Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
In order to answer these questions we must look a bit deeper into the fundamental
structure of matter, that is everything around you!
Every element or compound is comprised of atoms. All the atoms are the same in
the structure of an element (ignoring isotopes) and two or more different
atoms/elements must be present in a compound.
Initially, once the concept of an atom was established, it was assumed that atoms
were indestructible and not divisible into smaller particles, but merely combined in
different proportions to give the range of compounds we know about.
However from experiments done in the late 19th and early 20th century it was
deduced that atoms are made up of three fundamental or subatomic particles
called protons, neutrons and electrons, which are listed below with their relative
masses and electrical charges.
The table gives the relative mass and electric charge of the three subatomic
particles known as the proton, neutron and electron
Subatomic Relative Electric
Comments
particle mass charge
+1 (+
Proton 1 In the nucleus, a nucleon
positive)
Neutron 1 0 (zero) In the nucleus, a nucleon
NOT a nucleon. Electrons
1/
1850 or 1 ( are arranged in energy
Electron
0.00055 negative) levels or shells in orbit
around the nucleus
You can think of the mass of an electron as about 1/2000th of the mass of a proton or
neutron, so, a pretty small mass BUT they occupy most of the space of an atom!!!
You should also realise because of the relatively small mass of the electrons most
of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. You see values of 1/1836 quoted for the
relative mass of an electron, but don't worry about it, there are different ways/scales
on which an electron's mass has been calculated.
The actual mass of a proton or neutrons is ~1.67 x 10-31 kg and the electro's mass
is ~9.11 x 10-31 kg
What can we say about 'A Portrait of an Atom'? an image of what you can't
see!
The picture of 'atomic structure, illustrated below is the result of many developing
'atomic theory' backed up by successive generations of experimental results. This is
the best picture we have (at least for GCSE and A Level chemistry courses!).
However this diagram, which is based on the Bohr model of atomic structure,
although more realistic in terms of the real size of the nucleus compared to the atom
as a whole, so it is not convenient to give a brief diagrammatic picture of the
composition of an atom.
The central nucleus of protons and neutrons (most of the mass of an atom) is
extremely small even compared to the size of an atom. The rest of the 'almost empty
space' of an atom is occupied by the negative electrons, held by, and moving around
the positive nucleus in their energy levels or 'shells'.
The electrons are also pretty tiny in mass too, compared to a proton or neutron, but
the volume the electrons and their energy levels occupy, determines the size of the
atom.
Bohr theorised the negative electrons can only exist in certain specific energy levels
(shells) held in place by the positive nucleus (see section on the history of
development of the atomic model). These are shown in the above diagram, but fully
explained later on this page.
All of these theories must, and have been, backed up by repeated and varied
experiments.
As each new experiment was/is done, it must support the current theory or the
theory needs to be modified to take into account new discoveries.
Some of these important experiments are described further down the page.
Most of the mass is in the centre of the atom, that is the nucleus, which has a radius
of around 1/10000th of the whole atom!
This means the radius of the nucleus is about 1 x 10-14 m (0.00001 nm), pretty small
!!, but still consists of most of the mass of an atom!!!
If you look at the table of size comparison below, its not until you get to a human hair
can we see clearly something with the naked eye. The width of a human hair is
approximately 106 times that of an atom (a million times bigger) and 1010 times
bigger than a nucleus (ten thousand million times bigger). You can of course see
cells under examination with an optical microscope, but these are over 500 000
times bigger than an individual atom. You can, however, observe atoms using an
electron microscope.
A comparison data table of particles sizes/dimensions
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom decides what element that
atom is.
e.g. if the atom has 3 protons in the nucleus, it cannot be anything except
lithium!
Elements consist of one type of atom only determined by the proton number
(atomic number).
Some more concise and handy styles to show the atomic composition of the
same lithium atom
2. ISOTOPES
and or 3He and 4He, are the two isotopes of helium with mass
numbers of 3 and 4, with 1 and 2 neutrons respectively but both have 2
protons. Helium3 is formed in the Sun by the initial nuclear fusion process.
Helium4 is also formed in the Sun and as a product of radioactive alpha
decay of an unstable nucleus.
o An alpha particle is a helium nucleus (mass 4, charge +2) and if it
picks up two electrons it becomes a stable atoms of the gas helium.
For more details see Radioactivity Revision Notes Part 4
and or 23Na and 24Na, are the two isotopes of sodium with
mass numbers of 23 and 24, with 12 and 13 neutrons respectively but both
have 11 protons in the nucleus and 11 surrounding electrons. Sodium23 is
quite stable e.g. in common salt (NaCl, sodium chloride) but sodium24 is a
radioisotope and is a gamma emitter used in medicine as a radioactive
tracer e.g. to examine organs and the blood system.
and are the two nuclear symbols for the two most common and
stable isotopes of the element chlorine. They both have 17 protons in the
nucleus and 3517 = 18 and 3717 = 20 neutrons respectively (and both
have 17 surrounding electrons).
and are the two nuclide symbols for the two most common and
stable isotopes of the element bromine. They both have 35 protons in the
nucleus and 7935 = 44 neutrons and 8135 = 46 neutrons respectively. By
coincidence, there are almost exactly 50% of each isotope present in naturally
occurring bromine.
The three known isotopes of carbon (the electron structure is fully
explained in the next section)
o
o
o
nuclide %
isotope protons neutrons electrons
symbol abundance
carbon 12 C 98.9%,
6 6 6 6
12 stable
carbon 13 C 1.1%,
6 6 7 6
13 stable
trace,
carbon 14 C
6 6 8 6 unstable
14
radioactive
The Bohr model of the atom in its more elaborate form involves the maximum
numbers of electrons that each shell or energy level can hold and how the
shells are progressively filled with electrons from atom to another with
increase in proton/atomic number.
The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus
and with 'orbits' on average increasing in distance from the nucleus.
o Electrons in an atom occupy the lowest available energy levels
(the innermost available shells).
o The lowest energy levels are always filled first, you can think of the
lower the shell, the nearer the nucleus, and numbered 1, 2, 3 etc. as
the shell gets further from the nucleus.
Each electron in an atom is in a particular energy level (or shell) and the
electrons must occupy the lowest available energy level (or shell)
available nearest the nucleus.
When the level is full, the next electron goes into the next highest level (shell)
available.
There are rules to learn about the maximum number of electrons allowed in
each shell and you have to be able to work out the arrangements for the first
20 elements (for GCSE students, up to at least 36 for Advanced level
students).
o The 1st shell can contain a maximum of 2 electrons (electrons 12)
o The 2nd shell can contain a maximum of 8 electrons (electrons 3
10)
o The 3rd shell also has a maximum of 8 electrons (electrons 1118)
o The 19th and 20th electrons go into the 4th shell, (required limit of
GCSE knowledge).
o Remember the total electrons to be arranged equals the atomic/proton
number for a neutral atom.
If you know the atomic (proton) number, you know it equals the number
of electrons in a neutral atom, you then apply the above rules to work
out the electron arrangement (configuration).
For elements 1 to 20 the electron arrangements/configurations are written out
in the following manner:
o Note that each number represents the number of electrons in a
particular shell, dots or commas are used to separate the numbers of
electrons in each shell. They are written out in order of increasing
average distance from the positive nucleus which holds these negative
electrons in their energy levels (shells).
o The electron configurations or electron arrangements are
summarised below with reference to the periods of the periodic table
and in order of increasing atomic number up to proton number 20.
For more see the Periodic Table and Electron Structure notes
below.
o Period 1 elements 1 to 2 (2 elements)
the electron arrangement is written out simply as 1 or 2, only the
1st shell or level involved.
o Period 2 elements 3 to 10 (8 elements)
have electron arrangements of 2,1 to 2,8 (since 1st shell is full
with 2 electrons i.e. the first number)
2,5 would mean two electrons in the 1st level (shell) and
five in the 2nd level (shell).
o Period 3 elements 11 to 18 (8 elements)
are denoted by 2,8,1 to 2,8,8 (1st & 2nd shells full with 2 & 8
electrons, ie 2.8)
2,8,3 would mean two electrons in the 1st level (shell),
eight in the 2nd level (full shell) and three electrons in the
3rd outer level (shell).
o Period 4 first two elements 19 to 20
are written out as 2,8,8,1 and 2,8,8,2 (1st, 2nd, 3rd full shells
with 2,8,8 electrons)
2,8,8,1 would mean two electrons in the 1st level (shell),
eight in the 2nd level, eight electrons in the 3rd level
(shell) and one electron in the 4th outer level (shell).
Reminder this is as far as GCSE students need to know, after
that things get more complicated, BUT only for advanced level
students!
For example, after element 18, the 3rd shell can hold a
maximum of 18 electrons!
o The above is summarised in the diagram below
o
o The electron shell arrangements are quoted in numbers e.g. 2,4 for C
(carbon) but you need to be able to draw electron diagrams showing
the electronic structure of the atom.
In the above table, check out the atomic number, the lower
subscript on the element symbol, and apply the rules, and
hopefully it makes sense.
Some examples of electronic diagrams are given below and
GCSE/IGCSE/O level students need to be able to work and
draw the electronic structures of the first 20 elements.
You should notice that the number of shells used equals the
period number of the element in the periodic table.
They can be all worked by the 'shell filling' rules described
above.
o For the rest of Period 4 and other Periods you need a more
advanced electron configuration system up to at least Z=36 using s, p,
d and f orbital notation BUT for advanced level chemistry students only!
Only the first 2 of the 18 elements of Period 4 are shown above, the rule for 3rd shell
changes from element 21 Sc onwards (studied at Advanced level, so GCSE students
don't worry!)
A few more 'snappy' examples given atomic number, work out electron
configuration (abbreviated to e.c.)
Selected Elements of the Periodic Table are shown below with atomic number
and chemical symbol.
o The first element in a period has one outer electron (e.g. sodium
Na 2.8.1), and the last element has a full outer shell (e.g. argon Ar
2.8.8)
o Apart from hydrogen (H, 1) and helium (He, 2) the last electron number
is the group number (in the old notation) and the number of shells used
is equal to the Period number.
o The periodicity of elements i.e. the repetition of very chemically similar
elements in a group is due to the repetition of a the same outer
electron structure check out the last number from element 3
onwards.
o More GCSE/IGCSE notes on the Periodic Table
o and the electronic explanations of chemical bondingformulae
o Advanced Level Chemistry electron configurations/arrangements
and the Periodic Table
APPENDIX 1. The history of the atom concept and the alpha particle scattering
experiment
(some of the theory ideas described here goes above GCSE/IGCSE level!)
The Greeks Leucippus and Democritus ~400 BC wondered what was the result of
continually dividing a substance i.e. what was the end product or smallest bit i.e.
what was left that was indivisible the word atomic is from Greek adjective meaning
'not divisible'.
The Greeks idea was not forgotten and later revived by Boyle and Newton but with
little progress.
However, in 1808 Dalton at the beginning of the 19th century, proposed his atomic
theory that all matter was made up of tiny hard particles/spheres called atoms.
Dalton also proposed (correctly) the theory that different types of atoms (elements)
combined together to give all the different substances of the physical world (all which
of course is true, except for the 'hard solid indivisible spheres'!).
He also produced the first list of 'atomic weights' (we now call relative atomic
masses) on a scale based on hydrogen given the arbitrary value of 1 since it was
lightest element known, and, as it happens, correctly so.
He was incorrect by stating that atoms were indivisible, but we now know that atoms
consist of electrons, protons and neutrons and that atoms can be 'taken apart' by
ionisation or nuclear changes e.g. radioactivity.
Until the discovery of the electron, atoms were thought of as hard indivisible
spheres, but brilliant 'JJ' changed all that. New experimental evidence may lead
to a scientific model being changed or replaced and with the discovery of the
electron, recognised as the first known 'sub-atomic particle', change was on the way.
J J Thomson Around 1897 proposed his 'plum
pudding model' theory based on the growing
evidence that atoms were themselves composed
of even smaller more fundamental particles like
the electron i.e. atoms were not hard indivisible
spheres.
The idea of positive particles balancing the negative particles was correct but the
relative size and nature of the nucleus and distribution of electrons were not, BUT it
was a more advanced model.
Ernest Rutherford, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden (the latter two were
students of Rutherford at Cambridge University) conducted alpha particle
scattering experiments (19021910, and described in detail below).
(i) minute nature of the nucleus even compared to the size of an atom
(ii) the nucleus was positive and the positive charge varied from
element to element.
When positive alpha particle beams are fired on very thin layers
of metals (e.g. very fine gold leaf) some rather surprising results
were made by scientists of the early 20th century.
2. a small proportion were deflected slightly (so there was something there!), this
again was not unexpected.
1. about 1 in 20,000 were 'bounced' back through an angle of over 90o, in other
words were reflected backwards, a totally unexpected result and quite shocked the
experimenters - not what they were expecting. This was because the JJ Thompson
model predicted the positive charge was spread out and not sufficiently concentrated
to cause, for some alpha particles a 180o deflection! So, whatever was there, was
substantial and positively charged to cause the repulsion 'bounce' of the positive
alpha particles, BUT what it was (the 'nucleus') it wasn't very big!
These results made it quite plain the JJ Thompson plumb pudding model was in
some way wrong ie the positive charge was NOT spread throughout the volume of
an atom.
From a detailed mathematical analysis of the scattering experiment results, the only
'atomic model' which could account for the pattern was an atom consisting of ...
1. mainly empty space (which is why most alpha particles passed through
undeflected), thus completely contradicting JJ Thompson's 'plum pudding' model.
Other experiments showed that the electrons were orbiting in energy levels around
the nucleus, but occupying virtually no significant volume in themselves as particles.
2a. a relatively minute positive centre (the nucleus) causing deflection (like
charges repel, alpha particles are positively charged and so were being repelled by
the 'later to be discovered' positive protons in the nucleus), we now know the
nucleus is positive due to protons,
2b. a tiny dense centre of similar or greater charge or mass to an alpha particle
(which we now call the nucleus), so most of the mass of an atom was in the central
nucleus, we know the mass is made of protons and neutrons.
3. Most of the atom is mainly empty space with a cloud of negative electrons
moving around the positive nucleus.
Putting these three points together formed the basis of the modern picture of the
'nuclear atom', in other words the nuclear atomic model.
Other experiments have shown that electrons are arranged in energy levels, sort
orbits around the nucleus, ideas first proposed by scientists such as Bohr.
So an atom is quite well represented by the Bohr model of the atom (picture below)
which moves the Rutherford nuclear model another step forward.
Bohr's suggestion that the negative electrons can only exist in certain specific energy
levels (shells) held in place by the positive nucleus complimented the Rutherford
model of the atom to gives a reasonably complete picture of an atom (at least for this
academic level!).
Bohr envisaged the electrons orbiting the nucleus in specific energy levels (or fixed
shells) at specific distances from the central nucleus with nothing in between. The
negative charge of the electrons was balanced by the positive charge (protons) of
the nucleus.
So by now, earlier theories of atomic structure, e.g. the 'plum pudding' model
in which 'protons' and 'electrons' were scattered or arranged evenly across the
atom, were superseded by the nuclear models of Rutherford and Bohr.
It was the only model that could explain the scattering of the high speed alpha
particles by a small dense and positive atomic centre AND the behaviour of
electrons.
Experiments had shown that the outer bits could be knocked off atoms and these
had a very tiny mass and a negative charge, in other words the electron!
In 1913 Moseley studied the Xrays emitted by highly energisedionised atoms and
from the Xray spectra of elements (the K alpha line, K) he was able to deduce the
electric charge of the nucleus which we now know is equal to the atomic number of
protons in the nucleus.
Moseley showed that when atoms were bombarded with cathode rays (electrons) X
rays where produced which he investigated with an X-ray spectrometer.
It was found that the square root of the highest energy emission line (called the K
alpha line, K) gave a linear plot with the apparent atomic number,
Z = constant x K
but the plot of K against atomic weight (relative atomic mass) gave a zigzag plot,
suggesting this 'atomic number' was far more important the 'atomic weight' of an
element in terms of the atom's fundamental structure.
Note:
(i) The K alpha line, K is due to an electronic transition of the inner most electron
nearest the nucleus.
(ii) Sadly, Moseley was killed in action during the First World War at Gallipoli in 1915,
a great loss to science as well as his family and friends.
However, there was still the problem of why the atomic mass and atomic number
where different i.e. in the case of the lighter elements, the atomic weight was often
about twice the atomic number.
In 1919 Aston developed a cathode ray tube i.e. like those used by Wien and
Thompson etc. into a 'mass spectrograph', which we now know as a mass
spectrometer GCSEAS atomic structure notes.
This showed that atoms of the same element had different masses but there was no
experimental evidence that they had different atomic numbers (which of course they
didn't). These different atoms of the same element were called isotopes.
In 1920 Rutherford suggested there might be a 'missing' neutral particle and in 1932
Chadwick discovered the neutron by bombarding beryllium atoms with alpha
particles which produced a beam of neutrons.
These were shown to have a relative mass of 1 (same as a proton) and were
electrically neutral and quite penetrating into matter. This penetration and lack of
charge had made them difficult to detect.
Prior to this, Rutherford and others had conducted experiments to show that the
smallest particle in an atom was equivalent to a hydrogen atom without its electron,
that is the proton.
It was not until 1932 that the nature of the neutron was finally deduced by Chadwick
and this completely explained the nature of isotopes and backed up the ideas from
Moseley's work that the fundamentally important number that characterises an
element is its atomic number and NOT the atomic mass. The neutron discovery, ~20
years after the discovery of the nucleus, completed the 'modern' picture and theory
of the composition of an atom in terms of the three principal sub-atomic particles -
which is sufficient for the needs of us chemists!
Chadwick bombarded a thin metal foil of beryllium atoms (94Be) with alpha particles
(42He) and this produced a highly penetrating radiation that was unaffected by
electrical or magnetic fields.
9 Be + 4 He ====> 12 C + 1 n
4 2 6 0
Note the carbon-12 atom produced balances the nuclear equation in terms of mass
(9 + 4 = 12 + 1) and positive proton nuclear charge (4+ + 2+ = 6+).
See section 2. Radioactivity Notes page on other experiments with mixed particle
beams and their separation.
e.g. for the element lithium 73Li consisting of three protons and four neutrons
As explained above, Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different
masses due to different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. Same protons and
electrons. e.g. atomic number 6 = 6 protons = carbon, but there can be 6, 7 or 8
neutrons giving isotopes of carbon12, 13 or 14.
Oxygen atoms usually form 'stable' O2 oxygen molecules (also called dioxygen),
BUT they can form a very reactive unstable molecule O3 ozone (also called
trioxygen). The mass of the oxygen atoms in each of the molecules is mainly 16
(99.8%), and about 0.2% of two other stable isotopes of masses 17 and 18.
Whatever isotope or isotopes make up the molecule, it doesn't affect the
molecular structure or the respective chemistry of the O2 or O3 molecules.
However, what sometimes confuses the issue is the fact that oxygen O2 and ozone
O3 are examples of allotropes.
Allotropes are defined as different forms of the same element in the same
physical state.
The different physical allotropic forms arise from different arrangements of the atoms
and molecules of the element and in the case of solids, different crystalline
allotropes.
They are usually chemically similar but always physically different in some way e.g.
O2 (oxygen, dioxygen) and O3 (ozone, trioxygen) are both gases but have
different densities, boiling points etc.
BUT O2 and O3 are different molecular structures of the same element in the
same physical state and are called allotropes irrespective of the isotopes that make
up the molecules. Allotropes can have different physical and chemical properties.