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Permeability
Saturation
- Special tests
Overburden pressure
Capillary pressure
Relative permeability
Wettability
Vb = Vg + Vp
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of
material
Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
The three major rock types are sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic
rocks. Their classification is based on their origins.
Igneous rocks are formed from molten material which is either ejected from
the earth during volcanic activity (e.g., lava flows, and ash falls), or which
crystallizes from a magma that is injected into existing rock and cools
slowly, giving rise rocks such as granites. Igneous rocks are of minor
importance for oil exploration. Rarely, hydrocarbon is produced from
fractured igneous rocks.
Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any of the three rock types to
high temperatures and pressures, that alter the character of the existing
rock. Common examples of metamorphic rocks are marble derived from
limestone and slate derived from shale. Due to the high temperature and
pressures there is very little organic matter or hydrocarbons in
metamorphic rocks.
Clastics
Carbonates
Evaporites
Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments
Name Millimeters Micrometers
4,096
Boulder 256
Cobble 64
Pebble 4
Granule 2
Very Coarse Sand 1
Coarse Sand 0.5 500
Medium Sand 0.25 250
Fine Sand 0.125 125
Very Fine Sand 62
0.062
Coarse Silt 0.031 31
Medium Silt 0.016 16
Fine Silt 0.008 8
Very Fine Silt 0.004 4
Clay (modified from Blatt, 1982)
Average Detrital Mineral Composition
of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale Sandstone
Clay Minerals 60 (%) 5 (%)
Quartz 30 65
Feldspar 4 10-15
Carbonate 3 <1
Matrix
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material
Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components
COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
matrix CONSISTS OF QUARTZ, FELDSPAR, CEMENT AND CLAY
PORE
(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
(CLAY)
(FELDSPAR)
0.25 mm
PRIMARY (ORIGINAL) POROSITY
Developed at deposition
Typified by: Intergranular pores of clastics or
carbonates, AND Intercrystalline and fenestral
pores of carbonates
Usually more uniform than induced porosity
SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
Cementing materials
Overburden stress (compaction)
Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
In the geology section, we show core photographs with examples of porosity.
For now, it is useful to note these effects:
Vugs and fractures will contribute to porosity, but to understand their affect
on effective porosity requires careful study of cores and special logging
measurements.
ROUNDNESS AND SPHERICITY
OF CLASTIC GRAINS
Porosity
High
Low
Porosity
GRAIN PACKING IN SANDSTONE
Line of Traverse
(using microscope) 4 Types of Grain Contacts
Packing Proximity
Tangential Contact A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
are in contact with their
Sutured Contact neighbors
Long Contact Packing Density
Cement
A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
occupy the rock volume
Matrix
Concavo-Convex
(clays, etc.)
Contact
This Example
Packing Proximity = 40%
Packing Density = 0.8
(modified from Blatt, 1982)
CUBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 48%
Bulk volume = (2r)3 = 8r3
Matrix volume =
4 r3
3 volume
Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix
Pore Volume
Porosity
Bulk Volume
8 r3 4 / 3 r3
1 47.6%
8r 3
2 3
RHOMBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 27 %
Sorting (variable grain sizes)
SORTING
TYPES OF TEXTURAL CHANGES SENSED
BY THE NAKED EYE AS BEDDING
Sand
Shale Slow Current
Fast Current
Change of Composition Change of Size
River
Eolian
Beach
Fluvial
Change of Shape Change of Orientation
Change of Packing
PROGRESSIVE DESTRUCTION OF
BEDDING THROUGH BIOTURBATION
Regular Irregular Bioturbated Sandstone
Layers Layers (Whole Core)
Cementing materials
Oil Compaction
Stained Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
The Effects of Diagenesis May
Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela Photo by W. Ayers
DUAL POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
1. Primary and secondary matrix porosity system
2. Fracture porosity system
FRACTURE DISSOLUTION
PORE
PORE
(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
(CLAY)
(FELDSPAR)
0.25 mm
POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Porosity in Sandstone
Pore Typically is Lower Than
That of Idealized Packed
Spheres Owing to:
Quartz Variation in Grain Size
Grain Variation in Grain Shape
Cementation
Mechanical and Chemical
Compaction
Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Store
Hydrocarbons
Intergranular
Pore
Intergranular Pores
Microporosity Contain Hydrocarbon
Fluids
Significant Permeability
Reduction
Migration of Fines
Problem
Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
DISSOLUTION POROSITY
Partially Dissolution of
Dissolved Framework Grains
Feldspar (Feldspar, for
Example) and
Cement may
Pore Enhance the
Interconnected
Quartz Detrital Pore System
Grain
This is Secondary
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light
Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina Porosity
Dissolution Pores
May be Isolated and
not Contribute to the
Partially Effective Pore System
Dissolved
Feldspar
Fabric
Selective
Fenestral Shelter Growth-Framework
Non-Fabric
Selective
Fracture Channel Vug
Moldic
Pores
Due to dissolution
Dolomite and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)
Connected pores
(Vp)
3. Pore volume
MATRIX VOLUME FROM
DISPLACEMENT METHOD
(Vp)
3. Pore volume
MATRIX VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD
p1 V1 p2 V2
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA
Place core in second cell, evacuate gas (air) from second cell
Open valve
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA
Initial conditions
P1
V1 Core
Valve Evacuate
Cell 1 closed Cell 2
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA
P1 Final conditions
P2
Core
Valve
Cell 1 open Cell 2
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA
Vm = Vt - Vf
APPLICABILITY AND ACCURACY
OF MATRIX MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
Displacement method - Very accurate when
core sample is crushed without destroying
individual matrix grains
Gas expansion method - Very accurate,
especially for samples with low porosities
Vp = Wsat - Wdry
fluid
2. Boyles Law:
(Gas expansion)
p1 V1 p2 V2
PORE VOLUME FROM
SATURATION METHOD
Measures the difference between the weight of a core sample
saturated with a single fluid and the dry weight of the core
Pore volume,
Wsat Wdry
Vp
f
ARCHIMEDES METHOD OF
CALCULATING
POROSITY A CORE SAMPLE
Vp
Porosity
21.3 cm3
= = 0.12 or 12%
179.0 cm3
Vb
APPLICABILITY AND ACCURACY
OF PORE VOLUME
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Saturation (Archimedes) method
Accurate in better quality rocks if effective pore
spaces can be completely saturated
In poorer quality rocks, difficult to completely
saturate sample
Saturating fluid may react with minerals in the
core (e.g., swelling clays)
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION
2. Boyles Law:
(Gas expansion)
p1 V1 p2 V2
PORE VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD
Initial conditions
P1
V1 Core
Valve
Cell 1 closed Cell 2
PORE VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD
Final conditions
P1
P2
Core
Valve
Cell 1 open Cell 2
SUMMARY
1. Bulk volume
2. Matrix volume
3. Pore volume
use in determining the original hydrocarbon volume in place.
In case of large variation in the porosity vertically and no or small
variation horizontally or parallel to the planes, then the arithmetic
average or thickness-weighted average porosity is used:
Vp Vb Vma
Porosity
Vb Vb
V V V
b m p
V (V )
p b
V (1 )(V )
m b
m ( )(V )