TL5121ProcessEngineeringAssignment

FLOCCULATIONTECHNOLOGY:PERKINETICORTHOKINETIC
Definition,mechanism,design,calculation,typesofflocculant,labtest,and
kineticmodellingofflocculation

CreatedBy:
MichaelSubroto(25317022)
MENGSophorn(25317702)
YOSPanha(25317701)

Lecturer:
Prof.Dr.Ing.Ir.PrayatniSoewondo,M.S

ENVIRONMENTALENGINEERINGSUBJECT
CIVILANDENVIROMENTALFACULTY
BANDUNGINSITITUTETECHNOLOGY
BANDUNG
2017
 1. FlocculationIntroductionanddefinition
In the present days, the concentration of suspended mixed particle has
becomeconcerninmanyofwaterandwastewatertreatment.Thereareseveral
technologies to increase the removal of suspended solid, for example
preliminary sedimentation, biological process, polymerization, UV ray
treatment, etc. Theflocculationprocess provesto beone of themost widely
usedtoincreasetheleftishofthesedimentationprocesswhicharesupported
with coagulation treatment. When very small quantity of dilute solution of
flocculantismixedwiththesuspension,alargesolidparticlewillaggloromerates
thatformedthebiggerfloc.Extremelysmallsizeparticlearealsotrappedinfloc
andresultantaqueousphaseisrelativelyveryclear.Thecompleteexplanation
regardingonflocculationwillbedisscusedinpartBofthepaper.
Thereareseveraladvantagesanddisadavantagesbyusingtheflocculation
technologytotreatthecolloidparticlesuspendedinthewater/wastewater:
Majorsavinginoperatingcost.
Highly enhanced rate of settling suspended solid in clarifier, settler,
thickener,sedimentationunitbasin,etc
Imporvedclaritywithhighestturbidityremoval.
Higherfiltrationrate
Higherproductionrateofsedimentation
Lowsizesetlingtank,thickener,sedimentationbasin,etcneeded(much
lowervolumearecalculated)becauseofmoreeffectiveprimaryparticle
removal.
Greatly facilitates primary effluent treatment plant. This will lead to
betteroutput.
Extremelyusefulintreatmentofwastewatercontainingdyes,pigments
pesticide,tanner,andeffluentwithhighsuspendedsolid
Possibletoseparateimmiscibleliquid.
Selectiveflocculationtosomemineralwithphsicalmethod.
MaydecreasetheBODandCODinsidethesolution.
http://polyelectrolyte.com/advantages.html#
Therearealsoseveraldisadavantagesofapplyingflocculationtechnology
to treat the colloid particle inside the water/ wastewater which will be as
follows:

1

 Has relatively slow process compared to coagulation process in
removingthesolidparticle
Findhardshipsonremovingthelowsuspendedsolidconcentrationin
thewater
Couldnotbeusedinelectricallychargedsystems,suchaselectrostatic
precipitatorandetc.
Flocculation technology doesnt suit the electrically charged system
because of its properties that using the density difference and slow mixing
process.Withthecoalescenceforemdinflocculation,theelectricalchargecould
impedetheformationthatwillleadtobreakdownoftheseflocs.Thechemical
reactioninvolveinflocculationareasfollows:
. 14 2 6 3 8
2. Theoryandconceptofflocculationprocess
Flocculationistheprocessofdestabilizationofcolloidparticle,whichare
bondedbychemicallystickylayerthatallowstheparticletoagglomerateand
settledforareasonableamountoftime.Conversionofstablestatedispersion
intounstablestateisknownasdestabilizationprocess.Theflocculationprocess
usuallytendtobeusedforremovingcoloidalandsmallparticlethatsettleslowly
after having settled in prasedimentation process. In other hand, there are
severaldifferencesbetweencoagulationandflocculation.
Coagulation process tend to charge the neutralization by addition of
inorganicchemical,whileiftheprocessforminglargeragglomeratesofparticles
insuspensionorsmallaggloromeratesalreadyformedasresultofcoagulation
process with polymeric material called as flocculation. Flocculation process
usuallyalsoinvolvesbiggerparticlesizewhichhasbiggerdensitythanparticle
after being coagulated. Coagulation process mainly applicated in the area of
processingcoal,taconite,sodaash,sand,gravel,andprimarytoseparatesome
suspendedsolidinthewater/wastewateraftergoestopreliminarytreatment.
Flocculation process are widely used in the processing of cal, bauxite (Al2O3),
phospate,sand,cement,sodaash,amongtheothers.

Flocculation also need to use the slow mixing to allow the particle to
aggloromerate into bigger flocs with faster rate and efficiency. Coagulation

2

process tend to prefer the rapid mixing in the beginning of WTP (water
treatmentplant)reactorfordechargedtheparticlematerialitself.Thepictures
thatdescribedifferencesbetweenflocculationandcoagulationcanbeshown
below:

Picture1Schematicdifferencesofflocculationandcoagulation

Flocculationalsoknownasthesnowballingofsmallparticleintolarger
particles (called flocfloc). The flocculation process tend to have detention
timemuchbiggerthancoagulationprocessthatallowtheprocesstobereally
slow.Theprocess generallyapplicatedinthebasingwithmixingthat provide
agitation.Theaggitationradialvelocityshouldnottoomuchthatwillaffectof
too much colliding between particle that can mak e the floc break and the
processitselfisfailing.Thedetentiontimeisahugeparameterondetermining
theeffeciencyofflocculationprocess.Thelongerthedetentiontime,thelarger
floc will be formed. Also the flotation technique was usually applied on he
flocculationprocesstoyieldfasterseparationrateandformlargesizeflocsin
airwhichcanresultonbiggerremovalofparticleitself.Severalissuesthatcan
affecttheperformanceofflocculationprocesswhichwillbediscussedinpartC
inthepaper.
3. Factorthatinfluencingtheflocculationprocess
a. Turbidityconcentration:
Higherconcentrationsuspendedsolidparticle in water/wastewatertend
tohavehigherturbiditylevelmeasuredinNTU(NephelometryTurbidityunit).
That will affect more easily intact between the flocculation reagent and the

3

suspendedsolidtomakebiggerflocformed.Studiesshowsthatwaterwithlow
turbidity level has highest activation energy (AE) needed to form any
aggloromeration to separate the particle from water. The importance of size
variation with regard to flocculation also has been investigated by many
researchers.Therearealsostrictfactthattherearecorrelationbetweenparticle
size and flocculant molecular weight. Mishra et al. Have reported that the
settlingratetendtobedecreasedincoalsuspensionwithlowerparticlesizeand
lower concentrationpresent in the water/wastewater.Mishraet al also find
that those phenomenon is mainly based of increase in surface area that
increasedthechargeneutralizationcapacityofthesuspendedparticlesurface
bytheflocculantitself.

b. Ionicstrengthofthesolution

Theconfigurationofpolyeelectrolytesinsolutionissignificantlyaffectedby
the ionic strength of the chemical reaction. As ionic strength increases, the
chargedsite willbe shielded thatyieldthe polimer toeasily foldand assume
smallerhydrodynamicvolumethatdecreasetheviscosityofsolution.Thelow
viscositytendtoincreasetheefficiencyremovalofflocullationreagent,notably
in turbulent rezime. In a high solid systems (turbidity level high), if it is
flocculatedbyahighmolecularchargedpolymer,lowerionicstrength()will
leadtoenhancingbridgingbyincreasingeffectiveparticleradius.Althoughthe
ionicstrengthdoesnthaveeffectiftheelectrostaticchargematerialisapplied
onthesystem,forexampletheelectrostaticprecipitator,ormodifiedflocculant
basinprocesswithinducedelectricitycharge.Ionstrengthlevelalsohashuge
effectnotablyinconditionifflocculantandsurfacechargedionarecompletely
different.

4. EffectonparameterpHwithflocculantefficiency
Acidity condition pH level in the solution would be very determining in
performingeffectivespeciesthatcanaffecttheflocculationprocess.Withthe
increaseinpH,thespeciesbecomechargedandthemechanismofionchange.
Whentheconditionarehydrophillic(regardingonnatureofchemical),thepH
levelcanaffectprotonationreaction.Inthebasecondition(forexamplehighpH
level),colloidsurfacechargeisreallyaffectedinpHcharges.Sothereareseveral
condition based on nature of colloid and the charges level that affect the

4

efficiencyinflocculationmechanism.Intheorganicpolymerflocculationaswell,
pHrangecantotallyaffectthepolymeractivityandmechanism.
5. Conformationofpolyelectrolyteinthesolutions
Itwasbeingknownthat,inflocculationofclaybasedsuspendedsolidinside
the water with polyacrylamide of different degree in hydrolysis, 30% of
hydrolyzed polymer performed best efficiency. The higher molecular weight
polymer can adsorb the configuration with greater length extending from
particle surface, with collision probability increases. Particle bridged by 30%
hydrolyzedpolymercouldperformmuchbetter becausethecharge not only
affecttheparticlepolymerinteractionbutalsocauseanextensionofsolvated
polymer chain. Concentration effects are mainly due to the need of vacant
surfacesitesonwhichbridgingpolymercanadsorb.Yuetalhaveestablished
thatpolymerconformationalchangeshasabenefitialeffectoncatalysingthe
flocculationprocessofaluminaandtheotherbasedmaterialinsidethewater/
wastewater.Forexampletheconformationalchangesoftheflocculantreagent
iswithadditionalofpolymeraddingintothesolutionwithsomeconcentration,
withtheaidofslowlymixingprocess.Keyprocessondesigningtheflocculant
basinandtheircalculationwillbedescribedonpartEandpartFofthepaper.
(AlLaylaetal.,1978)
6. Effectondosingandmixingconditioninsidetheflocculationbasin.
The experiment shows that the degree of flocculation can enhanced for
treatingsolidconcentration,buttheflocarenotstableandcanbebrokeneasily.
The dosing and mixing condition should be controlled so that the optimum
conditionwhilehalftheareaofsolidiscoveredwithpolyelectrolytes.Toomany
additionsinflocculantcanaffectgreatlyonformationsuspensionwhicharevery
hardly to separate. Hydrodynamic factors can also play important rule in
flocculantadsorption.Increasingmixingintensityandspeedwouldalsospeed
uptheflocculationprocessthatwillyieldsmallerfloc,sotheactualamountof
absorbedvaireshugelywithextentofflocculation.
7. Flocculationtechnologycommonlyappliedonwastewatertreatment
Flocculationisoneofmostwidelyusedtechnologyinmanyfield,usually
for clarification of potable and industrial process water. The purpose of
flocculationistoapplynaturepurewaterandtoenhanceseparationbetween
the solid particle suspended in the solution and the water phase itself. Their

5

principalfunctiondecreasetheturbiditylevel,sometimesenhancethegravity
separationprocesseswithclarifiertank.Thereareseveralapplicationexplained
indetailfortheusageofflocculation,suchas:
a. Waterclarificationandwatertreatment
Asexplainedabove,flocculationtechnologycanhelpforsolidremovalofwater
andwastewateralsotheinorganiccompoundandorganiccompound.Organic
compoundsuchasbenzene,hexane,styrene,fattyacid,oil,etcareprefferedto
be removed using cationic flocculant. The inorganic compound like salt
suspense, 1,2DCMP, TEL (Tetra ethyl lead), propionic acid, propimitane, etc
prefferedtoberemovedusinganionicflocculant.

Picture2Flocculationapplicationinwatertreatmentindustry
For the metals, pulp and paper, solid contents (example dirt, soil, etc),
petroleumrefining,andtextileindusries,theusageoffpolymericflocculationis
preffered.
b. Papermakingindustries
Intheproductionofpaperfrompulp,theopacityshouldbemuchlesserso
thatthequalityofpaperwhitenessisbetter.Thefiberfinesmaybelostduring
drainage of wet paper web, which is can greatly reduced by addition of
flocculants,whichdependsonthequalityofpulp.Bothalum(Al(SO4)2.12H2O)
and cationic polymer are used to neutralize the negative fiber. Starch and
cationicstarchisalsoaddedtoslurrytoincreasewetstrength.Theotherbenefit

6

ofusingtheresidualpolymeristoclarifywhiteeffluentpaperproductatthe
outputprocess.
c. Mineralprocessing
Ineveryminingoperations,thesolidandliquidcontentsmustbeseparated
which can be facilitated by flocculants in the thickening of flotation and
clarification process. In the mineral processing, the suspended fine are
impurities from crushing and grinding process which need both cationic and
anionicflocculant used.Cationic polymerare the quartener ammoniumtype,
example: poly (DADMAC)/ polyamine used for coal recovery process. Beside
that,theanionicpolymerarethesyntheticpoly(acrylamideacrylate)whichwil
actasflocculantaidthatenhancingtheflocculationprocess.
d. Selectiveflocculations
Selectiveflocculationsinvolvesflocculatingparticlesofonetypefromwell
dispersedsuspensionofore/mixture,followingbyseparationofflocswith
eitherflotationorsedimentation.Selectiveflocculationusesthedifferencesin
physicochemicalproperties,butnotalwaysdependonthewettability
characteristicofparticlesurface.Theselectiveflocculationinvolvethreemain
step:dispersingthefineparticle,selectivelyabsorbingthepolymeronactive
component,andfinalseparation.Selectiveflocculationisalsosuitableon
biologicalandcolloidalsystem.
AlthoughSelectiveflocculationexistasanewmethodofnewtechnologyused
for physical separation with flocculation, it has still so little apllication in
industry. The industrial application is processing of taconite and potash ore,
becausethefunctionofselectivitythematerialitselfareverylimitedintovery
little case. Selective flocculation of desired fraction has become the latest
tchnologyinthefieldofflocculation.(S.BehlandB.M.Moudgil,1993).Reviewon
ironoxide/quartzseparationusingstarchandPAAindicatesthatstarchismore
selectivereagent.Toincreasetheselectivityefficiency,sodiumsillicate(Na4SiO4)
isadded.Theobjectiveforaddingthisreagentistopreventheterocoagulation.
Selectiveflocculationapperastobepromisingforrecovingthefinephosphate
value,asexaminedbyPradipet.,al(1999)atselectiveflocculationoncalcium
phospateusinghydrolyzedpolyacrylamideandpolyacrylicacidflocculants.

7


Picture3Selectiveflocculationprocessofmineralseparationchromite
serpenitemixture(50%w)@pH=13,9
8. Principal, Recommendation and rule of thumb of designation
flocculationbasin.
Ingeneral,havingtheflocculationprocesshashighremovalefficiencyisthekey
processondesigningtheflocculationunitingeneral.Severalissuesregardingto
flocculationefficiencyshouldbeevaluatedbyseveralaspecttoensureoptimal
conditionofflocculationbasin. Thefactorthataffectedtheflocculationbasin
designareasfollows:
a. SlowMixing:
Slowmixingisthemainaspectonflocculationprocess.Higherradianvelocity
ofmixercaneasilybreakthelargeparticlewhilestirringtooslowlycanaffect
particlefromclumping.Thebestconditionistohavefasterspeed(Gvalue
from60to70s1)topromoteclumpingandgraduallydecreasedtoprevent
clumponbreakingapart.(Kawamura,2000).Thereareseveralthingsthe
systemshouldconsidertooptimizemixingquality:

Howmanystagesarepresentintheflocculationsystem(3/4stagesin
CSTRareequaltocreateplugflowreaction)
Thetrendofmixingvelocityshouldbevariablefrom70s1to10s1.
Aremechanicalmixerfunctioningproperlyandrotatingatcorrectspeed?

8


Picture4Mixingdeviceinflocculationbasinschematic
b. Detentiontime:
The same aspect on designing the flocculation basin is also depends on
detention time, which is also used to determine the removal efficiency of
sedimentationtypeIandsedimentationtype2process.Thedetentiontime( )
is the amount of time needed by water in the flocculation basin. Adequate
amount of time should be provided to allow generation of particle that can
removed in treatment process. There are wide range optimum particle size,
depends on the treatment technology that is used. Overall detention time in
flocculation process typically between 10 to 30 minutes and is provided the
severaldifferentstages/segmentssothemixingintensitycanbevariedthrough
the process. Flocculation process is also depend on Residence time of the
formation of removed floc which is varies between 500 and 3600 s. To
determine the residence time in the process, jartest experiment is usually
carriedout.TheexplanationwillbecarriedonpartKofthepaper.

c. The inlet and outlet design of flocculation basin (known as
flocculator)
Thevolumetricflowrate(Q)isthefirstconsiderationatdesigningtheinlet
system of the flocculation basin that prevent the destruction of floc that will
separatetheparticlethathasbeenaggloromeratedinthebasin.Inletandoutlet
turbulence is sometimes the source of flocdestructive energy and short
circuiting in flocculation process. There are several rule tumb to consider
regardingondesignationofflocculationprocess:

9

 1. The basin outlet should prevent the breakup of floc particle.
Theaspectshouldhavevelocitylessthan0,5feetpersecond.
(fps)
2. Do the inlet condition prevent the breakup of formed floc
particle?Thediffuserinstalledmayincreasetheuniformityof
the distribution of water. Baffle inside the basin should also
impartheadlossforuniformwaterentrytothesystem.
3. Larger connecting conduit help reduce turbulence that can
destroytheflocformed.
d. Flocculatorbasincirculationdesign
Inthedesignationofflocculationbasin,baffleshouldbebuiltnearthebasin
inletandoutlettoimprovethebasinhydraulicandachievemoreuniformflow
pattern.Thereareseveralconsiderationwhenevaluatingflocculation:

Baffleshouldincreaseperformancewiththeserpentinetypebafflingis
moreeffectivebecauseitprovideslowerflowconditionandmoretime
forflowformation.
Trytouniformtheflowpatternoftheinffluentbyusingsolidcontactunits
(SCUs), which each one has different pattern and sludge blanket
requirements.

e. Flocformationefficiencyparameter
Thereareseveralparameterthatimportanttodesigntheflocculationbasinto
improvetheflocformationasfollows:
1. Velocitygradientforflocformation(
The degree of energy dissipation is expressed as velocity gradient. This is
mainlycreatedbymixers.Hydraullicflocformationcanalsoappliedwherethe
headloss(H)betweentwochamberhastheenergyforformationofflocs.The
drawbackistheunevenenergyinput.Thevelocitygradientofflocformationcan
showtheeffectivityofflocculationprocesswhichisexpressedinparameter ,
thatdefinedby:

10

Thenthevelocitygradientisalsocalculatedintherealoperationbytheformula
of:

. ,withN=rotationspeed(rpm)
And then after finding the rotation speeed based on the real condition of
process, the tip velocity can be calculated by the formula as follows:

2. . .
The higher rotation speed, the higher the value of tip velocity, When the tip
velocityhigherthan1m/s,formedflocsarebrokenup.Sothevelocitygradient
is set to be not too high to prevent the broken up of floc that will lead to
decreasingefficiencybyincreasingtheflowopeningbetweenthecompartment
toavoidlocaldissipation.
2. Flocvolumeconcentration
The concentration of floc can also affect the flocculation basin design. Like
based on the location of the area also affect the design of flocculation basin
among others. The example of difference mixing device of flocculation basin
in Barenplaat and in the other region can be explained by this picture below:

Picture5Flocculationdevicedesign:(left:Hydraulic;right:Barenplaat)

9. CalculationofFlocculationbasinmethodology
Flocculationprocessusuallyneedgeneralpaddletypemixerforsupporting
flocculationprocess.Themaindesignofflocculationbasincanbeexplainedby
thepicturebelow:

11


Picture6Flocculatingbasin(CourtesybyTHDresden)
A basin is usually designed in four compartments (AWWA 1990). The
velocity gradient (G) based on explained above, should be controlled while
entering the process not only to determine if the flocculation will apply to
system,butalsotodesigntheflocculatingbasin.TheoptimumGvalueis100s1
to 150 s1 that will enter the basin. The proses will be as follows;

1. CalculateGvalueofbaffledbasin:

. . ,

.
denganwaktudetensi(td)dirumuskansebagaivolumebasin(V)dibagilaju
alirvolumetrik(Q).

Keterangan:
G=velocitygradienratarata(s1)
Q=flowrateinfluent(ft3/s)
=specificweightofliquid(water62,4lb/ft3)
H=headlossbasedonfriction(ft)
=absoluteviscosity(lb.s/ft2)
V=volumeofflocculationbasin(ft3)
td=detentiontime(s)

2.Findthevalueofpowerinputofimpellerthatrelatedtodragforceofpaddle
(F).Theimpellerforce(Fi)relatedtodragcoefficientwhichexpressedas:

2
0,5

12

Where:
F=dragcoefficient,lb
=dimensionlessdragcoefficient
=massdensity(lbs2/ft4)
A=Areaofthepaddles,ft2
v=velocitydifferencebetweenpaddlesandwater.

3.Thevelocityofpaddleblades( )candetermineby:

2

60
Where:
Vp=radialvelocityofpaddle(fps)
n=numberofrevolutionperminute(rpm)
r=distancefromshaftofthepaddleintothecenterofpaddle(ft)

The power input is computed as the product of drag force and velocity
differenceasbelow: 0,5

Exampleofflocculationbasincalculation(ShunDarLinetal,2001)
Abaffledflocculationbasinisdividedinto16channelsby15aroundtheendbaffles.The
velocityatthechannelsandattheslotsare0,6and2,0fps(0,18m/sand0,6m/s)
respectively.Theflowrateis12,0cfs(0,34m3/s).Findthevalueof:g=32,2ft/s2.
a.Thetotalheadlossneglectingchannelfrictions
b.Thepowerdissipated
c.Themeanvelocitygradientat60Fifthebasinsizeis16x15x80ft3.
d.TheGtvalue,ifthedetention(dispacement)timetis20min.
e.Loadingrateoftheflocculationbasinunitingpd/ft3.
Solution:
Step1EstimatevalueoflossH
,
=0,00559ft.
,

0,0621 ft.
,
H=
16 0,00559 15 0,0621 1,02 ft


Step2Computepowerinput(P)
3
. . 12 62,37 1,02
.
763

13

 Note:r=62,37lb/ft3at60F
Step3ComputeG(velocitygradient)
Fromthetable4.1b
At60F,wecangetviscosityofwater.
2,359 10 / 2

16 15 80 19,200
UsingthecorrelationbetweenpowerandGvaluethen:
/
763

2,359 10 19,200
41,0
Step4(ComputethevalueGt)
Totalvalueofgradientvelocitycanbecalculatedusing

41 20 min 60 /
49200
Step5Calculatetheloadingrateintotheflocculationbasin:
Flowratevolumetric(Q)=12cfs=12cfsx0,646mgd/s
Q=7,76x106gpd
7,76 10

19,200
404

10.PaddlebladeandBaffledesigninflocculationtechnology

1.Paddleblade(mixer)equipmentdesign
Inaflocculationdevice,paddlebladesmayevolveinhorizontalor
verticalshaft,Inthesesystem,thepoweroutputisafunctionofdragforce
ofpaddle,whichcanbecalculatedas:
1

2
Where:Cd=dragforcecoefficient
A=areaofpaddles(m2)
v=velocityofpaddlerelativetothewater(m/sec)
D=densityofwater(kg/m3)

14

 After calculate drag coefficient, we can find that the power needed by
paddle blade to mix the flocculation process as follows: (per unit volume
removed)


2


2
Thereareseveralruleofthumbsthoughtobeusedindesigningthemixer
inflocculationbasin,theareaofpaddleshouldnotmorethan15to20percent
ofthecrosssectionalareaoftank.Theperiphericalspeedofpaddleshouldbe
between 0,15m/secand 1m/sec. Italsohas been foundthat thevalue of G
shouldnotlessthan10norgreaterthan75.
2.Bafflebasinsdesign
There are several method of basin type that can be used when water is
flowingatrateQ(m3/s)throughl(m)lengthofbasin.Theareaofbasinand
headlossshouldbeassumed,thepowerperunitfluidis:
. . . . . . . .

.
With:
D=thedensityoffluid
V=velocityofflow
T=detentiontimeofsuspendedsolidinthesolution
Hencewecancalculatethecorectnessofthebaffledesignbychecking
thevalueofG(gradientvelocity),whichifvalueofGislessthanthevelocityof
inffluent flow, then the calculation is considered as correct. For the initial
value,itcanbebetterifthevelocityofflowshouldbebetween0,15m/sand1
m/s;thedetentiontimemaybebetween10until90minutes;withheadloss
initialvaluearebetween0,3until1m.

15

 P=
Picture7Flocculationbasinwithbafflesdesign(AlLayla,1978)
11.Mechanismofflocculationprocess
The charge structure and process of surrounding the particle is called
electrical double layer, which the initial layer of adsorbed ion and molecule
locatednearthesurface.ThechargepresentedtosolutionandSternlayercan
attractdiffuselayeroffreeionwithnetoppositecharge,namedGouyChapman
layer.Forparticlethatwillformaggregate,thepotentialwillcomewhichcant
beexplainedexperimentally.Therearesomekineticenergyneededtoparticle
to overcome the potential energy. The barrier itself can be eliminated by
surfacechangenetralization.Thereareseveralmechanismthatcanhappento
increasethekineticenergyforovercomingthedispersiontoflocculatewhichis
bydoublelayercompression(chargeneutralizationmechanism),absorptionof
flocculant onto particle surface (bridging mechanism), and eletrostatic patch
mechanism.
A. Chargeneutralizationmechanism
Charge neutralization mechanism is happened if flocculation is effective
throughanincreaseofionicstrengthsolution.TheexpressionforDebyeHuckel
length,asderivedfromGouyChapmanmodelcanbegivenwithformula:
10
4

Wheree=electroniccharge
N=Avogadrosnumber
I=Ionicstrength
=electricalpermitivityofsolvent
K=Boltzmannconstant

16

 T=absolutetemperature

Based on above equation, the increase in ionic strength decrease the
thicknessoflayer.Thiscompressionallowstheapproachofcolloidalparticleby
electrostaticforce.Thiswillcausetheflocculationofnegativecolloidalparticle
with cationic polymer. The higher density of flocculant can also enhance the
process flocculation because of bridging neutralization mechanism. So in any
system, where flocculation is affected by addition of opposite charged
polyelectrolyte,insomedegreeofchargeneutralization,theextentdependon
systemcharacteristic.

Picture8Theflocculationparticlechargeneutralizationmechanism

B. Bridgingmechanism
Longchainpolymerflocculantifaddedintocolloidalparticle,itcanadsorb
intothemwiththemannerthattwoindividualwillattached2/moreparticle
withbridgingthemtogether.Thisprocesscouldonlyhappenedinparticular
dosage optimum that known as streic stabillization. Also the minimum
requirementofthismechanismisthereshouldbesufficientunoccupiedparticle
toattachmentofpolymersegmentfromchainattachedtootherparticlesothat
theywillhavedistancewheninterparticlerepulsionprevail.Bridgingmechanism
can also make aggregate (floc) which is much more stronger than those

17

producedbychargedneutralzationmechanism.Strongerflocproducedmaynot
reformoncebrokenathighshearrate.
C. Electrostaticpatchmechanism
Infactbridgingmechanismcouldonlybeveryeffectiveonneutralparticle,
buthaggreementwithexperimenttendtobepoorwithhighchargecationor
negatively charged colloidal particle in solution. There are some observation,
thatforsystemwithhighcationicoranionicchargetendtohavehighinteraction
energythatcanimpedethebridgeofsuspendedparticle.Insuchcondition,it
willbeveryhardtoneutralizethechargedionforgeometricreasons.Sothenew
methodistousepolymerchainsthatcangiveislandsorpatchesofcharge.
Each particle with this polymer chain can ber really easily to attrected into
opposite charged area that will give neutral charge.

Itmaybenotedthat,theelectrostaticpatchshouldpredominateinsystem
withhighcationicchargeaananioniccolloidalsolid,especiallyinlowsuspended
solid concentration that bridging mechanism is not effectively used. The
controlling mechanism of flattened configuration of flocculation is governed
withthesystemofflocculant.
12.MechanismandtypeofFlocculation
The function of a flocculant is to bring together coagulated particles into
largeraggregatesandsettlethem.Figure1showsthemechanismofflocculation
onfineclayparticles.
12.1 FactorsAffectingFlocculation
Severalfactorscanaffectflocculation,primarilypolymertype,ionicstrength,
waterpH,slurrysolids,flocculantdilution,shear,molecularweight,andprocess
conditions.Thesefactors,individuallyandcollectively,haveagreatinfluenceon
thetypeofflocculantthatwillprovideoptimumperformance,itsoptimumdose,
andadditionpoints.
PolymerType
As mentioned above, flocculants used in the aggregate industry are
generallycopolymersofacrylamideandsodiumacrylate.Thiscopolymerandits
many variations can behave very differently in different systems. The driving
force for adsorption is controlled by the mineralogical properties of the
suspendedsolidsinadditiontotheaqueousenvironment.Themainmolecular

18

groupsinthesetypesofpolymerareamideandcarboxylate.Itisknownthat
both groups do adsorb onto the mineral surface; however, there are several
studiesthatsuggestthatthesefunctionalgroupshavedifferentprimaryroles.
The primary function of the amide group in copolymers is adsorption by
hydrogenbonding.Theprimaryfunctionofthecarboxylategroupistoextend
the polymer chain in solution by electrostatic repulsion, enabling bridging to
takeplace.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatthecarboxylategroupisincapable
ofadsorption,butthatpolymerextensionisitsprimaryroleinmostsituations.
Copolymersofacrylamideandsodiumacrylatearegenerallymoreactivethan
nonionic acrylamide polymers in spite of the fact that most particles carry a
negative charge. Evidence suggests that the enhanced activity of anionic
polymers is related to uncoiling or extension of the polymers. The ideal
flocculant for an application balances the need for adsorbing groups (amide
group)withthedesiretoextendthemolecule(carboxylategroup).Theproper
ratioofthesetwogroupsiscriticaltotheirperformanceandwilldeterminethe
degree of anionicity.

Figure1.Flocculationofcoagulatedfineclayparticles
pH
ThepHoftheslurryplaysanimportantroleinthechoiceofflocculant.Asthe
pH of the system ranges from 0 to 14, the choice of flocculant ranges from
nonionic to highly anionic. Figure 2 shows typical pH ranges over which
flocculantsofvaryinganionic(acrylatetype)polymersfindgeneralapplication.
AtapHof4andbelow,nonionicpolymersshowthegreatestactivity.AtthispH
range,anionicpolymersarecoiledupjustlikethenonionicpolymerbutthey
showverylittleactivity.Thisisduetothefactthatinanionicflocculants,the
amidegroups(foundinthenonionicpolymer)arereplacedbythemoreinert(at
low pH) carboxylate groups which reduces the number of hydrogen bonding
sitesavailableintheflocculant.Thus,nonionicflocculantsperformbetterata
lowerpHrange.

19


Figure2.EffectofpHonselectionofflocculant

AsthepHincreases,thecarboxylategroupsoftheanionicflocculantare
ionized,anduncoilingcontinuesuntilthepolymerisfullyuncoiledandactive.In
the same environment, a nonionic flocculant maintains its configuration. The
activityofanionicflocculantsincreaseswithslurrypH,andatapHrangeof6to
8, a moderately anionic flocculant will show better activity than a nonionic
flocculant.TheperformanceofanonionicflocculantisthesameatthispHasin
thelowerpHrange.AtpHlevelsover9.5,highlyanionicflocculantsperformthe
best,sinceahighlyanionicflocculantisfullyuncoiledandatthepeakofactivity
at high pH levels. While we expect the nonionic flocculant to maintain its
activity, a decrease in activity is noted. At this point, it is known that the
polyacrylamide in nonionic flocculants can hydrolyze, resulting in a dropin
activity.Whencompetingreactions(chemicalhydrolysisvsphysical(adsorption)
are occurring simultaneously, a significant reduction in flocculant activity can
occur.Asignificantimprovementinperformancecanbeachievedbychanging
the dilution at which the flocculant is added to the slurry. By diluting it, the
distribution of the flocculant in the slurry improves, thereby improving
performance. However, the degree of dilution is usually dependent on the
capacitylimitsofthedilutionsystem.
There are two stages in the flocculation process. The first process is
perikinetio flocculation, arises from thermal agitation (Brownian movement)
and is a naturally random process. Flocculation during this stage commences
immediatelyafterdestabilizationandiscompletewithinsecondssincethereis
a limiting floc size beyond which Brownian motion has no or little effect.
Furthermore,althoughthepotentialenergybarrierexistingbetweencolloidal
particles may be overcome by the thermal kinetic energy of Brownian
movement,astheparticlesprogressivelycoalescethemagnitudeoftheenergy
barrier increases approximately proportional to the area of the floe, so that
eventuallyperikineticflocculationofsuchpotentiallyrepellantparticlesmust

20

cease.Therateofflocculationortherateofdecreaseinthenumberofparticles
ofasuspensionduetoperikineticflocculationmaybedescribedbyasecond
orderratelaw.Forexample,inturbidwatercontaining10particlesperml,the
particle number concentration would be reduced by half within a period of
about6days;providedalltheparticleswerecompletely destabilizedandthe
particles did not become too large and be outside the range of Brownian
movement.
Thesecondstageintheflocculationprocessisorthokineticflocculation
andarisesfrominducedvelocitygradientsintheliquid.Theeffectofvelocity
gradientswithinabodyofliquidistosetuprelativevelocitiesbetweenparticles
therebyprovidingopportunityforcontact.Foragivenflocculatingsystem,the
principal parameter governing the rate of orthokinetic flocculation is the
velocitygradientapplied.Thedegreeorextentofflocculationisgovernedby
bothappliedvelocitygradientsandtimeofflocculation.Thesetwoparameters
influencetherateandextentofparticleaggregationandtherateandextentof
breakupoftheseaggregates.
Flocculation processes constitute an important part of treatment of
surfacewaterorofwaterswithhighlevelcontamination.Flocculationprocesses
arealwaysappliedwhenimpuritiescannotberemovedbysedimentation.By
usingtheflocculationprocess,suspendedandcolloidalimpuritiesarereduced
toaformsuitableforsedimentationsothattheycanberemovedfromthewater
bymeansoffiltrationorsedimentationdevices.Microorganisms,whichhave
settledonsuspendedmatter,canberemovedbyflocculation.Thus,acertain
level of disinfection is reached. The nature of the substances to be removed
fromthewatercanbeverydifferent:theycanbeofbothinorganicandorganic
origin. Flocculation is the result of individual processes which are essentially
characterized by two steps. The two phases are destabilization and particle
growth. By adding flocculants in the destabilization phase, the colloidal and
dispersed particles are destabilized and are able to agglomerate. During
aggregation (particle growth) the destabilized particles are brought into very
closecontactbyenergyinput.Theparticlesthensettleonthemicrofloccules
producedbyhydrolysisoftheflocculants,andformmacroflocculeswhichare
suitableforsedimentation.
Accordingtotheoriginofthewatertobecleaned,thecompositionofthe
dispersedsubstancesinthewatercanbeverydifferent.Thesubstancescanbe
ofmineralororganicorigin.Problemsinthetreatmentofsuchwaterscanarise
whenthetypeandcompositionofthedispersedparticleschangeveryrapidly.
Organicmattersuchasalgae,bacteria,orplanktoncanhavethesameinfluence
since their sedimentation qualities vary enormously owing to their different
proportion of sizes and solids closeness to mineral colloids. The surfaces of

21

dispersedparticlesarealsosurroundedbymolecules,whichdonotleadtoan
aggregationoftheparticlessinceseveralstabilizingforceshaveacounteracting
effect.
Thecausescanbe:
Electrostaticrejectionwithhomogeneousparticlecharge;
Hydration;
Stabilizationthroughhighermolecularinterfacialactivity
In practice these mechanisms very often overlap. In waters containing
suspended matter, the impurities consist almost exclusively of negatively
chargedparticles.Therefore,asaresultofthischargingprocess,theyarestable
with regard to aggregation of the particles. If this stable condition is to be
canceled,theinfluencingforcescounteractinganaggregationmustbereduced
byaddingsuitableflocculationchemicalswhichmakeagglomerationeffective.
Thewatertreatmenttechniqueusesaluminumandironsaltsforflocculation,
i.e.fordestabilization.Thesesaltsaremainlyaddedinadissolvedform.During
theprocessofflocculantmeteringtheflocculantscoverapHrangeofthewater
to be cleaned. The pHvalue ranges from a very low acid value, with the
flocculants in solution form, to basic values. Hydroxides are produced as
voluminous,extremelywateryfloccules.Asaresultofflocculantmeteringand
with increased dosage, compensation of the negative charge of the particles
takes place and produces optimum destabilization. A further increase in the
flocculantdosage,exceedingtheoptimumamount,canleadtoareversalofthe
charge, which in turn restores stabilization. Only small concentrations of
flocculantsarenecessaryfordestabilization.However,acertainstoichiometrical
relationship must exist between particle concentration and the required
flocculant dosage. Destabilization can be affected by adsorption with charge
neutralization using positively charged metal hydroxidecomplexesand highly
charged cation polymer. If the amount of added hydrolyzing salts, such as
aluminumoriron(III)salts,considerablyexceedssolubilityofthehydroids,the
inclusionofthedispersedparticleswillcanceloutthehydroidsandproducea
precipitationeffect.Thiscoprecipitationeffectisdominantwhentherearehigh
concentrationsofflocculantsandhighpHvalues.Thehydroxidescanceledout
byexceedingsolubility,precipitatebothinthewaterandonthesurfaceofthe
dispersedparticles.Theysettleandformlarge,extremelyhydrousfloccules.The
two most important reaction stages describing flocculation process are
destabilization and transport/aggregation. Destabilization, the first stage of
flocculationafteraddingflocculants,isofparticular.importancewithregardto
the result of flocculation. Errors or processing faults, preventing the
destabilizationprocessfromrunningoptimally,aredifficulttorectifytotallyin

22

thenextprocessingstage.Adequateenergyinputproducesturbulencewhich
bothinturndeterminetheeffectivenessoftheflocculationprocess.
13.ChemicalCoagulation
Themostcommonelectrolyteusedforremovingturbidity,color,taste,odor,
bacteriaandchargearecompoundofironsandaluminum.Thesecompounds
whenaddedtowaterionizetoformcationsandanionsofhighvalence(AnisAL
Layla,1977).
Theseionsreactwiththehydroxylinturnneutralizesthechargeonnegative
colloidsandhelpsinthecoagulation.Theexcesscolloidalmetallichydroxideis
neutralizedbynegativelychargedsulfateionsresultinginprecipitation.
AlumandLime
If alkalinity is not present in water in adequate concentrations, line or other
sourcesofalkalinitymustbeadded.Thechemicalreactionbetweenalumand
limealkalinityisasfollow.
Al2 ( SO4 )3 .18H 2O 3Ca(OH )2 2 Al (OH )3 CaSO4 18H 2O.................
Treatmentwithlimeproducesnoncarbonatehardness
AlumandSodaAsh
Sodaash(sodiumcarbonate)mayalsobeusedastheofalkalinity

Al2 ( SO4 )3 .18H 2O 3Na2CO3 3H 2O 2 Al (OH )3 3Na2 SO4 3CO2 18H 2O..............
Aconcentrationofalumbetween5to34mg/lmayberequiredforsuccessful
coagulationwithmostpresettledwaters.
Ferroussulfate
Thechemicalreactionwithferroussulfate(copperas)is
FeSO4 .7 H 2O Ca(OH ) 2 Fe(OH ) 2 CaSO4 7 H 2O...........
FerrousCoagulation
Ferroushydroxideissoonoxidizedbydissolvedoxygeninwater,yielding:
4 Fe(OH )2 O2 2 H 2O 4 Fe(OH )3 ............
Flocofferroushydroxidearedenseandsettlequickly.Theuseofcopperas
needgoodcontroloftheprocess.Ifthelimeexceeds,precipitationmayoccur
inthedistributionsystemduetothereactionwithsufficientnaturalalkalinity.
Copperasisthebestsuitableforturbidwaterhavingsufficientnaturalalkalinity.
Ferric hydroxide is more in soluble than ferrous hydroxide in water having

23

normalpHvalue.Ferrichydroxideismoreusefulasacoagulantwhensufficient
oxygenispresent.
Amixtureofferricchloride(FeCl3)andferricsulfate(Fe2(SO)4)3known
aschlorinatedcopperashasbeenusedsuccessfullyascoagulant.
FerricChloride
Soft,highlycoloredwatersarenoteffectivelytreatedwithalum.Where
ferric chloride is added to such a water, insoluble ferric hydroxide flocs are
formed.
FeCl3 3H 2 O Fe(OH )3 3H 3Cl
Water containing hydrogen sulfide can be treated successfully with ferric
chloride
14.Perikinetic
ThistypeofflocculationisoftenassociatedwithBrownDiffusion(Brownian
Motion), and usually occurs only on very small particles. In this pericinetic
flocculation the random motion of the colloid particles causes a collision
betweenparticleswhichwillgiverisetolargerclumpsofparticles.Thechange
of particle concentration on time on the pericinetic (Jpk) can be written as
follows.
4. . .

3

Where:No:Concentrationofparticlesattimet
:Efficiencyfactor
:LiquidViscosity(kg/m.dt)
k:Boltsma'sconstant(1.38x1016erg/oK)
T:Temperature(oK)
Fromtheaboveformula,itisseenthattherateofconcentrationchange
inPericineticdoesnotdependonparticlesize/diameter,butdependsonthe
particleconcentration.Iftheequationisintegrated,itwillbeobtained:

4. . . .

1
3

WhereNtandNoareconsecutiveparticleconcentrationsattimetandatt=0.

24



15. Orthokinetik
Flocculation caused by contact (collision) between particles caused by the
movementofmedia(fluid)generatedbystirringwhichisthemainmechanical
inwatertreatment.AccordingtoVonSmoluchwaski,thenumberofcollisionsis
dependentonthenumberofparticles,thevelocitygradientandthediameter
ofeachparticle.Inorthokinetic,concentrationchangesareformulated:
2. . .

3

Where:d:Colloiddiameter
G:Gradientspeed
Intheaboveequationitcanbeseenthattheconcentrationchangedependson
theparticlediameter.
TheratioJok/Jpkratiocanbewrittenasfollows:
. .

2. .

The equation states that for very small particles, pericinetics are more
dominant.Forparticleswithdiameterd=1mandG=10persecond,willbe
reachedJok=Jpk
Particleswithsizes<1mwillrequirealargerG,egford=0.1m,requiringG
=10,000persecondwhichistheoreticallydifficulttoattainsoitneedstobe
assistedwithpericineticflocculation.Theparticlecollisionrateisequivalentto
"speedgradient(G)".thetotalnumberofparticlecollisionsproportionaltothe
speed gradient (G) product and the collision time (t) can be written by the
equation:
Ntumbukan=G.t

25




16.Conclusion
1. FaststirrerandslowstirrerareusedtocarryoutCoagulationand
flocculationprocesses.
2. CoagulationisaquickstirringwithavalueofG(5001000/s)for
coagulantdistributionaswellasformationofclumpcore.
3. FlocculationintheformofslowagitationwithaGvaluedecreases
graduallytotheenlargementoftheclotcoreinordertoobtainlarge
clumps.
4. Theamountofstirringenergyforthecoagulationandflocculation
processisexpressedasG(speedgradient).
5. Thesuccessofthecoagulationandflocculationprocessisdeterminedby
thevalueofG.td.
6. Fastandslowstirringcanbedonemechanically,hydraulicallyand
pneumatically.
7. Mechanicalstirringusingastirringmotorandastirringunit.Mixerscan
bepropellerartists,pedals,andblades.

26



Reference
(anonym).http://ilearn.unand.ac.id/pluginfile.php/17983/mod_resource/conte
nt/1/PBPAM%201415.pdf

Qasim,SyedR,EdwardM.Motley,danGuangZhu,WaterWorksEngineering:
Planning, Design dan Operation, Prentice Hall PTR, Upper Saddle River, NJ
07458,2000.
Rich,LinvilG.,1974.UnitOperationsofSanitaryEngineering.JohnWiley&Sons,
Inc.,
AnisALLayla,S.A.E.J.M.,1977.WatersupplyEngineeringDesign.

27