Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
DOI 10.1007/s10163-017-0586-4
Received: 22 August 2016 / Accepted: 16 January 2017 / Published online: 21 February 2017
The Author(s) 2017. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
Abstract Although the 2Rs (reduce and reuse) are con- activity and the environment, including the final sink. Life-
sidered high-priority approaches, there has not been cycle assessment has also been developed to evaluate waste
enough quantitative research on effective 2R manage- prevention activities. Regarding target products for waste
ment. The purpose of this paper is to provide information prevention, food loss is one of the waste fractions with the
obtained through the International Workshop in Kyoto, highest priority because its countermeasures have signifi-
Japan, on 1113 November 2015, which included invited cant upstream and downstream effects. Persistent organic
experts and researchers in several countries who were in pollutants and hazardous compounds should also be taken
charge of 3R policies, and an additional review of 245 pre- into account in the situation where recycling activities are
vious studies. It was found that, regarding policy develop- globally widespread for the promotion of a material-cycling
ment, the decoupling between environmental pressures society.
and economy growth was recognized as an essential step
towards a sustainable society. 3R and resource manage- Keywords Waste prevention Resource efficiency
ment policies, including waste prevention, will play a cru- Chemical control Material flow analysis (MFA) Life-
cial role. Approaches using material/substance flow analy- cycle assessment (LCA) Circular economy Substance
ses have become sophisticated enough to describe the fate flow analysis (SFA) Life-cycle cost (LCC) Review
of resources and/or hazardous substances based on human
13
Vol.:(0123456789)
1296 J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313
245 57 71 54 22 59 39 30
Considered waste type
Food waste Packaging waste Battery ELV E-waste C&D waste Persistent chemicals
245 62 41 39 35 44 35 43
Regarding methods and considered waste type, papers were counted more than once
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J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313 1297
Free Trade Association countries) [15, 16], and seven pro- 2018, and so on [27]. As for waste prevention in Denmark,
grams were first adopted during 2014 [17]. efforts are focused on food waste, construction and demo-
On the other hand, the flagship initiative developed lition (C&D) waste, textile waste, WEEE, and packaging
under Europe 2020, which is the growth strategy for the waste.
EU until 2020, addresses sustainable growth based on In Italy, the National Programme for Waste Prevention
a more competitive, low-carbon economy that also pro- includes prevention targets to be achieved by the year 2020
tects the environment. [1821]. The concept of a circular with respect to 2010 [28]. They include a 5% reduction in
economy was developed in the EU. In contrast to a tra- the amount of urban and non-hazardous waste generated,
ditional linear economy, a circular economy represents a and a 10% reduction in that for hazardous waste. Both per-
development strategy that enables economic growth while centage targets will be calculated per GDP unit to achieve
optimizing the consumption of natural resources. This a decoupling between waste generation and economic
requires deep transformations in production chains and indicators.
consumption patterns, as well as the redesign of industrial
systems [22, 23]. It is remarkable that a circular economy Asia andPacific countries
is intended to achieve economic growth along with sustain-
able growth. The European Commission (EC) adopted an The Basic Act on Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle
ambitious circular economy package in 2015, which con- Society was established in Japan in 2000 [29]. The Act was
sisted of an EU action plan and included revised legisla- intended to limit the consumption of natural resources and
tive proposals on waste to stimulate the transition towards to minimize the associated environmental burden by pro-
a circular economy [24]. Plastics, food waste, critical raw moting the 3Rs, including reduce (waste prevention), as
materials, construction and demolition waste, and biomass well as environmentally sound waste management prac-
and bio-based products were identified as priority areas of tices. In accordance with the Basic Act, the 1st3rd Fun-
focus in the action plan. The revised legislative proposals damental Plans, which were comprehensive waste man-
on waste set both quantitative and qualitative targets for the agement plans that included methods to reduce waste,
reduction of waste, and established an ambitious and cred- were established in 2003, 2008, and 2013, respectively [1,
ible long-term path for waste management and recycling. 3033]. Of the five key areas in the 3rd Fundamental Plan,
In Germany, as a result of the progress made in each EU the plan defined (1) 2R promotion, and (2) the advanced
member nation regarding waste management regulations, use of recyclable resources and the promotion of critical
the Circular Economy Act (CEA) [25] was developed in metal recovery. Regarding each recycling law, the Law
2012 and included the concepts of waste prevention and for the Promotion of Recycling and Related Activities for
extended producer responsibility. According to the Act, the Treatment of Cyclical Food Resources (enforced in
the established waste prevention program [26] emphasized 2001, revised in 2007) [34] set reduction targets (reduction
the importance of waste prevention against the background weight per number of sales) for 31 business sectors after
of the waste management hierarchy of the CEA, although August 2015. Furthermore, among local authorities, Kyoto
it was without legal commitments. The program outlined City set a reduction target in the revised action plan 2015
the potential for administrative bodies to prevent waste to reduce food loss by half as of 2020, compared with the
for the first time in a systematic and comprehensive way. maximum level registered in 2000 [35].
The program also introduced 34 specific waste prevention One of the representative waste management policies in
measures along with an evaluation of their effectiveness. South Korea involves the extended producer responsibility
Some of the recommendations were for local authorities (EPR) system and the volume-based waste fee system. As
to develop waste prevention concepts and plans, to provide a consequence of the Waste Deposit Program implemented
information and raise awareness regarding clean product in 1992, a full-fledged EPR system was introduced in 2003
design, and to strengthen the waste prevention aspects of to impose recycling obligations on producers [36]. The
purchase recommendations. volume-based waste fee system was launched in 1994 in
Since the 1990s, waste treatment in Denmark shifted accordance with the polluter pays principle [3739]. This
from a landfill focus to incineration [27]. In 2011, 61, 29, system is applicable to residential waste from households
and 6% of all waste was recycled, incinerated, and land- and businesses, and was recently expanded to cover food
filled, respectively. In promoting the subsequent shift from waste as part of the comprehensive measures for food waste
incineration to recycling, Denmark established a resource reduction in 2010. As of June 2014, 142 of 145 local gov-
strategy with the goal to increase the portion of household ernments were participating in this system [39]. The first
waste recycled from 22 to 50% by 2022, to collect 65% fundamental plan for resource circulation was established
of all waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), in 2011, and followed the Waste Control Act (amended in
including 55% of all portable batteries sold in the market in 2015) and the Act on Promotion of Saving and Recycling
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1298 J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313
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J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313 1299
Fig.1Framework of LCA for System boundary Environmental burden Avoided environmental burden
waste prevention. This figure
is made based on Cleary [60], Base scenario Waste prevenon scenario
Gentil etal. [61], and Nessi
etal. [62] Method 1
Add
Manufacturing
/ use
Newly generated
8S waste from
VWUHDP alternaves
Manufacturing
/ use
1HWDPRXQWRI
SUHYHQWHGZDVWH
BL_WTS PREV_WTS
'RZQ
VWUHDP
Method 2
Add
Manufacturing
/ use
Newly generated
8S waste from
VWUHDP alternaves
Manufacturing
/ use
1HWDPRXQWRI
SUHYHQWHGZDVWH
BL_WTS PREV_WTS
'RZQ
VWUHDP
13
1300 J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313
Cleary proposed expansion of the system boundary to materials that we consider it necessary to investigate, and
include the production stages of only the products affected introduce some case studies.
by waste prevention activities [60]. Gentil et al. regarded
the size of the reduction (i.e. the amount of waste that was MSW
prevented) of MSW as virtual waste that needed no treat-
ment and, therefore, caused no environmental burden [61]. Gentil etal. [61] conducted an LCA that considered three
Based on Cleary [60], Gentil etal. [61], and Nessi etal. types of waste prevention in MSW, specifically unsolicited
[62], the framework of LCA for evaluating waste preven- mail, beverage packaging, and food waste, and the weight
tion activities is illustrated in Fig.1. In Method 1, the envi- reduction was assumed to be 60, 20, and 20, respectively.
ronmental impacts of the upstream (such as the production The benefits of prevention were significantly higher in the
and use stages) that are related to the waste affected by the upstream (production) than that in the downstream (waste
prevention activities (UpP_PW) are subtracted in the waste management) parts of the life cycle. Of the three preven-
prevention scenario as avoided impacts. On the other hand, tion measures, food waste prevention showed the highest
in Method 2, UpP_PW is included in the base scenario. If benefits. Similarly, Cleary conducted an LCA to evaluate
some additional environmental impacts from the prevention five waste prevention activities (WPAs) in Toronto, Can-
activities are observed, they must be included in the waste ada, which contributed to a 3.6% reduction in the MSW
prevention scenario. When calculating the net reduction generation in 2008. The five activities were as follows: (1)
effect (BLSWPS), the same result can be observed. Since reduction of unaddressed advertising mail, (2) reuse of dis-
the conceptual model has been developed, the number of posable carry-out plastic bags, (3) substitution of articles
case studies evaluating the effects of 2R has increased, as available online, (4) lightweight and refillable wine/spirit
will be discussed later in this paper. glass bottles, and (5) grass cycling [67]. It was revealed
that, although the total amount of MSW prevented by the
five WPAs was only 3.6%, the endpoint impacts (ecosystem
Multiplecriteria decision making
quality, human health, natural resources) in the upstream
improved by up to four times. Regarding the life-cycle envi-
In addition to LCA, other decision-making models are also
ronmental impacts (midpoint level), the top three impacts
available. Ma reviewed and developed several models to
reduced by the five WPAs were freshwater eutrophication,
support decision-making in MSW management [6365].
ozone depletion, and natural land transformation.
Multiobjective programing (MOP) has been applied to
solve MSW management issues, such as selecting site loca-
Food loss
tions and choosing alternatives and strategies [6366].
Multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) methods have
Although the definition of food loss differs between coun-
been applied to choose the best alternative among several
tries and regions [4, 6870], it generally refers to the por-
choices by considering the number of criteria. There are
tion of food waste which can be avoided by careful atten-
several MCDM methods available, such as the analytic
tion. Food loss is a representative prevention target about
hierarchy process (AHP) method, the outranking method,
which many reports and academic papers have been pub-
and the technique for order preference by similarity to
lished. Table 2 summarizes some of the previous studies
ideal solution (TOPSIS) method. Su et al. applied AHP
with quantitative results related to the current situation,
to evaluate five fly ash management alternatives in Taipei
and the prevented effects on waste generation, environ-
City, Taiwan, while considering the environmental, eco-
mental impacts, and economic aspects (see electronic sup-
nomic, social, management, and technological aspects [64].
plemental materials SI2 for detailed list). According to the
Su etal. also applied the TOPSIS method to evaluate four
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United
waste reduction policies in Taoyuan County, Taiwan, while
Nations, global food waste annually accounts for approxi-
considering environmental, administrative, economic, and
mately 1.3 billion tons of waste, and one-third of all food
social aspects [65].
produced is wasted [68]. Munesue et al. estimated that a
50% reduction in food loss and waste in the food industry
Target products and/ormaterials forwaste prevention in developed countries would have accounted for 0.69.5%
of the domestic regional supply of these products in 2007
Some target flows have great potential for preventing the [71]. To clarify the current situation in the household, retail
misuse of resources and the environment, such as food and food service sectors, and several specific companies,
waste, batteries, and various parts of end-of-life vehicles. In field surveys such as waste composition analyses and other
this section, we consider the products and materials that are measurement surveys (e.g. questionnaires and statistics)
now widely investigated around the globe. We also include were conducted [7275]. For instance, a household waste
13
Table2Summary of previous studies focused on food waste and loss prevention
Authors Region and sectors Method Current situation Prevention measures Weight reduction Environmental impact Economic benefits
reduction
WRI [83] Global food supply Review-based estima- Global food waste Food loss reduction Halving global food 33005600million
chain (agricultural tion accounted for 24% opportunities were loss rate would t-CO2
production, posthar- Food loss and waste of calories produced provided in the table reduce annual
vest handling and estimated by FAO in 2009 and are introduced global food demand
storage, processing (2011) converted to Cereals comprise the in this report by 1314 trillion kcal
and packaging, calories largest share (53%)
distribution and
market, consump-
tion)
FAO [69] Global food supply Review-based estima- 1.3billion tons/year Prevention measures
chain (agricultural tion of food is wasted include:
production, posthar- Data from FAO sta- (32% of food Communication and
J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313
vest handling and tistical yearbook and produced for human cooperation between
storage, process- food balance sheet, consumption in farmers
ing, distribution, and the literature 2009) Organizing small
consumption) Food loss during farmers, diversify-
production, posthar- ing and upscaling
vest, and processing production and
is 280300 and marketing
120170kg/cap- Developing capac-
itayear1 in Europe ity of food chain
and North America, operators to apply
and sub-Saharan safe food handling
Africa and South/ practices
Southeast Asia, Public awareness
respectively
Food waste by con-
sumers is 95115
and 611kg/cap-
itayear 1 in Europe
and North America,
and sub-Saharan
Africa and South/
Southeast Asia,
respectively
Gentil etal. [61] Household in a typical LCA-based potential Assuming potential to Prevention of food
city (EU) prevent 20% of food waste (particularly
waste meat) has greatest
benefit. Prevention
of 1.0 ton of meat
waste in a low-tech
waste management
system saves 6.4
t-CO2 eq
13
1301
Table2(continued)
1302
Authors Region and sectors Method Current situation Prevention measures Weight reduction Environmental impact Economic benefits
reduction
13
Hamilton etal. [78] Life cycle of food MFA-based potential Avoidable Norwegian Assuming perfect Theoretical potential
products (trade, Data from national food waste accounts food utilization, for system-wide
plant production, statistics, reports, for 17% of food where food demand net process energy
animal husbandry, and scientific sold. equals supply savings is 16%, with
food processing, articles Ten percent (92 phosphorus savings
human consumption, kilotons (dry)) of of 21%
waste management, avoidable food
biogas production) waste occurs at con-
in Norway sumption; industry
and retailers account
for 7% (63kilotons
(dry))
Beretta etal. [70] Whole food value MFA based potential Crop production Prevention measures Theoretical poten-
chain (agricul- Twenty-two food accounts for include: tial for increasing
tural production, categories analyzed 165,000TJ/year: Pre-shop planning, food availability
postharvest handling Data from 31 com- 79% for animal avoiding temptation by distribution
and trade, process- panies feed, and 21% for of special offers, system optimization
ing, food service plant-based food and large portions. from production to
industry, retail, production. Reducing plate por- consumer is 25%
and households) in Of the total calories tions. relative to present
Switzerland produced, 48% Optimizing con- food energy con-
is lost across the sumption prevision, sumption.
value chain: 13% is reducing range of If all edible product
avoidable and 13% perishable products, parts were eaten and
possibly so. donating, process- appropriate cooking
Estimated total avoid- ing products before and preparation
able losses: 299kg/ consumption date methods adopted,
capita year1 25% more calories
could be saved for
human intake.
Fifty percent more
food calories could
be available from
the same amount of
agricultural land
J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313
Table2(continued)
Authors Region and sectors Method Current situation Prevention measures Weight reduction Environmental impact Economic benefits
reduction
Love etal. [84] Whole seafood supply MFA based potential 0.821.3million tons/ Potential approaches If all seafood wasted Wasted seafood
chain (fisheries and Data from govern- year (1.091.27tril- to reducing seafood were instead could provide the
aquaculture har- ment website, lionkcal/year, waste include: eaten, it would fill total yearly target
vests, handling and reports, and peer- 2.604.21kg/ Seafood harvest and 36% of the gap quantity of protein
storage, processing reviewed papers capitayear1, or aquaculture regula- between USDA- for 10.1million
and packaging, dis- 4047% of edible tion: limit percent- recommended and men or 12.4mil-
tribution and retail, seafood) was wasted age of bycatch. actual consumption lion women, and
and consumption) in in 20092013 Distribution: track with no increase in EPA and DHA
the USA waste using tools. production Omega-3 fatty
Consumption: meal acids, and calories,
planning, includ- for 20.1million and
ing assessment of 1.5million adults,
portion size; use respectively
J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313
leftovers
WRAP [73] UK household Field survey In 2012, 4.2million GHG emissions Total cost to house-
tons of avoid- associated with holds of avoidable
able food and drink avoidable food and food and drink waste
waste was gener- drink waste were was 12.5billion
ated. approximately (food 11.2billion,
Reasons for disposal 17million t-CO2 eq drink 1.3billion),
(million tons): not or 470 household1/
used in time (2.0); year
cooked, prepared
or served too much
(1.3); personal
preference (0.58);
accidents (0.17);
and other (0.12)
13
1303
Table2(continued)
1304
Authors Region and sectors Method Current situation Prevention measures Weight reduction Environmental impact Economic benefits
reduction
13
Cicatiello etal. [85] Supermarket Field survey EU food waste was Causes of food waste From this supermar- Overall, 28,000 and Food waste recovered
(5300m2) in Vit- Edible items sur- 90million tons and prevention ket, 23.5 tons/year 30,000m3 of the from this supermarket
erbo, Italy veyed daily through- (180kg/capita measures include: (4.5kg/m2year1) supermarkets in 2012 was worth
out 2012 day1). The retail Production: marketing of food was water footprint, about 46,000 (cost
sector accounted cooperatives and recovered; bread and 86,000 and not included)
for 5% (4.4million improved market accounted for more 310,000m2 of its
tons) facilities than 70% ecological footprint
Retail and food Roughly 40,000 tons/ were avoided
service: consumer year of food waste through preven-
preference research could be avoided in tion of 17.1 tons of
Household: greater Italy (approximately bread and 2.0 tons
public awareness 9millionm2 of of meat wastes,
through education supermarket sales respectively
Only recovery for area)
human consump-
tion by donation
to charities was
monitored
Eriksson etal. [86] Supermarket in Upp- LCA-based potential Donation Assuming 90% of Life-cycle GHG emis-
sara, Sweden functional unit (1kg sions
of supermarket food 0.12 t-CO2 eq/ton
waste) was donated of bananas, 0.35
t-CO2 eq/ton of
chicken, 0.013
t-CO2 eq/ton of
lettuce, 0.31 t-CO2
eq/ton of beef,
0.61 t-CO2 eq/ton of
bread
Matsuda etal. [81] Household in Kyoto, LCA-based potential Food waste reduced Assuming 36.8% Reduction of 21 500 -
Japan by food loss preven- reduction in food t-CO2 eq/year com-
tion loss pared to incineration
Waste reduction via Assuming reduction Reduction of 5200
water-draining of food waste mois- t-CO2 eq/year com-
ture content from 77 pared to incineration
to 73%
Food waste reduced Assuming 13.4% of Reduction of 2600
by home compost- food waste is com- t-CO 2 eq/year com-
ing posted pared to incineration
J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313
J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313 1305
households annually
Action Programme (WRAP) revealed that the amount of
average household.
Nationally, Finnish
400550million
Environmental impact Economic benefits
is approximately
avoidable food and drink waste generated was 4.2 million
to describe the flow of the food supply chain [70, 78], and
Beretta et al. revealed that 48% of the total calories from
reduction
eq/year
foods were lost across the whole food value chain [70]. Of
course, there are many LCA studies focused on evaluating
the prevention effects, as discussed later.
It has often been pointed out that the environmental
Assuming all avoid-
tion [61, 79, 80, 82]. Therefore, the composition of the food
lost should be identified through waste composition surveys
to quantify the effects generated from the reduction of food
loss. This is also a good idea because the effects from the
Prevention measures
75140millionkg/
Food service sector:
Total: 335460mil-
householdyear 1)
year (23kg/capita
7585millionkg/
Food industry:
year
Councils project
(food service)
(food retail)
households
Jyvskyl, Finland
sector in Helsinki,
Households, food
service sector,
waste that was prevented, but also noted that the method of
prevention significantly affected the results.
Martinez-Sanchez et al. evaluated the environmental
life-cycle costing (E-LCC) and societal life cycle cost-
ing (S-LCC) of four food waste management programs
including the food waste prevention costs [82]. As show
Katajajuuri etal. [87]
Table2(continued)
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1306 J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313
Fig.2Results of E-LCC and S-LCC of food waste management by digestion with manure, AF animal fodder, PR prevention of 100%
Martinez-Sanchez et al. [82]. FU functional unit, GW global warm- edible food waste, WMS waste management sector, iLUC indirect
ing, POF photochemical ozone formation, NMVOC non-methane land-use change
volatile organic carbon compound, IN incineration as MSW, CD co-
13
J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313 1307
150
100
1000 ml refillable container
50
3000 ml refillable container
0
1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Number of uses of the refillable container
generation and environmental impacts than did single-use distributions were implemented. If the size and material
containers. Then, Nessi etal. evaluated the potential effects of the packages were very similar, the loose distribution
of implementing these two packaging waste prevention system might fail in reducing the waste generated and the
activities on the overall waste management system in the environmental impacts thereof.
Lombardia Region of Italy as of 2020 [90]. It was calcu-
lated that 0.66% of MSW generation could be reduced by Battery, Ewaste, andELV
the adoption of these two prevention activities, and that a
much greater reduction of environmental impacts could be End-of-life primary batteries are a representative example
achieved. Among 14 impact categories, the improvements of hazardous waste. Historically, there have been concerns
ranged from a 4.4% reduction of water resource depletion about the environmental pollution derived from the Hg,
to a 25.0% reduction of terrestrial eutrophication, com- Cd, and Pb contained in end-of-life batteries. To reduce the
pared with the baseline scenario without waste preven- generation of end-of-life batteries, it is important to advo-
tion. It was found that half of the impact categories could cate for their replacement with secondary (rechargeable)
be reduced by 1525%, and it was also pointed out that batteries. On the other hand, without proper management,
the upstream impacts were greater than the downstream the increasing number of end-of-life secondary batteries is
impacts. Of the two prevention activities, the utilization also causing issues related to the associated environmen-
of public tap water showed a higher reduction potential of tal risks [92]. Secondary batteries consume scarce met-
environmental impacts than did the detergent distribution als. For example, NiMH batteries contain Ni and Co, and
through self-dispensing systems. A 0.5% reduction of waste Liion batteries contain Li and Co. Because secondary bat-
from the former activity (tap water utilization) reduced 11 teries have been recently introduced for various uses, such
of 14 impact categories by 523%. LCA by Dolci etal. [91] as small home appliance products, hybrid electric vehicles
compared traditional (single-use) and self-dispensing sys- (HEVs), electric vehicles (EVs), and photovoltaic power
tems (so called loose distribution) of dry food products generation systems, the resource management of batteries
(pasta, breakfast cereals, and rice) to evaluate the effects is becoming a more significant issue.
on waste generation and environmental impacts by pack- To provide an understanding of a desirable manage-
aging prevention; however, the results significantly dif- ment system, many SFA and LCA studies have been con-
fered between the products. For breakfast cereals and rice, ducted. For example, Dolci et al. [93] used an LCA to
the loose distribution system contributed to a reduction in compare the use of disposable alkaline batteries to that of
the waste generated as well as most of the environmental secondary NiMH ones, while specifically considering the
impacts. On the other hand, waste generation increased AA and AAA sizes. They found that the number of times
by up to 15% for pasta when compared with single-use that rechargeable batteries were used is a key factor when
polypropylene, while it decreased by 50% compared with determining their environmental impact and energy per-
single-use carton-board boxes. It was pointed out that the formance, and at least 50 charge cycles were required for
results were dependent on how the traditional and the loose a robust reduction of impacts. High-consumption devices,
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1308 J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313
such as digital cameras and electronic toys, are the most end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) accounted for 4% of the total
appropriate use for rechargeable batteries. ownership, or 40 million vehicles, of which 12.0 mil-
The Bio Intelligence Service compared three second- lion were in the USA, 7.4 million in the EU, 3.5 million
ary types of batteries, namely NiCd, NiMH, and Liion in China, and 3.0 million in Japan) [106, 107]. From the
(LiFePO4), used in cordless power tools in a case study viewpoint of hazardous materials, heavy metals contained
[94]. An LCA was conducted to compare the environmen- in ELVs are historically one of the most important issues
tal impacts of the three types of batteries and identify the for ELV management systems, which includes automo-
impact hotspot in the life-cycles of the batteries. The result bile shredder residue (ASR) treatment. In Japan, the Japan
was that there were no clear advantages identified between Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc. (JAMA) set
the types batteries. Regarding natural resources, the NiCd a voluntary target to reduce the Pb content in the compo-
batteries were thought to have a potentially lower metal nents of passenger vehicles (except for the leadacid bat-
depletion impact on resources than that for the NiMH and tery) by more than 90% by 2006, compared to the total
LiFePO4 batteries in the mid-term; while both the NiMH content in 1996 of 1850 g-Pb per vehicle [48]. Although
and LiFePO4 batteries had a potentially lower abiotic the Pb content per vehicle was successfully reduced by up
resource depletion impact than that for the NiCd batteries to 100g-Pb, it was pointed out that it will take some time
over the long term. These results implied that the pertinent for this reduction to influence the Pb content in ELVs and
time horizon is another significant factor that should be ASR [48]. The toxic chemicals, such as brominated flame
considered. retardants (BFRs), that are contained in ELVs have also
It was estimated that 2050million tons/year of WEEE become global concerns [106, 108]. In addition to their lev-
are generated globally [95] and this amount has been els of toxicity, the need to develop resource recovery meth-
increasing. For instance, the generation of household ods has become more important because electric devices
WEEE in Europe is projected to grow annually at 2.52.7% and next-generation vehicles (such as HEVs and EVs) are
[96]. Since WEEE contains a variety of both toxic and becoming increasingly popular. The amount of scarce met-
valuable substances, its management requires significant als contained in an ELV has been quantified using various
effort. Chancerel and Rotter [97] estimated that approxi- approaches, including dismantling surveys [107, 109115].
mately 5000 tons/year and 16,000 tons/year of end-of-life
mobile phones were generated as of 2007 in Germany and Construction anddemolition waste
the USA, respectively. Of the amount of Au contained in
this waste (350500 Kg-Au), less than 5% was recovered, C&D waste is often one of the top three priority waste-pre-
3% was reused, and 92% was lost. While end-of-life mobile vention areas because it is expected to significantly reduce
phones and PCs accounted for 0.5% and 17%, respectively, life-cycle environmental impacts [12, 13, 23]. Several
of the total generation of WEEE (categories 2, 3, 4, 6, and summary reports, guidelines, and reviews related to C&D
7 defined in the WEEE Directive [98]), they accounted waste management, best practices, and LCAs have been
for 40% of all the Au contained in WEEE. Similarly, high published [116123]. Approximately 1billion tons of C&D
percentages of other valuable metals are discarded: 88% waste, one-third of the total waste generation, was annually
of Pd, 89% of Ag, and 89% of Ni [99]. An LCA study by generated in the EU as of 2006 [116]. C&D waste consists
Eygen estimated that recycling desktop and laptop PCs of recyclable materials, such as concrete, bricks, gypsum,
could reduce natural resource consumption by 80 and 87%, wood, glass, and so on. Wang et al. evaluated reconstruc-
respectively, compared with landfilling [100]. Regarding tion and extension projects for overpasses in Shanghai
the recovery of metals, the compromise between grade city, China, through a life-cycle inventory analysis [124],
(quality) and recovery (quantity) should be of another con- which revealed that using regenerated aggregate could
cern [101, 102]. Bovea etal. investigated the reusability of reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions by 45.3
WEEE from a collection campaign of households in Cas- and 43.9%, respectively, compared with using virgin mate-
tellon de la Plana, Spain [103]. Among the 87.7 kg (96 rials. Due to its longer lifespan, life-cycle thinking, includ-
units) of samples, 67.7 and 2.1% were considered as poten- ing the design stage, is highly relevant [125, 126]. Source
tially reusable and directly reusable, respectively. On the segregation is important for promoting recycling and the
other hand, an interview survey of 28 reuse organizations reduction of environmental impacts [120, 122]. However,
around the world pointed out that (1) the access to suffi- when C&D materials are recycled, potential contamination
cient volumes, (2) informal and illegal reuse practices, (3) with hazardous compounds may be involved. For example,
regulations, standards, and product design, and (4) costs, as construction materials are the most common asbestos-con-
barriers for promoting the reuse of WEEE [104]. taining products [127]. Butera etal. reported that PCBs and
Worldwide automobile ownership exceeded 1.1 bil- PAHs were detected in all 33 C&D waste samples [128].
lion vehicles in 2010 [105], and it has been estimated that An LCA revealed that the recycling of C&D waste showed
13
J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2017) 19:12951313 1309
fewer environmental impacts than did landfilling [122]. On countries, and includes an additional review of 240 previ-
the other hand, it was also pointed out that the fate of Cr in ous studies on the topic. The achievements of this study
the subsoil greatly influenced the results; therefore, identi- are summarized as follows:
fying the status of the contaminants emitted (like Cr) in the
subsoil was important [129]. Regarding policy development, a decoupling between
environmental pressures and economic growth was
Persistent chemicals andhazardous compounds recognized as an essential step towards a sustainable
society in each country. It is expected that 3R and
Despite the development of regulations, persistent chemi- resource management policies, including waste pre-
cals, such as PCBs, BFRs, and hazardous compounds, were vention, will play a crucial role. Some good practices
and still are contained in different products in use for vari- at the national and regional scales have already been
ous purposes [130]. They are released into the environment demonstrated.
from various sources and life stages: in the use stage of the Methodologies for decision-making have been devel-
product, including in the dust [131133], in the treatment oped step by step. Approaches using material/substance
stage in recycling facilities [134140], and in landfill sites flow analysis (MFA and SFA) have become sophisti-
[141143]. Mizouchi et al. revealed that BFRs and phos- cated enough to describe the fate of resources and/or
phorus flame retardants (PFRs) were detected in all of the hazardous substances based on human activity and the
dust samples gathered from elementary schools (18 sam- environment, including the final sink. An LCA has also
ples) and domestic houses (10 samples) in Japan in 2009 been developed to evaluate waste prevention activities.
and 2010. The concentration (ng/g dry weight) ranged from These methodologies can be combined with each other
260 to 9300 for BFRs and 93005,500,000 for PFRs or with other methodologies to consider multiple crite-
. According to the multimedia urban model on the fate of ria, such as economic and social aspects.
polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) in Toronto, inad- To effectively promote waste prevention, target prod-
vertent ingestion of house dust is the largest exposure path- ucts have been identified with higher priority. Food
way for all human life stages except in infants [144]. loss is one of the waste fractions with the highest pri-
As the flow of products, materials, and waste has ority because the corresponding countermeasures have
become global due to its legal and illegal transport, the significant upstream and downstream effects. On the
persistent chemicals and hazardous compounds contained other hand, concerns about rebound effects after waste
within them are also transferred globally. Improper recy- prevention is achieved, have started to be considered.
cling results in negative impacts on the environment and on Persistent organic pollutants and hazardous compounds
human health [134136, 138, 139, 145]. In the case study should also be considered in the situation where recy-
in Bui Dau [138], northern Vietnam, higher contamination cling activities are globally widespread for the promo-
(up to 14,000ng/g-dry) by flame retardants and some per- tion of a material-cycling society.
sistent organic pollutants could be observed in surface soils
and river sediments near the e-waste recycling workshops Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Environ-
ment Research and Technology Development Fund, Grant Number
or open burning sites, while low concentrations (up to 3K153001, from the Ministry of the Environment, Japan.
10ng/g-dry) were found in the soils from footpaths around
rice paddies. The contamination was reduced along the Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
stream in the downstream sediments. As of 2010 and 2011, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://
when comparing human serum from workers at e-waste creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give
recycling sites with that from residents in rural areas, the appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a
levels of PCB, hydroxylated PCB, PBDE, and bromophe- link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were
nol concentrations in the former were significantly higher made.
due to their occupationally related exposure [139].
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