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JBSXXX10.1177/0021934715611376Journal of Black StudiesAsante and Ismail

Article
Journal of Black Studies
2016, Vol. 47(1) 4152
Interrogating the The Author(s) 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/0021934715611376
Caracalla: Claiming and jbs.sagepub.com

Reclaiming an African
Leader

Molefi Kete Asante1 and Shaza Ismail2

Abstract
This essay provides an interrogation into the historical and personal
contradictions in the character of the Roman Emperor Caracalla. As an
emperor of African origin who once ruled the world, the nature of his rule,
in its political and social dimension, has not been adequately studied. In fact,
the scholarly sources that focused on Caracalla as a powerful ruler hardly
mention his African origin and in some cases outright deny the fact that he
was African. On the other hand, many European writers who do understand
his political significance refer to his military achievements ignoring his origin.
This work seeks to place Caracalla in the historical setting that befits his
adventure as emperor during the time of Romes incessant leadership crises.
While we know that Caracallas life was a series of bold and cruel actions as
well as creative achievements, this work discusses his life in the context of his
humanity more than to itemize his imperial achievements. The idea is to reveal
through the literature and history as much as we can of his complex character
in amid the challenging circumstances that surrounded his life and career.

Keywords
Septimius Severus, Julius Bassianus, Geta, Julia Domna, Alexandria, Macrinus

1Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA

2Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt

Corresponding Author:
Molefi Kete Asante, Temple University, 1115 W. Berks Mall, Gladfelter Hall 810, Philadelphia,
PA 19122, USA.
Email: Masante@temple.edu
42 Journal of Black Studies 47(1)

Prelude to Power
With Caracalla as with other historical figures of North Africa, Western
scholarship often becomes murky particularly on the questions of origin and
ancestry. The overarching theme appears to be the denial of African origin
even though the individual historical personalities are born on the continent.
This has been true in the literature related to Hannibal, Hypathia, Plotinus,
St. Augustine, and so forth. The complexity of racial origin becomes the prin-
cipal path of scholarship in regard to ancient figures born in North Africa
(Asante, 2014). Perhaps this line of thinking is most prominent in the charac-
terization of Cleopatra, who is now generally accepted as being born in Africa
and of African descent, especially since the discovery of her sister Arsinoes
African ancestry. Nevertheless, the narratives of the life of Caracalla are com-
plicated by questions of African identity because of his legendary cruelty.
Yet, few African scholars have rushed to claim a racial or cultural affinity
to Africa for Caracalla because he has rarely been considered a positive fig-
ure in history. His record of brutality and the severity and harshness of his
rule were something close to demonic in the minds of historians. This fact has
added more complexity to the discourse on his identity. Evidence, however,
points to his African origin as unfortunate as that might be in the context of
world history.
Caracallas father Septimius Severus rose to power following the assassi-
nation of the Emperor Commodus. Commoduss assassination left a power
vacuum in the empire, and the senate, the Praetorians, and three different
army units all vied to fill it. Septimius Severus was proclaimed emperor by
one of these three army unitsthe legions along the Danube proclaimed him
to be the emperor, and he set about consolidating his power with them. The
senate had proclaimed Lucius Helvius Pertinax to be the new emperor in
Rome, and the Praetorians at first went along with the senates decision
being paid 12,000 sesterces per soldier probably had something to do with
their compliance. After 3 months and trying one reform too many, Pertinax
was assassinatedbrutally murdered, reallyby the Praetorians, who pro-
ceeded apace to sell the title of emperor from the very gates of their camp in
Rome. The buyer of the emperorship was probably regretting their decision
within a few months, as Septimius Severus entered Rome unarmed while
wearing a citizens togaflanked by several cavalry and infantry units. After
engaging his rivals that were supported by the other army units, Septimius
Severus turned to fighting the Parthiansbecause fighting a war with a for-
eign power was a great idea to get peoples minds off of the civil war that was
then tearing the Roman Empire apart. The level of tactical genius this man
displayed has not been paralleled as General Douglas MacArthur told
Asante and Ismail 43

President Truman that the United States should use nuclear weapons against
China in the Korean War because nothing beats the fun to be had in a large-
scale war like fighting an auxiliary war with an even larger power (Boatwright,
Gargola, Lenski, & Talbert, 2004).
Despite the obvious flaws of Septimius Severuss plans, his gamble paid
off spectacularlyHe regained territory lost to the Parthian Empire, Armenia,
and took territory Rome had not held in nearly a century in northern
Mesopotamia (Campbell, 2005; Rawlinson, 1893/2007). The war also caused
so many internal problems within the Parthian Empire that it collapsed
entirely in 226 a.d.with some help from Caracalla a few years down the
roadand the Sassanid dynasty rose to power. Septimius Severus also elimi-
nated his rivals within the Roman Empire and consolidated his power. He
was a capable military commander and often shared in the burdens of the
average troops under his command, making him well liked by military per-
sonnel. Septimius Severus cared a lot about the well-being of his soldiers and
strove to give them rightful pay and allow them to take time off if necessary
within reason as to gain their loyalty (Boatwright etal., 2004). Just as Severus
was charismatic, he was also cruel. Although his bad manners are well
attested to, the general opinion of the populace of the Empire was mostly
positive because he brought a sense of power and authority that made the
population feel a sense of stability.
Severuss wife, Julia Domna, came from a famous city in the ancient
world called Emesa. She was well regarded when married to Septimius
Severus due to the temples from her home which were dedicated to the God
Elagabalus (the Sun God), represented by a black stone which is said to have
fallen from the sky as a meteorite (Haynes, 1993). When Septimius Severus
died in 211 a.d. while on campaign in Britain, he left the Roman treasury with
a secure surplus and the military at a height of loyalty to the emperor that it
had not seen in many years. Unlike his father, unfortunately, Caracalla was
just not likable (Boatwright etal., 2004).

The Rise of Caracalla

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was born in 188 a.d., and later in life gained the
nickname Caracalla. He was the second son of Septimius Severus who was
of Libyan origin (Magie, 2007), who ruled the Roman Empire from 193 to
211 a.d. Indeed, Caracalla jointly ruled the empire with his brother, Publius
Septimius Antoninus Geta, from 198 to 211 when their father died. However,
they were both of lower rank than Septimius and had to obey him until his
death. Caracalla ruled as the sole Augustus from 211 until 217 a.d. after
Septimius Severus died on a campaign in Britain. Caracalla had his elder
44 Journal of Black Studies 47(1)

brother, Geta, assassinated and thus prevented him from claiming sole impe-
rial power in Rome.
It is believed that Caracalla obtained his nickname from the Celtic cloak
he tended to wear in battle (Adkins & Adkins, 1998; Grant, 1985). He is
famous for wearing a Gallic cloak, but altered it to make it longer (Bunson,
2012). The name Caracalla came from how he dressed, because he wore
the hooded cloak (Caracallus) on a regular basis (Bowder, 1980). In terms of
his appearance, Caracalla had a pug face and was distinctly known for wear-
ing foreign attire. He preferred non-Roman fashion, and this partially went
along with his views of accepting all people as citizens. As someone born in
Africa but ruling the entire Roman empire with numerous ethnic and national
groups, Caracalla did not see himself as more than other men. He was, in
effect, an equal opportunity oppressor as well as a stylish dresser.

His Name and Appearance

Caracalla was born in North Africa as Julius Bassianus. He was named after
his grandfather on his mothers side. His father, Septimius Severus, changed
Caracallas name to M. Aurelius Caesar or successor-designate in the year
195. Caracalla was granted this position at the age of 10 in the tradition of
African royalty (Darbyshire, Kenneth, Harl, & Goldman, 2009). Septimius
created an identity in connection to the prestigious Antonine family of emper-
ors (Miller, 1939). In 198, Caracalla took the famous name Augustus.
Darbyshire writes that Caracalla was said to have possessed the savagery of
Caligula and the paranoia of Nero (Darbyshire etal., 2009). He was the first
emperor to break away from the typical Roman style, creating a new orienta-
tion to the world that Rome ruled. Some scholars argue that Caracallas true
quest was not for popularity but for material gain. His acceptance of others
and their customs came from greed, because he could gain more money by
taxing more people (Grant, 1985).

The Martial Calling

The military was Caracallas road to power as it had been for numerous
Africans. Consequently, Caracallas youth were as ambitious as it was dra-
matic. When at age 10 he became the official heir and co-ruler with his father
he was on the stern road of discipline necessary for one who would exact
harsh punishment.
Caracalla was first married at age 14 to a family friend named Fulvia
Plautilla, a young woman whom he came to despise because of her father.
The marriage produced a daughter and came to an end in 205 after Fulvias
Asante and Ismail 45

father was accused of treason and executed. In the meantime, Fulvia was
banished and later executed under Caracallas orders demonstrating a lack of
empathy for his daughters mother. In 208, Severus decided to take his two
sons to Britain, where troubles had begun with the local citizens to introduce
them to the habits of ruling a restless population. Geta and Caracalla had
apparently become accustomed to the life of luxury in Rome, and Severus
believed that they needed to learn how to use the military to put down insur-
rections and to punish troublemakers. In Britain, Caracalla tightened his
bonds with the army, as he campaigned with his father throughout Britain,
while his brother spent his time as an administrator over civil matters.
The practice of murder, mayhem, and cruelty often strikes close to home.
Caracalla mastered the crime of murder even attempting to murder his own
father Severus on several occasions. Fortunately for Severus, Caracalla was
unsuccessful in killing him, and the emperor passed away in York due to natu-
ral causes. According to the Roman historian Dio, Severus was quoted to have
told his sons on his death bed, Be good to each other, enrich the army, and
damn the rest. Caracalla seemed to be the only brother to take this advice, as
his reign was focused heavily on enriching his army and not his people.
Although Severus had escaped the fate of being murdered by his own son,
Geta would have much more difficulty with Caracalla once Severus was
dead. While Caracalla held most of his support among the soldiers with
whom he had fought side by side, Geta was the planner, plotter, and politi-
cian. Most scholars of the period agree that in the Imperial Palace, the broth-
ers lived in separate wings and ignored each others presence. The brothers
despised each other so much that they decided to split the empire between
them.
Severus had made them co-rulers before he died. Now Geta would take
Antioch as his capital, while Caracalla would have Rome as his. However,
Caracalla did not approve of this idea and decided to take matters into his own
hands. In 211, during a visit to their mother, Caracalla had his own brother
assassinated. While Geta had agreed to meet at their mothers home unarmed
and without bodyguards, the sly Caracalla had his personal centurions waiting
at his mothers home to ambush his brother. According to author Fik Meijer,
Geta was stabbed and ran to his mother and died in her arms. And with that
fatal move, Caracalla was now the sole emperor of Rome (Meijer, 2004).
The assassination of his brother was only the beginning of the web of
tyranny. Caracalla was drastic in his next actions as the sole emperor. He
immediately went to his army camp, acting as if he had survived an assassina-
tion attempt. He ordered his soldiers to rise up against those who had wronged
him, and in the next few months thousands of people were massacred in Rome.
Among most of these who were killed were senators, and from this moment
46 Journal of Black Studies 47(1)

on, Caracalla had tarnished the relationship between emperor and the Senate.
This massacre ended in 20,000 dead in Rome. To add further insult to his
brothers death, like Thutmoses III who tried to erase the reign of Hatshepsut
in Kemets 18th Dynasty, Caracalla had all Getas imagery around Rome
destroyed. It is only through later historians of Rome, do we learn something
of Getas background. Caracalla even kept his mother from publicly mourning
his brother Geta, threatening her with death if she dared to do so.

His Military Achievements

Caracalla strode the history of Rome like he would never die yet he brought
death wherever he went. Claiming the army as his personal guard and
demanding fealty and loyalty beyond all bounds, Caracalla raised taxes to
pay the army, much like Severus had done, and used the soldiers against the
emperors enemies in the Senate, thus causing fear among the people of
Rome. However, he was immediately faced with a problem; he could not
raise enough taxes to pay the army because only Roman citizens could be
taxed. In 212 a.d., Caracalla created the Constitutio Antoniniana, a law that
made all free inhabitants in the empire Roman citizens. In the emperors own
words,

Therefore I think that I can on a grand scale and with piety, so that which is
commensurate with their divine majesty, if I should bring with me as Romans
to the shrine of the gods as many tens of thousands as enter into the number of
my people. Accordingly I grant Roman citizenship to all who inhabit the
civilized world. (Die Giessener literarischen Papyri und die Caracalla-Erlasse
40 col.1)

This law did not include Roman slaves from the European hinterlands and
elsewhere, but did include the foreign people in the Roman Empire who were
not held in bondage. Therefore, Caracalla was able to gain more income for
the massive military forces of Rome. Unfortunately, this meant that the
emperor spent more of his time focused on the army and not on the basic
needs of his people (Kruger, 2001).
There is some confusion as to why the emperor granted this citizenship.
Some people such as Dio Cassius believed it to be a tactic to enforce compre-
hensive inheritance taxes or even thanks to the gods for saving Caracalla
from his brother Getas alleged plot (Keresztes, 1970). Others believed that it
was a great act of benevolence in keeping with Caracallas effusive, unpre-
dictable nature. Creating all these new citizens was extremely significant to
the people. Being a Roman was highly looked upon. Even non-Romans gave
Asante and Ismail 47

themselves Roman names to be better looked upon (Campbell, 2011). In our

opinion, Caracalla could have seen the advantage of having a large constitu-
ency than the citizens of Rome proper. By granting such citizenship, he would
open the empire to people in Asia and Africa who were under Roman rule,
but not enslaved by Rome, thus creating a populace beholden to him for its
sustenance and Roman identity. In effect, his supporters cheered any idea that
would help him neutralize the Senate in Rome. Of course, such path to power
and longevity is also paved with political potholes.
Many leaders feign familiarity with their soldiers; some actually take on
the attributes of their troops as a way to demonstrate solidarity. Caracalla
often wore the clothes of the soldiers seeking to demonstrate his fraternal
spirit with them. Caracalla shared duties with his soldiers and also carried out
menial tasks done by the ordinary soldiers. He did not live an extravagant
life; he used wooden utensils and even baked his own bread. Caracalla
marched on foot with his soldiers, carried the same equipment, and lived the
same lifestyle. Caracalla gave his soldiers all the treasures and loot they cap-
tured. He was determined to give the soldiers all the luxuries that he thought
they deserved and he was not worried about taking from others to give to the
soldiers (Campbell, 1984). Caracalla treated the senators with contempt even
though he was capable to generous gestures (Campbell, 2011).
Despite Caracallas doting on the army seeking to endear himself to the
generals and soldiers, across the empire the gossip was that he was insanely
cruel and unable to lead such a diverse and complex government. Such
rumors often led to more persecutions, violence against his perceived ene-
mies, and the destabilization of the empire. His persecutions sent shock
waves of fear through the land, and few people were saved from the tsunami
that was his uncontrollable rage.
There was something strange however, in the fact that Caracalla felt kindly
toward Christians in a way that escaped his father who was severe with
Christian believers. The Christians seemed to finally catch a break from the
hatred that was often shown toward them by Roman emperors. Caracalla
even had a Christian chamberlain named Marcus Aurelius Prosenses. This
was very uncharacteristic of a man such as Caracalla, whose father Severus
was known for his persecution of the Christians (Keresztes, 1970).

Caracalla in Egypt
Following in the footsteps of one of his military heroes, Alexander the
Macedonian, Caracalla planned to conquer the East. He made routes through
the Danube and the Rhine frontiers, building fortifications for his military for
security purposes. Beginning in Egypt in 215, the city of Alexandria had the
48 Journal of Black Studies 47(1)

misfortune of [Caracallas] visit during his later years as emperor. According

to author Samuel Sharpe, the Alexandrians were clever in mocking their rul-
ers, including the Roman emperors who helped rule their country from afar.
However, Caracalla caught wind of the Alexandrians mockery of his life-
style. Dressing as the legends such as the Greek fighter Achilles and his per-
sonal hero, the warrior king Alexander, Caracalla was a joke to the people of
Alexandria. The Alexandrians mocked the fact that Caracalla had murdered
his brother, was rumored to have wanted to marry his own mother, and even
teased him of his short stature. In short, it did not seem that the Egyptians
were too subtle of their disapproval of the Emperor Caracalla. And yet, the
people of Alexandria were wise when Caracalla came to visit their city; they
prepared the Temple of Serapis for him and sang songs of his arrival, unaware
that he knew of their mockery (Sharpe, 1859).
Upon his arrival, Caracalla made sacrifice at the temple of Serapis and
visited the tomb of his beloved Alexander the Great (Sharpe, 1859). An
Egyptian delegation that had met the emperor was the first to meet his anger,
as he ordered their deaths and followed this action with the plunder and mur-
der of Alexandrians (Daly & Petry, 1998). Shortly afterward, the emperor
issued that all of the Alexandrian youth meet with him and his army to create
an Alexandria Phalanx. A phalanx was a Greek military formation that had
been used by Greek, Macedonian, and Roman armies for centuries. Caracalla
had adopted this Greek formation into his own personal army and requested
the Egyptian youth to join him. When the young men met the emperor and
stood in formation, he went through the lines and surveyed the Alexandrians.
After he had gone through thousands of lines of youth, Caracalla ordered his
own men to massacre the unarmed Egyptians, turning the Nile red with the
blood of the slain men (Sharpe, 1859). Here was a native African cutting
down the youth of Alexandria, which by 215 was a city with a strong mixed
population of Africans, Greeks, and Romans with a few Jews and Bedouins,
in a vulgar ritual of blood for the sake of his personal satisfaction. Perhaps the
fact that he is not called upon by the myriad scholars of ancient classical
Africa as someone to be emulated is directly related to the fact that his actions
were deeply human. Caracallas killing of innocents had little to do with eth-
nicity, culture, region of the world; it was the action of a man whose self-
absorbing narcissism engulfed him and those around him in a destructive turn
against humanity.
Caracallas vengeance did not end with the murder of the Alexandrian
youth. The emperor returned to Alexandria and set up a fortification in the
center of the city, dividing it into two cities (Sharpe, 1859). He introduced an
increase of police force that terrorized the Alexandrians (Daly & Petry, 1998).
He ended the public sports that brought so much joy to the city, and even cut
Asante and Ismail 49

off the corn importation to the Alexandrians. It was under Caracallas visit to
Egypt that the trust of the Romans was diminished, and the Alexandrians
were treated as enemies. His massacre of the people of Alexandria, appar-
ently in revenge for popular abuse of him for the murder of his brother Geta
in 212, is recorded in the annals of evil (Echols, 1961). Echols (1961) writes,
While he was still living in Rome . . . it was reported to [Caracalla] that the
Alexandrians were making endless jokes about him.
Although the citizens of the Egyptian capital had always been known for
their insolence toward authority, they misjudged Caracallas level of instabil-
ity and tendency to overreact substantially. Caracalla joined the Alexandrians
in celebrating and merrymaking (Echols, 1961) and called upon all of the
young men of the city to assemble in a broad plain in order to organize a
phalanx in honor of Alexander (Echols, 1961). The unassuming young men
gathered along with their parents and brothers, and Caracalla went around to
each one until his entire army surrounded the group. He then left the field with
his personal bodyguard at which time his soldiers fell upon the youth, attack-
ing them and the others present. Others outside the slaughter dug ditches in
which to hold the bodies of those present, as the slaughter was so great that
the wide mouths of the Nile and the entire shore around the city were stained
red by the streams of blood flowing through the plain (Echols, 1961).
Although a terrible time in the history of the city of Alexandria, the story
of the tragedy gave a context for a great example of the Alexandrian style of
art and architecture that is the Catacombs of Kom el-Shuqafa. A very large
complex probably dating to sometime in the second century, the catacombs
represent the blending of Graeco-Roman styles and motifs with ancient
Egyptian themes translating to Mounds of Shards. The complex consists of
three main levels of tombs and statues, along with a triclinium, originally
intended to house one family. A breach in the main rotunda on the first level
leads to what is known as the Hall of Caracalla. The catacomb is tradition-
ally said to contain the remains of young Christiansand their horsesmas-
sacred by Caracalla, although there is no historical basis for the story other
than that of the massacre itself. Within the complex are two tombs called the
Persephone Tombs with two separate scenes of decoration which have been
deciphered, providing an example of the blending of ancient Egyptian and
Graeco-Roman traditions of Alexandrian art (Borg, 2012).
According to most accounts, Caracalla left Alexandria in 216, continuing
his plans to conquer the East just as Alexander the Great had done genera-
tions before. In Edessa, the emperor camped for the winter, where his para-
noia got the better of him; he ordered several of his close generals and
advisors to death, terrifying that those closest to him were against him. This
was of no surprise to the Egyptians, who had been informed by a serapio that
50 Journal of Black Studies 47(1)

Caracalla would die soon after leaving Egypt and would be succeeded by the
prefect Macrinus. Caracalla caught news of this premonition and made his
fear of the prefect known (Millar, 1967).
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, otherwise known as Caracalla, had begun his
rule in 212 a.d. When Macrinus, the Praetorian prefect of Caracalla, discov-
ered that the emperor had been plotting his execution, he became enraged and
made his own plot against the emperor (Miller, 1939). In 217 a.d., Caracalla
was murdered by Macrinus, who replaced him as emperor (Campbell, 2011).
Macrinus did not last very long; however, only 14 months into his reign he
was overthrown and executed. The eastern army rallied to the young cousin
of Caracalla, Elagabalus, who was rumored to be Caracallas illegitimate son
and he ruled from 218 to 222 a.d.
Thus, Caracallas succession ended his reign of terror for he had proved to
be harsh as many citizens also considered him mad. While he terrorized
countless numbers of people, Caracalla did introduce the largest building in
Rome, the Baths of Caracalla. The Baths epitomized the grandeur of Rome
and strike awe still to this day. The mad emperors reign was not long, but
certainly not one that was quickly forgotten, as his law Constitutio Antoniniana
affected the empire for several years after his death and the persecutions
across the empire were never forgotten (Bunson, 2012).

Conclusion
Caracallas legacy is not well documented, but what we know is only
impressive because of the ignominy of his rule. He came to power, the son
of a dynasty founder who had largely set up the succession so that the
empire would run smoothly after his death, and ended his reign in a desert
in the Levant, dying of stab wounds inflicted on him by his own soldiers.
Several years later in the dynasty, Severus Alexander in 222 a.d. was also
brutally murdered by his own soldiers, victim of the same violent end as his
predecessors. Caracalla had sought to introduce innovations that would win
over the citizens yet his half-silver coins wreaked havoc on the monetary
system; more people were paying more taxes under his rule for a handful of
privileges they essentially already possessed than ever before. He rode the
horse of power until it nearly died of exhaustion. The empire endured
Caracalla, and when he was killed in 217, the bribery, intrigue, and civil
wars took a short break. In short, the reign of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
Caracalla, his life, personality, and acts during his brief term as an
emperor, made him a notable, if not a beneficial, figure in both the history
of the Roman Empire in general and Egypt as a Roman-controlled province
in particular.
Asante and Ismail 51

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publica-
tion of this article.

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Author Biographies
Molefi Kete Asante holds PhD from the University of California.
Shaza Ismail received PhD from Helwan University and the University of Wales, UK.