control
n
pi lec un e
li
Landing Gear Extension and Retraction

Al
Tire Pressure Indication

Brake Temperature Monitoring
in A
Rev.00| Pag.553
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
INTEGRATION OF AVIONICS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Design methods for avionics systems have evolved over time. Initially, avionics
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
systems were discrete, stand alone systems. This means that each system was
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
separate. For example, an aircrafts compass system might have consisted of a
re ed e s e aw en
.
flux detector in the wing, a gyroscope in the avionics compartment, and a
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
heading indicator on the instrument panel. These components were used only
te b e w rig o
by the compass system. They were not shared by other systems on the aircraft.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Although the compass systems components were connected to each other
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
with wiring, the compass system itself was not connected to any of the other
do gh o ote in
systems on the aircraft.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Traditionally, on non-IMA aircraft, each avionics system had its own separate
, d al uth nt on
indicator and its own separate controls. As more and more avionics systems
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
were developed and installed in aircraft, more indicators and controls had to be
n
pi lec un e
installed. Instrument panels became more complex and crowded.

li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.554
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
indicators. More electrical power was needed to operate the systems.
w y
ith be
ou
t
needed to interconnect these LRUs with their associated cockpit controls and
"black boxes" were installed in avionics compartments. More wiring was
systems were developed and installed, more LRUs (line replaceable units) or
The below figure shows such an instrument panel. In addition, as more avionics
Rev.00| Pag.555
INTEGRATED MODULAR AVIONICS (ATA 42)
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Each additional indicator, LRU, and wire that is installed on an aircraft takes up
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
space and adds weight. Because both space and weight-carrying capability are
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
at a premium, it is desirable to keep the number of indicators, LRUs, and wires
re ed e s e aw en
.
to a minimum. In the case of indicators, engineers began to develop designs
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
that used the same indicator to display information from more than one
te b e w rig o
system.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
In newer designs, these systems are all connected to single, "integrated"
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
indicator such as a navigation display (ND). The use of integrated indicators

do gh o ote in
saves space and weight, and it streamlines pilot workload by reducing the
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
number of indicators that must be scanned during flight.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.556
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
The following figure shows a modern,
h d a e
ro in t re m op
integrated instrument panel. The design
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
concept that was first used to combine
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
indicator functions in the cockpit has been
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
carried further with integrated modular
te b e w rig o
avionics. In an aircraft with IMA, the same
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
concept integration is applied to many
m
e s
of the LRUs as well. Instead of individual,
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
independent LRUs, an aircraft with IMA

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
uses modules which are integrated into a

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
single system. The modules perform the

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
functions formerly performed by the

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
independent LRUs, but they are not

n
completely independent. They share

pi lec un e
li
Al
circuitry.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.557
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
DIGITAL DATA BUS USE REDUCES WIRING
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The use of digital data buses can result in a tremendous reduction in the amount
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
of wiring used in an aircraft. Digital data buses are used to transfer information
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
from one piece of equipment to another, using far fewer wires than were

em o ta co s, t a
w
previously required. A number of different digital data bus systems are used in
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
various aircraft. Some of the more important ones are ARINC 429, ARINC 629, and
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
AFDX (Avionics Full Duplex).

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
An example that illustrates this reduction in wiring is radio tuning. When a radio
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
is tuned, frequency information must be transferred from a radio tuning unit to

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
the radio receiver or transceiver that is being tuned. This frequency information
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
might consist of four or more digits. Say a pilot wishes to tune a VHF
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
communications transceiver to the frequency 128.35 MHz. The pilot enters this
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
frequency into the tuning unit in the cockpit. From there, it must be carried to
co tel ny Th form
the VHF transceiver located in the avionics compartment

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.558
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.559
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
With traditional avionics systems, those not using digital data buses, each piece
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
of information to be transferred from one location to another requires at least
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
one separate wire. Often, a far larger number of wires is needed. Using our

em o ta co s, t a
w
example of a pilot tuning the VHF communications transceiver to 128.35 MHz,
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
each digit of the selected frequency must be transferred from the tuning unit to
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
the transceiver.

r w d s te co in
Because there are five digits in this
io de es on y in
frequency, it might seem that five wires
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
would be needed to transfer this data.

do gh o ote in
However, because the information being

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
transferred is complex (each digit might

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
be anything from a zero through a nine),

, d al uth nt on
even more wires are needed. A typical

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
pre-data-bus method of accomplishing

n
pi lec un e
li
this transfer was the ARINC "two out of

Al
five" or 25 tuning scheme.

in A
Rev.00| Pag.560
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
2x5 tuning requires the use of five wires for each digit of information being
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
transferred. Of these five wires, two are be connected to ground and three are
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
not. The particular wires which are grounded determine whether the digit

em o ta co s, t a
w
transferred is a zero, a one, a two, etc. Since all VHF communication frequencies
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
begin with the number "1," it is not necessary to transfer that digit from the
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
tuning unit to the transceiver.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
However, each of the other
m
four digits in the selected
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
frequency must be
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
transferred. Four digits at

bu e ed a ta
five wires per digit results in

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
20 wires. A ground wire is

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
also needed, bringing the

co tel ny Th form
total number of tuning wires

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
to 21.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.561
Al
li
"twisted pair
in A n
electromagnetic
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
grounded, and protects the
wires are referred to as a

two inner wires from
The shield is usually kept
interference. The two inner

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
wires are twisted together, and they are covered with a braided shield.
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Using a digital data bus like ARINC 429, this same tuning information can be
transferred using only two wires. With ARINC 429, the two information- carrying
Rev.00| Pag.562
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
The reason it is possible to transfer so much information on only two wires is
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
that the information is sent serially. This means that the same two wires carry
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
one bit of information at a time. One bit of information is sent, then another,
re ed e s e aw en
.
and then another. Soon, all the required information has been transferred
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
from the tuning unit to the radio. The information transfer is done at a rapid
te b e w rig o
rate: ARINC 429 can transfer up to 100 000 bits of information each second.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
ARINC 629 can transfer up to two million bits per second. AFDX is a newer
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
digital data bus system used that can transfer data at rates up to 100 million
do gh o ote in
bits per second. Because far fewer wires are needed for each system when
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
using digital data buses, a substantial weight savings is realized.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.563
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CORE SYSTEM
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
IMA systems consist of a core system and network components. The core system
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
contains data processing circuitry that processes many different kinds of information.
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
This processing circuitry is shared by the various avionics systems that have been
re ed e s e aw en
.
integrated. Information from various sensors, controls, and LRUs is brought into the
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
core system for processing, then sent out from the core system to displays, actuators,
te b e w rig o
and other places in the aircraft where that information is used.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The core system uses the same computer processors for many different purposes
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
The core systems processing power is shared among these various functions. This
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
sharing eliminates the need to have a processor in each and every system.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.564
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
NETWORK COMPONENTS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Network components are the parts of the IMA system that allow data to be
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
transferred into and out of the core system. These components include input
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
and output devices and data bus wiring. Input devices receive data from a digital
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
data bus and couple it to the core system processing circuits.
te b e w rig o
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Output devices prepare core system output data for transmission along a digital
m
data bus.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
The exact properties of the input and output devices vary with the particular
bu e ed a ta
kind of data transfer system that is being used. As mentioned above, there are
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
several different data transfer systems used in aircraft, some of the more
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
common ones being ARINC 429, ARINC 629, and AFDX.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.565
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
777 AIMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
In this aircraft, Boeing calls its IMA system the airplane information management
ex w o io n o
of
system (AIMS). The core system of the 777 AIMS system is contained in two cabinets
h d a e
ro in t re m op
which are located in the aircrafts main equipment center.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
Each of the AIMS cabinets has ten line replaceable modules (LRMs) which plug into it.
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
These modules are of four different types. The cabinets themselves contain network
te b e w rig o
components and circuitry that is shared by all the LRMs installed in each cabinet. This
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
common circuitry is contained in a "backplane bus." The cabinets are also networked
m
e s
with other LRUs in the aircraft via digital data buses.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
In the 777, the Line Replaceable Modules in the AIMS process information for
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
the following avionics systems: Primary Display System (PDS)

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
Flight Management Computer System (FMCS)

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
Thrust Management Computer System (TMCS)

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
Central Maintenance Computer System (CMCS)

n
Airplane Condition Monitoring System (ACMS)

pi lec un e
li
Al
Flight Data Recorder System (FDRS)

Data Communication Management System (DCMS)
in A
Rev.00| Pag.566
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
777 AIMS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.567
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
777 AIMS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
input data from these units, and it provides output data to them.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The AIMS is interconnected with many other units in the aircraft. It receives
Rev.00| Pag.568
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
777 AIMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
The AIMS uses several methods for sending and receiving information. These
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
include six different digital data transfer formats, analog data transfer, and
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
wireless RF links.

em o ta co s, t a
w
The primary data transfer format used by the AIMS is ARINC 629. The AIMS is
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
connected to 66 LRUs located throughout the aircraft via ARINC 629. ARINC
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
629 uses a bi-directional data bus. This means that data can be sent both ways
r w d s te co in
on the same data bus. The AIMS can both send information to an LRU, and
io de es on y in
m
receive information from that LRU, using a single data bus connected between
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
the two. ARINC 629 uses a more rapid data transfer rate (up to 2 Mbps) than
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
some other digital data transfer systems.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
The AIMS also uses the ARINC 429 data format to communicate with 56 LRUs
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
throughout the aircraft. Data transfer using ARINC 429 is unidirectional. This
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
means that information can only be transferred in one direction on a single

co tel ny Th form
ARINC 429 bus. If an LRU needs to send information to the AIMS, one bus is
n
pi lec un e
li
required.
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.569
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
777 AIMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
If the AIMS needs to send information back to that LRU, a second bus is required. ARINC
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
429 data transfer rates are somewhat slower than those used with ARINC 629. The
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
transfer rates range from 12 kbps to 100kbps. ARINC 429 is a widely used data transfer

em o ta co s, t a
w
system that was first developed in the 1970s. It is used in many makes and models of
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
aircraft. The AIMS displays information on six flat-panel display units (DUs) (Figure 19-9).
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
These units are located on the instrument panel in the cockpit. They show the information
r w d s te co in
that has been gathered from the various systems connected to the AIMS, and which has
io de es on y in
m
been processed by the AIMS. These DUs are the main displays used by the flight crew.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
The DUs give the following types of displays:

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Primary Flight Display (PFD)

bu e ed a ta
Navigation Display (ND)

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Multifunction Display (MFD)

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS)

co tel ny Th form
Switches are provided in the cockpit that allow the flight crew to control the DUs. These
n
pi lec un e
li
switches allow a particular type of display to be shown in different positions on the

Al
instrument panel. If one of the DUs fails, its function can be taken over by another
in A
functional DU. The system thus provides a great deal of flexibility.

Rev.00| Pag.570
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
777 AIMS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.571
INTRODUCTION
speed,
information.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
heading,
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
and
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
other
attitude, airspeed, altitude, vertical
PFD. It shows aircraft pitch and roll
The figure shows a DU operating as a
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
777 AIMS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.572
INTRODUCTION
Plan,
localizer,
information.
Al
li
in A n
Map,
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
and
ND can display data in
for each mode, and

operating as an ND. The
heading, VOR, DME,
TCAS, along with other

displayed in different
are laid out differently
glideslope,
Approach. The displays
These modes are VOR,
modes. The ND shows

different information is
four different modes.
The figure shows a DU
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
777 AIMS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.573
INTRODUCTION
warnings,
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
cautions
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
advisories to the flight crew.

do gh o ote in
and
position, flap/slat position,
This display shows engine
information. It also provides

and other aircraft system
fuel quantity, landing gear
EPR, N1, EGT, etc. It shows
operating parameters such as
operating as an EICAS display.
The figure shows a DU
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
777 AIMS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.574
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
777 AIMS

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.575
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
CABIN SYSTEMS (ATA 44)
t
Rev.00| Pag.576
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
INTRODUCTION
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
As with all complex systems, there are variations in cabin systems. Different
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
models of aircraft have different systems and different features. Some of
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
the features that can be included in cabin systems are:
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
Passenger Address - for addressing passengers through overhead cabin
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
speakers

r w d s te co in
Cabin Interphone - for communication among the cabin crew members,
io de es on y in
and also between the cabin and the flight deck
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Flight Attendant Calling - allows passengers to call for assistance from

do gh o ote in
the cabin crew

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Audio and Video Entertainment

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Moving Map Displays - showing the aircrafts

, d al uth nt on
current location, altitude, and airspeed

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
Telephone, Fax and Internet Service.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.577
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CABIN INTERCOMMUNICATION DATA SYSTEM
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
A cabin intercommunication data system is used by flight attendants, pilots,
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
and passengers. Typical user interfaces for the system are flight attendant
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
panels, cabin handsets, cockpit handsets, and flight attendant call buttons
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
at passenger seats, here are also speakers and passenger information
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
lights/signs.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Flight attendants can use the system to call each other in various parts of
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
the cabin. For example, a flight attendant located at the galley at the front
do gh o ote in
of the cabin can call another flight attendant who is at the rear of the cabin.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
Also, the pilots on the flight deck can call the flight attendants at their
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
stations in the cabin, and vice versa. Flight attendants can make general
, d al uth nt on
announcements to the passengers. Passengers can activate flight attendant

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
call lights. An example of a cabin intercommunication system is described

n
pi lec un e
li
below under 777 Cabin Services System.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.578
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CABIN NETWORK SERVICE
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
A cabin network service is a digital system that is typically hosted on a server
of
h d a e
within the aircraft. It provides services, such as access to email accounts and
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
the internet. It may also provide access to data stored in databases. A cabin
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
network service is essentially a computer Local Area Network (LAN) within the
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
aircraft, one that can interface with external networks. The interconnections
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
within the LAN can be wired, or they can be wireless. The design trend is

r w d s te co in
toward wireless connections. Because of the potential for interference with
io de es on y in
other systems, the use of wireless is restricted to certain phases of flight.
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
Operation of wireless systems is not permitted during takeoffs and landings.

do gh o ote in
Although systems vary, and new features are added to each new version,
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
typical uses of the cabin network service are for passengers to connect to the
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
internet while in flight, and to access In Flight Entertainment (IFE). In fact, on

, d al uth nt on
some aircraft the cabin network service is integrated with the IFE into a single
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
system. Some systems also permit interconnection to satellite

n
pi lec un e
li
communications systems for inflight telephone calls.

Al
Cabin Networks can transfer large volumes of data to many different locations
by using multiplexing and demultiplexing techniques, which are described
in A
below under IFE.

Rev.00| Pag.579
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
CABIN CORE SYSTEM
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
f
777 CABIN SERVICES SYSTEM
o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
A specific example of an aircraft with a multi-featured cabin system is the Boeing 777.
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
In the 777, the system is called the cabin services system (CSS). It includes both the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
cabin intercommunication data system and the cabin network service.As can be seen in
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
figure , the system is digital and makes extensive use of digital data buses. The system
te b e w rig o
uses three different data bus systems: ARINC 629, the CSS Intersystem Bus, and ARINC
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
628. The ARINC 629 bus connects to the aircraft information management system
m
(AIMS), which is the primary information management system for the aircraft. The CSS
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
intersystem bus is a data transfer bus internal to the cabin system. ARINC 628 is a data
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
interface specifically designed for use with inflight entertainment (IFE) systems. There
bu e ed a ta
are several available IFE systems for an operator (airline) to choose from, and the 777
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
can accommodate any IFE system that uses the ARINC 628 interface.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.580
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
CABIN CORE SYSTEM
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.581
INTRODUCTION
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
CABIN CORE SYSTEM
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.582
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
INFLIGHT ENTERTAINMENT (IFE)
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
Each passenger seat in the 777 also has IFE equipment. The IFE equipment
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
typically includes a video display, an audio headphone jack, and controls for
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
selecting specific video or audio content to be enjoyed by the passenger. It
re ed e s e aw en
.
can also include other items, such as a credit card reader, or a port for
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
connecting the passengers own personal equipment to the system. The
te b e w rig o
system may allow for connection of a device to the internet.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
These functions are provided by a central source. This central source may be
m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
called the main IFE computer. As stated previously, various versions of IFE
do gh o ote in
systems are available from various manufacturers, and their terminology and
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
features differ somewhat.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
In the 777 system, the main IFE computer is connected to the Cabin Services
, d al uth nt on
System via an ARINC 628 data bus. The data routes from the IFE computer,
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
through the CSMU and the ZMUs, to the individual passenger seats. This is a
n
pi lec un e
two way connection. Passenger requests for particular content (e.g. specific
li
Al
audio, video, games, etc.) are sent to the main IFE computer, and the content
is then sent from the main IFE computer to the passenger.
in A
Rev.00| Pag.583
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
CABIN MASS MEMORY SYSTEM
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The cabin mass memory system is where the data that is used in the cabin is
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
stored. The mass memory system can be programmed with cabin configuration
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
information. This is information about the way the seats are configured, for
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
example, which seats are first class, and how many zones the cabin is divided
te b e w rig o
into. The cabin configuration programming varies, even the same make and
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
model of aircraft can have several possible cabin configurations.
m
The mass memory system can store many types of data files. This includes audio
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
and video files that are used for passenger briefing and announcements, and can
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
include IFE such as pre-recorded music. An aircrafts mass memory system is

bu e ed a ta
accessible to the cabin crew through user interfaces (control panels). Although it
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
is stored in a central location, data from the mass memory system can be
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
transferred to access points around the cabin using digital data buses. The system
co tel ny Th form
can be updated when necessary through a data loading system.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.584
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
CABIN MONITORING SYSTEM
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Cabin monitoring systems are used to monitor various conditions in the
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
passenger cabin. These conditions can include (among others): Cabin
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
temperature, Lighting, Status of passenger warning lights such as "Fasten Seat
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Belts" and "No Smoking" lights, cabin entry and exit door status (open or closed),
te b e w rig o
status of smoke and fire detectors in lavatories and elsewhere in the cabin, and
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Status of galley equipment, such as water tanks.
m
Information about the conditions being monitored can be accessed by flight
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
attendants in real time. It can also be stored and accessed later for purposes such
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
as troubleshooting and trend monitoring.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.585
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
MISCELLANEOUS CABIN SYSTEMS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Cabin systems, particularly inflight entertainment systems, are the subject of

em o ta co s, t a
w
intensive commercial development. New systems are being marketed, and some
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
existing aircraft that were built without modern cabin systems are being
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
retrofitted with them. Because these systems are highly visible to an airlines
r w d s te co in
customers (its passengers), they can affect the customers choice of airline. Since
io de es on y in
m
the airline industry is highly competitive, further refinements and improvements
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
can be expected to occur. An example of this is in cabin Wi-Fi, which allows

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
passengers to connect their own personal devices to an on-board Wi-Fi system.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
Such Wi-Fi systems will likely become more common, through installation on new
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
aircraft and also through retrofitting on older aircraft.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.586
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
TURBINE AEROPLANE
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
46)
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
INFORMATION SYSTEMS (ATA
Rev.00| Pag.587
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
AIRCRAFT GENERAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Aircraft operations and maintenance involve dealing with large quantities of

em o ta co s, t a
w
information. This information must be stored in some manner, and, ideally, it
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
should be capable of being accessed as efficiently as possible. Also, the
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
information changes from time to time. To keep up with the changes, there must
r w d s te co in
be a way to update the information stored in an information system. Aircraft
io de es on y in
m
Information systems have evolved over the years. Initially, paper was the storage
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
medium used. Manuals, drawings, charts, and other publications were available
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
only in printed form. Information was retrieved by physically locating and reading
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
the pages containing the information needed. Paper information sources have
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
the advantage of being self-contained. No special equipment is needed to access

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
the information. When revisions are required, new pages are printed and
co tel ny Th form
distributed. The old pages are removed and discarded, and are replaced by the
n
pi lec un e
li
new, revised pages.

Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.588
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
AIRCRAFT GENERAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
Because large amounts of paper are bulky and heavy, other methods for storing

em o ta co s, t a
w
large quantities of information were developed. Microfilm and microfiche were
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
methods that saved space and weight. These methods involved using tiny
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
photographic images of the pages contained in manuals, drawings, charts, etc. A
r w d s te co in
disadvantage of microfilm and microfiche was that special equipment was
io de es on y in
m
needed to magnify the images so that they could be viewed. The microfilm or
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
microfiche was useless if the viewing equipment malfunctioned, or if it was not

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
available when the information needed to be accessed. Updates to microfilm and

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
microfiche came in the form of new rolls of microfilm, or new microfiche sheets.
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
After the new rolls or sheets were received, the old media was removed and
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
discarded.
co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.589
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
FLIGHT DECK INFORMATION SYSTEM
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
,
777 ELECTRONIC FLIGHT BAG
Sa n nt
ol
em o ta co s, t a
w
An example of a flight deck information system is the Electronic Flight Bag (EFB),
re ed e s e aw en
.
ag h is l b t l m
an optional system used on the Boeing 777 and on other aircraft. The flight crew
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
uses the EFB to access information that would traditionally have been found in

r w d s te co in
various printed publications and carried aboard in a flight bag. Such publications
io de es on y in
m
include sectional charts and approach plates. The system also provides advanced
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
capabilities beyond those available in printed publications. On a 777 equipped

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
with the EFB, the system displays information on the two Display Units (DUs) that
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
are installed on the flight deck. One DU is for the Captain and one is for the First
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
Officer. These two DUs are touch-screen devices, and operate independently of
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
each other. The system can be navigated by the touch-screen DUs, and through
co tel ny Th form
keyboards and cursor-control devices. The DUs are connected to two electronics
n
pi lec un e
li
units (EUs) located on the airplane information management system (AIMS) rack
Al
in the main equipment center. The AIMS is an integrated system for processing
in A
information from many sources in the aircraft.
Rev.00| Pag.590
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
TURBINE AEROPLANE
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
777 ELECTRONIC FLIGHT BAG
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
FLIGHT DECK INFORMATION SYSTEM
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.591
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
MAINTENANCE INFORMATION SYSTEM
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The 777 EFB is one example of an aircraft information system. That particular
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
system is used by the flight crew. However, the same kind of technology is also
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
used by maintenance personnel. Flight crews need to access the EFBs
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
information while in flight, but maintenance personnel need to access different
te b e w rig o
kinds of information while the aircraft is on the ground.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
Maintenance Information Systems work along similar lines as a flight deck
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
information system (such as the EFB), but the information being stored is
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
different. Instead of maps and charts, maintenance crews use maintenance

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
manuals, illustrated parts catalogs, wiring diagram manuals, service bulletins, and
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
other technical data. Maintenance Information Systems provide access to these

ed tu a co ati
publications electronically, just as Flight Deck Information Systems electronically

co tel ny Th form
provide the flight crew with access to maps and charts.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.592
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
MAINTENANCE INFORMATION SYSTEM
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
An advantage of using an electronic format, in addition to the space and weight
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
savings it provides, is the ability to quickly locate the desired information. Instead
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
of leafing through a large, paper maintenance manual, for example, a technician
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
using a maintenance information system uses hyperlinks which allow easy
te b e w rig o
navigation within the system.
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
m
e s
A typical method of achieving this is to use a menu containing links to each of the
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
ATA 100 chapters within the manual. Within each chapter, the table of contents
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
contains links that will quickly access a particular page. This allows the technician
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
to locate the desired page with a few "clicks." Aircraft manufacturers, which
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
previously published their manuals only on paper or microfilm/microfiche, now

ed tu a co ati
offer their manuals in electronic format. Laptop computers are very well suited
co tel ny Th form
for storing and retrieving maintenance information in the aviation maintenance

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
environment. Laptops can be taken practically anywhere on the aircraft that the
technician might need to go while performing maintenance. For this reason,
in A
laptop computers are widely used to access maintenance information

Rev.00| Pag.593
INTRODUCTION
or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
ith be
S
rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T
t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION SYSTEMS
pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
New information systems are introduced from time to time, and improvements to
t f ed in de de pr
,
Sa n nt
ol
current information systems are constantly being developed. Whether the
em o ta co s, t a
w
re ed e s e aw en
information is used by the flight crew, or by maintenance personnel, or by any
.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
other user, the basics of an information system are the same. Each system
te b e w rig o
contains digital memory to store the desired information. There is a set of user
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
controls, which allow the user to locate and retrieve the information. There must
m
e s
also be a means of displaying the information to the user. And the system must
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
have a means to update the information, to ensure that the most up-to-date
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
version is being used. These will be the core features that are present in any
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
information system. When compared with previous kinds of information systems,

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
an electronic information system provides the advantages of reduced weight,

ed tu a co ati
reduced bulk, and ease of update.

co tel ny Th form
n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A
Rev.00| Pag.594
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
.
THANK YOU FOR
ol S
YOUR ATTENTION
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t

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Al

for B1.1 certification

EASA Part-66 Basic Module

photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,

en r us ted nsi tra re

alters aircraft pitch, which is the attitude

about the horizontal or lateral axis. The

rudder is hinged to the trailing edge of the

vertical stabilizer. When the rudder

changes position, the aircraft rotates

about the vertical axis

primary control surfaces are simply smaller aerodynamic devices.

rit , pu oth nts py g d

materials and construction techniques are

Performed to manufacturers instructions,

balancing usually consists of assuring that the

center of gravity of a particular device is at or

forward of the hinge point. Failure to properly

balance a control surface could lead to

en r us ted nsi tra re

aircraft about the longitudinal

the aircraft to roll. Ailerons are

usually located on the outboard

en r us ted nsi tra re

transmitted from the cockpit to

combination of these can be

the aircraft. A system of control

tubes, hydraulics, electric, or a

en r us ted nsi tra re

rit , pu oth nts py g d

to provide lateral control and stability in flight.

the other control surfaces are locked out or remain stationary.

en r us ted nsi tra re

the aircraft. Often, they are honeycomb core flat

panels. At low speeds, spoilers are rigged to operate

when the ailerons operate to assist with the lateral

movement and stability of the aircraft. On the wing

where the aileron is moved up, the spoilers also raise

thus amplifying the reduction of lift on that wing.

cockpit inputs to the movement of the elevator.

en r us ted nsi tra re

control surface that combines

stabilizer and the elevator.

minimize drag when trimming the aircraft in flight.

large elevator on large aircraft to achieve all desired trim settings.

elevator size and deflection may be reduced.

en r us ted nsi tra re

en r us ted nsi tra re

on the tail to prevent the nose from

the nose up, as opposed to the aft tail

canard actually creates lift and holds

stabilizer. It is controlled by a pair of foot operated rudder pedals in the cockpit.

moves the nose of the aircraft to the right.

forward, the nose of the aircraft moves to the left.

the speed of the air rushing

the use of balance tabs.

of the flight control surfaces. On heavy

aircraft, large control surfaces require

too much force to be moved manually

and are usually deflected out of the

neutral position by hydraulic actuators.

These power control units are signaled

via a system of hydraulic valves

control linkage aids in moving the