Abigail Vos

1612999

PSYC 1009

Adolescence
In this essay, the development of adolescents will be discussed by looking at various theorists
opinions on adolescent development as well as South African examples of youth at risk. The different
theories that will be discussed will be as follows; the lifespan approach (Erikson, 1968), the cognitive
theory (Piaget, 1972), the moral concept of development (Kohlberg, 1976), the psycho-sexual aspect
of adolescence (Freud, 1969), the formation of identity within the adolescent period (Marcia, 1980)
and lastly, the physiological changes that adolescents undergo during puberty. Ultimately,
Bronfenbrenners ecological system of approach to behaviour will be discussed and explored within a
South African context when looking at risk and resilience in the development of youth.

The lifespan approach deals with the epigenetic theory which states that genetics provide a foundation
for development within adolescence (Erikson, 1968). The eight stages within the lifespan approach
deal with a persons development from infancy to adulthood (Erikson, 1968). The epigenetic theory
therefore views adolescence as a part of a sequence of development in a psychosocial context
(Erikson, 1968). When furthermore looking at Piagets cognitive theory, adolescence is characterised
in terms of deductive reasoning and decision making (Piaget, 1988). Kohlberg furthermore defined
adolescence and maturity in terms of moral decision making and developing ones own moral
convictions (Kohlberg, 1976).

When the looking at Freuds theories, its clear that the psychoanalytic approach views the structures
of the personality as mainly a part of the unconscious and therefore people are unaware of their own
behaviour (Freud, 1969). When looking at a psychoanalytic approach to development, Freud
associates each stage of development with an erogenous body part (Freud, 1969). Within adolescence,
large focus is placed on the genital stage. Where developmental tasks depend on establishing intimate
relationships, becoming equipped to work and to be a responsible adult (Freud, 1969). Within Freuds
theory, psychosexual development has different stages (Freud 1969).

It is important to mention that within adolescence. The development of ones identity is critical
(Erikson, 1968), therefore James Marcias theory on identity is important to mention. Marcia believes
that exploration and commitment are the two main components when establishing ones identity
(Marcia, 1980). Furthermore, when looking at adolescence, physiological changes are important to
note. Males and females undergo hormonal and physical changes when it comes to puberty and
adolescence. Both sexes experience an increase in body hair and bodily hormones (males experience
an increase in androgen, estrogen and testosterone whereas females experience an increase in
androgen, estrogen and progesterone) (Thomson, 2007).

Within the South African context, sexual risk-taking is a big problem. Many children between the
ages of 12 19 participate in unprotected sex and because of this, sexually transmitted diseases take
its toll on adolescents within South Africa. HIV/Aids are the biggest negative consequence when
looking at sexual risk-taking. These adolescents then live with a disease and it is possible for this
disease to be then spread with their sexual partner/s.

Bronfenbrenners ecological approach to behaviour encompasses different levels of development and

therefore looks at a broader context of development in adolescents (Bronfenbrenner, 2001). The four
levels are as follows; the individual level, interpersonal level, community level and societal level.
These different levels also go by the micro-, meso-, exo-, and macrosystems (Bronfenbrenner, 2001).

Within Bronfenbrenners ecological systems there is exposure to both protective and high-risk
situations. When looking at the microsystem (individual level), this layer is the closest to the
adolescent and contains concepts and structures that the adolescent interacts with on a daily or regular
basis. These relationships therefore have a huge effect on the childs experiences (Berk, 2000).
Therefore, on the one hand the microsystem could be beneficial since these close relationships and
structure can provide protection and a safe environment in which a child is either shielded or simply
prepared when it comes to high risk situations (Bronfenbrenner, 2001). However, these close
relationships and influential structures can easily place a child in high-risk situations, it is however
important to note that all levels interact with each other and none of the systems are separate entities
from the others (Bronfenbrenner, 2001).

When further looking at the macrosystem (society), this is the most distant layer in a childs
environment, this however does not mean that it has no influence on the childs development since the
larger cultural framework and principles seep through the other layers and affect the childs opinions
and norms (Bronfenbrenner, 2001). This layer also affects the parents of the child and therefore
directly influences the microsystem of the ecological system (Bronfenbrenner, 2001). This then
affects the parents skills in raising their child in their specific context and society (Bronfenbrenner,
2001).

Traditionally, adolescence was associated with emotional instability, inner turmoil because of
physical changes and a change in self-identity and image, this was known as the conflict model (Hall,
1904). Additionally, traditional notions of adolescence clearly started with hormonal changes and
puberty and ended with an establishment of cultural identity and adulthood.

When then looking at modern concepts of adolescence, specifically Bronfenbrenners theory on

adolescence, the childs personal context is considered which therefore establishes that adolescence
varies from child to child since both nature and nurture were included as influential factors concerning
adolescence (Bronfenbrenner, 2001).

Bronfenbrenners approach is important when applying it to South African context. Within South
Africa, there is a large amount of diversity regarding cultures, financial status, educational availability
and physical care when looking at children approaching adolescence. When comparing a child who
was raised in an emotionally stable household where the child was physically nurtured in a healthy
manner, and cognitively stimulated, to a child who grew up in a broken home where abuse was
prevalent and physical care was neglected, adolescence and maturity cant be expected to be reached
in the same manner or at the same period. Therefore, within a South African context, taking the
spatio-temporal context into account when evaluating adolescence and growth, as Bronfenbrenners
theory dictates, is of utmost importance.

In conclusion, the approach of adolescence within a childs life is theorised in many ways
(physiological, cognitive, socio-emotional, psycho-sexual, moral and within the establishment of
identity). It is furthermore evident that Bronfenbrenners ecological system of approach to behaviour
is one of integration and incorporation of the context of a child.
References

Bronfenbrenner, U. (2001). Ecology of the Family as a Context for Human Development: Research

Perspectives.

Paquette, D. and Ryan, J. (2001). Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory.

Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human development, 15(1), 1-

12.

Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. Handbook of adolescent psychology, 9(11), 159-187.

Freud, A. (1969). Adolescence as a developmental disturbance.