Elizabeth Breitbarth

Rebecca Evans
September 12, 2014

Early American Indian Cultures and their Development

in North America

We chose to write about the early American Indian Cultures and how their development

and culture in North America was impacted by the events of colonization by the Europeans. We

will also examine how Native Americans continue to contribute and act as viable citizens of the

United States.

I. Locate the regions where American Indians settled in North America.

a. Arctic: Inuits and Aleuts

Geography: Of northern Canada and other Arctic regions such as Alaska and also

Greenland, harsh Arctic conditions, Tundra biome environment.

Language: Eskimo-Aleut languages and the official language of Greenland, they

did not use money

Economy: they hunted, gathered, and made everything for trade, what wasnt eaten

was made into supplies and goods

Culture: Eskimo is considered a derogatory word by the Arctic Native Americans.

It came into use by enemy tribes of Algonquian origin and means Raw flesh eaters.

Central Inuits are considered typical representatives of the Arctic Peoples ways

such as igloos, kayaks, sleds, and dog teams.

People: Inuit John Hoover (1919-2011), sculptor who brought attention to his people

and their culture through sculptures that preserved many of their native aymbols;
 Inuit Carl Moses (1929-2014), state representative who was one of the first Native

Americans elected to the Senate in Alaska.

Events: U.S. Purchase of Alaska impacted tribes by whalers and traders who flooded

the region in competition of the livelihood of the Inuit and Aleutian peoples.

b. Northwest Coast Native Americans

Geography: from the northern limits of California to Alaska, including western

Oregon, Washington and British Columbia (Canada). Majority Forests biomes with

heavy rainfall, oceans, mountains, rivers, and forests.

Language: Chinookan, Athapaskan and Penutian

Economy: were oriented toward aquatic resources. Highly complex society, much

of it revolving around the custom of the potlatch.

Culture: Majority agriculture and hunting. The natural resources and materials

available provided the food and the clothing of the Northwest Coast Native

American.

Chief Seattle (1786-1866) and Chief Joseph (1840-1904) led their people to resist

the white settlers and the military advancement of the US government.

Sacagawea (1788-1812) Shoshone woman who acted as interpreter and diplomat for

the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1805. She helped to lead the Expedition west and

found navigable trails for the people. She helped to translate and barter with other

Native Americans along the way.

Nez Perce War of 1877. The Nez Perce fought against the United States Army and

the white settlers that began taking their homelands. The Nez Perce were forced

onto reservations and had to give up their rich hunting and nomadic lifestyles.
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c. Plains:

Geography: Territory stretches through Central North America from present day

Texas north to North Dakota. Bordered on the east by the Mississippi River and

the west by the Rocky Mountains.

Languages: Sioux: Siouan Language family (Lakota). Comanche: uto-Aztecan

Language. Cheyenne: Algonquian Family language.

Economy: Hunters, sometimes gatherers. Revered Horse Culture that followed the

buffalo. Warriors.

Government: Sioux: Council made up of adult men with elected chief. Elected

chiefs made up larger council which governed Sioux nation. Comanche: divided

into dozens of autonomous groups called bands. Cheyenne: central government of

44 chiefs representing 40 tribal groups.

People: Sitting Bull (1831- 1890) and Crazy Horse (1840-1877), chiefs of the

Lakota Sioux who led their people in the Battle of Greasy Grass (Battle of Little

Bighorn, a.k.a. Custers Last Stand).

Events: Battle of Greasy Grass (Cheyenne, Lakota Sioux, and the Arapaho versus

the U.S. cavalry.

d. Southwest:

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 Southwest: Territory covers present day Arizona and New Mexico. Located

between the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Madre. Colorado River and Rio Grande

are principal rivers. Mostly a harsh, desert climate.

Two principal groups of Native Americans: villages and nomadic hunters.

Languages: Apache: Athabaskan Languages. Navajo: Athabaskan Languages.

Hopi: Uto-Aztecan Languages. Zuni: Zuni Language (unrelated to any known

language). Pueblo: Six diverse languages showing relationships to Hopi.

Economy: Apache: Nomadic Warrior/Hunter-Gathers. Often traded with other

tribes or raided them for what they needed. Navajo: Farmers and Herdsman.

Sometimes nomadic depending on conditions of geography. Hopi: Stationary

villages. Farmers, Herdsmen, sometimes hunters. Zuni: Stationary villages.

Farmers and Herdsmen. Pueblo: Permanent villages in cliffs. Farmers and

herdsmen.

Government: Apache: Family groups joined in small bands that made-up Apache

Nation. No central leadership. Navajo: Villages comprised of family groups

whose leaders (chiefs) were chosen for their ability to create relationships among

the peoples. Hopi: Twelve Hopi villages had an autonomous government,

overseen by a tribal council which makes laws and oversees business policies for

the entire Hopi nation. Zuni: A Council composed by head of religious society

governed the villages. Pueblo: The Chief appoints six leaders to govern the people

for one year.

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 People: Cochise (1805-1874) leader of the Chiricahua Apache. Led resistance

against Mexican encroachment on Apache land and then against the Euro-

American encroachment. Falsely accused of kidnapping a white settler boy, war

lasted for 11 years. Estimates of 1000 people on both sides of the war died. Died

in a famous battle of Dragoon Pass.

Geronimo (1829-1909), who led and commanded their people in resistance to be

put on reservations. Was never a chief, but a strong medicine man. Belonged to

the Bedonkohe band of Mescalero Apache. Super leader. Fought against the

Mexicans for revenge for the massacre of his village. Lost mother, young wife,

and three children, as well as most of his village. Mexicans attacked while the

village men were trading in town. Captured two times and escaped the

reservations. Later surrendered and was moved to Fort Sill in Okalahoma. Visited

Presidents and starred in Wild West shows. Wrote an autobiography. Died as a

Prisoner of War at Fort Sill, Oklahoma.

Mickey Free (Felix Ward was his Euro-American name). Kidnapped by a band of

Apaches (Coyotero Apache). Grew up with the Apaches. Betrayed confidences of

both Apache and U.S. military. Never trusted by Geronimo.

Events: The Apache Wars (1849-1924): 25 years of resistance against the US

army. Led by Cochise and supported by the small band of 40-50 Apaches led by

Geronimo. Cochise eventually died in his stronghold in the Dragoon Mountains as

a free man. Geronimo surrendered and later died as a Prisoner of War.

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 e. Northeast:

Geography: East of the Mississippi River and south of the subarctic boreal forests.

Languages: Shawnee: Algonquian. Fox: Algonquian. Algonquian: Algonquian

(several dialects and language groups).

Economy: Small villages of Hunters, Gatherers, and sometimes small livestock.

Government: Shawnee and Fox: Hereditary chief, Ceremonial Shaman and a War

Chief. Algonquian: Medicine Man (Shaman) had most control over villages.

People: Tecumseh (1768-1813) was a Shawnee political leader and war chief who
organized Native Americans into a confederacy of tribes to fight against the white
settlers.

Events: French and Indian War (1754-1763). Also known as the Seven Years War,
this New World conflict between Britain and France. At the 1763 peace conference,
the British received the territories of Canada from France and Florida from Spain,
opening the Mississippi Valley to westward expansion.

f. Southeast:

Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek and Seminole

Geography: Atlantic Ocean westward to the arid lands of present-day Texas, from

the Gulf of Mexico northward to present-day states of Texas, Oklahoma,

Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina.

Mainly grassland biomes.

Language: Five Civilized Tribes

Cherokee spoke the Iroquoian language.

Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek and Seminole all spoke Muskogean language.

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 Economy: were farmers first; were hunters, gatherers, and fishermen second. they

had a political system and structure of government which included: A judiciary

system, a written constitution, two legislative chambers and a public school system

Culture: impossible to know culture before European influence, they adopted

majority European culture such as: homes, clothing, farming techniques, agriculture,

owned slaves, and converted to Christianity.

People: John Ross (1790- 1866), chief of Cherokee who led opposition to the Treaty

of Echota and the Indian Removal Act. Sequoyah (1767-1843), inventor of

syllabary of Cherokee Language.

Events

The Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May

28, 1830, authorizing the president to grant unsettled lands west of the Mississippi

in exchange for Indian lands within existing state borders. A few tribes went

peacefully, but many resisted the relocation policy.

Trail of Tears (1839-1850) The Trail of Tears was a series of forced removals of

Native American nations from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United

States to an area west of the Mississippi River that had been designated as Indian

Territory. 1838 the Cherokee were stripped of their rights and forced to move

against their will on The Trail of Tears by the governments of Georgia and United

States.

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II. Compare and Contrast how American Indians in each region used their environment to obtain

food, clothing, and shelter.

a. Arctic: Inuits and Aleuts

Food: Fish, seasonal berries and plants; they were nomadic Hunters and

fishermen.

Clothing: Clothing was made from caribou, deer hide, and their woven snowshoes

Shelter: Sod Houses, Igloos, Barbaras, and Tepee style tents.

b. Northwest:

lived in forests biomes.

Food: fished for fish, sea animals including seals, whales, salmon and shellfish.

Natural Resources that they could find and use were: Red cedar trees, forests,

mountains, rivers, and the Pacific Ocean

Clothing: raincoats and topcoats were made from inner bark of the cedar tree.

Shelter: Their house types were plank houses, plank houses were was typically

square or rectangular with one door and no windows

c. Plains:

Sioux:

nomadic, followed buffalo

adopted horses in 1500s from Spanish

lived in tepees made from buffalo hides

prized fierce warrior-like attitudes

buffalo provided food, shelter, and clothing (hides)

main art was use of beads and feathers on clothes

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 highly decorated teepees with paint from natural substances

Comanche:

Hunter gathers, horse culture revered

Warfare major part of life

Took thousands of Indian, Spanish, Mexican, and white settlers as captives

Dominated the plains

Clothing made from buckskin(deer) or buffalo hide

beads and feathers used to adorn headdress and other clothes

small game, berries, and fish supplemented diet

Cheyenne:

Horse and warrior people

Developed warrior societies (most famous: Dog soldiers)

Strong, unified central government

Both men and women had active, physically demanding lives

Clothing made from buckskin (deer) and buffalo hide

women used beads and feather to decorate clothing

diet supplemented with fish, small game, berries, roots

c. Southwest:

Apache:

Shelter: Roamed desert and lived in brush shelters (wiki-ups) that could travel

Clothing: Wore light cotton breechcloths and leggings, cotton dresses,

Food: Ate small game, traded for corn, sheep and goats, sometimes grew beans,

sunflower seeds and squash

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 Navaho:

Food: Grew beans, squash, sunflowers, and maize (traded with other tribes),

raised sheep and goats

Wore traditional cotton breechcloths, woven ponchos, cotton dresses

Shelter: Lived in mud and stick homes called hogans

Hopi, Zuni, Pueblo:

Food: Grew beans, squash, sunflowers, maize, and other crops, raised sheep,

goats, and chickens

Clothing: Men wore breechcloths, women wore cotton dresses, also had ponchos,

blankets and other woven articles of clothing

Shelter: Multi-storied cliff dwellings made of adobe

d. Southeast:

Grassland biomes

Food: European influenced, agriculture such as wheat, corn, and maize.

Clothing: produced cotton and owned cotton plantations to make their own

clothing influenced by the European explorers who came to the new world.

Shelter: Homes were built to represent European style homes, colonial standard

wooden square homes with pointed/elevated rooftops.

e. Northeast:

Shawnee:

Food: corn, squash, deer, turkeys, small game, and fish

Clothing: Breechcloths, ponchos, beaded headbands

Shelter: Wooden Wigwams

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 Algonquian and Fox:

Food: Small and Large game, fish, berries, roots, some agriculture: beans, maize

Clothing: breechcloths, shirts, and leggings made from buckskins, moccasins

Shelter: Longhouses made from woods within a protective wall

III. Discuss how American Indians continue to contribute to American Life (e.g. arts, literature).

The contributions of Native Americans continue to build and flourish in our culture.

From the traditional introductions of food such as corn and squash, and the additions of language

such as canoe and barbeque, Native Americans have been impacting the landscape of American

culture since the 1600s.

People from Native Americans

N. Scott Momaday (Pulitzer Prize, 1969)

Louise Erdich (National Book Critics Circle Award, 1984)

Paladine Roje (painter)

Sherwin Bitsu (artist)

Jay Silverheels (actor)

Russell Means (actor)

Richard Cain (U.S. House of Representatives)

Charles Carter (U.S. House of Representatives)

Will Rogers (U.S. House of Representatives)

Ben Reifel (U.S. House of Representatives)

Robert Owen (Senator)

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 Charles Curtis (Senator)

Ben Campbell (Senator)

29 Congressional Medals of Honor awarded to Native Americans for defending and protecting

the United States. The Medal of Honor was created during the American Civil War and is the

highest military decoration presented by the United States government to a member of its armed

forces. The recipients distinguished themselves at the risk of their own life above and beyond

the call of duty in action against an enemy of the United States. Due to the nature of this medal,

it is commonly presented posthumously.

Tribe/Natio Serv Conf Date of

Name Rank Place of action Notes
n ice lict action

For his
"conduct
during
White
William Indian Winter of campaigns
Mountain Army Sergeant Arizona Territory
Alchesay Wars 18721873 and
Apache
engageme
nts with
Apaches"

Single-
handedly
destroyed
two
machine
Van T. Technical World
Choctaw[2] Army near Carano, Italy May 23, 1944 gun nests,
Barfoot Sergeant War II
took
prisoners,
and
disabled a
tank

Early American Indian Cultures and their Development

in North America Page 12 of 21
 Tribe/Natio Serv Conf Date of
Name Rank Place of action Notes
n ice lict action

For his
"conduct
during
Indian Winter of campaigns
Blanquet Apache Army Scout Arizona Territory
Wars 18721873 and
engageme
nts with
Apaches"

Led his
squadron
September in a series
Pappy Marine World Central Solomonsar 12, of
Sioux Major
Boyington Corps War II ea, Pacific Ocean 1943 Januar missions
y 3, 1944 against
superior
numbers

Single-
handedly
attacked
two
Sergeant October 8, positions
Tony K. Korean near Mundung-
Choctaw[5] Army First 1951 Octob although
Burris* War ni, Korea
Class er 9, 1951 wounded,
killed
while
attacking a
third

Although
injured,
killed two
Second snipers
Ernest World September
Muscogee[2] Army Lieutena Oliveto, Italy and
Childers War II 22, 1943
nt attacked
two
machine
gun nests

Early American Indian Cultures and their Development

in North America Page 13 of 21
 Tribe/Natio Serv Conf Date of
Name Rank Place of action Notes
n ice lict action

For his
"conduct
during
White
Indian Winter of campaigns
Chiquito Mountain Army Scout Arizona Territory
Wars 18711873 and
Apache
engageme
nts with
Apaches"

"Ran out
from the
command
in pursuit
of a
dismounte
d Indian;
Co-Rux-
Indian Republican was shot
Te-Chod- Pawnee Army Sergeant July 8, 1869
Wars River, Kansas down and
Ish
badly
wounded
by a bullet
from his
own
command
"

For his
"conduct
during
Indian Winter of campaigns
Elsatsoosu Apache Army Corporal Arizona Territory
Wars 18721873 and
engageme
nts with
Apaches"

Although
Ernest E. Cherokee/Mus Comman World off Samar, Philippin October 25, wounded,
Navy
Evans* cogee[3] der War II es 1944 continued
to
command

Early American Indian Cultures and their Development

in North America Page 14 of 21
 Tribe/Natio Serv Conf Date of
Name Rank Place of action Notes
n ice lict action

his
crippled
ship until
its sinking

With three
others,
Pompey Indian charged a
Black Seminole Army Private Pecos River, Texas April 25, 1875
Factor Wars numericall
y superior
force

Smother
ed the
Private
Charles Korea near Songnae- November blast of
Cherokee[2] Army First
George* n War dong, Korea 30, 1952 a grenad
Class
e with his
body

Single-
handedly
attacked
Roy W. Sergea World near Casaglia, Ita July 12, three
Army
Harmon* nt War II ly 1944 German
positions
although
wounded

Led his
men
against a
series of
emplace
Raymon Korea near Taemi- March 9,
Chickasaw[4] Army Captain ments,
d Harvey n War Dong, Korea 1951
continue
d to lead
after
being
wounded

Early American Indian Cultures and their Development

in North America Page 15 of 21
 Tribe/Natio Serv Conf Date of
Name Rank Place of action Notes
n ice lict action

For his
"conduct
during
White
Sergea Indian Winter of campaig
Jim Mountain Army
nt Wars 18711873 ns and
Apache
engagem
ents with
Apaches"

Single-
handedly
Woodro Master attacked
Korea near Sangsan- October 20,
w W. Sioux[6] Army Sergea three
n War ni, Korea 1951
Keeble* nt machine
gun
nests

For his
"conduct
during
White
Indian Winter of campaig
Kelsay Mountain Army Scout Arizona Territory
Wars 18721873 ns and
Apache
engagem
ents with
Apaches"

For his
"conduct
during
White
Indian Winter of campaig
Kosoha Mountain Army Scout Arizona Territory
Wars 18721873 ns and
Apache
engagem
ents with
Apaches"

For his
Indian
Machol Apache Army Private Arizona Territory 18721873 "conduct
Wars
during
campaig

Early American Indian Cultures and their Development

in North America Page 16 of 21
 Tribe/Natio Serv Conf Date of
Name Rank Place of action Notes
n ice lict action

ns and
engagem
ents with
Apaches"

Single-
handedly
attacked
two
Jack C. First
World February German
Montgo Cherokee[2] Army Lieuten Perigone, Italy
War II 22, 1944 positions
mery ant
and took
dozens
of
prisoners

For his
"conduct
during
White
Nannasa Indian campaig
Mountain Army Scout Arizona Territory 18721873
ddie Wars ns and
Apache
engagem
ents with
Apaches"

For his
"conduct
during
White
Indian campaig
Nantaje Mountain Army Scout Arizona Territory 18721873
Wars ns and
Apache
engagem
ents with
Apaches"

September "Rendere
Canyon Blanco
26, d
Adam Black Indian tributary of
Army Private 1874 Sept invaluabl
Paine Seminole Wars the Red
ember 27, e service
River, Texas
1874 to Col. R.
S.

Early American Indian Cultures and their Development

in North America Page 17 of 21
 Tribe/Natio Serv Conf Date of
Name Rank Place of action Notes
n ice lict action

Mackenzi
e, 4th
U.S.
Cavalry,
during
this
engagem
ent"

With
three
others,
charged
Isaac Black Trumpe Indian Pecos April 25,
Army a
Payne Seminole ter Wars River, Texas 1875
numerica
lly
superior
force

Maintain
ed an
exposed
Mitchell
position,
Red Corpora Korea near Chonghyon, November
Ho-Chunk[2] Army continue
Cloud, l n War Korea 5, 1950
d to fight
Jr.*
after
being
wounded

With
another
soldier,
John N. Private Paco Railroad attacked
World February 9,
Reese, Army First Station, Manila, P a
War II 1945
Jr.* Class hilippines Japanes
e-held
railroad
station

Early American Indian Cultures and their Development

in North America Page 18 of 21
 Tribe/Natio Serv Conf Date of
Name Rank Place of action Notes
n ice lict action

Sergea Indian March 7,

Rowdy Apache Army Arizona Territory
nt Wars 1890

(Still
living)
Through
a hail of
fire he
succeed
ed in
removing
his
Petty
Michael Vietna seriously
Officer October 31,
E. Cherokee[2] Navy m South Vietnam wounded
2nd 1972
Thornton War superior
Class
officer
then
towed
him two
hours in
the water
until
being
rescued

With
three
others,
charged
John Black Sergea Indian Pecos April 25,
Army a
Ward Seminole nt Wars River, Texas 1875
numerica
lly
superior
force

Boatsw
James ain's Vietna Mekong Destroye
October 31,
E. Cherokee Navy Mate m River, South d 65
1966
Williams 1st War Vietnam boats
Class and over

Early American Indian Cultures and their Development

in North America Page 19 of 21
 Tribe/Natio Serv Conf Date of
Name Rank Place of action Notes
n ice lict action

1,000
enemy

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there are about 4.5 million Native Americans

(including Alaska native). This represents 1.5% of the population of the United States. There are

currently 500 recognized Indian Nations within the United States. It is important for everyone

understand and to discover the importance that these nation within a nation contribute in the

shaping of Americas future.

Bibliography:

Arctic Indians
https://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/native-american-indians/arctic-indians.htm

Five Civilized Tribes

https://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/history-of-native-americans/five-civilized-
tribes.htm

http://www.american-indians.net/cultures.html

http://aboutworldlanguages.com/?s=inuit

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/photo/native-american-cultures/

Northwest Coast Native Americans

Early American Indian Cultures and their Development

in North America Page 20 of 21
 https://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/native-american-indians/northwest-native-
americans.htm
National Museum of the American Indian- Smithsonian Institute www.nmai.si.edu

Pendleton, M., & Books, C. (1974). Navajo and Hopi Weaving Techniques. New York: Macmillan.

Southwest Native Americans

https://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/native-american-indians/southwest-native-
americans.htm
Turtle, E. W. (1987). Keepers of the Fire, Story and Painting. Santa Fe, NM: Bear and Company, Inc

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