Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Teacher Training School - E N S - Constantine

Department of English


Designing Reading Materials
to Enhance Learners Proficiency in Writing:
The Case of 1st Year Secondary School
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the
Magister Degree in Applied Linguistics and language Teaching.
Option: Course Design and evaluation in EFL

Candidate: Supervisor:

KOUSSA Lamia Dr HAMADA Hacene

Broad of Examiners:
Chairman9 Prof. Said KESKES- Professeur - Universit Ferhat Abbas . Stif

Supervisor: Dr Hacene HAMADA M.C.A- Ecole Normale Suprieure. Constantine

Examiner: Dr Abdelhak NEMOUCHI -M.C.A- Universit Mentouri. Constantine

Year 2012

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DEDICATION

To my dear parents, Koussa Ammar and Kitous Aicha, for their

support, patience and prayers

To my husband, Dr. Bouhali Abd Alaziz, for his continuous support,

encouragement, and understanding

To my beloved kids, Iyed and Chiheb, whose cheerful smiles

made this strenuous task not just bearable but enjoyable

To my sisters and brothers, for their encouragement and prayers

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AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Doctor

HACENE HAMADA, for his patient tutoring and invaluable advice at every stage of the

thesis, guiding me through the ideas, writing and revisions. His support over the years carried

me through many difficulties, enabling me to complete this dissertation.

I am thankful to the board of examiners Professor Said Keskes and Doctor Abdelhak

Nemouchi who accepted to examine my research work.

I am also indebted to Professor Hacne Saadi, and Dr Riad Belwaham, who gave

thoughtful suggestions and inspired my study at the initial stages.

I would also like to thank all students who took part in the study for their patience and

invaluable feedback. It would not have been possible without their assistance.

I also extend my thanks to all my dearest friends and colleagues in Constantine, especially

Toualbia Habiba, Kemouch Rym, Mr Ferani, Lebaili Aicha and Hamour Lynda for their help.

My special thanks go to my former teachers, my colleagues at Keteb Yacine and Ben

Badis secondary school.

Last but not least, my deepest gratitude goes to my parents, Koussa Ammar and Kitous

Aicha for their endless love, sacrifices and moral support. Without their encouragement, I

would never have been able to overcome every hardship throughout the road to the completion

of this dissertation. I also thank my husband Dr Bouhalli Abd Alaziz, my sisters, and my

brothers, for their encouragement and faith in me.

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 ABSTRACT

This study attempts to elicit EFL learners and teachers beliefs and attitudes regarding the use

and the effect of teachers authentic reading materials design on learners proficiency in

writing at the secondary school level in Constantine. This study will show how teachers adapt

reading materials (authentic materials) in order improve learners proficiency in writing

through the use of simplified texts (ST) and modified tasks (MT) to meet their learners needs.

The study is based on two questionnaires addressed to both learners and teachers from a

randomly selected representative sample of the participants to elicit their opinions about the

teaching and the learning of the reading and the writing skills. Classroom observation is

another tool used for the present investigation to show what takes place in the classroom. Then

two separate analyses of pre and post-test data were conducted concerning the implementation

of the first unit of the textbook At The Crossroad entitled Getting Through with sixteen

first year secondary school learners who have been selected and assigned randomly to two

groups (experimental and control group) for a period of six weeks. The control group has

received the textbook reading materials (adoption). However, the experimental group is

provided with the teachers own reading materials on the same topic (adaptation) within the

same period of time. Evaluation involved learners writing production The application letter

which is considered as the project work of this unit. Thus, the descriptive and experimental

research design incorporated both qualitative and quantitative instruments to accomplish the

objectives of the study. The analysis of the results indicated that there was a significant

difference between the two groups. In terms of progress, EG learners have made
4
improvements in their post-test gaining significantly higher means than the CG learners.

Besides, learners and teachers had positive attitudes toward the design and the use of authentic

reading materials in their reading classes.

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EAP: English for Academic Purposes

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

CG: Control Group

EG: Experimental Group

ESL: English as a Second Language

LTM: Long Term Memory

PPP: Presentation, Practice, Production

SL: Second Language

SLA: Second Language Acquisition

STM: Short Term Memory

TEFL: Teaching English as a Foreign Language

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table N Title Page

Table1: Learners gender. 84

Table2: Learners age.............................................................................................84

Table3: Learners stream........................................................................................85

Table 4: How many times learners study Engliish per-week..................................... 86

Table5: Learners attitudes toward learning English............................................... 86

Table 6: Learners attitudes about the mastery of the four skills.............................. 87

Table7: Learners ability to write......................................................................... 88

Table 8: Learners actual level in writing............................................................... 89

Table 9 : The importace of grammar,vocabulary, ideas.. 90

Table 9.a: Rank of the imporatance of vocabulary.. 91

Table 9.b: Rank of the importance of organization of ideas.91

Table 9.c.: Rank of the importance of grammar.........................................................91

Table 10: Learners attitudes about writing outside classroom.....................................92

Table 11: Learners types of writing outside classroom...............................................93

Table 12: The way learners prefer to write inside classroom.......................................94

Table 13: Learners most difficult skill......................................................................95

Table 14:. Learners problem with writing.................................................................96

Table 15: Learners attitudes about teachers effort.96

Table 16: Types of activities doing by teachers...............................................................97
Table 17:.Reading and writing activities........................................................................98

Table 18: Learners opinions about time-allocation to writing .........................................98

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Table 19: Types of writing ............................................................................................99

Table 20: Writing genre(s) learners find the most difficult................................................100

Table 21: Learners attitudes about the activities.. 100

Table 22: Types of activities........................................................................................ 101

Table 23: Learners ability to write according to a similar model........................................102

Table 24: Kind of difficulty learners have in writing.......................................................102

Table 25: Teachers writing feedback 103

Table 26: Learners attitudes about the coursebook materials 104

Table 28: Learners attitudes about teachers designed activities........................................104

Table 29: Learners attitudes about the coursebook activities............................................106

Table 30: .Learners objectives in learning to write..........................................................107

Table 31: Learners attitudes about the coursebook objectives .108

Table 32: Learners attitudes about teachers efforts.......................................................109

Table 33: Learners attitudes about the project works.......................................................109

Table 34: Learners attitudes about teachers feedback 110

Table 35: Teachers status.................................................................................... 114

Table 36: Teachers gender.. 114

Table 37: Teachersexperience in the field. 115

Table 38: The four skills importance in teaching........................................................ 116

Table 39: The most important skills in teaching . .116

Table 40: Teachers use of their own designed reading materials 117

Table 41: Criteria for designing reading materials 118

Table 42: Teachers objectives while designing materials.................................................119

Table 43: The teachers reasons for designing their materials............................................120

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Table 44: Designing materials and learners needs............................................................121

Table 45: Teachers concerns when desgig their materials................................................122

Table 46: The project work and the writing practice 122

Table 47: The writing techniques....................................................................................123

Table 48: Teachers writing focus.................................................................................124

Table 49: Teachers reading activities for learners writing .............................................125

Table 51: Teachers reading activities............................................................................127

Table 52: Teachers group work.....................................................................................128

Table 53: Learners application of learnt vocabulary .......................................................129

Table 54: The way of teaching vocabulary.......................................................................130

Table 55: Teachers responses to their learners writing.....................................................130

Table 56: Teachers evaluation for their designed materials..............................................131

Table 57: Teachers evaluation of writing.......................................................................132

Table 58: Teachers roles...............................................................................................133

Table 59: The learners roles .133

Table 60. Learners pre-test scores.. 194

Table 61. The results of the pre- test 197

Table.62 The means of the learners pre test 198

Table.63 The means of the learners post-test 199

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 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1
1. Statement of the problem .. 2

2. Purpose of the study .. 4

3. Background of the study.. ......5

4.Research questions and hypothesis 6

5.Research methodology and tools7

6.Definitions of the basic terms and concepts8

7.Structure of the dissertation..10

CHAPTER ONE: READING AND WRITING CONVERGENCES

Introduction ..12

1. Reading-writing connection..13

2.Reading Definition:........... 15

3. The history of teaching reading language......................................................................16

4. Reading as a process Vs reading as a skill ......17

4.1. Reading as a process. 18

4.1.1.Reading as an interactive process..19

4.1.2.Reading as a purposeful process: .21

4.1.3.Reading as a critical process.22

4.2.Reading as a skill:.. 23

4.2.1.Stage One Word level 23

4.2.2.StageTwo:Sentence level:.23

4.2.2.Stage Three Paragraph Level: .23

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4.2.3.Stage Four: Reading Longer Selections..25

4.2.4.Stage Five: individualized reading.. 25

5. Teaching Reading as a Skill:. .. 25

5.1.Reading as decoding: . 26

5.2.Reading as Prediction . 26

5.3.Reading as schemata script building. 27

6.Reading Instructional Approaches: . 28

6.1.The Basal Reading Approach: 28

6.2.The Language Experience Approach:. 28

6.3.Literature Based Instruction:. 29

7.Approaches To The Teaching of Literacy:. 29

7.1.The Skill Based Approach:. 29

7.2.Strategy-Based Reading Approach:. 30

8.Reading strategies 31

8.1.Integrating strategy training in teaching reading.. 32

8.2.Who are good readers.33

9.Reading activities..36

9.1.Prereading Activities:..36

9.2.During Reading Activities:.37

9.2..Post Reading Activities:.. 37

10.Assessing reading skill38

11.The writing process Vs the writing skill..38

11.1.Writing as a process 39

11.2.Writing as a skill 42
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12.Writing approaches..45

12.1.The product approach45

12.2.The process approach 45

12.3.The genre approach . .. 45

12.4. The creative writing approach.. 46

12.5.The cooperative approach 46

13. Writing strategies 46

14. Writing assessment and teachers feedback. 48

15. Writing instructional activities..47

16. Teaching vocabulary.50

16.1. Aptitude hypothesis..50

16.2. Knowledge hypothesis 50

16.3. Instrumental hypothesis.. 50

Conclusion. 51

CHAPTER TWO: MATERIALS DESIGN

Introduction 53

1.Instructional materials and teaching..53

2.Materials and method.54

3.Materials and authenticity 56

4.The role of designing instructional materials 57

5.Materials design and the syllabus 59

5.1.Types of syllabuses 60

6.Syllabus Vs curriculum 61
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6.1.Syllabus design 61

6.2. Curriculum design .62

7. Materials design and textbook. 63

8.Needs analysis and materials development .. 65

8.1. Needs analysis .. 65

8.2.Materials development 66

9.Materials design Vs materials adaptation 67

9.1. Materials design 67

9.1.1.Materials design model . 68

9.2. Materials adaptation 69

9.2.1. Reasons for adaptation . 69

10.The design of reading materials 70

10.1. Selection of reading strategies 71

10.2. Selection of reading texts 71

10.3. The design of teaching and reading tasks 72

11.The role of the teacher in the process 74

12.The learners role in the process 75

13.Materials evaluation 75

14.Materials revision 76

Conclusion 76

CHAPTER THREE: THE EFFECT OF READING MATERIALSS ON LEARNERS

PROFICIENCY IN WRITING

Introduction......................................................................................................................79
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1.The learners questionnaire......................................................................................... 81
1.1.The sample........................................................................................................... 81
1.2.Description of the questionnaire............................................................................ 81
1.3. Analysis and interpretation of learners questionnaire................................................ 84
2. Teachers questionnaire............................................................................................. 112
2.1. The sample...........................................................................................................112
2.2. Description of teachers questionnaire..................................................................... 112
2.3 .Analysis and interpretation of teachers questionnaire.................................................113
3.Classroom Observations..............................................................................................134
3.1.Classroom observations comment and interpretations ................................................135
3.2. Classroom observations sheets..................................................................................136
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................142

CHAPTER Four: THE EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

Introduction ..144

1. Methodology..145

1.2.Qualitative methods..145

1.2.1.Making use of questionnaires 145

1.2.2.Classrooms observations .146

1.3.Quantitative method147

2. Research questions and purpose of the study147

3. Population: participants 148

4. Materials used for practice.. 149

4.1.The originanal version (textbook materials) 149

4.2.The designed version (the adapted material)210

5.Content and procedures 191

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5.1. Pre-test: description and results.. 191

5.2. The pre-test material and tool 192

5.3.The control group pre-test scores 194

5.4.The experimental group pre-test scores.. 194

6.Treatment period 195

6.1. Overview of reading materials design.. 196

6.2.Description of the treatment phase. 196

7.Post-test: Description and results 197

7.1. The control group post test scores. 197

7.2.The experimental group post test scores 198

7.3.Post test results of (CG) and (EG).. 198

8.Data analysis: Comparison of results and means198

8.1.Calculating the means of thr pre-test.. 199

8.2. Comparing the means of the post-test .... 199

9.t-test analysis.. 200

10.Reporting the results

Conclusion

CHAPER FIVE: PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

Introduction 210

1.Summary of research findings210

2. Issues of the study 213

3.Limitations. 217

4.Pedagogical Implications 218

5.Recommendations for future research 221

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Conclusion..222

GENERAL CONCLUSION......222

BIBLIOGRAPHY223

APPENDICES :

Appendix I : Learners questionnaire.236

Appendix II : Teachers questionnaire.249

Appendix III : Control group post-test materials(the original version) .262

Appendix IV: Experimental group post-test materials(the designed version).283

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INTRODUCTION

1. Statement of the problem

2. Purpose of the study

3. Background of the study

4. Research questions and hypothesis

5. Definitions of the basic terms and concepts

6. Structure of the dissertation

17
 INTRODUCTION

1. Statement of the Problem

This research study investigates the effects of teachers own produced reading materials on

the learners proficiency in writing. It attempts to check whether the process of designing

materials positively affects learners proficiency in writing or not. In a situation such as that of

Algerian secondary schools, the process of materials design tends to involve simply looking at

open-market commercially developed materials; Secondary school teachers are just selecting

the materials which best fit their learners needs and appeal to their beliefs and values. Only

few teachers have the desire to design their own reading materials and task types similar to

those in available commercial materials, but with different texts which are more suitable to

their learners needs. In this respect, secondary school teachers tend to contribute in the

process of producing more appropriate and effective materials for their learners (Mc Grath,

2002; Tomlinson, 2003).

Teachers of English in secondary schools are not satisfied, to a large extent, with the

textbook materials they are using, since they do not fit well within their own teaching context.

When first year secondary school teachers tackle the textbook reading materials, they

encounter many problems, among which, a lack of learners centered activities, texts that are

uninteresting and that target only the learners comprehension at the expense of stimulating

the learners learning process.

In addition to their dissatisfaction with the textbook At The Crossroad, teachers do not

dare to produce alterntive materials because the process of materials design and evaluation is

considered as a time-consuming task. As it is mentioned above, only few teachers have tried to

produce new materials to respond to the interests and needs of their learners.

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 When we tackle the issue of selection, adaptation and creation of teaching materials, we are

speaking about materials design and development of teacher-produced materials or

commercially developed ones (Nunan, 1991, p. 208). If the syllabus defines the objectives and

the goals, teachers, according to their instructional materials, can put flesh on the bones (ibid).

Learners needs have a crucial role in improving their reading and writing proficiency

through arousing their motivation. In other words, teachers own produced materials tend to

arouse in learners a desire to learn the language and a feeling that the language they are

learning is useful via taking into account their needs and interests in the design process

(Masuhara, 1998, p.241, Al-Mutawa & Kailani, 1989, p.156). Thus, this research takes into

account the specific needs of the learners.

In addition to the learners needs and motivation, a further aspect has to be taken into

consideration in designing reading materials is learners previous language experiences. Breen

and candling (1987), for instance, advise teachers to focus on what the learners already know

( learners background knowledge) in designing their reading materials, i.e., adopting a top-

down view to reading rather than a bottom-up view. Furthermore, the use of the language of

real world situations in the classroom is another important element that should be taken into

account in the process of designing reading materials. Teachers, therefore, have to incorporate

authentic materials in their reading instruction rather than using artificial ones.

2. Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to show the positive correlation between the development

of effective reading materials and the learners proficiency in writing. The study also aims at

sheding light on the reasons why teachers might need to adapt their teaching materials. It

explores the process of materials development among teachers and their feedback on the
19
shortcomings of the first unit Getting Through of the first year secondary school textbook

At the Crossroad, in terms of reading materials and their effect on learners proficiency in

writing. In addition, it aims at establishing to what extent learners use their vocabulary

knowledge as well as the degree of importance they give to reading and writing in general.

More specifically, this study investigates whether the design and implementation of

authentic reading materials contribute to learners better perceptions of the tasks of the first

unit entitled Getting Through as a whole and promote learners performance in writing their

project wokshop of writing an application letter. The study focuses on the variables that

should be taken into consideration by the teachers as material designers to improve the

appropriacy of reading materials and learners own writing proficiency as well.

To achieve the purposes of this study, qualitative procedures (questionnaires, and classroom

observations) are used to investigate if the reading materials including texts, classroom tasks

and activities which are either adopted from the textbook or adapted and designed by the

teacher, play an essential part in improving learners proficiency in writing; pre- and post tests

are also implemented to evaluate the learners reading and writing processes.

3. Background of the Study:

Designing and adapting materials is a common practical activity carried out mainly by

teachers in order to make their work more relevant to the learners with whom they are in direct

contact. It is, however, a comlex exercise which includes the importance of learners needs

and interests as well. Furthermore, teachers should take into account the setting of objectives

in a particular educational context to meet their learners needs ( Mc Donough &. Shaw,

2003).

The process of materials design is of crucial importance because many teachers may find

that the coursebook materials are not intresting or are linguistically too difficult and they,
20
consequently, write their own produced materials for their learners. More commonly, teachers

use textbook materials because the process of designing materials is a time-consuming not

because of their satisfaction with the textbook materials. Thus, teachers do engage in

materials development to some extent by progressing through a time consuming and

frustrating process of self-training by trial and error (Dwyer, 1985). Many educators

believe that learners perform better through developing effective materials. However, only

teachers who have both creativity and experience can provide learners with effective

materials.

This study, hence, tackles some of the issues surrounding the selection, adaptation, and

creation of teaching materials. As these are important elements within the curriculum, the

focus of attention will be put on teachers- developed materials. If the syllabus defines the

goals and objectives, the linguistic and experiential content, instructional materials as

developed by the teachers- can put flesh on the bones of these specifications (Nunan, 1991).

According to Tomlinson (1998, p.1), teachers who are involved in materials development

should go through particular steps in order to provide useful professional development tools

among which:

1-Clarify the terms and concepts commonly used in discussing materials development.

2-Carry out systematic evaluations of materials currently in use in order to find out to what

degree and why they facilitate the learning of language.

3-Conssider the potential applications of current research into second language acquisition.

4-Consider the potential applications of what both teachers and learners believe is valuable in

the teaching and learning of a second or foreign language.

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 When selecting the adapted materials for design, it is important to match the materials with

the goals and objectives of the programme, and to ensure that they are consistent with

learners attitudes, beliefs and preferences (Hutchinson and Waters, 1991) .

4. Research Questions and Hypothesis:

The present investigation is carried out to answer the following research questions:

1. To what extent do learners perceive the use of the coursebook, as a means of instruction

and discussion in the reading classroom context, to be useful to text understanding?

2. To what extent has the first unit Getting Through as a whole been successful in

responding to the learners needs and interests in terms of selections of reading strategies, of

reading texts and of pedagogical tasks?

3. To what extent the modified reading materials, the simplified texts or the authentic

versions brought by the teacher, contribute to learners better perceptions of the tasks and the

unit as a whole?

4. Do the adapted versions, create greater positive learners perceptions of the materials than

do the original version in the coursebook?

5. Does the use of the teachers designed materials promote learners better performance?

Accordingly, it is assumed that when the teachers own reading produced materials are

appropriate and relevant to their learners needs, interests, beliefs, attitudes, as well as, to the

educational programs objectives and goals, their learners proficiency level in writing would

be improved and their motivation to learn would be aroused.

The major hypothesis that appeals to the current problem is that if teachers reading

materials design are effective, learners proficiency in writing will be improved, i.e., teachers

reading material design has a positive effect on learners proficiency level in writing.
22
5. Research Methodology and Tools

The data is collected through the use of three research tools namely, teachers and learners

questionnaires, classroom observation and an experimental study. The teachers questionnaire,

addressed to first year secondary school teachers, aims at determining the role reading

materials play in teaching writing, and their attitudes toward designing their own produced

reading materials to enhance their learners writing performance through targeting their needs

and increasing the level of task enjoyment. The learners questionnaire, addressed to first year

secondary school learners, will provide their preferences in learning reading, and the

importance they give it in improving their writing proficiency.

Classroom observation and experimental investigation are two other tools used for the

present investigation. Such means of research allows direct contact with what takes place in

the classroom. To achieve the aim of this study, the participants are pre-tested prior the

beginning of the experiment through Text-Focused Approach to writing. After the pre-test,

each group follows particular reading instruction materials for six weeks. During the treatment

period, the control group (CG) follows the textbook reading materials and the experimental

group (EG) follows the teachers designed reading materials (i.e, the EG doesnt follow the

same reading materials but their teachers produced ones). At the end of the experiment both

groups are post tested. The collected data, of the pre-test and the post test, are compared via a

t-test analysis. The analysis of the collected data aims at determining whether designing

authentic reading materials which are relevant to learners needs, interests and beliefs enhance

their proficiency in writing. After analysing the results, we will draw conclusions to accept or

to refute the proposed hypothesis.

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6. Definitions of the Basic Terms and Concepts

We provide the reader with the definitions of some key terms which can be found in

subsequent sections of the dissertation among which: materials development, materials

evaluation, language teaching. These terms are differently defined by many authors, but the

definitions mentioned below are suggested by ( Tomlinson, 1998, p. ix )

6.1. Materials Dvelopment

Material development refers to anything which is done by writers, teachers or learners to

provide sources of language input and to exploit those sources in ways which maximise the

likelihood of intake.

6.2.Materials adaptation

Making changes to materials in order to improve them or to make them more suitable for a

particular type of learner. Adaptation can include reducing, adding, omitting, modifying and

supplementing. Most teachers adapt materials every time they use a textbook in order to

maximize the value of the book for their particular learners.

6.3. Materials Evaluation

This term refers to attempts to measure the value of materials, and to predict whether or not

the materials will work.

6.4. Language Teaching

It is the overt presentation of information by teachers to facilitate the learning of the

language.
24
6.5. Coursebook

A textbook which provides the core materials for a language-learning course. It aims to

provide as much as possible in one book and is designed so that it could serve as the only book

which the learners necessarily use during a course. Such a book usually includes work on

grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions and the skills of reading, writing, listening and

speaking.

6.6. ELF

English as a lingua franca the English used by non-native speakers or the use of English

by non-native speakers to achieve communication with each other.

6.7. Language practice

Activities which involve repetition of the same language point or skill in an environment

which is controlled by the framework of the activity.

6.8.Language use

Activities which involve the production of language in order to communicate.

7. Structure of the Dissertation

The present work is divided into five chapters. The first two chapters constitute the

literature survey. Chapter One provides a brief background in the teaching of reading and

writing as a process and as a skill, particularly the strategies used by both teachers and

learners in the teaching and learning process focusing on the connection between reading and

writing. Chapter Two reports the criteria of designing reading materials, with emphasis on
25
ESL/EFL studies and shows how the analysis of learnrs needs influence the selection of

reading texts and learning tasks. The main focus of this chapter concerns materials revision

and evaluation.

The last three chapters constitute the empirical part of the work. Chapter Three concerns the

analysis of the data collected by means of the teachers and learners questionnaires, on the

one hand, and classroom observation, on the other hand. Chapter Four is the core of this

research. It covers our experimental study. Sixteen participants have been selected to

participate in this study. To know their writing level, they have been pre-tested. These

participants, who have been randomly assigned to either experimental group or control group,

spend six weeks following particular reading instruction materials. At the end of the treatment

period, both groups will be post-tested. In order to analyze the collected data, we use a

quantitative analysis relying on a t-test. Finally, Chapter five summarises the research findings

and provides suggestions and pedagogical implications concerning the design of reading

materials for improving learners proficiency in writing.

26
 CHAPTER ONE

READING AND WRITING CONVERGENCES

Introduction:

1. Reading-Writing connections.

2.Reading Definitions.

3. The History oF Teaching Reading language

4.Reading as a process Vs reading as a skill

5. Teaching Reading as a Skill

6. Reading Instructional Approaches

7. Approaches To The Teaching of Literacy:

8. Reading strategies (cognitive and metacognitive)

9. Integrating strategy training in teaching reading

10. Reading activities

11. Assessing reading skill

12. The writing process Vs the writing skill

13. Writing approaches

14.Writing assessment and teachers feedback

15.Writing instructional activities

16.Teaching vocabulary

Conclusion

27
 CHAPTER: ONE Reading And Writing Convergences.

Introduction

This chapter provides a brief theoretical background on the teaching of reading and writing

skills. It first looks at the connection of reading to writing as interwined, mutually dependent

literacy skills. In this respect, reading and writing reciprocally shape and support one another.

First, it addresses the issue of reading process and investigates the strategies used by good

readers to improve their writing proficiency. Then, the chapter presents writing as a cognitive

process and introduces the writing strategies used by good writers who are supposed to be

good readers as well. Finally, the chapter reports the different kinds of feedback on learners

writing as an outcome.

1. Reading-Writing Connections

The transition from seeing reading and writing as separate cognitive processes (1970s) to

seeing reading and writing as mutually dependent entities of composing (1990s). Connecting

reading to writing in second language writing instruction is used by the majority of teachers to

enhance their learners proficiency in writing. Thus, reading and writing processes are no

longer considered as two separate entities, but rather they are presented as interwined,

mutually dependent literacy skills. Reading and writing reciprocally shape and support one an

other. In this respect, teachers tend to use rich reading activities to teach learners to write

(Stone, 2009).

Most teachers today use and focus on reading to teach writing, in other words, reading-to-

write. Reading-to-write according to Flower (1990) is a tool that includes different activities

and tasks to improve writing instruction. Besides the reading-writing relationship in teaching
28
aimed at using reading activities to motivate learners to improve the learners proficiency in

writing ( i.e., When learners are reading, they are involving in writing). However, teachers

focus on the influence of reading to teach writing in schools. In other words, the reading phase

supplement the learners with enough vocabulary stock ( i.e., key-words about the topic ideas)

which enable learners to write effectively, in this sense, reading paves the way for writing.

Similarly, (Carson & Leki 1993, in Hyland, 2003) state that reading can be the basis for

writing in academic settings. Integrating reading with writing is based on the idea that reading

and writing complement each other because learners usually use what they read as vocabulary,

punctuation, grammar and form to what they write. As a result, different research studies show

that learners who read more tend to be good writers. This hypothesis implies that good readers

have the access to become good writers.

When learners are reading, they are involving in writing. Generally speaking, when learners

are writing, they make use of the information acquired from books, texts and reading

instructional materials they have already read. Thus learners should be invited to write about

what they are reading and to read about what they are writing (the real value of reading-

writing connections). Similarly, Squire (1984, in Jonnel.Vacca, Richard.Vacca, Mary.Gove,

Linda .Burkey, Lisa. Lenhart, Christine. McKeon, 2006, p.367) cited that writing and reading

has been described as two sides of the same process. In the past, elementary and secondary

teachers used to teach reading and writing separately as they are strangers to one an other. The

connections between reading and writing have been examined formally through research

studies. In this respect, (Shanahan, 1990; Tierney & Shanahan, 1991in Jonnel.Vacca, ibid,

p.368) draw conclusions about reading and writing relationships among which:

29
1. Reading and writing processes are correlated; that is, good readers are generally good

writers, and vice-versa.

2. Students who write well tend to read more than those who are less capable writers.

3. Wide reading may be as effective in improving writing as actual practice in writing.

4. Good readers and writers are likely to engage in reading and writing independently

because they have healthy concepts of themselves as readers and writers.

These conclusions suggest that reading and writing are related. The two processes share

some common characteristics: both are language based skills, both involve learners in the

process as active elements and in both skills, language is considered as communication, .i.e.,

through reading and writing, learners make meaning for communication.

2. Reading Definitions:

If we want to speak about the reading skill, we can say that, it is the act of decoding graphic

symbols. Different definitions are given by different authors. Some of them defined reading as

a skill, others defined it as a process. According to Peregoy and Boyle (2004, in T.Linse &

Nunan, 2005, p.69) who consider reading as a set of skills defined reading as follows:

Reading is a set of skills that involves making sense and deriving meaning from the printed
word and also comprehend what we read.. For second language learners there are three
different elements which impact reading; which are respectively, the learners background
knowledge, the learners linguistic knowledge of the target language, and the strategies and
techniques the learner uses to tackle the text. (Peregoy and Boyle, 2004 in T.Linse, 2005,
p.96)
However, other linguists defined reading as a process rather than as a skill. In this respect,
(Randi Stone, 2009, p.85) noted that:

30
Reading is not a technical skill acquired once and for all in the primary but rather a
developemental process. A readers competence continuous to grow through engagement with
various types of texts and wide reading for various purposes over life time. (Stone, 2009,
p.85)

According to the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) commission on reading

(2004) quoted in (Stone, 2009, p.85) the following reading definition:

Reading is a comlex, purposeful, social and cognitive process in which readers

simultaneously use their knowledge of spoken and written language, their knowledge of the
topic of the text, and their knowledge of their culture to construct meaning.

From these definitions, we can say that reading can be defined and thus can be taught either

as a skill or as a process. Besides, we can deduce that reading is not acquired with finality at

once, however, it is a process that takes place throughout our lives by exposing ourselves to

various texts.

3. The History of Teaching Reading Language:

The teaching of foreign language reading in recent years has been influenced by changes in

the understanding of the nature of the reading process. On the one hand, reading theory has

been affected by top-down rather than bottom-up processing. Accordingly, reading is no

longer viewed as a process of decoding, but rather as an integration of top-down processes that

utilize background knowledge and schema (Carell, Devine, and Eskey, 1988 in Richards,

1990). Besides, reasearchers tend to focus on readers themselves to identify the strategies

employed by successful readers as they interact with the reading text. Thus, the old

instructional reading methods and techniques brought by grammar translation and audio-

lingual approaches (1990s) are no longer efficient and appropriate in the process of learning
31
and teaching language structures (Crystal, 1997; Nunan, 1999). More recent approaches have

focused on communicative competence (Brown, 2001).

Richards (1990, p.87) summarizes, the objectives of a reading course under seven points:

1. To develop an awareness of reading strategies necessary for goodreading comprehension,

2. to expand vocabulary and to develop techniques for continued increase of vocabulary.

3. to develop an awareness of linguistic and rhetorical structures,

4. to increase reading speed and fluency,

5. to promote an interest in different types of reading materials,

6. to provide individual feedback on progress in improving reading skills,

7. to provide practice in extensive reading.

4. Reading as Process Vs Reading as a Skill:

The use of reading in the language classroom is based on both schema theory (reading as

process) and decoding theory (reading as a skill). Schema theory, also known as top-down

processing, involves the application of prior knowledge to working on the meaning of a text

(Hedge, 2000, p.189). However, decoding theory which is referred to as bottom-up processing,

includes decoding the letters, words, and other language features of the text (Hedge, ibid).

In this respect, learners should rely on their background knowledge, experiential

knowledge, as well as, knowledge of the language to decipher the text. Nunan argues that

reading is an interactive process, in which the reader constantly shuttles between bottom-up

and top-down processes (Nunan, 1999, p.254). Leaerners should rely on their individual

experience to grasp the reading text. For instance, Krashen (1980) argues that the input
32
shouldnt be too linguistically difficult and must be comprehensible for successful language

learning to occur. Brown (2001) also says that the ability of the reader to acquire meaning

depends on the accessibility of the L2 vocabulary. That is, as long as the reader knows the

words in the given text, he can infer the meaning from the context. In this respect, both

Reading as a skill or as a process has a close relationship with the term interactive (Tericia

Hedge 2011, p.188). In this sense, (Carrell, Devine, and Esky, 1988; in Hedge, ibid.) have

used this term to describe the second language reading process and skill.

According to Hedge (ibid, p.188), the terminteractive can be interpreted in two

ways. First, it describes a dynamic relationship with a text as the reader struggles to make

sense of it. This means When the reader is trying to create and deduce meaning from the text,

he is involved in an active process which Goodman (1967 in Hedge 2011, p.188) called a

psycholinguistic guessing game (i.e, engaging in reading is similar to playing a game); the

reader combines and gathers information from the text and his background knowledge, brings

them to read and achieve a complete understanding of the text. From this perspective, reading

can be seen as a kind of a dialogue between the reader and the text, and even between the

reader and the author (Widdowson,1979 in Hedge, 2011, p.188). The second interpretation of

the term interaction refers to the syntactic and morphological knowledge that a reader

employs and uses in moving through a text.

In this sense, Hedge (ibid, p.189) noted : Two of these, syntactic and morphological

knowledge, help readers to decode the language of a text and can together be called systemic

or linguistic knowledge. Therefore, both the reading process including, general world

knowledge, sociocultural, topic, and genre knowledge, in other words, schematic

knowledge, and the reading skill which includes knowledge of decoding the language of the
33
text morphological and syntactic knowledge enable a reader to work with the language of

the text in order to interpret its meaning. L2 reading is often categorized into the following

types: (a) receptive reading, (b) reflective reading, (c) skim reading, (d) scanning, and (e)

intensive reading.

4.1. Reading as a Process

According to (Hedge, 2011, p.190), reading can be a process in three ways, either an

interactive process or a purposeful process, as well as, it can be considered as a critical process

as follows:

4.1.1. Reading as an Interactive process

Reading can be an interactive process through the use of Schematic knowledge and

Language knowledge

4.1.1.a. Schematic Knowledge

Generally teachers start their reading lessons with the warm up to make use of schematic

knowledge. In this sense, the introductory task which can be a problem-solving activity

demonstrated the importance of schematic knowledge in reading which generally enable the

reader to work with the languge of the text in order to interpret its meaning (Hedge, 2011,

p.189). The term schematic knowledge has been usefully defined by Cook (1989 in Hedge,

ibid, p.190) as a mental representations of typical situations.used in discourse processing to

predict the contents of the particular situation which the discourse describes.

(Cook, 1989 quoted in Hedge, 2011, p.189).

Nunan(1999) asserts that the Schema Theory is based on the principle that readers prior

experience directs them building mental constructions to facilitate getting meaning from their

experiences. According to Hedge (ibid), certain words or phrases in the text or in the reading
34
materials can activate prior knowledge in the mind of the reader. This is demonstrated by

current research into the reading process which has uncovered what happens in silent reading

by asking learners to think aloud (ibid), and reporting on how they are responding to the

text, and by recording expressing their thoughts. In this respect, many studies suggest that

reading methodology have to activate schematic knowledge among learners before reading

(Hedge, ibid).

Through the use of interpretative procedures the participants supply meanings and
input underlying patterns even though the surface content will not reveal the
meanings to an observer unless his model is directed to such elaborations (Cicourel,
1973 in Nunan, 1990, p.68)
The schematic knowledge has a crucial influence on the comprehension processes, in

the sense, it helps learners to interprete the text (interpretive processes). Widdowson in (ibid)

has related this notion to three aspects of language. The first of these is concerned with

propositional meaning, while the second related to the functional level of language and the

third element is related to our interpretive ability to make connections which do not exist in

the text (Strategies used by good readers to grasp the meaning of the text). Nunan (1991, p.

63) used the Top- down view on the nature of reading to refer to schematic knowledge,

which suggests that We use discoursal and real world knowledge to construct and interprete

aural messages.

4.1.1.b. Language Knowledge

Language knowledge enables readers to work on and through the reading material given to

them. For instance, Hedge (ibid) noted that:

Good readers can easily recognize, and decode quickly and accurately, words, grammatical
structures, discourse signals, and other linguistic features. In other words, a fluent reader has a

35
good knowledge of language structure and can recognize and understand a wide range of
vocabulary automatically through the text (Hedge, p.192).

Similarly, Nunan (1991, p.63) outlined the bottom-up view on the nature of reading to

refer to language knowledge, which suggests that successful reading is a matter of

decoding the individual sounds we hear to derive the meaning words and hence utterances.

4.1.2. Reading as a Purposeful Process

Pugh, 1978; Lunzer & Gardner, 1979 (in Hedge, Ibid, p.194) described various styles of

reading, and gave their terminology which has been taken into ELT methodology as follows:

4.1.2.a. Receptive Reading: Which is undertaken, for example, when a reader wants to enjoy

a short story, follow a line of arguments, or understand the the main stages in a textbook

description.

4.1.2.b. Reflective Reading: Which involves episodes of reading the text and then pausing to

reflect and check whether the new line of argument is consistent with opinions expressed

earlier in the same article.

4.1.2.c. Skim Reading: Which is used to get a global impression of the content of the text. In

other words, the reader reads rapidly, and focusing on headings and first lines of paragraphs.

4.1.2.d. Scanning: Scanning involves searching rapidly through a text to find a specific point

of information.

36
4.1.2.e. Intensive Reading: Generally speaking learners engage in intensive reading with their

teachers in classrooms which is directed and chosen by the teacher. According to Hedge (ibid,

p.193), intensive reading texts should be chosen carefully by the teacher, as a student of

literature who would look at a poem to appreciate the choice of words. This kind of reading is

designed to enable learners to develop specific receptive skills, such as: ( identifying the topic,

predicting and guessing, reading for general information skimming, reading for specific

information scanning, interpreting texts (Nunan, 2001). Similarly, Almutawa and Alkilani

(1989) defined intensive reading as follows: Intensive reading is a classroom activity carried

on under the guidance of the teacher. (Almutawa and Alkilani, 1989, p.116). Besides,

(Hedge, ibid) points that intensive reading is partly done to teach learners how to employ good

reading strategies, so that when they are engaged in extensive reading (that is, when they are

alone), they will continue to use the strategies.

4.1.2.f. Extensive Reading: Here, teachers encourages learners to choose for themselves

what they read and to do so for pleasure ( Harmer, 2001). Extensive reading is usually done

at home for pleasure or to acquire general information(Al mutawa & Alkilani, 1989, p.116).

4.1.3. Reading as a Critical Process:

Critical reading views reading as a social process (Kress, 1985 in Hedge, ibid, p.197). In this

sense, texts are constructed to some extent by writers in order to shape the perceptions of

readers towards the acceptance of a given ideology of the text(Hedge, ibid.). Those who

advocate the development of critical reading skills as part of the reading curriculum argue that

the ability to read critically depends on an awareness of how writers can manipulate and use

the elements of language, and how learners build this awareness.

37
 Finally, Brown (2001) says that affective factors also play a significant role in how reading

helps one learn a language. Learners who want to or like to read usually improve their reading.

Those who like what they read keep reading. They also read more (extensive reading), and

there is a high correlation between those who read a lot and those who improve in their

comprehension and vocabulary acquisition when they read (Silver, 1997). Thus, choosing

what types of writing to read, and identifying the critical features of the genre, becomes

important. The point of making these distinctions is that different purposes for reading

determine different strategies in approaching texts.

Now, English Language Teaching (ELT) methodology tries to consider real purposes for

reading outside the classroom and to build these into reading activities. Rivers and Temperley

(quoted in Hedge, ibid, p. 199), for instance, make the point that : reading activities, from the

beginning, should have some purpose and we should have some purpose and we should

concentrate on the normal purposes of reading. Similarly, (Rivers & Temperley, 1978, p.187

in Hedge, ibid.) list the following reading purposes: (1) To get information; (2) to respond to

curiosity about a topic; (3) to follow instructions; (4) to perform a task; (5) for pleasure,

amusement, and personal enjoyment; (6) to keep in touch with friends and colleagues; (7) to

know what is happening in the world; and (8) to find out when and where things are. These

purposes are used by many language learners in their real life because they use English as a

part of their environment, or because they have needs such as studying in English or using it in

professional life.

4.2. Reading as a Skill:

Al-Mutawa & Kailani (1989) argue that reading as a skill is a developemental process. They

note that: Reading skill is a development process which goes through several stages starting
38
from words and phrases to advanced reading and communication practice. ( Al Mutawa &

Taisseer Kailani, 1989, p.120). To enable learners to build this reading and communicative

practice, the FL teacher must have authentic reading materials for all these stages to help

learners develop their reading efficiency. The reading stages are described by ( Al Mutawa

and Kailani, ibid) as follows:

4.2.1. Stage One: Word Level;

At the word level, the concern is with the association of form and sound symbol, spelling

and sound. Learners should spend enough time on sound-symbol correspondence. Flash cards

are useful in recognizing shapes (i.e., single letters and common diagraphs).

4.2.2. Stage Two: Sentence Level;

At this level, the teacher gives pupils practice in patterns of high frequency. Learners may

read sentences from dialogue material familiar to them. The following activities provide

techniques for teaching reading at this stage:

1. Asking pupils to read sentences with words they already know.

2. The teacher writes sentences on the board for pupils to read.

3. Pupils may practice reading sentences in the class or in the language laboratory.

4. Songs are an excellent technique for improving pupils pronunciation, rhythm and stress.

Moreover they offer a way to gain new vocabulary.

4.2.3. Stage Three: Paragraph Level;

At this stage pupils are introduced to simple narrative on conversational material. Passage

shouldnt exceed one printed page. This is done under the guidance of the teacher who often
39
uses the materials provided in the textbook. However, additional selections can be used for

guided reading practice.

The following are some reading activities which are suitable for this stage:

1. Reading for structure signals,where the teacher should draw the pupils attention to written

grammar signals.

2. Techniques of inference where the teacher guides pupils to infer meanings or simple

conclusions from paragraph context.

3. Techniques of paraphrase with which pupils try to grasp the meaning of the text.

4. Reading for information which involves three levels of reading practice:

a. The beginning level with questions that require restatement of the text;

b. The intermediate level with content questions that require the pupils to demonstrate their

understanding of the entire text;

c. The advanced level with questions initiated by pupils who also provide the answers to their

own questions and suggest a suitable title for the whole passage.

4.2.4. Stage Four: Reading Longer Selections;

As pupils progress in learning the language needed for reading, they should read longer

selections in addition to guided reading passages. That is, pupils reading activities may be

classed as intensive and extensive. The former is what they have in the text reader or

coursebook, whereas extensive reading is meant for enjoyment, for general information. Pupils

should be offered a choice of readings and select topics which interest them. They may also be

asked to give a summary or an outline of what they are reading.

40
4.2.5. Stage Five: Individualized Reading:

This is the advanced stage of reading. Learners are given the freedom to select from a list of

available materials what they wish to read. Learners depend on themselves in reading as they

feel confident enough to pick up a book or a newspaper and read it for their own pleasure.

Nevertheless, the teacher may provide the class with a list of readings from different fields of

knowledge: art, science, literature, and so on.

5.Teaching Reading as a Skill:

To discuss how to teach learners how to read in a second language, there are various points

of view that can be considered. Some linguists believe that reading in the second language is

the same as in the first language, others believe that the process is completely different, i.e.,

colored by our beliefs about the influence of native language competences and strategies in the

second language (Murcia 1991:169). In this sense, Murcia (ibid.) has included three basic

areas of reading instruction that ought to be taken into consideration when teaching learners to

read. Viewing reading as decoding, predicting, and schemata building.

5.1. Reading as Decoding:

It refers to the relationship between the letter and the sound. ( Murcia, 1991, p.170) noted

that: The emphasis here is on the letter to sound correspondence It is word decoding

operations. So the emphasis here is looking for the relationships between letters and sounds.

In this respect, good readers are those who can decode the linguistic aspects of language. This

linguistic ability includes the following levels:

1. Decoding grapho-phonic information of the sound-symbol relationship;

41
2. decoding systematic information derived from structure as expressed in word-order,

prefixes, suffixes, question, statement, noun, verb, tenses, sentences, or parts of sentences;

3. decoding sementic information from the content of words;

4. decoding socio-cultural information from connotations specific to a given culture.

5.2. Reading as Prediction:

Good readers have the ability to predict what will probably follow while holding in ones

immediate memory elements of what preceds. This cognitive ability combines general

background knowledge with intellectual ability of anticipation, prediction, and problem-

solving. The reader usually draws from what he already knows, as already established

experience, to set probabilities of new experience and acquiring of new things. Furthermore,

the reader holds in short term memory instant facts and language elements which help him set

ground for possible suggested solutions, results, denouement or conclusions about what he is

reading.

So, one characteristic of good readers is that they are able to make predictions (Cohen

and Hosenfeld, 1981; Goodman, 1967; Hochberg, 1970; Hossenfeld, 1977; Weaver 1980

quoted in Murcia, 1991, p.173): We scan a line, fixate at a point to permit eye focus we

pick up graphic cues and make a guess, a prediction about what appears on the printed page.

The guessing process (Goodman 1967, mentioned in Murcia, ibid.) is the act of picking up the

key words from the reading passages to make semantic relationships. Readers can identify

important words in reading, and can in fact make semantic predictions about their relationship

to one an other. (Goodman, 1967 cited in Murcia, 1991, p.174)

42
5.3. Reading as Schemata Script Building:

Schemata is the plural of schema are defined by Murcia (1991, p.176) as the fundamental

elements upon which all information processing depends, similarly, (Rumelhart, 1977 in

Murcia, 1991, p.171) calls building blocks of cognition which are used in the process of

interpreting information and data from memory (ibid). According to Rumelhart (1977,

p.34), schemata are elements of information which are used in interpreting and retrieving

information. He noted that:

As such, they are used in the process of interpreting data, in retrieving information from
memory, in organizing actions, in determining goals and subgoals, in allocating resources, and
generally, in guiding the flow processing in the system. (Rumelhart, 1977 in Murcia, 1991,
p.171)

So, schemata are Units of knowledge (Murcia,1991,175) that represent our attitudes,

opinions, beliefs about some objects, events or sequences of events, our actions and reactions.

In this respect, if our schemata of scripts or texts are incomplete or they do not provide us with

enough information from the text, then we will have big difficulty in understanding the text. In

terms of reading instruction, Weaver and Marson mentioned that:

the idea of schemata or scripts has an important role to play because when any reader start to
read, he has a background of experiences that has given him a repertoire schemata through
which we analyse and understand our world. So we interpret the text we read in light of this
knowledge structure (Weaver,1980, Mason; 1986 in Murcia ,1991, p.177).

6.Reading Instructional Approaches:

Several major approaches have dominated classroom reading practice which represent

general instructional plans for achieving goals and objectives in a literacy curriculum.

According to Jo Anne L.Vacca; Richard T.Vacca (2006, p.45) and Murcia (1991, p.178), these

43
approaches include the basal reading approach, the language experience approach, and

literature based instruction.

6.1. The Basal Reading Approach:

Here teachers use the traditional way in teaching reading through the use of stories with a

small group of learners during a specified time. Most Basal programs contain both narrative

and expository texts. The directed reading activities (DRA) is the common activity in basal

series because they are based on the assumption that learners learn to read by reading, writing

and talking about meaningful topics. The basal reading approach is easily observed in

elementary classrooms. It is described as eclectic, runs from word recognition skills to

extended and meaningful reading, discussing, and writing.

6.2. The Language Experience Approach:

This approach is usually used in first grade classrooms. LEA is associated with story

dictation, recording the language of children on chart paper. LEA includes activities such as

individual and group dictated stories, the building of known words, creative writing activities,

oral reading of prose and keeping records of learners progress. Thus it is based on the idea that

language should be used to communicate ideas, thoughts, and meaning. Focusing on how to

use dictated stories, strategies and ways to extend childrens writing and reading as a related

instruction.

6.3. Literature Based Instruction:

This approach sheds light on individual learners differences and preferences in reading

abilities and at the same time focuses on meaning, interest, and enjoyment. In this literature

based instruction, teachers encourage their learners to select their own trade books as a part of

personalizing reading through the individualized approach. On the light of this approach, for

44
instance, learners can read different books with similar themes and then share and compare

ideas and information gained.

7. Approaches to the Teaching of Literacy:

The approaches which were underlined by literature identification are two, namely, the

skill based model and the strategy based model (Goodman, Smith, Meredith,1987,

Holdaway, 1985 in Murcia,1991, p.185). The difference between the two approaches is a

crucial one.

7.1.The Skill Based Approach:

As far as most approaches to reading and reading instruction focus and emphasize the

development of the reading skills (Smith, 1983 in Murcia, ibid.), teachers should teach reading

through stages by giving different types of reading activities. Though almost these skills are

comprehension ones, but a great deal of attention is paid to pronunciation skills and word

identification. Specifically, the skill based model focuses on pieces of language building from

the smallest units of language (i.e., sounds, words and phrases), or just the, vice-versa,

breaking down the larger units and segments into individual units (Smith, 1983 in Murcia,

ibid, p.185). On the other hand, in a skills based approach, great emphasis is placed on the

mastery of sound-symbol relationship (Ekwall & Shanker,1983, in Murcia, ibid.). This leads

learners to think that once they have mastered basic phonetics and letter-word recognition,

they can use these skills to retrieve and gain meaning from the text (Jones,1981 in Murcia,

ibid). Thus four different areas of language are identified in this model which are: vocabulary,

sound-symbol relationships, grammar and comprehension.

45
7.2. Strategy-Based Reading Approach:

In contrast, most socio- or psycholinguists emphasize the development of strategies

(Cognitive and metacognitive strategies) for getting meaning from connected text (Newman,

1988 in Murcia, ibid.). Here the primary focus is on comprehension. Reading in this approach

is defined as a language thinking process involving many aspects, among which, syntax, and

graphophonics which are interrelated (Holdaway, 1985 in Murcia, ibid). A strategy based

approach incorporates a psycholinguistic perspective and cognitive psychology reading in

which reading is viewed as interaction of conceptual abilities, background knowledge, and

processing strategies (Rigg and Kazenek, 1985 in Murcia 1991, p.186). Thus this approach

placed comprehension and meaning on the first place rather than decoding letters and words.

According to (Murcia 1991, p.186), reading programs under this approach are based on the

following eight principles:

1.Learning in the classroom and out the classroom is not different.

2.Errors are viewed as information that tells where the learner is, developementally, in the

reading process.

3.The emphasis is on process in the reading classrooms.

4.Language, both oral and written,is the primary means of creating new knowledge.

5.The four language processes ( listening, speaking, reading and writing) are interrelated and

interdependent.

6.Authentic reading materials, i.e; newspapers, menus, signs, provide the best models of

language.

7.The purpose of language is to create meaning.

8.Learners must be involved in real language activities through reading meaningful materials.

46
8. Reading Strategies (Cognitive & Metacognitive):

As we have mentioned above, successful reading is no longer a matter of decoding the

individual sounds that we hear to derive the meaning of words and utterances, but rather it is a

matter of constructing and interpreting aural messages through the use of discoursal and real

world knowledge (Nunan, 1991). Reading comprehension involves higher-order thinking

skills and it is more complex than merely decoding specific words. L.Lise argues that:

Teaching learners how to derive meaning as well as analyse and synthesize what they have

read is an essential part of the reading process (L.Lise,2005, p.71). In this sense, learners

perform reading tasks and verbalize their thoughts and ideas through reflecting upon the

cognitive and metacognitive strategies.

We can say that both cognitive and metacognitive strategies help 2nd language readers to

approach a text and to build up an awareness of the use of problem-solving strategies when

dealing with different kinds of reading problems, which can contribute to effective EFL

reading and comprehension (Alderson and Urquhart, 1984; Block, 1986, 1992; Carrell, 1989;

Leu and Kinzer, 1995; Alderson, 2000; Grabe and Stoller, 2002).). Good readers should

employ methods to determine the reading purpose, to understand the entire text, and even

they can evaluate whether the strategies used are effective (Baker and Brown, 1984; Stoller,

1994). Similarly, Cohen (cited in Oxford, 1985a) lists some cognitive strategies used by

successful language learners among which: (a) responding silently to tasks, (b) the use of a

variety of background knowledge, including knowledge of the world and of the topic, (c)

paraphrasing and asking for help, (d) vocabulary learning techniques, such as making

associations, (e) distinguishing important points and purpose of the text, (f) writing multiple

drafts.

47
8.1. Integrating Strategy Training in Teaching Reading:

The application of both learning and communication strategies to reading instruction

contribute to effective EFL reading and comprehension. Mc Donough (1999) and Cohen

(1998) (in Brown, 2000) used the term strategies-based instructions to refer to strategy

training. Hence, Strategy instruction is an attempt to develop L2 readers awareness of their

own reading strategies, in other words, teaching learners how to learn (Brown, ibid, p.130).

In addition, researchers have focused on readers themselves to identify the strategies

employed by successful readers when they interact with the text during reading because good

readers tend to employ a cluster of effective strategies ( Hosenfeld, 1984 cited in Richards,

1990; Anderson, 1991; Ediger, 2006); therefore, Grabe and Stoller (2002) suggest that L2

readers should be taught to use a wide variety of reading strategies. Thus, employing strategies

appropriately and effectively help learners to improve their reading and writing performances.

Language Learning Strategy (LLS) training is of great importance in any language

instruction. The shift in the process of teaching and learning a second language from teacher

centered to learner centered instruction has led to an increasing focus on learners needs.

Research findings on learner strategies in reading and writing classes (e.g., Heuring, 1984 in

Richards, 1990) suggest that teachers need to evaluate their teaching strategies to determine if

they are promoting effective strategies in learners. Studies of learners strategies attempt to

identify techniques and strategies learners use to facilitate their own learning (Oxford, 1985b

in ibid). Therefore, the focus is on the cognitive operations, processes and procedures that

learners apply in learning a second language. However, learners will not benefit from

Strategy-based instruction SBI, unless they take into consideration the following points: (a)

understand the strategy itself, (b) perceive it to be effective, and (c) its implementation

shouldnt be considered as a d ifficult task (MacIntyre &Noels, 1996 cited in Brown, 2000).
48
 These points indicate that successful L2 learners employ many available tools when they

read, including activating both schema and decoding theories when they read.

8.2. Who are Good Readers:

Good readers employ cognitive strategis, such as predicting, relating new information with

prior knowledge, guessing meaning of unknown words from context, making inferences,

scanning and skimming. In L2 reading strategy instruction, claims have been made that both

metacognitive and cognitive strategies are best learnt through explicit teaching. According to

Haynes Judie and Zacarian Debbie (2010), good readers are those who use some strategies

which help them to read and to understand what they are reading. These strategies are

explained below.

8.2.1. Activating Learners Background Knowledge by Making Connections:

Making connections between the reading material and the learners background knowledge

help them to a large extent in acquiring a good comprehention of the text given for reading.

Keene & Zimmerman, (1997), Miller (2002), and Harvey & Goudvis (2007) have hilighted

(in Haynes and Debbie, ibid. ), the importance of connecting reading materials with learners

background knowledge. In other words, this connection helps learners to use their prior

experience, or schema, to decode the learning material. These connections can fall under three

distinct types: Text-to-self, Text-to-text, and Text-to-world.

8.2.1.a. Text to Self Connections:

This means that readers should link between the reading material and something that has

happened to them in their own lives. This kind of connection can help learners to comprehend

the text and to share the ideas with their classmates with a critical eye as Lynda Hennen

quoted in Randi Stone 2009, p.44) explains:

49
The benefit of making connections is what the children gain inunderstanding from thinking
about what they are reading... Children must make high quality, relevant connections about
the text to make meaning of their reading. This doesnt just happen; they have to think about
what they are reading. This enables them to make higher-level connections and have a deeper
understanding of the text. (Lynda Hennen quoted in Randi Stone 2009, p.44):

8.2.1.b. Text to Text Connection:

In this case students have to make links between the reading material given by their teacher

and an other book that they have already read. This lead learners to gain better comprehension

of the text.

8.2.1.c. Text to World Connection:

These last are links that students make between the text that they are reading and something

happened in the world.

8.2.2. Asking Mental Questions to Self Check Comprehension:

Good readers are those ask themselves some questions before, during, and after reading.

Teachers can help their learners to get started by asking their learners to predict what the

reading material will be about. This prediction takes place on the basis of the title of the

reading material or on the pictures given on the cover of the book or within the reading

material or by explaining that this predictions are just a guess.

8.2.3. Differentiated Expectations:

The habit of reading different books at different levels about the same topic provide learners

with enough background information. This last gave learners the schema that they needed to

participate in the lesson.

50
8.2.4. Learning how to Make Inferences about what is Read:

Good readers draw inferences while they read, that is to say, read between the lines, to

guess what authors convey as meaning rather than read what is directly stated (ibid, p.81).

English language learners need to learn strategies to infer meaning by making connection to

prior knowledge, visualising, and predicting. Inference is very difficult for ELLs, as they are

already struggling with grammar, sentence structure, and vocabulary. Teachers must therefore

explicitly teach their learners to infer meaning and rely such helpful framing phrases as I

predict My guess is.. I think that.. My conclusion is.. I infer that. And

so on.

8.2.5. Determining the Importance in a Text:

Good readers can distinguish between important and unimportant information in texts. This

ability is key to understanding the content that students must read. English language learners

should receive plenty of support before they even begin to read the text. Those relevant

information is that which is related to the key idea.

8.2.6. Synthesizing Information that is Learned:

Good readers know to summarize important information and incorporate it into their

schema. As they read, they carry on an internal conversation, asking themselves what they

understand or dont understand, whether they agree or disagree, and what they wonder.

However, synthesis cannot occur if the reader doesnt understand the key vocabulary in the

text.

These six reading comprehension strategies should be taught to ELLs in all grade levels.

In this way, we teach learners to interact with the text, activate background knowledge by

making connections, how to draw inferences from the text, determine the importance of
51
information in the text, and synthesize the information by using these strategies, teachers can

help ELLs to become better readers. To sum up, to investigate the characteristics of good

readers or the reading strategies deployed by successful readers in L2 reading, with the aim of

enhancing the effectiveness of reading instruction (Hosenfeld, 1977, 1984; Block, 1986;

Carrell, 1989; Anderson, 1991; Wallace, 1992; Devine, 1998; Grabe and Stoller, 2002; Ediger,

2006). As mentioned previously, reading strategies are defined as mental activity and are thus

impossible to observe. Furthermore, Hosenfeld (1984, p.233), continued to focus on the

strategies employed by successful readers who attempted to:

(1) identify the grammatical category of words; (2) examine illustrations; (3) read the title

and make inferences from it; (3) use their knowledge of the world; (4) evaluate their

guesses.

Similarly, Baker and Brown (1984, p.354) point out that learners can employ many

cognitive and metacognitive activities among which, (a) Recognize the purposes of reading;

(b) Identifying the important aspects of the given text; (c) Focusing attention on the major idea

of the content; (d) Engaging in self-questioning to determine whether goals are beingn

achieved; and (e) Taking corrective action when failures to comprehend the given text.

9. Reading Activities:

Through reading activities, learners would be able to uderstand the text, to employ their

cognitive strategies and to improve their writing skill. There are many different reading

reading and pre-reading activities that can help learners develop reading skill in English.

According to Grellet (1992), William (1991) and Richard (2001), reading activities can be

52
categorized into three types: Prereading Activities, During Reading Activities and Post

Reading Activities.

9.1. Prereading Activities: According to the above writers, the following activities can be

used as prereading activities;

x Discussion Questions and Prewriting Activities: which help learners to relate the

reading passage to with their prior experiences, to build vocabulary and identify cultural

influences that may affect reading comprehension. Brainstorming and free writing might

be used.

x Prediction Activities: that draw attention to the organization of the text and to

identification of potential themes.

x Skimming Activities: that provide learners with a general idea of the text themes and the

organization and development of ideas.

x Scanning Activities: that highlight key (including technical) vocabulary, as well as

names, dates, places and other important facts.

x Questions: that can serve to focus a learners attention during reading as well as engage a

learner sufficiently in reading.

9.2. During Reading Activities: Among which, we have:

x Filling out Graphic while Reading: Completing a diagram for comparisons, a flow chart

(for processes), a table (for classifications or definitions), or other organizers that reflect

the logical relations between ideas in the text and highlight for the learner what is

important enough to be noted and remembered (Crandal, 1993 in Richard j.c, 2001 ).

53
x Guided or Controlled Writing Assignments or Discussion Questions: that encourage

learners to react to and reflect upon what they are reading at key stages in the process.

x Undrlining, Highlighting, or Note Taking Activities: that help learners develop more

effective study skills.

x Vocabulary Building Activities: that help learners find clues for meaning wlthin the text.

x Periodic Paraphrasing and Summarizing Activities: which encourage learners to

diagnose how an idea and a text is developed or structured, to tie new ideas to prior topics.

x Timed Activities: that encourage rapid reading, perhaps combined with questions that

require skimming for general answers or scanning for key information.

9.3. Post Reading Activities: At this stage, teachers usually use activities such as:

x Vocabulary Activities, helping learners to expand their vocabulary bt applying affixes

and roots drawn from the key vocabulary in the reading, using charts and tables to

illustrate the relationships between words.

x Questions to encourage critical analysis and evaluation of the reading .

x Cloze Activities for developing vocabulary, grammar, and discourse knowledge.

x Journal Writing to encourage learners to reflect on, synthesize, or evaluate what they

have read .

x Application Activities, which encourage learners to aplly what they have read to task or

activity.

10. Assessing Reading Skill:

Assessing students literacy skills is a complex process.(Hurley & Tinajero, 2001 in

T.Lise, 2005, p.151). It is particularly difficult with ESL or EFL learnrs. Teachers assess

54
 reading to see whether learners can decode and pronounce the words. Providing that

reading comprehension refers to reading for meaning, teachers tend to assess learners

ability to comprehend the written text. Comprehension questions can be used to determine

if learners grasp the meaning of specific reading passages (ibid).Other techniques can be

used such as story map (summary of the story) focusing either on the sequence of events or

on the elements of the story.

11. The Writing Process Vs the Writing Skill:

To begin, writing is usually described as a process. However, there are two different

perspectives on how to view writing. Writing can be explained in terms of the writing stages

writing as a skill or in terms of writing as a process cognitive processe. The purpose under

analyzing writing as a skill is to teach writing, i.e., to explain writing difficulties, strategies,

and goals in each stage. However the purpose under analyzing writing as a cognitive process is

to understand what happens in the learners mind when he writes, i.e., what cognitive faculties

are involved in the writing process. These two perspectives on writing (as a skill and as a

process) are both important to be taken into consideration when speaking about teaching

writing .

11.1. Writing as a Process: (Writing As a Cognitive process):

Writing is a combination of process and product (Sokolik, 2003 in Carline T . Linse, 2005,

80). However, the focus has been on the different kinds of strategies and cognitive activities

that the writers engage in when writing rather than on the final writing product (Richards,

1990). The process refers to the act of gathering ideas and working with them until they are

presented in a manner that is comprehensible to readers. The concept that writing is a process

is very useful to young writers (Olson, 2003 in ibid). i.e., young learners should know that
55
writing should be done in steps. In addition, when teaching writing to young children, we

must organize the complexity of the process. (Dorn and Soffos, 2001, in T. Linse, 2005,

p.80) .

Flower and Hayes criticized product-oriented writing because of its linear structure (1980,

1981). In this respect, the emphasis was switched from the product-oriented to the process-

oriented in the last two decade. Teachers focus on the writing process rather than on the

importance of a correct final product in their teaching. In this section, we will focus on the

principles of this process as the process approach proved its efficiency in teaching writing .

As long as writing is a demanding and complex process particularly in the initial stages of

the writing process, the teacher has to analyze the given topic, collect the reading materials,

and plan the writing process. However, there is a risk that the teacher accumulates too much

materials and creates too high expectations for his learners, then he fails in meeting the

objectives expected from them because of the lack of interest. So, the question is to what

extent teachers own reading materials affect the learners proficiency in writing.

Writing processes are described differentely by different writers. On the one hand,

Flower and Hayes (1981) describe three writing processes (planning, translating, and

reviewing).

x Planning; according to Flower and Hayes, is the process of presenting learners internal

knowledge which will be used in writing. This representation can be created from key

words, concepts, or relevant information to the topic. The process of planning involves

three steps: creating ideas, organizing them, and setting goals.

x Translating; is the process of expressing ideas in written language. Basically, the writer

has to translate the meaning of his or her thoughts and ideas from a complex internal

56
 network of words (i.e., spelling, grammar, text coherence, style conventions etc) to a

coherent and logically organized written text.

x Reviewing is the process of evaluating and revising the produced text, notes, thoughts, and

writing plans springboard to future translating (Flower and Hayes, 1981, p. 374)

On the other hand, Murray (1980, in Richards, 1990, p.108) distinguishes three stages in

writing: rehearsing, drafting and revising. Rehearsing, or prewriting engages the writer in

finding the topic and the ideas about it, thinking about the audience and the purpose of the

writing task. Drafting involves putting down all the ideas and key words related to the topic

onto a rough paper. Finally, the revising phase, which involves the evaluation of the final

writing product. In this sense, Linda Flower and John R. Hayes (1981) developed the

cognitive theory. The purpose of this theory is to describe and understand the thinking

processes involved in the writing process.

Figure 1.1 The Hayes Flower (1980) writing model.(in Sara Cushing Weigle, 2002.p.24)
57
 The cognitive process (figure 1.1) consists of three elements. The first element, task

environment, includes the rhetorical problem and the given text. The second element, the

writers long-term memory is the writers knowledge of the topic, audience, and writing

plans. The third element, writing processes, describes the cognitive processes which are

involved in dealing with writing.

To conclude, the process of writing is a difficult and a lengthy process. In fact, writing leads

to a pproduct that can be read, examined and revised but this product has been guided by the

process of understanding and organizing ideas into logical structures. In other words, writing

is primarily a process of construction of a new meaning which ends with a final product.

11. 2. Writing as a Skill:

To begin, writing is usually described as skill or in terms of the writing stages writing as a

skill. According to (Najat Al- Mutawa and Taiseer Kailan, 1989), writing is considered a

significant language skill that should be developed at an early stage of learning the foreign

language. It requires the following:

(a) A knowledge of the English alphabet so that pupils can learn how to spell and how to

idedentify letters in print;

(b) An understanding of the orthographic system, i.e. the relationship between sounds a.nd

written symbols. That is, pupils must learn control of the graphic symbols that represent

the sounds of the language;

(c) Aknowledge of the mechanics of writing: spelling, capitalization, punctuation, paragraph

indentation, leaving spaces between words, syllable division, and other writing

conventions;
58
(d) Aknowledge of possible sentence structures in English;

(e) Familiarity with grammatical,refrential or anaphoric connectors;

(f) Familiarity with liixical connectors, e.g. repetition of key words or the same word in a

different form(deciding/decision),or the use of synonyms and antonyms, etc;

(g) Skill in sentence-combining to create an effective paragraph,and a knowledge of the

organization of the whole composition;

(h) Familiarity with transitional words or phrases;

(i) An adequate control of syntax and vocabulary in order to put ideas into writing;

(j) Some experiences of listening, speaking and reading;

The ability to write well grows out of these integrated skills. However, learning to write

is a gradual process which begins with simple copying and ends with free expressions. Pupils

should be trained systematically, under the guidance of the teacher, through several stages of

writing experience namely: handwriting, copying dictation, controlled, guided and free

writing. Such gradation is necessary for developing, logically the writing skill.

11.2.1. Stage One: The first stage includes handwriting, copying(or transcription). The main

function here is to teach pupils the mechanics of writing accuracy and readiness for

further writing activities. Handwriting: This skill is the first writing activity. It is a

form of initiative writing in which pupils learn how to write the alphabet and familiar

words.

11.2.2. Stage Two: Copying:(Transcription): This phase of writing skill is usually assigned

or practiced as soon the pupils can write with ease the letters and the combinations of

letters for the words or phrases they have already masterd. That is to say, the material

59
 used for copying should be familiar to the pupils because the purposes of this activity

are:

(a) To reinforce previously learned words and patterns;

(b) To develop young learners consciousness of spelling and to fix the correct written

forms in their minds;

(c) To draw pupils attention to punctuation marks;

(d) To train pupils further in handwriting.

11.2.3. Stage Three:Dictation

After there has been sufficient practice in imitative writing(handwriting and copying), the

next step is dictation. This type of writing skill is an essential activity for the development of

spelling consciousness in learners, so it should be given at frequent intervals. Dictation is,

however, more difficult than copying because the pupil here uses the minds eye which he

visualizes the spelling of a word and English spelling doesnt always correspond with the

sound. It serves as an instrument by which pupils can practice other aspects of language

learning such as aural comprehension, distinguishing sounds and words, comprehending the

meaning of a passage, and recognizing grammatical forms and accuracy.

11.2.4. Stage Four:Guided Writing

This stage of teaching writing involves two graded steps of composition writing, namely

controlled composition/directed composition and semi-controlled/guided composition. The

principle of these aspects of composition writing is to provide graded guidance in vocabulary

and structures so that pupils will not make many mistakes.

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11.2.4.a.Controlled Composition:

In controlled writing, pupils are usually provided with the needed keywords and expressions

or a model of some type with directions for manipulation in rewriting the model. The aim of

this is to ensure that what pupils write is grammatically correct.

11.2.4.b. Semi-Controlled Composition:

The second type of guided writing is semi-controlled composition which is an important step

in moving from controlled to free composition. Here the control is relaxed and pupils can add

specific ideas or constructions to their compositions.

11.2.5. Stage Five: Free Writing:

This stage involves free composition, Pupils having practised controlled and guided

composition, are now able to manipulate language with some freedom of thought. This

activity requires adequate preparation. Thus, the teacher must instruct pupils in the mechanics

of free composition such as the unity of thought in all sentences within a paragraph;

coherence; clarity; correctness.

12.Writing Approaches:

In teaching writing, teachers adopt one approach according to their beliefs concerning the

writing process. In my study I will speak about the most common approaches briefly, which

are: The product approach, the process approach, the genre approach, the creative writing

approach, the cooperative approach. However, a special focus is put on the product and

process approach because in Algerian secondary school teachers teach writing through a

given processes but they evaluate the learners final produced composition.

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12.1.The Product Approach: Generally speaking, if teachers adopt the product approach,

they will focus on the final production of well-produced composition, i.e., the teacher focuses

on the end result of the learning process.

The product oriented approach, as the title indicates focuses on the end result of the
learning process, what is that the learner is expected to be able to do as a fluent and
component user of the language(Nunan,1991, p.86).

12.2. The Process Approach:

The emphasis here is on the different stages the writer goes through rather than on the fiinal

product. According to Zamel (1982, pp.196-9) Writing involves much more than studying a

particular grammar, analyzing or imitating rhetorical models, or outlining what is one plans to

say. However, White and Arndts (1991), for instance, include five steps: generating ideas,

structuring, drafting, evaluating, and reviwing.

12.3.The Genre Approach:

The teachers here attempts to get learners aware of the different elements of writing, such

as,the topic, conventions, style of the genre ad the context of writing. In genre approach to

writing, learners study texts in the genre they are going to be writing before they embark on

their own writing. (Harmer,2001, p.258).

12.4. The Creative Writing Approach:

Writing poetry, stories and plays which provide a strongmotvation to learners are examples

of creative writing. Learners here start to write because they want to create and imagine

something by themselves (Gaffield-Vile,1998.)

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12.5. The Cooperative Approach:

Writing under this approach is not the product of only one learner, but rather, it is the

product of group of learners piece of writing who benefit from a cooperative activity.

(Boughey,1997).

13.Writing Strategies:

Research on writing strategies is important for teaching writing and for successful writing

as well. Unskilled writer is not only the one who cannot produce a good writing product, but

rather the one who doesnt use inappropriate writing strategies or behaviours when writing.

Good writers produce better-quality writing because they use appropriate strategies. In this

sense (Zamel, 1987, in Richards, 1990) pointed that successful second and foreign language

writing programs reveal that in process focused classrooms, there is a shift from language

focused activities to learner-centered tasks in which learners engage in their own writing

through the use of cognitive strategies.

Writing strategies usually describe how to make the writing process more effective and

productive. There are many writing strategies which can be used by learners to be successful

writers. Flower (1998) suggested some cognitive strategies among which:

(1) Problem-solving strategies, which are based on the idea that we write because we want to

achieve goals to solve a problem, to answer a question. (2) writing a personal diary, or

making notes. (3) Asking questions to generate ideas and thought about the given topic. (4)

Freewriting (a similar strategy to brainstorming) helps to get started with your writing. (5)

List making which helps learners to remember and organize ideas. (6) Outlining which is a

part of the writing process.

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14.Writing Instructional Activities:

In a process focused approach to the teaching of writing, activities differ according to the

stages in the writing process. Among those proposed by recent writing methodologists we can

refer to the activities mentioned in the works of Koch & Brazil (1978), Lindemann (1982), and

Proett & Gill (1986) (cited in Richards, 1990; p.112):

14.1. Activities related to the rehearsing phase: which designed to help learners develop

ideas and develop plans for writing via the use of journals (through which learners record

their thoughts and ideas), brainstorming (learners exchange information about the topic),

free association (writing what-ever words come to mind related to the topic) and

information-gathering activities related to the theme such as interviews, surveys, and

experiments.

14.2. Activities related to the Drafting Phase: In this phase, learners would select ideas for

writing. Here the activities may include: (1) timed- focused writing ( writing quickly on their

selected topic), (2) reduction exercise (breaking down a complex paragraph into simpler

sentences), (3) writing thesis statements and topic sentences ( learners develop a given

thesis statements or topic sentences), (4) group drafting (learners work together on drafting).

14.3. Activities related to the Revising Phase: This phase concerned both editing and

revising stages. This phase includes activities such as: (1) peer feedback (learners work in

groups to read and criticize their own writing), (2) group correction activities (learners tend

to supply the missing elements to a given essays which contain certain delitions), (3)

rewriting activities (learners rewrite confusing paragraphs distributed by the teacher)

64
14.4 Writing Assessement & Teachers Feedback:

Writing is assessed through eliciting and examining learners produced sentence, paragraph

or essay. Teachers can use either analytic or holistic assessment. The former means that the

score is broken down into categories (i.e; ideas, organization, word choice, sentence fluency,

conventions the correctness of the piece of writing and presentation) (Linse, 2005, p.155).

However, the latter which is the holistic assessment is an overall score. In addition to the use

of these two types of scoring, teachers in elementary and secondary schools use portfolio

assessment which is a collection of the learners individual works to see their development

over time and to document what they can do (ibid).

Teachers response to what learners have written has to be effective and appropriate

because such responses evaluate learners progress and development in the writing skill.

Assessement goal is to diagnose of learners weaknesses and strengths in writing

improvement; i.e., Assessment which is the process that defines the extent to which

educational objectives are achieved by the learner help teachers to provide feedback which is

defined by Ur (1991) as: information that is given to the learner about his or her performance

of a learning task, usually with the objective of improving this performance(Ur ;1991, p.242)

Thus, teachers usually use the feedback to inform learners how good or bad their

performance is and to inhance their proficiency in writing. Correcting learners behavior and

providing feedback is an important part of the teachers job. Harmer, points out that

correction is an indication that a performance is wrong (2004, p.108). Generally, the type of

of feedback teachers give learners should be related to what they are doing (what they are

learning). However, correcting learners errors is a two edged sword, because helping

learners to find and to correct their own errors presents a real dilemma for teachers. On the one
65
hand, teachers do not want to hinder their learners enthusiasm for writing. On the other hand,

learners need to know how to write using convention standards of spelling, grammar, and

punctuation (T.Linse, 2005).

15.Teaching Vocabulary:

Vocabulary development is a crucial aspect of language development. Avariety studies have

shown that learners benefit from appropriate vocabulary instruction. According to Beck (2003,

in Lise, 2005), vocabulary instruction can not be effective unless it gives opportunities for the

learners to use words and engages their cognitive skills in the process. Teachers should

facilitate vocabulary learning by teaching by teaching learners useful strategies in order to

discover the meaning of new words. Thus, teaching vocabulary is not a simple process of

teaching words but rather a systematic process which is lengthy and complex.

This process requires adequate mastery of form, meaning, and usage. Mutawa and

Kilani (1989.49) argue that through this process, the learners should be able to; (I) spell and

pronounce the words correctly when they use them either in writing or in speaking; (II)

understand without difficulty the meaning of the words upon hearing and reading them; (III)

know the correct use vocabulary in appropriate grammatical sentences or utterances, knowing

under what circumstances it occurs.etc. To achieve the above purposes, learners should

learn vocabulary through meaning within context and not the other way around, i.e, (through

reading text).

The relationship between knowledge of word meanings and reading comprehension is of a

great importance. Researchers such as Thustone (1946), Spearitt (1972) (in Jonnel.Vacca,

Richard.Vacca, Mary.Gove, Linda C.Burkey, Lisa A.Lenhart, Christine A.McKeon, 2006,

p.254) have identified vocabulary knowledge as an important factor in reading

66
comprehension. Anderson & Freebody (1981 in ibid) proposed three hypotheses to show the

strong relationship between vocabulary and comprehension:

15.1. Aptitude Hypothesis: Both vocabulary and comprehension reflect the learners general

intellectual ability. Learners large vocabulary stock reflect their mental abilities. i.e., the more

the learner will know the meanings of words, the more learners woud comprehend the text

while reading.

15.2. Knowledge Hypothesis: Vocabulary and comprehension reflect general knowledge

rather than intellectual ability.i.e., having large vocabulary stock and more knowledge related

to a given topic provide better comprehension of the reading material.

15.3. Instrumental Hypothesis: It is the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and

comprehension. So long as comprehension depends on word meanings, vocabulary instruction

ought to influence comprehension.

In sum, we can say that vocabulary and reading comprehension are interrelated. On one

hand, through reading texts, learners can acquire new vocabulary stock which enable them to

write and express their ideas clearly. On the other hand , having large vocabulary stock and

knowledge about a given topic among learners will influence positively the reading

comprehension.

Conclusion:

Learning to write and learning to read are similar, both follow a sequential process. The

writing process begins in the early grades by exposing learners to reading through a variety of

quality. It is believed that by reading a variety of relevant types of text, learners can gain

important insights about their own writing. Through reading, learners see the different ways

that authors use language and take them as models when they write. In other words, Learners
67
use the reading materials such as books, magazines, articles they read as models for their own

writing. Educators often teach writing to the whole class at one time. Most teachers in

Algerian secondary schools use the writing process to teach writing. This process involves

several steps to guide learners from beginning of writing to creating a finished piece. Teachers

use these steps to provide structure and continuity in all forms of writing using reading text as

the most influential technique.

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CHAPTER TWO

MATERIALS DESIGN

Introduction:

1. Instructional materials and teaching

2. Materials and method

3. Materials and authenticity

4. The role of designing instructional materials

5. Materials design and the syllabus

6. Syllabus Vs curriculum

7. Materials design and textbook

8. Needs analysis and materials development

9. Materials design Vs materials adaptation

10. The design of reading materials

11. The role of the teacher in the process

12. The learners role in the process

13. Materials evaluation

14. Materials revision

Conclusion

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 CHAPTER TWO: Materials Design

Introduction:

This chapter focuses on the role of instructional materials. Specifically, it sheds light on the

design of instructional materials, more precisely on the principles that should be taken dy

teachers as materials designers in producing their own effective instructional materials. It

discusses how the analysis of learners needs influences the selection of the reading materials

including the reading texts and the learning tasks. The chapter also discusses the use of

authentic materials and their role in second language learning and teaching, and explains the

process of materials revision and evaluation.

1. Instructional Materials and Teaching:

Teaching materials are central to both reading and writing instruction. In this respect, the

reading instructions are usually used to stimulate, and support writing. Instructional materials

dont include only paper based materials but rather audio, visual aids and real objects. These

materials provide the input and exposure to written language that learners will receive in the

classroom. Thus, the teacher should ensure that their classroom materials are closely related to

the learners needs, to program goals, and to their own beliefs as teachers (Ken Hyland, 2007).

Because educators have been aware of the gap between the educational needs of learners

and the curricular requirements of public secondary schools, they have reevaluated and revised

existing textbooks of study, then designed new instructional materials to meet specific needs,

difficulties, interests, values and cultural appropriacy for both learners and teachers in a

specific learning and teaching context (Sheldon, 1988; Block, 1991; Bell and Gower, 1998;
70
Jolly and Bolitho, 1998; Maley, 1998; McDonough and Shaw, 2003; and Tomlinson 2003).

Accordingly, McDonough & Shaw (2003) point out that the inappropriateness of teaching

methods, including materials and activities, when they were adapted from other cultures, will

affect the learners negatively and make them confused. As Sampson wrote: If the values

inherent in the new method conflict with those in the educational philosophy of the country,

then it is only to be expected that the proposed method will be unsuitable for adoption.

(Sampson, 1984, p.28). To enhance the appropriateness of instructional materials, teachers

should participate in the process of designing materials (McGrath, 2002; McDonough &

Shaw, 2003; Rubdy, 2003; Tomlinson, 2003).

So as to allow a fully systematic approach to materials design, materials evaluation should

involve both teachers and learners (e.g. Cunningsworth, 1984, 1995; Breen, 1987, 1989; Breen

& Candlin, 1987; Dudley-Evans and Bates, 1987; Grant, 1987; Hutchinson, 1987; Sheldon,

1987, 1988; Donovan, 1998; Ellis, 1998; Littlejohn, 1998; Masuhara, 1998; Tomlinson, 1998,

2003a; McGrath, 2002). Thus, the process of evaluation and revision will enhance both the

quality and appropriacy of the materials; As Jolly and Bolitho (1998, p.112).) wrote, Trialling

and evaluation are vital to the success of any materials.

2.Materials and Method:

Methodology refers to the activities, tasks, and experiences selected by the teacher in order

to achieve learning and how these elements are used within the teaching-learning process. The

activities and the tasks should be arranged to achieve the objectives set by the teacher.

Methodology defines the philosophy of the program, including the role of teachers, learners,

and instructional materials in the program (Richards, 1990). Thus, it is worth taking into
71
consideration the role that materials have played in different language teaching methods

(Nunan, 1991).

For instance, Rossner (1988, in Nunan, ibid) focuses on the role of materials in

communicative language teaching. He argues that there has been a significant change in the

teaching materials concerning the attitudes and beliefs of materials designers toward the issue

of selection and grading. In Rossners view, materials provide new information on how

language works so as to provide comprehension input, in a formal level, to provide

opportunities for learners to communicate via exposing them to different communicative

situations which can be encountered outside the classroom (authentic language), and for

increasing motivation and interest among learners as well. However, the problem of material

fragmentation (unintegrated activities) is evident in many recently published coursebooks

(commercial materials). This issue of material fragmentation is due to the problems of

grading, sequencing and integration. These problems make lessons as confusing for learners.

Different solutions are proposed by different researchers in the field of education have been

sought to the issue of integration among which: topic solution, text solution and storyline

solution.

x Topic Solution in which units are organized for instance, around topics. Topics can reflect

the needs of the learners.

x Text Solution in which the units organized around text-types narratives, descriptions,

exposition an so on. In other words genre-based teaching.

x The Storyline Solution, in which a narrative serial is presented using one episode at a

time. It calls for action sequence approach, where the storyline exercise make up the

whole course.

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 In this respect, under the philosophy of materials planners within competency-based

approach is evident through the use of the specified competencies, which provide clear

guidelines for teaching. In this sense, both teachers produced materials and textbooks writers

will use topic, text, and task as important elements and tools in creating materials, starting

with a topic, then collecting written texts which are appropriate and relevant to the given topic,

and finally creating activities which reflect the communicative needs of the learners in relation

to the topic (Nunan, 1991). However, the adapted or adopted materials should present an

access to authentic materials as sources of data.

3.Materials and Authenticity:

An important consideration when selecting or designing materials is that of authenticity.

Teachers should look for real-world language materials or texts which are simplified and

modified according to teaching purposes. Clarke (1989, in Ken Hyland, 2007 p.73) noticed

that authentic materials represent a moral imperative for language teachers. When selecting

authentic text, careful needs analysis should be taken. The term authentic material has been

defined in different ways by different authors although all the definitions given to authentic

materials share the idea of the exposure to real language as it is used by native speakers.

According to Widdowson (1983), Authenticityis a term which creates confusion because

of a basic ambiguity (p.30). Nunan (1989, as cited in Adams, 1995) refers to authentic

materials as any material which has not been specifically produced for the purposes of

language teaching (p.54). Little et al. (1988, as cited in Guariento & Morley, 2001) define

authentic material as an authentic textcreated to fulfil some social purpose in the language

community in which it was produced (p.347). Breen (1985) suggests that authenticity

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includes both language selected to be taught (authentic texts) and the classroom tasks on

which the learners are engaged in academic settings. He explains that:

authenticity to the target language needs to be seen as only one of a number of demands for
authenticity which confront the teacher. the learners own contributions, the activity of
language learning, and the actual classroom situation are also constituent elements (Breen,
1985, p.61).

In sum, authentic materials can be said to be the kind of language which is produced by

native speakers, orally or in writing.

4.The Role of Designing Instructional Materials:

Teaching materials are of great importance; a key element in most language programs.

Instructional materials generally serve as the basis for much of the language input received by

learners and the language practice that occurs in the classroom. It can also serve as a form of

teacher training for inexperienced teachers via providing a framework on how to plan and

teach lessons.

However almost all pre-planned lessons make use of commercial materials. These

materials can be presented under the form of (a) printed materials such as books, workbooks,

worksheets; (b) nonprint materials such as cassets, or computer based materials; (c) materials

that comprise both print and nonprint sources such as materials on the internet, in addition to

magazines, newspapers, and TV materials which are not designed for instructional use

(Richard.j.c, 2001, p.251). For some scholars, such as Clements & Crawford (1994, in Jack

C.Richards & Willy.A, Renandya, 2007, p.80) when some teachers and educators create their

own materials, they tend to pick and choose from a range of authentic materials and published

ones without taking into consideration whether those materials are coherent enough with the
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learners language programs. In this respect designing materials can be of a two edged sword

when they prevent teachers to think professionally and respond to their learners.

Furthermore, the role of teaching materials is potentially positive as a form of professional

development for teachers, and increase autonomous learning strategies in learners. Thus

according to Richards & Renandya (2007, p.80), there are eight key assumptions which

should be taken into consideration by any teacher who wants to engage in designing and

developing materials to enhance the environement of the classroom. So effective materials

should reflect the following statements:

x Language is functional and must be contextualised: Language should be presented in

the context in which it occurs, whether it is the teachers input or learners output.

x Language development requires learner engagement in purposeful use of language:

The focus of both, the input and the output should be on the whole text rather than form

and grammar.

x The language used should be realistic and authentic: Because language is social

practice, the call for authentic materials instead of artificial materials found in traditional

textbooks is of crucial importance (Grant,1987).

x Classroom materials will usually seek to include an audio-Visual Component:

Audiovisual materials can create a learning environement that is rich in linguistic and

cultural information about the target language.

x Learners need to develop the ability to deal with written and spoken Genres: Reading

materials have to cover a range of genres through exposing learners to different aural and

written texts.

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x Effective teaching materials target learner autonomy: The activities and the materials

proposed must be flexible to enable learners to deal independently with the language they

encounter. Material, therefor, need to be built upon self-assessement tasks.

x Materials need to cater to Individual and contextual differences: Although teachers try

to adapt the materials to the context in which learning is taken place but learners who

organize the input into meaningful wholes to confront their hypotheses about how the

language system is used.

x Learning need to engage learners both effectively and cognitively: Language should be

used in communicative and purposeful situation to express the learners own meaning. In

this respect, the materials which provides linguistic and cultural preparation have to

consider the learner-generated language as the primary goal of the learning process.

Teahing materials play an important role in the teaching process. Thus, in selecting

materials, teachers should be sure that they contribute positively to the learning environment.

Both teachers and learners need some information about how they use such materials to

facilitate learning. Wright (1987) suggests that we teach with materials not through them.

Effective teaching materials can take place only by providing cultural and linguistic input and

selecting integrated activities. Such materials can be considered as a professional tool because

they cater to individual needs and by expanding the learners teaching repertoire.

5.Materials Design and the Syllabus:

In many parts of the world, language education programs are designed following a syllabus-

driven approach; that is, the syllabus determines what kind of materials will be adopted and in

what ways they will be used for the classroom teaching. In certain educational contexts, the

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syllabus even determines how materials should be designed. Therefore, the materials are not

seen as an alternative to the syllabus, but an instrument among others used to fulfil the goals of

the syllabus. Materials, whether commercially developed or home-made, are an important

element within the curriculum, and are often the most visible aspect of the curriculum.

Nunan(1991) argues that: While the syllabus defines the goals and objectives, the linguistic

and experiential content, instructional materials can put flesh on the bones of these

specifications. (Nunan, 1991, p.208, cited in McGrath, 2002, p.214).

5.1.Types of Syllabuses

Nunan (1994) argues that language teaching syllabus can be designed in many different

ways, depending on the designers view of language and view of language learning and

teaching. According to Richards (1990, p.09), the syllabus is the starting point in planning a

language program. The following kinds of syllabuses and combinations of them are

commonly found in current English as a second or a foreign language (1) structural (organized

primarly around grammar and sentence patterns), (2) functional(organized around

communicative functions, such as identifying, reporting, correcting, describing.), (3) notional(

organized around conceptual categories, such as duration, quantity, location), (4) Topical

(organized around themes or topics), (5) situational( organized around speech settings, such as

shopping, at the supermarket, at the bank), (6) skills( organized around skills), (task or activity

based (organized around activities) (Richards, ibid, p.10).

During the 1970s, there was a shift of interest from focusing merely on grammatical items

for developing a syllabus to functional skills,in order to communicate effectively. This has

lead to the the development of ESP courses. Notions, topics, themes, activities, and tasks
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should also be taken into account. Learners purposes along with needs analysis, constraints

and resources of implementation should be carried out foe designing a successful syllabus.

However syllabuses can focus either on the end result of instruction (product oriented

syllabuses), or on the processes through which the knowledge and skills might be acquired.

Nunan( ibid)

x Product-Oriented Syllbuses: This kind of syllabuses focusing on the end result or

outcomes of instruction i.e.the knowledge and skills that learners will gain as a result of

instruction.

x Process Oriented Syllabuses: Here the focus is on the processes through which the

knowledge and skills might be acquired. They are presented as being procedural or task

based syllabuses. The program was arranged around tasks such as information and opinion

gap activities, it was hoped that the learner would perceive the language subconsciousely

and then deduce conciousely the meaning behind the task. (Nunan,1994)

6.Syllabus Vs Curriculum:

syllabus and curriculum are differentiated. According to Richard (1990) A syllabus is

essentially a job specification, and as such it should set out clearly and precisely what is to be

done, or the standards or criteria to be met by those who do it (p.10). In this sense, a syllabus

is a specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and

contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. However a

curriculum is an interrelated set of plans and experiences that students undertakes under the

guidance of the school (Marsh & Willis, 1995, p.10). A curriculum provides detailed

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specification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose for the implementation of a

program. In some sense, a syllabus is part of a curriculum.

6.1.Syllabus Design :

According to (Yalden, 1984, p.13 in Jack C. Richards & Willy A. Renandeya, 2007)

syllabus design is a public document, a record, a contract, an instrument which represents

negotiation among all the parties involved. (Nunan, 1994) provides three points of departure

in syllabus design :

1-Analysis of the language (what the linguistic elements should be taught).

2-Information about the learner ( What does the learner want to do with this language).

3-Beliefs about the learning process (What activities will stimulate or promote language

acquisition).

Wilkins (1976), for instance, believes that the language teaching syllabus is the combination

of what to teach and the order of teaching it.

6.2. Curriculum Design :

According to Nunan (1984), the word curriculum refers to the principles and procedures for

planning, implementation, evaluation, and management of educational programmes.

Curriculum planners progress systematically from needs assessment, then goals and

objectives, in order to specify the instructional content of the program. Tabas model of

curriculum process (1962, p.12, cited in Richards 1990, p.8) consists of:

x Step 01: Diagnosis of needs.

x Step 02: Formulation of objectives.

x Step 03: Selection of content

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x Step 04: Organization of content

x Step 05: Selection of learning experiences

x Step 06: Organisation of learning experiences

x Step 07: Determination of what to evaluate and means to evaluate.

In language teaching step (3) and step (4) are usually known as syllabus design.

7.Materials Design and Textbooks:

When teachers design their own materials, they try to meet individual learners needs

through implementing learner centered language programs. ONeill (1982) and Nunan (1988)

(mentioned in Richard & Renandya, 2007) mention that each group of learners is unique and

that its needs cannot be met by materials designed for another group. Teaching materials are

not neutral and have a crucial role in deciding what is learnt (Apple,1992 in ibid). For this

reason, teachers and materials writers as well, should be familiar with the learning and

teaching styles, ways and contexts of those materials; i.e., teachers experiences contribute, to

a large extent, in the process of designing materials to be sophisticated, so as to facilitate and

reflect the real world situations the learners can encounter outside classroom. Such access to

the adequate materials creates authenticity which enables teachers to provide culturally rich

input.

Because many teachers still have neither the time nor access to adequate technology to

create such materials, they prefer to stick to the textbook. However, when teachers fail to

responding to the learners needs, they are obliged to prepare their own materials as Allwright

(1981, in Richard, 2007, p.81)) points out: materials may contribute to both goals and content

but they cannot determine either. Furthermore, differences in perceptions of proposed tasks

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lead to the idea that teachers do not necessarily teach what materials writers write and

learners do not necessarily learn what the teachers teach (Luxon, 1994 & Block, 1994 in ibid,

p.83).

As far as almost educational textbooks do not satisfy all the learners needs and interests,

teachers look for a change. In this respect, Stodolsky (1989 in ibid) suggests that mistrust of

textbooks lead teachers to look for change, she concluded:

Teachers are very autonomous in their textbook use and .. it is likely that only a minority
of teachers really follow the text in the page-by page manner suggested in the literature.
(Stodolsky, 1989, p.176 in Richard & Renandya , 2007, p.83)

Although, we need more research on the textbook use, appropriate textbooks still help

inexperienced teachers in terms of content and ways of tackling with learners:

Teachers guides may provide a helpful scaffold for learning to think pedagogically about
particular content,considering the relationship between what the teachers and students are
doing and what students are supposed to be learning. This kind of thinking about ends and
means is not the same as following the teachers guide like a script. (Loewenberg.Ball &
Feiman-Nemser,1998, in Richard, ibid, p. 82).

Donoghue (1992, in ibib) extends the pedagogical role for textbooks from inexperienced to

experienced teachers. He stresses the textbooks potential as An essential source of

information and support and a tool of professional development (p.83). Textbooks

survive..and prosper primarily because they are the most convenient means of providing

the structure that the teaching-learning system- particularly the system in change requires.

(Hutchnson & Torres, 1994, quoted in Richards & Renandya, 2007, p.83).

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 This means that the textbook serves as a guide or a map to follow the objectives of the

curriculum to allow the learners to benefit from the lesson and enable them to see where the

lesson feets into the context of the programme. (Hutchinson & Torres, 1994, in ibid, p.83)

suggest that the textbook is important because it allows for:

a- Negotiation (Providing something to negotiate about; teacher and learner roles.).

b- Accountabilty (What is being done in the classroom.)

c- Orientation: Teacher and learner have to know what is happening elsewhere, how much

work should be covered.etc.)

However, the use of appropriate teaching materials can help both teacher and learner to

overcome the difficulties brought by textbooks and to cover the textbook shortcomings as

well. In this respect, the issue is not whether teachers should or should not use such materials

but rather, how these materials can contribute positively to teaching and learning

(Cunningsworth,1984 in ibid) .

8. Needs Analysis and Materials development:

8.1. Needs Analysis:

Needs Analyss is seen as the starting point for the development of the language program

which should respond to the learner and learning needs (Richard, 2007). Similarly, Brindley

suggests in (Richard, ibid.) that there are two orientations of needs analyses are recognized:

(a) Product-Oriented view which focuses on learners particular future responses, and (b)

Process-Oriented view which takes into consideration factors such as learner motivation and

learning styles as we are concerned with learner-centered curriculum. He suggests that both

types of needs analysis are necessary; the former aimed at setting broad goals related to

language content, the latter aimed at gathering information about learners to guide the learning
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process. Furthermore, the results of the needs analysis are applied in the development of

programme objectives and in the choice of appropriate teaching methodology. It plays an

active role in course evaluation and it takes place at the pre-course planning through its

contribution in the learning objectives (Nunan.1988). According to Richards (1990, p.01),

needs analysis serves the purposes of :

x providing a mechanism for obtaining a wider range of input into the content, design and

implementation of a language program,

x Identifying general or specific language needs that can be addressed in developing goals,

objectives, and content for a language program.

x Providing data that can serve as the basis for reviewing and evaluating an existing

program.

Needs assessement refers to an array of procedures for identifying and validating needs, and

establishing priorities among them (Pratt, 1980 cited in Richards, 1990, p.01)

Thus, needs analysis procedures tend to generate information about the context, the

program, the learners, the teachers, and the administrative factors that affect the program.

8.2.Materials Development:

According to Hutchinson & Waters (1991, P.106), materials development can be

summarized as follows:

x Materials development, materials are no longer a combination of a learners book and a

teachers book. Rather they consist of a whole set of materials, including the students

book, workbook, the teachers book, cassettes, CD-ROMs, evaluation (test) book, the

readers, etc.

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x Technical advancement has brought sophistication of ESL/EFL coursebooks but it has

also created a gap between materials producers and materials users. The amount of time,

energy and different expertise required in contemporary coursebook production seems to

be neglecting teachers as potential materials writers, because they often have a heavy

workload in often under-resourced teaching contexts.

x Commercial materials are designed in such a way so as to remove much of the teachers

burden involved in the process of creating or adapting teaching materials.

x Materials are not just tools, they represent the aims, values, and methods in teaching a

foreign language.

x Coursebook publishers expend a great deal of time, money and effort in promoting the

adoption of their commercial materials.

x Current materials tend to overburden the user with an embarrassment of riches (abundance

of data).

9.Materials Design Vs Materials Adaptation:

9.1. Materials Design:

Teachers sometimes engage in materials design, evaluation, adaptation, and implementation.

The best instructional materials not only serve their pedagogic goals but also hopefully

provide enjoyable classroom experiences for both teachers and learners. Because teachers

wish to provide teaching materials that fit the specific subject area of particular learners ,they

produce materials suitable to their learners needs. According to Hutchinson & Waters (1991,

p.106), when teachers design their own materials they should look at some techniques for

producing useful, and creative materials among which:

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x Defining Objectives: When teachers start designing their own materials, they wonder

What these materials are supposed to do. Thus, the good materials will, therefore, contain:

(1) Interesting texts; (2) enjoyable activities which engage the learners thinking capacities; (3)

opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge and skills; (4) content which both

learner and teacher can cope with.

x Materials help to organize the teaching learning process: Good materials should guide

teacher and learner through various activities to maximise the opportunities of learning and

to help the teacher in planning lessons and encourage the learners progress and

achievement.

x Materials reflect the nature of language and learning: Materials should reflect what

what the teachers think and feel about the learning process.

x Materials reflect the nature of the learning task: As far as, language learning is a

complex process, materials should reflect the complexity of the task.

x Materials can have a very useful impact on teachers training : By introducing

teachers to new techniques.

x Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use: materials become

a statement of language use rather than a vehicle of language learning.

9.1.1. Materials Design Model: The aim of this model is to provide a framework for the

integration of the various aspects of learning. According to Hutchinson & Waters (ibid.), the

model consists of four elements: Input, content focus, language focus, and task.

9.1.1.a. Input: This may be a text, dialogue, video-recording, or any piece of communication

data.The input should provide a number of elements:

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1- Stimulus material for activities;

2- correct models of language use;

3- a topic for communication;

4- opportunities for learners to use their information processing skills;

5- opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge of the language;

9.1.1.b.Content Focus: Language is a means of conveying information rather than an end in

itself. Thus, content should be exploited to generate meaningful communication in the

classroom.

9.1.1.c. Language Focus: The aim is to make learners able to use language. In language

focus learners take the language to pieces rather than exposing them to communicative tasks

and activites for which they do not have enough language knowledge.

9.1.1.d.Task: Materials should be designed to lead to communicative task. This means that the

first stage in designing the material is to find the appropriate text which should be suited to

learners needs and interest, then think of a task that the learners could do at the end of the

unit. The next stage is to generate the activities that will benefit the learners and that cover the

language structures, vocabulary, functions, content the input (text) contains (ibid) .

9.2. Materials Adaptation:

According to Tomlinson (1998, p.XI), materials adaptation refers to the act of Making

changes to materials in order to improve them or to make them more suitable for a particular

type of learner. Adaptation can include reducing, adding, omitting, modifying and

supplementing in order to maximize the value of the book (Tomlinson, 1998, Hyland, 2007).

According to (Mc Donough & Shaw, 2003, p.78): (1) Adding, including: expanding and

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extending; (2) Deleting including: subtracting and abridging; (3) Modifying, including

rewriting, restructuring; (4) Simplifying; and (5) Reordering.

9.2.1. Reasons for Adaptation:

Teachers make some modifications and changes in their own materials to make their

materials to some extent communicative and authentic, in addition to other reasons. In this

respect, (Mc Donough & Shaw.2003, p.77) proposed a list of reasons among which:

1- Not enough grammar coverage in general;

2- not enough practice of grammar points of particular difficulty to these learners;

3- the communicative focus means that grammar iss presented unsystematically;

4- reading passages contain too much unknown vocabulary;

5- comprehension questions are too easy,because the answers can be lilifted directly from the

text with no real understanding;

6- listening passages are inauthentic;

7- not enough guidance on pronunciation;

8- subject matter inappropriate for learner of this age and intellectual level;

9- photographs and other illustrative material not culturally level;

10- amount of material too much or too little to cover in the time allocated to lessons;

11- no guidance for teachers on handling group work and role play activities with a large play;

12- dialogues too formal and not representative of everyday speech;

13- too much or too little variety in the activities;

From the above mentioned reasons , one can say that the most important aim of

teachersadapted materials is to cover all the aspects of the language classroom such as (a)

aspects of language use, (b) skills, (c) classroom organization, and (d) supplementary material.
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10.The Design of Reading Materials:

To design the new reading instructional materials, teachers should consider materials as

pedagogical tools for teaching and take into account some pedagogical aspects, such as, (1)

learners needs and interests; (2) principles of text selection; (3) principles of sequencing;

types of learning and teaching tasks; (6) learner contribution; (7) learner roles; (8) teacher

roles; and (9) role of instructional materials ( Richards and Rodgers ,2001). Thus, these

aspects should be taken into consideration in the process of materials design to maximise

learning opportunities and to increase motivation among learners. Hence, the types of learning

texts and teaching activities, should respond to learners needs, interests in order to arouse

their motivation (Davies,1995; Dornyei, 2001; Richards and Rodgers, 2001; McDonough and

Shaw, 2003). Similiraly, Davies (1995) highlights that:

different perceptions students bring to the learning task according to their language
background, general background knowledge and interests, and about their expectations and
strategies for reading and learning (Davies,1995, p.123).

Thus, EAP reading programmes and textbooks should give a crucial importance to the

selection of appropriate reading texts, and pedagogical tasks. Finally, teacher need to adapt

and design materials to suit their specific teaching and learning contexts and the learners

needs and interest as well, through the selection of texts, strategies and tasks (Hutchinson &

Torres, 1994; Bell & Gower, 1998; Maley, 1998; McGrath, 2002; Tomlinson, 2003).

10.1. Selection of Reading Strategies

Successful learning depends upon learners successful learning strategies. Teachers reading

materials should provide learners with L2 cognitive reading strategies to enhance reading

performance (Hosenfeld, 1977, 1984; Block, 1986; Carrell, 1989; Anderson, 1991; Grabe and
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Stoller, 2002; Grabe, 2004). These strategies are as follows: (1) predicting what the text will

be about from the title; (2) connecting learners background knowledge to the text content; (3)

skimming for general information; (4) scanning for specific information; (5) understanding

markers (7) Guessing meaning of unknown words from context; (8) identifying and

understanding references (Oxford, 1996 in Richards 2001, p.43)

10.2. Selection of Reading Texts:

Almost all teachers and instructors find that it is beneficial to develop materials for each

class based on learners particular needs and interests. Bright (etal, 1982 noted in Murcia, 1991,

p.189) says that some teachers choose the text and supplement it with their own developed

materials, while others focus on their own special materials and supplement it with some ideas

from textbooks. On one hand, textbooks should be examined carefully before selection for

classroom use. Textbooks can contain difficult materials, that is why many instructors prefer

not to use a classroom text. On the other hand, learners can be confused by teacher-made

materials. That is why the choice of appropriate reading texts to the learners should rely on

some ccriteria, such as the learnersworld experiences or background knowledge; their age,

and their level (Grant, 1987; McDonough & Shaw, 2003; Tomlinson, 2003b). Similiraly,

McGrath (2002) advises materials writers to conduct a survey with the learners by asking

them about their favourite topics; he states:

As far as likely appeal is concerned, the most reliable way of ensuring that this priority is
taken seriously is to ask learners (either those for whom the material is needed or a
comparable group) for their views on the various sets of materials from which the choice is to
be made. (McGrath, 2002, p.36)

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 In addition to selecting texts that the learners should find interesting and accessible, the text

should not be linguistically difficult but rather should be comprehensible, since it should be

appropriate to learners proficiency levels (Al-Mutawa and Taisseer Kailani, 1989).

10.3. The Design of Teaching and Learning Tasks:

The final aspect of the reading materials design is the development of learning and teaching

tasks. Activities are designed to improve learners proficiency level and to develop learning

processes ( Breen ,1987 ; Candlin and Murphy 1987). The reading activities are divided into

three categories ( see Chapter one) which are: (1) The pre-reading tasks; which are designed

to activate the learners schemata, (2) The while-reading tasks; which are designed to

enhance learners use of strategies in contextualised reading, (3) The post-reading tasks

which are intended to focus on what the learnershave already read, focusing on details in the

text (Grabe, 2004). According to Dwyer (1984), teachers need to create their own teaching

and testing materials. Though the process of designing materials including tasks and activities

is frustrating and time-consuming, but almost all teachers engage in materials development

through trial and error. Dwyer (ibid: pp 8-10) suggests the following ten points as guidelines

for materials development. These points are about the tasks involed in developing effective

materials:

x Does the exercise clearly lead to ultimate program goal? Since the program final

objectives reflect learners needs, they should be kept in mind in planning of any activity

or the designing of any materials.

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x Is the purpose of the exercise clear and consistently realized? The clarity and unity of

purpose within each exercise is important. When writing teaching exercises, we should

precise the purpose of the activity (i.e; to introduce, reinforce, or expand).

x Is realistc language use reflected? All materials should use authentic English to develop

their communicatve competence. Exposing learners to artificial language to meet

functional and structural goals is harmful and undesirable.

x Are instructions clear and complete? Teachers must show some criteria of evaluation.

Dwyer strongly recommends starting with some paraphrased from the statement of

purpose when teachers designed the exercise. Learners perform better when they clearly

understand why they are engaging in a given activity.

x Are tems consistent? This means that every question teachers put in one exercise must

be in relation with the other exercises. Well-designed materials are consistent in design

within each task.

x Is the length appropriate? It is important that exercises be long enough to meet the

learners objectives. In writing testing materials, the goal should be elicitation of

maximum language performance with a minimum of items.

x The exercise free of contaminating elements? Materials shouldnt be culturally strange

for learners. When there is a gap of nformation, learners wouldnt be able to understand.

Thus, factors such as unfamiliar vocabulary, unexplained alien cultural information or

assumptions should be avoided.

x Are the items unambiguous? Materials must be clear. In testing items, we must ask

learners clearly for the information or performance we want.

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x Across exercises, is a variety of techniques employed? A skilled materials writer should

develop a broad repertoire of strategies to meet the different learners needs. Overemphasis

on one type of exercise can favour some learners while failing to appeal in the least to

others.

x Has adequate use been made of printed and human resources? Even if there are

thousands of textbooks exist for our evaluation and adaptation, we shouldnt hesitate to

examine other peoples materials and adapt their techniques and approaches to our

situations. Thus, a good practice is to show our drafts to our colleagues before we prepare

them for our learners.

11. The Role of the Teacher in the Process:

In the process of designing materials, teachers role is a central component. The teacher can be

a monitor of learners learning, motivator, organizer, material developer and evaluator. In

addition, teachers have their own decisions on the coursebook activities, techniques, and

learning experiences (Richards, 1990)

Coursebooks are tools which only have life and meaning when there is a teacher present.

They are never intended to be a straitjacket for a teaching programme in which the teacher

makes no decisions to supplement, to animate or to delete. ( Bell and Gowers, 1998, p.118

in Richards, 2002. P.82 )

12. The Learners Role in the Process:

Materials writers consider learners attitudes as the key element in the teaching-learning

process. They seek to know their preferred learning styles, strategies, to enhance their

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proficiency level and their learning as well. Thus, Needs analysis is important in collecting

data about our learners to enable them to meet their needs (Richard, ibid)

13. Materials Evaluation:

According to (Hutchinson & Waters, 1991, p.96 ), there are three possible ways of turning

the designed material into an actual teaching material which are:

a- Select from existing materials (i.e., materials evaluation.)

b- Write our own materials (i.e., materials development.)

c- Modify existing materials: which is called materials adaptation (i.e., How do we evaluate

materials? )

Materials evaluation helps us to write our own materials, the evaluation of existing

materials can provide a good source of ideas (of what to avoid, as well as, what to do) and

techniques. Evaluation is basically a matching process (matching needs to available solutions).

For instance, Hutchinson & Waters (1991, p.96 ) divide the evaluation process into four steps:

x Defining Criteria: We should use the materials evaluation process as a means of

questioning and developing our own ideas as to what is required (Hutchinson, 1987 in

Hutchinson & Alan 1991). The question here is: On what bases will we judge materials

and which criteria will be more important. The criteria can be in terms of content and

language areas, or in terms of the appropriate methodology. However, it will be useful

that teachers set out their own criteria and their own preffered realsatiion of the criteria in

a form which will make it easy to compare different sets of materials.

x Subjective Analysis: The question here is: what realizations of the criteria do teachers

want in their course? (i.e., analysis of their course, in terms of materials requirements.)

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 x Objective Analysis: The question here is: how does the material being evaluated and

realized suit the criteria? (i.e., analysis of the materials being evaluated.)

x Matching: Teachers here try to much needs to available solutions. The question here

is: how far does the material match our needs (teachers and learners needs)?

The evaluation of the materials is done to know if the material fulfill the learners language

learning needs. To recognize the weaknesses and shortcomings of the material we can use

some techniques such as, questionnaires and test results for both macro-level evaluation of

classroom processes which refers to learning activities and tasks and micro-level evaluation

which refers to the cognitive processes, content, and knowledge schemata of particular

subject (Doyle, 1983 in Richards, 1990, p.150)

subject knowledge offered in the materials, views of knowledge the materials present,
views of language learning underlying the materials, teacher and learners role within the
classroom, opportunities for the development of general cognitive abilities and values and
attitudes presented in the materials.( Littlejohn & Windeatt, 1989, p.156).

14.Materials Revision

The materials revision process should not include only the teacher or materials designers,

but also learners, to allow a complete systematic approach to materials development (Breen,

1989; Jolly and Bolitho, 1998; McGrath, 2002). For instance, McGrath (2002) points out that,

in response to the shortcomings of the designed material, the revision processes should

involve simple decisions such as deleting or moving but also the more complex operations of

adding and modifyingin other words, creating and drafting (McGrath, 2002, p.197). In this

sense, McGrath advises the institutions to record the versions of materials implemented with

the details concerning the person who produced the materials, the learners with whom the

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materials were used, in addition to the learners and teachers attitudes toward the

implemented material. Materials revision contributes, to a large extent to the process of

materials evaluation. Materials designers tend to shape the revising processes in a more

systematic way (Lynch, 1996; McGrath, 2002) to increase flexibility in how materials are

revised (Tomlinson, 2003, p.101).

Conclusion

To sum up, both the design and the use of instructional materials are of great importance in

any successful educational program. The evaluation processes lead to their successful

development and implementation. The good selection of reading texts, and learning and

teaching tasks, will help maximise the secondary school English learning and reading

development through the use of the materials as the primary pedagogical tool. Furthermore,the

success of teachers designed materials should be evaluated to see their effect on learners

proficiency level.

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CHAPTER THREE

The Effect of Reading Materials on Learners Proficiency in Writing

Introduction:

1. The learners questionnaire

1.1. The sample

1.2. Description of the questionnaire

1.3. Analysis and interpretation of learners questionnaire

2. Teachers questionnaire

2.1. The sample

2.2. Description of teachers questionnaire

2.3 .Analysis and interpretation of the questionnaire

3. Classroom Observations

Conclusion

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 CHAPTER THREE

The Effect of Reading Materials on Learners proficiency in Writing

Introduction:

As we know, secondary school learners have problems with the target language, particularly

with vocabulary, grammar, form, punctuation and so on. This may become an obstacle both

for the teachers and the learners. In this respect teachers try all the time to replace the

textbook reading materials by an other one which is considered more appropriate in terms of

language aspects (vocabulary, ideas, structures). This will help learners to maximise language

learning in order to develop their writing skill in terms of language level. Because of the

nature of the present subject, both teachers and learners are considered as variables of the

study. Their views and opinions are important to build a clear guidelines for the effect of

reading materials design on learners proficiency in writing. For this purpose, two

questionnaire addressed to both teachers and learners to elicit their opinions.

The learners questionnaire aims at showing the degree of awareness that the secondary

school learners have about the effect of reading skill on the writing one, i.e., whether they are

aware that these two skills are interrelated or not, as well as, it aims at finding out learners

opinions about learning writing, and the importance they give to vocabulary, grammar, form,

ideas, punctuation and how they acquire these linguistic aspects. i.e., whether they consider

reading as an important skill to build their schema (background knowledge to develop learning

to write). Getting learners opinions about the reading skill is crucial because it will determine

their views about what writing is, the type of reading they prefer (intensive vs extensive

reading), the importance of reading materials, whether reading skill has any influence on their

writing skill, and the types of writing genres they find the most difficult.

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 The teachers questionnaire is intended to gather information about the teachers views

about teaching writing, and the importance they give to reading skill in teaching the writing

skill. The questionnaire aims mainly at knowing if teachers rely on the textbook reading

materials in the writing classroom, or design their own reading materials according to their

learners needs, level, age to enable them to write.

1.The Learners Questionnaire:

1.1.The Sample:

Learners who responded to the questionnaire were chosen randomly from first year

secondary school learners population (140 learners) at five secondary schools in Constantine.

The choice of first year secondary school was based on the consideration that learners at that

level started learning the writing process and thus, realize the importance of the reading phase

in each unit in gaining the needed vocabulary and ideas, as well as, the writing techniques

which enable them to go through the writing stages and communicate their ideas effectively. It

is assumed that they have learned some basic skills of writing like producing some types of

sentences, grammar, and punctuation according to the program of the middle school and their

first year at the secondary school. 100 questionnaires were returned from 140 initially planned

and this represents our sample.

1.2.Description of the Questionnaire:

The questionnaire consists of 36 questions divided into four sections (see Appendix I). The

questions include close-ended questions, and open-ended questions where learners have to

explain their choice or to give suggestions.

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1.2.1. Section I: General Information (Q1-Q6):

This section aims at gathering dataabout the sample population (i.e., their gender, age,

stream, and how many times they study English per week). These information enable us to set

learners background knowledge, interests and needs .

1.2.2.Section II: The reading and writing skills(Q5-Q16):

This section aims at getting the learners opinion about learning English as a subject(Q5), the

skill they would like to master (Q6), and their level in writing (Q7). Besides, this section

involves their views about the importance of the reading skill in improving their writing

capacities through showing the importance of linguistic aspects such as grammar, vocabulary,

and organisation of ideas (Q9). It also aims at knowing if learners write outside classroom and

what type of writing (Q10-Q11), and if they prefer to write individually or in pairs (Q12),

then which genre of writing learners find the most difficult and how the teacher help them and

motivate them (Q14-Q15-Q16).

1.2.3.Section III: Reading and writing activities(Q17-Q25)

The objective of this section is to get data about the reading and writing activities the

learners usually have (Q17), and if they have enough writing practice in class (Q18). This

section is also about learners attitudes about the type of the activities they usually have in

class which enable them to write the application letter (the 1st unit project work), and if they

can write a paragraph after they have already read a similar model (Q23). This section is also

about learners attitudes to writing and the kind of difficulty they have in it, as well as, the

teachers feedback (Q24-Q25).

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1.2.4.Section IV: The coursebook reading and writing texts and activities:(Q26-Q35):

This section investigates whether the textbook helps learners to develop both reading and

writing skills (Q26), and if they really enjoy the textbook activities. It aims at knowing what

kind of activities the learners like more in the textbook (Q29) and at knowing learners

attitudes about the objectives behind learning to write as well. Furthermore, we wanted to

know from this questionnaire whether the textbook reading and writing activities meet the

learners aims and objectives (Q30-Q31). Q32 concerns the teachers help to make learners

meet their aims and objectives. This section also involves the learners attitudes about the

projects given at the end of each unit and if they offer real opportunities for writing practice

(Q33).

1.2.5. SectionV:Further suggestions

This section is a space devoted to learners to give additional comments about the previous

sections, or to make suggestions about teaching methodology, learning writing and reading

skills and the relationship between each other.

1.3. Analysis and Interpretation of Learners Questionnaire:

Q1: Gender:

Male

Female

Gender Nb. cit. Frq.

Male 36 3 6 .0 %
Female 64 6 4 .0 %
Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 1. Learners gender

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Among the one hundred respondents, thirty seven are male and sixty three are female. This

indicates that the number of girls is higher compared to that of boys.

Q2-Age

a-Less than 15 b-15 c-More than 15

Age nb.cit. freq.

less than15 0 0 .0 %
15 1 1 .0 %
more than 15 99 9 9 .0 %
Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 2. Learners age

Table (2) reveals that the learners are aged 15 to 16, and have already four years tuition in

English at the Middle School level. The teaching program they are going to be introduced to

should definitely correspond to their needs and meets their interests.

Q3-Stream

Scientific Literary

Stream Nb. cit. Frq.

Scientific 67 6 7 .7 %
Literary 32 3 2 .3 %
Total 99 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 3. Learners stream

Table (3) shows that the number of learners registered in scientific stream is higher than those

of litrary stream.

Q4-How many times do you study English per week?

a-Three times

b-Four times

c-More than four times

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 english per week Nb. cit. Frq.

Three times
69 6 9 .0 %

four times 31 3 1 .0 %

more than for times 0 0 .0 %

Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 4. How many times learners study English per-week.

The questionnaire reveals that learners in scientific stream study English three times per-week,

however learners of litrary stream study English four times per-week.

II. The reading and writing skills

Q5-Do you like learning English?

Yes No

Like Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 77 7 7 .0 %

No 23 2 3 .0 %

Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Tabla 5.Learners attitudes toward learning English

The table reveals that the majority of 1st year secondary school like learning English (77

learners); they are aware of the importance of E.F.L, so they are motivated to learn it.

Q6-If yes ,which skill would you like to master?

a-Listening

b-Speaking

c-Reading

d-Writing

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 if yes skill Nb. cit. Frq.

Listening 36 1 5 .5 %

Speaking 88 3 7 .8 %

Reaging 36 1 5 .5 %

Writing 73 3 1 .3 %

Total 233 1 0 0 .0 %

Table.6 Learners attitudes about the mastery of the four skills.

Table.6. shows that the majority of learners gave a high importance to the mastery of the

speaking skill (88 learners), followed by the mastery of the writing skill (73 learners), reading

and listening are given the same importance as receptive skills, so learners are aware that

language is communication (The crucial importance is given to the speaking skill). They gave

more importance to the productive skills at the expense of the receptive skills because

secondary school learners are aware that productive skills should be scored and evaluated.

Thus, it allowed them either to succeed or to fail, which is not the case with the receptive

skills.

Q7-Your ability to write is:

a-Good

b-Average

c-Low

ability to write Nb. cit. Frq.

Go o d 10 1 0 .0 %
Average 64 6 4 .0 %
Low 26 2 6 .0 %
Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 7.Learners ability to write

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Table (7) shows that 64 learners consider that their level in writing is average, 26 learners

consider their level as low, and only 10 are considered as good writers.

Q8-Your actual levl in writing is:

a-Bigginner(Still at the level of the sentence)

b-Intermediate(able to write beyond the sentence level )

level in

writing Nb. cit. Frq.

Bigginner 26 2 6 .0 %

Intermediate 74 7 4 .0 %

Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 8 Learners actual level in writing

Here, (74 learners) consider that they have an intermediate level in writing. Only (26

learners) consider themselves as beginners.

Q9-Classify the following items according to the importance you give them in your writings

a-Grammar .

b-Vocabulary.

c-Organisation of ideas

The importance of: 1 2 3 Total

Grammar 11 49 40 100
Vocabulary 21 37 42 100
Ideas organization 68 13 18 99
Total 100 99 100 299
Table 9 The importace of grammar,vocabulary,organisation of ideas in writing. (learners sum

of the ranks)

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Table(9) shows learners sum of the ranks. The three below tables show that organization of

ideas is given a high importance (68 learners), followed by vocabulary (21 learners), then

grammar (11 learners) respectively.

importance vocabulary Nb. cit. Frq.

1 21 2 1 ,0 0 %

2 37 3 7 ,0 0 %

3 42 4 2 ,0 0 %

TOTAL OBS. 100 100%

Table .9.a.Rank of the imporatance of vocabulary

importance organisation of ideas Nb. cit. Frq.

Non rponse 1 1 ,0 0 %

1 68 6 8 ,0 0 %

2 13 1 3 ,0 0 %

3 18 1 8 ,0 0 %

TOTAL OBS. 100 100%

Table 9.b. Rank of the importance of organization of ideas

importance grammar Nb. cit. Frq.

1 11 1 1 ,0 0 %

2 49 4 9 ,0 0 %

3 40 40,00%

TOTAL OBS. 100 100%

Table 9.c. Rank of the importance of grammar.

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Q10-Do you write in English outside your secondary school?

Yes No

write English Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 63 6 4 .3 %

No 35 3 5 .7 %

Total 98 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 10. Learners attitudes about writing outside classroom.

Table(10) shows that the majority of secondary school learners write outside classroom.i.e., it

shows that the majority of learners(63 learners) write outside classroom(e-mails and letters)

and only (35 learners), they do not.

Q11-If yes, what type of writing?

a-Home work

b-Letter

c-E-mail

d-Other? Please justify?

if yes type Nb. cit. Frq.

home work 33 2 5 .4 %

Letter 21 1 6 .2 %

Email 53 4 0 .8 %

Other 23 1 7 .7 %

Total 130 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 11.Learners types of writing outside classroom.

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Table(11) shows that the majority of surveyed learners (53 learners) write emails, (33 learners)

write because they are obliged to do the homework, (21 learners ) they write letters.

- Learners who opted for others specified that they write songs, poems, short stories.

Q12-In class, do you like to write?

a-Individually

b-In pairs

c-In small groups

in class nb.cit freq

in pairs 15 1 4 .9 %

in small groups 56 5 5 .4 %

Total 101 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 12. The way learners prefer to write inside classroom.

Table 12. shows that the majority of learners prefer to write in groups (56 learners), and in

pairs (30 learners) rather than individually (10 learners).

From here, we gather that the majority of surveyed learners prefer activities that allow them to

think, generate their ideas and participate actively. They prefer the activities such as pair

work, group work, because they can learn better through working with friends, exchanging or

discussing their ideas.

Q13-Where does your English learning difficulty lie?

a-Reading

b-Writing

c-Speaking

d-listening

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 Difficulty Nb. cit. Frq.

Reading 16 8 .6 %

Writing 89 4 7 .6 %

Speaking 64 3 4 .2 %

Listening 18 9 .6 %

Total 187 1 0 0 .0 %

Table.13 Learners most difficult skill

Table 13 shows that (89 learners) of the surveyed learners consider writing as the most

difficult skill, followed by speaking then listening and reading respectively.

Q14- Please precise your problem?

a-Grammar

b-Vocabulary

c-Form

Problem Nb. cit. Frq.

Grammar 75 3 8 .1 %

Vocabulary 93 4 7 .2 %

Form 29 1 4 .7 %

Total 197 1 0 0 .0 %

Table .14. Learners problem with writing

Table 14 shows that learners consider vocabulary as the most important problem with writing

(47,2%). The lack of vocabulary stock prevent them to express their ideas.

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Q15-Does the teacher make any effort to motivate you to learn English?

Yes No

teacher effort Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 64 6 4 .0 %

No 36 3 6 .0 %

Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 15 Learners attitudes about teachers effort.

Table (15) shows that learners noticed that their teachers do their best to transmit language

knowledge.

Q16- If yes, please tick the right possibilities:

a-Do you read new texts

b-Do you have songs time

c-Do you play vocabulary game in class.

The right possibilities Nb. cit. Frq.

Read new texts 64 64 %

Have songs time 16 16 %

Play vocabulary game 20 20 %

Table .16 Types of activities doing by teachers

Table (16) shows that the majority of teachers gave new texts as authentic ones to their

learners to help them using reading as a tool to improve their proficiency in writing rather than

having songs time or playing vocabulary games because of time limitation (3 to 4 hours per

week) and classroom size (more than 40 learners per class). However, they also wished there

should have been more teaching materials like videos or songs, appealing to them much more

than the illustrations.

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Q17-What types of reading and writing activities do you usually have in class?

a-Comprehension questions

b-Defining words

c-Matching items

d- Follow up activities(read then write)(summary or paraphrasing)

if yes possibilities Nb. cit. Frq.

comprehension questions 99 3 3 .1 %

defining words 47 1 5 .7 %

matching items 70 2 3 .4 %

follow up activities 83 2 7 .8 %

Total 299 1 0 0 .0 %

Table .17.Reading and writing activities.

Table(17) shows that comprehension questions is the most common reading activity learners

usually have. Follow up activities and matching items are usually done by teachers, however,

defining words is not very common one in the new program because learners usually guess the

meaning of the new words from the context (Competency based approach).

Q18-Do you have enough writing practice in class?

Yes No

writing practice Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 30 3 0 .0 %

No 70 7 0 .0 %

Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 18. Learners opinions about time-allocation to the writing practice.

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Table(18) shows that the time allocated to writing practice is insufficient to cover most of the

aspect needed to develop their writing skills.

Q19-What type of writing do you usually have in class?

a-Sentence

b-Paragraph

c-Letters

d-E-mails

e-Reports

type usually Nb. cit. Frq.

Paragraph 98 3 1 .6 %

Letters 62 2 0 .0 %

Email 66 2 1 .3 %

Reports 84 2 7 .1 %

Total 310 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 19 Type of writing learers usually have.

Table (19) Shows that writing paragraphs is the most common type of writing that 1st year

secondary school learners usually have (31,6%), then reports (27,1%), emails (21,3%) and

letters (20%) respectively according to their syllabus.

Q20-What genr(s) of writing do you find the most difficult?

a-Exposition

b-Description

c-Narration

d-Letters

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 genrs of writing Nb. cit. Frq.
Exposition 67 4 9 .3 %
Description 8 5 .9 %
Narration 54 3 9 .7 %
Letters 7 5 .1 %
Total 136 1 0 0 .0 %

Table .20.Writing genre(s) learners find the most difficult.

Table(20) shows that the majority of the surveyed learners consider exposition and narration

as the most difficult genres of writing.

Q21-Did you have enough reading activities before writing an application letter?

Yes No

application

letter Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 57 5 7 .0 %

No 43 4 3 .0 %

Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table.21.Learners attitudes about the activities they have before writing the application letter.

The table shows that some learners say that they have enough reading activities before being

asked to write the application letter (57 learers), however, (43%) say that they do not.

Q22-What type of activities do you usually have which enable you to write the letter?

a-Reading application letters.

b-Fill in the blanks with the key words

c-Reordering

d-Letter form(Introduction, body, conclusion)

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 type activities letter Nb. cit. Frq.

reading application letters 97 3 0 .4 %

fill in the blanks with the key

words 66 2 0 .7 %

Reordering 64 2 0 .1 %

letter form 92 2 8 .8 %

Total 319 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 22.Types of activities learners have before writing the application letter.

Tables (21) and (22) show that learners receive enough activities before being asked to write

the application letter. The activities are classified by learners as follows: reading the

application letter as a model is the first activity they usually have before writing the

application letter (30,4%), after that they started doing other activities such as letter form,

reordering, fill in the blanks (20,7%). Thus, learners usually read the given application letter

and learn from it directely the form, the acquisition of the key-words. Then they can be

introduced to the other types of activities.

Q23-Can you write a paragraph if you have already read a similar model?

Yes No

write paragraph Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 58 5 8 .0 %

No 42 4 2 .0 %

Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 23.Learners ability to write a paragraph according to a similar model.

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Table.23 shows that (58.0%) of learners are able to write a paragraph if they read a similar

model, however (42.0%) are not able to do that.

Q24-What kind of difficulty do you have in writing?

a-I have the ideas but can not translate them into words.

b-I lack the ideas.

c-I dont grasp grammar structures.

d-I lack the vocabulary

e-All of them

kind difficulty Nb. cit. Frq.

i have the ideas 51 3 4 .9 %
i lack the ideas 13 8 .9 %
i don't grasp grammar structures 22 1 5 .1 %
i lack the vocabulary 21 1 4 .4 %
all of them 39 2 6 .7 %
Total 146 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 24. Kind of difficulty learners have in writing

Table (24) shows that (34.4%) of the surveyed learners have the ideas but they can t translate

them into words. (15.1%) of them dont grasp grammar structure, (14.4%) can not express

their ideas in writing because of the lack the vocabulary stock, (8.9%) says that they cant

write due to the lack the ideas, and (26.7%) have all the above difficulties in their writing.

Q25-How was the teachers feedback?

a-Conferencing

b-Peer correction

c-Individually

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 teachers'feedback Nb. cit. Frq.

Conferencing 16 1 5 .1 %

peer correction 36 3 4 .0 %

Individually 54 5 0 .9 %

Total 106 1 0 0 .0 %

Table.25.Teachers writing feedback.

Table.25 shows that teachers prefer to apply individual feedback rather than conferencing and

peer correction because of time constraints.

III. The coursebook reading and writing texts and activities:

Q26-Do the coursebook help you to develop both reading and writing skills?

Yes No

the coursebook help Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 30 30%

No 70 70%

Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 26.Learners attitudes about the coursebook reading and writing skills.

Table (26) shows that the coursebouk reading materials do not help learners to develop their

writing skill to a large extent. In this respect, teaching learners the language they use in real

life situations can be achieved through the use of authentic materials such as: to expose them

to the language of the real world, and help them acquire an effective learning in the target

language.

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Q27- Do you enjoy the coursebook reading and writing activities in class?

Yes No

Learners enjoy text book Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 40 5 3 ,0 0 %

No 60 4 7 ,0 0 %

TOTAL OBS. 100 100%

Table 27.Learners attitudes about the coursebook reading and writing activities.

Table(27) shows that (40%) of the surveyed learners say that they enjoy the coursebook

activities. Whereas, (60%) say that though they do not enjoy the coursebook reading and

writing activities, they help them to prepare their examination. In this respect, the coursebook

allows them to be aware of the language functions required to fulfil activities of the unit .

Q28- If no? Does your teachers designed reading activities help you in your writings more

than the textbook?

Yes No

if no teachers textbook Nb. cit. Frq.

Non rponse 1 1 ,0 0 %

Ye s 40 6 6 ,6 6 %

No 19 3 1 ,6 6 %

TOTAL OBS. 60 100%

Table 28.Learners attitudes about teachers own designed reading and writing activities

Table (28) shows that the majority of the surveyed learners say that their teachers design their

own reading materials to meet their learners needs and to develop their proficiency in writing.

Teachers prefer to use authentic materials in the classroom rather than using the coursebook

116
artificial materials because they are beneficial to the learning process and to the learner as

well. Through the use of authentic materials, learners would feel that they are learning the

real language as it is used by the native speakers of the language. Thus, it is advisable for

the teachers to adapt some given texts and activities to meet the learners requirements and

needs if the coursebook texts and activities were not quite understandable or include unusual

and unfamiliar expressions.

Q29-What kind of activities do you like in the coursebook?

a-Pair, group work.

b-Dialogue

c-Fill in the gaps

kind activities coursebook Nb. cit. FREQ

Pair 82 6 0 .7 %

Dialogue 42 3 1 .1 %

fill in the gaps 11 8 .1 %

Total 135 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 29.Learners attitudes about their favourite coursebook activities.

Learners explained that they preferred to work in groups consisting of many people because

they had the opportunity to share ideas and new knowledge with other learners or partner,

enabling them to get the best answers.

- The learners could rely on other friends or partner for support.

- The learners believed that each person knows or acquires different skills and knowledge,

so talking with others helped them learn what they had never known before.

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- The learners had the opportunity to share ideas and new knowledge with others or their

partners.

- Without group work ,the classroom atmosphere was silent and boring. The learners was

not motivated to work on the task.

Q30-What are your objectives in learning to write ?

a-To learn more vocabulary

b-To improve your language level

c-To become good writer.

d-To improve your writing skill to express your idea

objectives in learning Nb. cit. Frq.

to learn more vocabulary 41 1 6 .3 %

to improve your language level 82 3 2 .5 %

to become good write 59 2 3 .4 %

to improve your writing 70 2 7 .8 %

Total 252 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 30.Learners objectives in learning to write.

Table (30) shows that learners have different objectives in learning to write. The majority of

learners (32.5%) want to improve their language level, (27.8%) want to improve their writing.

(23.4%) write to bcome good writers, and only (16.3%) declare that their objective behind

writing is to learn more vocabulary.

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Q31-Does the coursebook reading and writing activities meet your aims and objectives in Unit

01?

Yes No

course book aims and objectives Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 35 3 5 .0 %

No 65 6 5 .0 %

Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 31.Learners attitudes about their objective and the coursebook objectives.

The table shows that 65% of the surveyed learners are not satisfied with the coursebook

objectives because there is a gap between the unit content and its final outcomes (the project

workshop).Whereas 35% of the questioned learners are satisfied with the coursebook

objectives as the tasks improved their thinking skills, since they needed to keep asking

themselves questions while reading and discussing the answers with friends helped them to

understand the text. For them Some tasks were enjoyable and made them become more

motivated, as they had to try to find words to fill in the blanks. It also raised their awareness of

how well they could read .

Q32-If no, how your teacher help you meeting your aims and objectives? Tick the appropriate

answer.

a-Provide you with new reading materials which suit your needs and aims

b-sticks to the coursebook reading materials but gives you extra explanation and new

techniques to meet your needs

119
 If no,how Nb. cit. Frq.

provide you 10 1 5 .3 8 %

sticks to the coursebook 55 8 4 .6 1 %

Total 65 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 32. Learners attitudes about teachers effort to meet their objectives.

Table (32) shows that there are some teachers who stick to the textbook when teaching and try

to explain more to meet their learnersaims; however, the majority of teachers try to design

their own reading and writing materials (84.61%).

Q33- Do projects offer real opportunities for writing practice?

Yes No

projects offer Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 37 6 3 .0 %

No 63 3 7 .0 %

Total 100 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 33.Learners attitudes about the project works

Table (33) shows that the majority of learners commented that the project was so difficult that

they were not able to think of the answers. Their problems also involved their inability to

express their ideas in sentences. They emphasised that writing the answers in sentences and

paragraphs was the most difficult part of the project workshop.

Q34- If you found the language and the tasks are too difficult in the coursebook reading

materials, explain the reason(s) why you found the language too difficult.
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Learners argue that their problem with language tasks can be summarized in the below points:

The vocabulary was too difficult. There were some words the learners had never seen

before, such as pets, countryside belong, preventing learners from understanding the text.

The sentence structures were too complicated and too long.

The learners knew the answers in Arabic, but did not know how to express them in English.

The majority of the surveyed learners explained that the textbook texts contained too many

unknown words. Some of them also felt that the texts content was unfamiliar. They think that

when the vocabulary was too difficult, making the subject matter less interesting. Sometimes

learners found the text too long. Othertimes the text content was difficult to understand or the

text was boring. In addition to the limited time devoted to reading and writing.

Generally the reading tasks in unit I guided the learners to understand the text better, in

order to accomplish the task outcomes. However, learners were not able to reach the task

outcomes without their teachers help.

The learners had the opportunity to practise guessing the meaning of unknown words and

thinking of appropriate words to fill in the blanks;

The learners had the opportunity to practise using different strategies in the textbook tasks,

such as skimming for the main idea, guessing the meaning of unknown words from context

and predicting; but they havent enough knowledge about learning strategies. They need to

include strategy instruction in their learning programs.

The tasks enabled the learners to understand the text better; However, when the text was too

long; and the vocabulary was difficult or the text content was not interesting, so the learners

was not motivated in thinking of the answers .

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Q35-When your teacher correct your writing ,does she/he give more importance to:

a-Grammar

b-Vocabulary

c-Content

d-Organisation of ideas

teacher correct importance Nb. cit. Frq.

Grammar 81 3 0 .5 %

Vocabulary 76 2 8 .6 %

Content 50 1 8 .8 %

organisation of ideas 59 2 2 .2 %

Total 266 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 34.Learners attitudes about teachers feedback.

Learners thought that grammar and vocabulary have the lions part in the teachers feedback,

which is not really what teachers think (see table 3 -teachers questionnaire)

IV. Further suggestions:

Q36 How can your teacher improve your writing?

The learners answers show that they are aware and can improve their writing proficiency

through reading. However, they need more help from their teachers through exposing them to

simplified texts, and intresting topics. More specifically, they want extra-hours for the writing

process.

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2. Teachers Questionnaire:

2.1.The Sample: Teachers who responded to the questionnaire were chosen randomly from

first year secondary school teachers population (17) of five secondary schools in Constantine.

The aim of this questionnaire is to shed light on teachers attitudes and beliefs toward the

design of new materials including authentic texts to meet their learners needs.

2.2. Description of the Questionnaire:

The teachers questionnaire consists of 34 questions divided into six sections(see

AppendixII).

2.2.1.Section I:General Information:(Q1-Q2)

The aim of this section is to get information about the selected secondary school teachers

(their age, and experience in the field)

2.2.2.Section II:(TeachersReading Materials Design (Q4-Q13)

This section aims at knowing if teachers focused on the four skills in their teaching or only

some of them are given priority (Q1-Q2). Besides we wanted to know if secondary school

teachers rely on the coursebook to teach reading, or they design their own reading materials

and why (Q6-Q7), and on which basis they prepare their reading materials (Q8-Q13).

2.2.3.Section III: Reading and Writing Activities (Q14-Q23):

This section aims in general at knowing to what extent the reading materials help learners

to develop their writing skill. first, we wanted to know if learners apply what they learn as

vocabulary in reading in their writing (Q14), and if really projects offer real opportunities for

writing (Q15). As far as learners interact with and through the material, (Q16) aims at

knowing which writing techniques are used by learners. (Q18-Q22) concerned the way

secondary school teachers present their reading tasks to prepare learners for writing. (Q23 )

aims at knowing if teachers make learners work individually or in groups.

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2.2.4.Section IV:Teaching Vocabulary(Q24-Q26):

Through this section,we wanted to know the importance of vocabulary in teaching writing

through reading.

2.2.5.Section V:Teachers Evaluation(Q27-Q33):

The aim of this section is to know if teachers respond to the writing that the learners

produce and which aspects they focus on when evaluating learners writing (Q31). In addition,

we wanted to know which roles are given to the teachers and which roles are given to the

learners in the process of writing.

2.2.6.Section VI: Further Suggestions:

In this section the teachers are invited to give additional comments about the sections dealt

with so far, or to make suggestions concerning reading and writing materials and the

interrelationship between them.

2.3. Analysis and Interpretation of Teachers Questionnaire

I General Information :

Q1 :Status :

Titulaire

stagiaire

Supplant

Status Nb.cit. Freq.

Titulaire. 17 100%
stagiaire 0 0%
Suppleant 0 0%
Total 17 100%
Table .35.Teachers status

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Table(35) shows that all the teachers questioned are full time, premanant teachers at secondary

school.

Q2 :Gender

Male

Female

Gender Nb. cit. Frq.

Male 3 1 7 .6 4 %

Female 14 8 2 .3 5 %

Total 17 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 36. Teachers gender

Table (36) shows that fourteen respondents of the questionnaire were female and six were

male. We find that in Algeria, generally speaking, the number of the female teachers is higher

than that of male.

Q3 : How long have you been teaching in the secondary school ?

Less than 10 years.

Between 10 and 15 years.

More than 15 years.

long teaching Nb. cit. Frq.

less than 10 years,10-15 2 1 1 .8 %

more than 15 15 8 8 .2 %

Total 17 1 0 0 .0 %

Table.37.Teachers experience in the field.

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As far as the teaching experience is concerned, table (37) shows that the majority of the

questioned teachers have more than 15 years teaching experience (88.2%). This shows that

they were familiar with the First year learners program. Therefore, they were able to talk

about the strengths and the weaknesses of the coursebook At The Crossroads (Unit I) entitled

Getting Through

II-Teachers Reading Materials Design:

Q4:Are the four skills equally focused in your teaching?

Yes No

four skills Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 6 3 5 .3 %
No 11 6 4 .7 %
Total 17 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 38.The four skills importance in teaching.

The table shows that some teachers (35.3%) believe that they have to focus on the four skills

equally in their teaching. However, others think that they focus on some skills at the expense

of the others to satisfy the syllabus aims and the learners needs.

Q5:I f no ,which ones are given priority?

a-Listening

b-Speaking

c-Reading

d-Writing

126
 if no priority Nb. cit. Frq.
Listening 2 6 .9 %
Speaking 3 1 0 .3 %
Reading 12 4 1 .4 %
Writing 12 4 1 .4 %
Total 29 1 0 0 .0 %

Table.39.The most important skills in teaching.

Table (39) shows that some teachers think that the four skills should be taught equally. The

majority of teachers find that special attention has been paid to the reading and writing skills.

At the same time they believe that successful coursebook should adopt an integrated approach

to all four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing).

Q6: Do you rely only on the textbook to teach reading, or you design your own reading

materials?

Yes No

teachers' materials Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 14 8 2 .3 5 %

No 3 1 7 .6 4 %

Total 17 1 0 0 .0 %

Table.40.Teachers use of their own designed reading materials

The table shows that the majority of teachers(82.35%) do not rely only on the textbook

reading materials but rather they design their own reading materials to meet their learners

needs. However, (17.64%) of the surveyed teachers say that they prefer to use the textbook

reading materials because the act of designing materials is time consuming.

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Q09: On which basis do you prepare your reading and writing materials?

a-Pupils needs

b-Prescribed objectives.

c-Learners styles and preferences.

basis preparation Nb. cit. Frq.

Pupils needs 13 3 5 .1 %
prescribed objectives 16 4 3 .2 %
leaners styes 8 2 1 .6 %
Total 37 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 41.Criteria for designing reading and writing materials

Table (41) shows that the majority of the surveyed teachers focus on the prescribed objectives

when designing their own materialds (43.2%). Some teachers try to satisfy the learners needs

and as an ultimate objective (35.1%). Only (21.6%) of the questioned teachers take into

consideration learners styles as a factor in designing their reading and writing materials.

However, teachers believe that they should follow a methodology, underlying its content and

presentation which corresponds to the aims of the curriculum as well as to the teaching

objectives. A pedagogically satisfactory reading or writng material is the one which

implements and employs a variety of devices to ensure that the objectives are met successfully

and encourage active learning.

Q10:Why you design your own reading materials?

a-To help learners gain more understanding of the unit.

b-To provide learners with enough vocabulary for their writings.

c-To help learners to feel at ease.

d-To expose learners to authentic language.

e-To meet learners different learning styles.

128
 own reading materials Nb. cit. Frq.
to help leaners gain more 12 2 4 .0 %
to provide leaners 13 2 6 .0 %
to help leaners to feel at ease 3 6 .0 %
to expose leaners 15 3 0 .0 %
to meet leaners 7 1 4 .0 %
Total 50 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 42.Teachers objectives while designing their own reading materials.

The table shows that teachers design their own reading materials to expose learners to

authentic materials as an ultimate objective (30%). However , 26% say that their objective is

to provide learners with enough vocabulary stock for writing. Surprisingly, there are only

14%, i.e.,(7) teachers who care about the learners needs when writing and designing their own

materials. 6% of the surveyed teachers tend to help learners to feel at ease while reading and

writing by helping them to gain more understanding of the unit.

Q11:What are your reasons for designing reading materials?

a-The topics and the readings in the textbook are up to date.

b-There is not enough grammar coverage within the textbook readings .

c-Textbook reading passages contain too much unknown vocabulary.

d-Comprehension questions are too easy or too difficult.

e-The textbook topics are not attractive.

f-The textbook readings do not teach about English peoples culture and ways of life.

g-Textbook reading activities are not significant enough to help learners to write.

129
 reasons reading materials Nb. cit. Frq.
the topics 7 1 3 .5 %
there is not enough grammar 4 7 .7 %
textbook reading 6 1 1 .5 %
copmrehension questions 5 9 .6 %
the textbook topics are not attractive 12 2 3 .1 %
the textebook readings do not teach about english peoples 5 9 .6 %
textbook reading activities are not significant 13 2 5 .0 %
Total 52 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 43.The teachers reasons for designing their own reading materials.

The table shows that teachers design their own reading tasks and materials because the

textbook reading activities are not significant (25%). Furthermore, the topics and the reading

texts are not attractive (23.1%) and they are up to date (13.5%). Others they say the

comprehension questions are too easy or too difficult in addition to the lack of enough

grammar coverage within the textbook readings.

Q12:Does the designed reading materials meet the learners needs

Yes No

reading materials meet leaners needs Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 12 7 0 .5 8 %

No 5 2 9 .4 1 %

Total 17 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 44.Designing materials and learners needs.

The majority of the questioned teachers (70.58 % ) seek to meet their learners needs when

designing their own materials.

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Q13: What you take into consideration when you design your own reading materials?

a-The correlation and appropriatness between the designed material and the particular

curriculum.

b-The correlation and the appropriateness between the designed material and the particular

methodology.

c-The designed material authenticity.

consideration reading materials Nb. cit. Frq.

the correlation disigned material and particular curriculum 16 5 5 .2 %
the correlation disigned material and particular
methodology 3 1 0 .3 %
the disigned material authenticity 10 3 4 .5 %
Total 29 1 0 0 .0 %

Table .45.Teachers concerns when desgin their materials.

The table shows that the majority of th questioned teachers (55.2%) i.e.16 teachers take to

account the correlation between their own designed materials and the particular curriculum,

(34.5%), i.e.only few teachers look for authenticity when designiing their materials. However,

(10.3%) of the surveyed teachers stress the appropriateness between the material and the

particular methodology.

Q15: Do projects offer real opportunities for writing practice?

Yes No

Pojects and writing practice opportunities Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 4 2 6 .8 %

No 13 7 3 .2 %

Total 17 1 0 0 .0 %

Table 46.The project work and the writing practice.

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The table shows that teachers do not believe that learners develop their writing skills through

the use of the projects. In this respect, learners have not enough linguistic repertoire which

enable them to write, as well as, they have not a good command over the language. Thus, they

are incapable of making a job application booklet except the good elements. All what the

majority of learners have to do is to go to a cyber, pay for their projects and get them ready-

made.

Q16:Which writing techniques do you use to make learners interact with and through the

material ?

a-Having learners read and discuss texts which they would then go on to write about.

b-Using controlled guided writing tasks.

c-Writing relying on a similar model.

d-Others

writing technique Nb. cit. Frq.

having leaners read 13 3 2 .5 %
using controlled 14 3 5 .0 %
writing relying 9 2 2 .5 %
Others 4 1 0 .0 %
Total 40 1 0 0 .0 %

Table.47. The writing techniques.

The table shows that( 35%) of the questioned teachers make use of controlled guided writing

to enble learners to write. (32.2%) having learners read and discuss texts which they would

then go on to write about.(22.5%) of the questioned teachers give their learners similar model

to rely on in their writings. Teachers who opted for others specified that they teach and test

writing through reading.

132
Q17:When you teach writing, do you focus on:

a-Vocabulary

b-Grammar

c-Organisation of ideas

d-Form

writing focus on Nb. cit. Frq.

Vocabulary 11 15%
Grammar 12 18%
organisation of ideas 15 32%
Form 16 35%
TOTAL OBS. 54 100%

Table 48.Teachers writing focus.

The table shows that the majoriy of the teachers questioned focus on form and organisation of

ideas in their teaching because vocabulary and grammar should be taught implicitly through

reading (grammar and vocabulary teaching should be iintegrated in reading.)

Q18:Do you provide learners with opportunities to write when you design your reading

activities?

Yes No

leaners opportunities to write Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 17 100%

No 0 0 ,0 0 %

TOTAL OBS. 17 100%

Table 49.Teachers reading activities for learners writing performance.

133
The table shows that all the teachers questioned(100%) agree that they should provide learners

with opportunities to write when they design their reading activities

Q19 : If yes how?

a-By providing them with Key words

b-Ideas

c-Form

d-Grammar

e-Vocabulary

if yes how Nb. cit. Frq.

by providing them with key words 12 2 0 .3 3 %

I d eas 17 2 8 .8 1 %
Form 11 1 8 .6 4 %
Grammar 9 15.25%
Vocabulary 10 1 6 .9 4 %
TOTAL OBS. 59 100%

Table.50.Teachers techniqaues to develop learners writing proficiency.

The table shows that teachers help their learners to write through providing them with ideas

(28.81%), key-words (20.33%), and vocabulary (16.94%). Grammar and form are given less

importance because they are already introduced through reading sessions implicitly.

Q21:What techniques do you opt for to use reading as a tool for writing?

Teachers rely on the pre-reading ,while-reading and after-reading activities to prepare their

learners to write. They introduce the key words, the ideas, when they teach reading.

134
Q22: Do you believe a teacher should use :

a-Role play reading activities.

b-Task based activities.

c-Problem solving activities

d-Songs and poems.

believe teacher use Nb. cit. Frq.

Role play readingactivities 10 25%
task based activities 15 3 7 .5 %
problem solving activities 9 2 2 .5 %
Songs 6 15%
TOTAL OBS. 40 100%

Table 51.Teachers reading activities

The table shows that teachers use different reading activities but they encourage the use of

task based activities to meet real world situations and to allow learners to communicate their

ideas in writing as well ae in reading (37.5% ). In addition to role play activities using pair

work and collboratiive work which are motivated activities. Problem solving activitie are used

which call for learners cognitive abilities. However, the use of songs is not common activity

in Algerian secondary schools because of the lack of materials and media which help and

facilitate the teachers work on ssongs (audio-visual materials and media) and because they

are time consuming as well.

Q23:Do you make pupils work :

a-Individually

b-In pairs

c-In groups

135
 pupils work Nb. cit. Frq.
Individually 9 5 2 ,9 4 %
in pairs 5 2 9 .4 1 %
in groups 3 1 7 .6 4 %
TOTAL OBS. 17 100%

Table 52:Pupils work

Table (52) shows that the majority of the surveyed teachers (52.94%) confirmed that they

make learners work individually because of the over-crowded classes which are often found at

the secondary level are a constraint on group work and management problems. So, teachers

find difficulties in coping with the noise, persuading the class to use English, managing the

introduction of activities and monitoring the work of individuals. To avoid the problems

mentioned above, teachers prefer to make their learners work indiividually. Inspite of the size

of the class, some teachers make their pupils work in pairs or in groups to allow them to

benefit from each other and to communicate their ideas (17.64%).

the majority of learners enjoyed working in groups, as they had the opportunity to consult and

exchange ideas with other learners.

III. Teaching Vocabulary

Q24:Do the learners apply what they learn as vocabulary through reading in their writing?

Yes No

apply vocabulary Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 17 100%

No 0 0 ,0 0 %

TOTAL OBS. 17 100%

Table 53.Learners application of the vocabulary learnt in their writing.

136
The table shows that all the surveyed teachers argue that their learners use the vocabulary

introduced in the reading phase in their writing but they dont succeed in putting them in

meaningful sentences because of their level.

Q25: What is the importance of vocabulary in teaching writing?

Teachers argue that vocabulary plays a crucial role in writing because learners express their

ideas and communicate their thoughts and opinions through the use of vocabulary acquired in

readings.

Q26: How do you teach vocabulary to help learners to write?

a-Teaching a group of vocabulary related to the reading texts.

b-Teaching vocabulary through the context.

taech vocabulary help write Nb. cit. Frq.

taeching group of vocabulary 00 0%

teaching vocabulary through the context 17 100%

TOTAL OBS. 17 100%

Table.54.The way of teaching vocabulary for writing.

The table shows that all the teachers questioned teach vocabulary through context and not the

other way around.

IV. Teacher Evaluation

Q27: Do you respond to the writing that the learners produce?

Yes No

137
 respond writing leaners produce Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 17 100%

No 0 0 ,0 0 %

TOTAL OBS. 17 100%

Table.55.Teachers responses to their learners writing.

The table shows that all teachers respond to their learners writing.

Q28: Do you design special evaluation for the designed material?

Yes No

special evalaution Nb. cit. Frq.

Ye s 14 7 8 ,8 0 %

No 3 2 1 ,2 0 %

TOTAL OBS. 17 100%

Table.56.Teachers evaluation for their designed materials.

The table shows that all the teachers questioned design special evaluation for their own

designed materials according to the underlined objectives, teachers tend to achieve through the

design of their own materials.

Q29: If yes how?

Teachers design their own materials to meet their learners needs and the writing objectives.

Thus teachers evaluate their learners writing according to the purposes of the writing tasks.

For instance, if the teachers intention is to make learners aware of the piece of writing form

or type, they focus on the form in the evaluation. However, if they want learners to use some

given vocabulary as key words, teachers should focus on vocabulary in their evaluation and so

on. Thus, the selection of materials should be based on learners needs via outlining the roles

138
that materials play in the writing class. Matching materials to the proficiency and target needs

of the learners is an ultimate objective for the evaluation.

Q30:When you evaluate the learners writing production ,do you focus on:

a-Vocabulary

b-Grammar

c-Organisation of ideas

d-Form

evaluation leaners focus on Nb. cit. Frq.

Vocabulary 13 2 3 .2 1 %

Grammar 12 2 1 .4 2 %

organisation of ideas 17 30.35%

Form 14 25%

TOTAL OBS. 56 100%

Table.57.Teachers evaluation of writing

The table shows that teachers focus respectively on organisation of ideas (30.35%), then form

(25%), vocabulary (23.21%) and finally grammr (21.42%) when they evaluate the learners

writing product.

Q31:What roles are given to the teacher?

a-Transmitter of knowledge.

b-A model

c-An evaluator who shares criteria for success or failure.

139
 roles are given to the teacher Nb. cit. Frq.

Tansmitter 13 7 7 ,8 0 %

a model 3 1 6 ,7 0 %

an evaluator 12 6 6 ,7 0 %

TOTAL OBS. 17

Table 58.Teachers roles.

The table shows that the teacher is a transmitter of knowledge and an evaluator of learners

responses as the most important roles (77.80%). Furthermore, the teacher can be considered as

a model for his learners (16.70%)..

Q32:What roles are given to the learners?

a-Passive receivers

b-Active elements in the process.

roles are given to the leaners Nb. cit. Frq.

passive receivers 0 0 ,0 0 %

active elements 17 100%

TOTAL OBS. 17 100%

Table.59.The learners roles.

The table shows that all teachers(100%) believe that learners are no longer passive receivers

but rather an active element in the process of teaching and learning under the competency

based approach.

Q33:How can we improve the learners writing?

Teachers confirmed that learners need help from the teacher (teacher scaffolding) to enable

them to write easily through exposing them to authentic materials via providing models of

target texts. Thus, it is necessary to supplement and modify textbooks to enhance learners

140
understanding of language, content and skills because the choice of the input (texts) is

important for learners writing performance.

V. Further Suggestions:

Q34:Do you have any ideas to add as to the relation between writing and reading on the one

hand and reading and vocabulary on the other hand?

Teachers claim that the reading and writing are interconnected; reading and writing

reciprocally shape and support one another. Teachers should use collaborative strategies, for

instance, working in pairs and groups allow learners to exchange ideas and learn from one an

other.

Teachers should prepare their learners for writing through the use of meaningful contexts and

development tasks. The use of controlled writing in which learners manipulate fixed

patterns given by the teacher, Guided writing i.e., learners imitate model writing and finally

Free Writing or use the patterns they have developed to write a letter of application for

example.

3.Classroom Observation:

Classroom observation was conducted with two classes of learners in Ben Badis

secondary school for the period of two weeks. The role of the researcher in the classrooms

was that of a participant observer. The specific purpose of the classroom observations was to

see whether teachers really make use of their own materials to cater for their learners needs

as they have mentioned in the questionnaires or they just stick to the textbook materials

because of time constraints.

141
 Hand-written notes were the only means used to record the data during classroom

observation session. The observation focused on some aspects of the materials-in-use in

teaching the first unit Getting Through of first year secondary school among which: the

time spent on each task, task difficulty, learnersparticipation, learners motivation, learners

task outcomes, learners and teachers task and text adaptation and learners and teachers use

of tasks as well. During observation, the researcher regularly sat among the learners at the

back row and moved around to sit next to different collaborative groups, to observe what each

group was doing. The learners occasionally interacted with the reseache by asking questions

about the text and tasks, as they felt embarrassed to ask their teacher.

3.1. Classroom Observation Comments and Interpretations:

The findings of the the classroom observations highlighted the use of of the textbook

learning tasks and texts in improving the learners overall reading and writing proficiency. In

both observed classes, teachers stick to the textbook materials in teaching reading and writing

and do not design or adapt new materials which can be more relevant to their learners needs

and interests. Consequently, there is no introduction to any authentic reading material. The

two teachers involved in this observation phase argue that they stick to the textbook reading

materials because they have to finish the implementation of the whole program on time at the

expense of designing more appropriate ones to their learners.

Thus, because the process of designing instructional materials is time-consuming and

teachers seek to finish the program by the end of May, there is no real introduction to

authentic materials into the curriculum. Concerning tasks, learners enjoy doing the tasks as

group work, so as to have opportunities to discuss their views and share knowledge with
142
other classmates. They regarded interactions with classmates as a channel to task

achievement and text comprehension. Through collaborative work, the learners seemed to

become favorably motivated to work on the tasks. Finally, this classroom observation shows

that there is not enough help from the part of the teacher although the adopted approach of

Competency-Based Instruction in teaching English as a Foreign Language in Algeria is

Learner-Centred Approach. This approach stresses the view that teacher is no longer

considered as an active element in the process of teaching and learning, but rather as a guide in

this process.

3.2. Classroom Observations Sheets:

Sheet (a):

Timing Steps Input /Output Aims

10 mn Warming -The teacher brainstorms the topic with the -.To brainstorm the
up students and jot notes on board. topic
-TS: What do you think about/of the -to jot down ideas
Internet? - to elicit what the
TS: Is it useful or not? Why ? learners think about the
TS: Can you give other reasons? Internet
Explain/Justify
Presentati -the teacher encourages the learners to list
15mn on the reasons why they think that the Internet
is useful or not by giving the following -To interact with the
transitional sentence: learners about the
I think that the Internet is a useful reasons.
invention. Let me explain/There are several
reasons for this. Here are some. First ...
Here are some other ways of giving an
opinion/point of view: I think/ believe that/
in my opinion/to my mind/as far as I am
concerned/If you ask me..
-The teacher discusses the reasons with his /
her students.

143
 Practice -Teacher asks the pupils to make mini- - to check if the
15mn presentations about the usefulness of the students understands
Interneton the work sheet. the task
-Pupils think then do it. -to make them learn
-T checks. strategies of writing.
-Pps correct.
15mn Produce -the students read their paragraphs and -Error correction
identify errors and correct them -feedback .3.
The teacher chooses the best paragraph and +
asks the students to copy it on their
copybooks as an example of paragraph.

Sheet(b):

10mns Task - Make sure the learners understand what - The learners will
1-2 P is expected of them in this task. They do check the predictions
21 not need to read the whole message. they have made in
Indeed, they can check their predictions
task three of the
by reading only two or three sentences of
the e-mail message. Keys Anticipate rubric.
to:Amel -collect information
from:Kirsi
Subject:introducing
15 min Task -the teacher asks the learners to read the
3 questions and makes sure they understand
(P 21) what they have to - This task reverts to
- As he checks the learners answers, he traditional reading
interacts with them to elicit further comprehension. The
information about Finland. For example, he learners are required
can ask questions about the languages to answer a set of
spoken in Finland, Finlands neighbouring comprehension
countries, its currency, etc... questions.
10mn Task - the teacher draws his students attention to - Identifying reference
3 the words written in bold words
(21) he takes the first word as an example
I have found your address
Then he asks them to tell him which address
we are talking about

Sheet c:

144
Timing Steps Input /Output Aims
10 mn Warming up -Books closed Ask learners to tell you why - interact with your
they were absent/What they did learners by simulating class
yesterday/What class they will have next? situations where you will
Who is their teacher of Mathematics? Etc.) use all the requests in task
1.
Presentation - Each time they answer your prompts, -To interact with the
15mn simulate misunderstanding or mishearing and learners about the
ask them to repeat what they have said using sentences.
the requests in task 1. -To make them interpret
the contexts in which the
-When you speak, you communicate different sentences can
information both verbally i.e., by using occur.
words and non-verbally, i.e., by using
gestures, facial expressions, etc... So hold
your hand close to your ear to indicate
mishearing). -To derive rules.
tell them to open their books and do the task
as indicated.

10mn Oral drill -The teacher asks the pupils to give1 or 2 -To check the pupils
examples. comprehension.
-Students give examples.
-the teacher checks and corrects.
Refer the learners to samples of requests in - make requests out of
10mn Practice task one. If necessary, illustrate what the information provided in the
Activity two learners are required to do by transforming form of statements
one of the statements into a request containing comparatives of
Read aloud the request and mark the superiority.
intonation pattern.

Sheet d:

Timing Steps Input /Output

-The teacher refers the learners to the phonetic symbols on pages XII and XIII
Warming of the textbook.
10 m n up -Then he Re-writes the first word himself for illustration
The hidden - Then he gets the learners to compete as to who will be the first to decipher
message the whole message.
P6/18
- The teacher Directs his learners attention to the table and shows them how
15mn Task three to split words into syllables.-then Foreground the sound-spelling links
p6/18 represented by the words and their phonetic transcriptions as well as the

145
 stressed syllables. You can use the following table for highlighting this
information.
Once the learners know what is required of them, let them do the task alone
on a rough copybook.
- The teacher copies the table on board and to have the learners correct their
10mn Task four answers on their own.
P6/18 -then he must Give some time for the learners to analyse the stress pattern in
the two columns to draw the rule for accentuation/word stress in two syllable
words.
Sheet e

Timing Steps Input /Output Aims

20 mn Task -TS Refers the learners to the sentences in
1P7/19 columns A and B. Then asks them to read them - allow the
very quickly and identify the main idea students to have
-then he makes sure everyone understands the an overall
impression of
sentences before telling them to work in pairs to
what the
do task 1. sentences are
-after that, he interacts with his learners to check about
their answers. - instructing and
The key to the tas expressing
1-b, 2-a, 3-d, 4-c. purpose
Task -The teacher asks his learners to organise the
25mn 2+3P7/19 jumbled sentences written on the board during -Sequencing
the previous task into a coherent paragraph -reordering
using sequencers and modals. He can help the -expressing
learners by giving them the first two obligation with must
introductory sentences in the key below. and have to
Students do the task - organisation
-teacher checks and corrects.

Conclusion:

The present investigation reveals that both teachers and learners consider reading as an

important aspect in teaching writing. Teachers do not neglect the role of authentic reading

materials in enhancing learners proficiency in writing. Thus, some teachers tend to adapt

authentic materials and communicative tasks in the process of designing reading materials to

meet their learners needs.

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 Chapter Four

THE EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

Introduction

1. Methodology

2. Research questions and purpose of the study

3. Population: participants

4. Materials used for practice

5. Content and procedures

6. Treatment period

7. Post-test: Description and results

8. Data analysis

9. t-test analysis

10. Reporting the results

Conclusion

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 Chapter Four:The Experimental Study

Introduction

The present study is designed to investigate if teachers own reading materials design

improve learners proficiency in writing. This research examine several questions among

which: Did the use of the text simplification (TS) and task modification (TM ) materials

promote better learners performance in writing . To answer this question, an experimental

study has been carcied. A sample population has been selected from 1st year secondary school

learners. sixteen participants are randomly selected and randomly assigned either to

experimental group who receives the treatment, or to control group who does not. The first

step in this experiment is the pre-test. All the participants of both groups are pre-tested

through asking them to write an application letter relying only on a given model without

receiving any kind of instructions according to the text- focused approach. After the pre-test,

the treatment period begins. During six weeks, the experimental group follows the teacher

reading materials design which are authentic materials. The control group, however, follow

the coursebook reading materials. At the end of the treatment period, the participants have

been post tested through the same tool of measurement as in the pre-test writing an

application letter. To test the research hypothesis previously mentioned, we have analyzed

the differences between the scores of the experimental group and the scores of the control

group from the pre-test to post-test. The analysis has been divided into two parts; there is first

a comparison veteen the means, and then ananalysis of a t test. The t test would, then, confirm

if the difference between the means is statistically significant, so one could confirm the

established hypothesis or disconfirm it.

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1. Methodology:

In this study, two types of materials implementation were administered. The controlled

group is exposed to the first type of the materials which are adopted (used as they are) from

the coursebook (UNIT I ) entitled Getting Through. The experimental group is exposed to

the adapted authentic materials about the same unit, revised and designed by thre researcher.

The revised versions of the materials were implemented to investigate whether they improved

learners reading performance and writing proficiency. The results will show if really the use

of teachers reading materials design, which should be simplified and modified according to

learners needs and real language use (authentic materials), would improve learners writing

proficiency. The present study makes use of both qualitative and quantitative methods. The

qualitative procedures aim to explore the learners perceptions of the coursebook tasks and

materials through questionnaires, classroom observations and interviews, while the

quantitative procedures, with the use of pre- and post-tests, measure the learners writing

performance before and after the implementation of the reading materials (coursebook

materials with the control group and teachers own designed materials with the experimental

group).

1.2. Qualitative Methods:

1.2.1. Making Use of Questionnaires:

In relation to the qualitative methods, questionnaires were completed by all participants

(teachers and learners) including, yes or no questions and open-ended questions for their extra

comments. This qualitative data was converted to a form of percentages, as shown in the

above tables (see chapter 3, tables 15 to 19). The purpose of administering the questionnaires

was to investigate to what extent the coursebook tasks and reading materials designed for
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first year secondary school worked in terms of learning objectives, reading materials, task

content, task procedures, learners contributions to the tasks and task situation. In addition, the

teachers who participated in the study were asked through the questionnaires to show the

perceptions of their learners difficulties and their additional comments on how to improve the

suitability of the coursebook materials and tasks (see Chapter 2 and Appendixes 1 and 2 ).

The questionnaire analysis showed that learners did not write inside classrooms because

they are obliged to write their paragraphs (writing expression) mostly as homework due to

time constraints. The purpose of these questionnaires was to evaluate the contextual use of the

reading materials of the coursebook, as well as, teachers own reading materials taking into

account the selection of reading strategies, the selection of reading texts and the design of

learning and teaching tasks, including learners interest, time, strengths and weaknesses of the

unit, as seen in Chapter 2.

In addition to the use of different types of questionnaires, the study made use of keeping

journals, classroom observation sheets and interviews as means of qualitative investigation of

the materials users attitudes towards the materials as well as the teachers and learners use of

the materials in the authentic classroom situations.

1.2.2.Classrooms Observations:

A classroom observation was conducted to gain insight into what the teacher and learners

did and how they felt about the reading materials and the reading tasks which are included in

Unit one of first year secondary school coursebook (Getting Through) , to supplement the

learners and teachers comments in the questionnaires.

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1.3.Quantitative Methods:

The quantitative instruments in this study were pre and post-tests administered before and

after materials implementation. The control group used the coursebook reading materials,

however, the experimental group used the teachers own reading materials. The pre-test

measured the learners general writing proficiency through writing an application letter using

just a model without receiving any kind of instruction. However, the post-test allowed to

explore whether the learners in two different conditions. i.e., the C group using the coursebook

version of reading materials(adoption) and the E group using the modified version of reading

materials (the adapted version), had made different amounts of progress in writing.

2.Research Questions and Purpose of this Rsearch:

In short, the study consisted of two major aspects, one qualitative in nature and the other,

quantitative. The qualitative procedures used in the study aim to seek answers concerning the

use of reading materials either from the coursebook or the modified texts. In this respect,

based on the previous researches (see chapter I-II ), the present study investigates if teachers

reading materials design have a positive effect on learners writing proficiency. Thus, through

this study I will try to show to what extent teachers use of authentic reading materials will

help learners to improve their writing ability. Our purpose, then, is to know if it is true that the

application of the "designing of new and authentic reading materials" as it has been noticed

by (Nunan;1988) would have a significant effect in increasing both writing proficiency and

vocabulary stock and accuracy of learners. For such interest, the following questions are to be

answered:

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1- To what extent did learners perceive the use of the coursebook, as a means of instruction

and discussion in the EAP reading classroom context, to be useful to text understanding?

2- To what extent had the first unit Getting Through as a whole been successful in

responding to the learners needs and interests in terms of selections of reading strategies, of

reading texts and of pedagogical tasks?

3. To what extent the modified reading materials , the simplified texts or the authentic

versions brought by the teacher, contributed to learners better perceptions of the tasks and the

unit as a whole?

4. Did the adapted versions, create greater positive learners perceptions of the materials than

did the original version in the coursebook?

5. Did the use of the teachers designed materials promote learners better performance?

To provide an answer for these questions, we have used test scoring as a tool for measuring

the learners writing performance. To score the application letter, teachers should give

importance to the form, the organization of ideas, the vocabulary used and grammar.

3. Population: Participants

In the current study, an experimental design is carried out at Kateb Yacine secondary

schoool on a sample of population selected from 1st year learners. At the secondary school, 16

learners have been invited to participate in this study. These learners are randomly selected,

and assigned either to the experimental condition or to the control condition. Eight (08)

learners have been transferred the experimental group, and eight (08) learners have been

transferred the control group.

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 The majority of the participants are girls. From the sixteen learners who have participated in

the experiment, only four of them are boys. In this study, gender is not taken into account as a

factor that may have an influence on the collected data because the majority of the participants

are of the same sex. Their age is between fifteen (15) and sixteen (16). All the participants

have studied English as a Foreign Language for five (05) years: four (04) years at the

Elementary school, one (01) year at the Secondary school. The participants in this experiment

are learners in the secondary school who generally dont have good level in writing. The

sample of the population has been restricted to 16 participants . So, eight participants in each

group seemed to be an appropriate balance. This sample corresponds to the learners who have

taken the pre-test, have been under observation during the treatment period, and finally have

been post tested.

4. Materials Used for Practice:

In the present study the following materials have been used:

4.1.The Original Version (The Textbook):

Unit One: Getting Through at Crossroads

Original version of reading texts

UNIT ONE:GETTING THROUGH

LISTENING AND SPEAKING :

ANTICIPATE:

1- Match as many words and phrases(A-I) as you can with the parts of the computer(18) below

A.screen- B. floppy disks- C.central unit- D. keyboard- E.monitor -F.mouse-

G. printer- H.diskdrive- I.speaker

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2-Find other words related to computers and the internet and write them in your copybook.

3-Listen and say aloud the e-mail address below.Then take turns to tell your e-mail address to

your classmates.

Sihem2008@yahoo.

READING AND WRITING

ANTICIPATE:

1 Match icons 1-6 in the screenshot with their functions(A-F).

A-to return to your web-browsers home page.

B-To mark web site for future use.

C-To move down the page.

D-To connect to a website giving information about keypals .

E-To type in a web site address or URL.

F-To go back to the previous page.

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2-Look at the screenshot above and guess what kind(s) of internauts are most likely to visit the

advertised web-site.

3-What is the screenshot below used for?

READ AND CHECK:

1-Read the e-mail below and check your answer to question 2 on the previous page.

Dear Amel,
Ive found your adderess on the internet.Im writing because I want to know more about you
and your country.But I have to introduce myself first.
My names Kirsi.Kirsi is a name which is quite common in Finland.Im sixteen years
old.Nearly everyone my age goes to school in Finland.Children can finish school when they
are 16,but no one really wants to do so,because without any serious training ,they cant get a
good job.I want to become a journalist later.So I will have to study for six more years.

On weekdays,I generally very early in order to prepare myself for school ,which is a little bit
far from my home .I always go there by bus so as not to arrive late.I have classes from 8:30 to
12 in the morning and from 2 to 4 in the afternoon.I have lunch either at the school canteen or
at a fast-food restaurant.I revise my lessons until about 10 in the evening.I rarely go out at the
weekend because I prefer to relax at home listening to music or watching TV.

My family is a typical finish family :Mum and Dad and two children(my brother Jary and
me).Jarys fourteen years old.My mother is a housewife and my father is an electrician.Our
house is rather small.We all love animals.We have a dog and a parrot,but neither of them
really belongs to me .Both of them are Jerys pets.Im always happy to hear the parrot
repeating my name every time I come back home from school.The dog is sometimes furious at
the talkative parrot.
We live in Central Finland in a tiny village called Tikkakoski.Tikkakoski has only about 4,000
inhabitants,and we all know one an other.Jyvaskyla is our nearest town ,its very nice .It isnt
very big .It has only 63,000 people,but you know ,we have about 7 million people in the whole
country.

155
Finland is in the north of Europ,near the Arcaic Circle.Its very famous for its saunas and
lakes.Winter is terrible.Its always freezing .But summer is fairly cool.In summer,I like going
to public gardens in order to listen to elderly people telling funny stories about the time they
were young.
Well,I guess thats all for now!keep in touch!
P.S Find my photo in attachment.Please,send me some information about Algeria.

2-Use information from the email above to fill in the blanks in the screenshot on the previous

page.

3-Read the email above again and answer these questions:

A.What nationality is Kirsi?

B.Why does she want to correspond witrh Amel?

C.What is a sauna?What is the equivalent in your language?

D.Does she live in town or in countryside?justify your answer.

E.How often does she go out at the weekend?

4-What the words in bold type in the e-mail above refer to?

DISCOVER THE LANGUAGE

1-Arrange the frequency adverbs in the box below on the line that follows according to the

degree of frequency they express.

Hardly ever-never-sometimes-often-usually-always-rarely.

2-Go back to the email on page 21 and pick out the sentences with frequency adverbs from

the text .Write the sentences in your copybook.

3-Study the sentences you have picked out in execise 1 above.Circle the item (a-b) that best

completes rules A and B below .Then write 5 sentences of your own using frequency adverbs.

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A.Frequency adverbs go-the verb ( auxiliary)be. a.before b.after

B.Frequency adverbs go-other verbs a.before b.after

4-Pair work:Take turns to interview each other using the questionnaire from below.Tick(+) the

questions given by your partner.

Example:A:Hello,Im doing a survey about students regular activities.Can you help me ?

B:Yes,of course.

A:Well,my first question is

Questionnaire:

1-What time do you get up?

Early in the morning-late in the morning-around 7 in the morning-any other

2-How do you go to school?

On foot-by bus-by bicycle-by train-either by bus or a taxi.

3-How often do you eat in the school canteen?

Always-often-sometimes-rarely-never-any other.

4-How often do you revise your lessons?

Everyday-more than twice a week-less than once a week-any other

5-How long do you do you revise your lessons?

From 8-12-from 8:30to 11-fromp 9 to 11-any other.

6-How long are you staying in secondary school?

Until:next year-the baccalaureate exam-the summer holidays-any other.

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5-Now,report your findings about your partners regular activities to the class.

Start like this:Hamid (frequency adverb) gets up.He..

6-Read the email and pick out 4 extrem adjectives,i.e.,which mean:

A-very angry p4 B-very small p5 C-very bad p6 D-very cold p6.

7-Contrast the adjectives A-D with those you have picked out.What is the main difference

between them?Ask your teacher about gradable /non-gradable adjectives.

8-Pick out from the e-mail 4 ordinary adjectives with degree adverbs.Order the adverbs from

the highest to the lowest degree.

9-Mach ordinary adjectives 1-8 with extreme adjectives A-H.Then use 4 ordinary adjectives

with degree adverbs in sentences of your own.

1-good A-huge 5-large E-brilliant

2-hot B-huge 6-sad F-hilarious

3-tired C-tragic 7-funny G-fascinating

4-interesting D-exhausted 8-clever H-boiling

WRITE IT RIGHT

1-Read Kirsis e-mail and write a short reply following the plan below.

Plan:A-Say thank you.Then introduce yourself briefly.

B-Describe your regular activities using frequency adverbs.

C-Introduce your family.

D-Use cues from the table below to introduce your country briefly using degree adverbs with

adjectives.

158
 Questions Answers
1-Which continent /region is your country in? Its in/situated in/located in
2-Which country borders it to the east,to the To the east,its bordered by.
west,to the south-east.?
3-Whats its population? There are/It has a population of
4-What4s its area? It has an area of
5-How long is it from north to south and from Its..Kilometres longfrom.to..
east to west?
6-Whats the average temperature in The average temperature in summer/in
summer/winter? winter is less/more than
7-What is it famous for? Its famous/well known for

2-Correct your mistakes .Then exchange drafts with your partner for further error checking

before writing a final version of your reply.

DEVELOPING SKILLS

1-Match texts 1,2,3 and 4 on the next page with messages A-D in the box below.

A-an informal invitation.

B-an informal acceptance of invitation.

c-a formal invitation.

D-an informal refusal of invitation.

2-Read text 1 on the next page again and answer these questions:

A-What is the meaning of house warming?

B-What day is the house warming?

C-R.S.V.P is a French abbreviation .What is the full expression in French?Why do you think

the English use this abbreviation?

159
3-Read texts 5,6 and 7 on the next page and match them with messages A-C in the box below.

A.a formal letter of apology.

B.a formal note to ask for leave or absence.

C.an informal note of apology.

4-Pair work:Take turns to write invitations.Exchange your invitations.Then write thank-you

notes.Use texts 1,2,3,and 4 as modals.

5-Imagine you made a mistake.Write a letter of apology to whom it may concern.Use letters 5

and 6 as models.

November 2nd ,2007

Tom and Edora Smith
Would like to invite you to their HOUSE WARMING on Saturday 12th November,from
7:00 p.m to 9:00p.m.
We look forward to showing you our new house.
R.S.V.P. (1)

May 14th,2008
Dear Peter,
Well celibrate Anns success at her exams on Thursday 21st ,from 6 to 9 p.m. Come and
share with us the celebration if youre free.
Regards
Sam. (2)

September 9th ,2007

Dear Mr George,
Thank you very much for your invitation .It will be a real pleasure for me to meet you
again. Im looking forward to seeing you on Friday at 8 p.m.
Yours sincerely ,
John Smithson (3)

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 Dec.16th ,2007
DearNora,
Thank you very much for your invitation.Im afraid I cant come to the party because
my father has the flu and I have ta attend to him.
I hope youll have a good time anyway.
With my best wishes,
Maya (4)

April 27th ,2008

Dear Mr Johnson,
Please excuse Tim from school next week .He will have to spend one week in hospital in
order to have an operation on his foot.
Yours sincerely,
Tom Jackson (5)

June 10th ,2008

Dear Sir/Madam,
I am writing to apologise for the absence of my daughter Melinda from school
yesterday. She had to take care of her little sister because of her mothers
Unexpected absence.
Yours faithfully,
Lynn Roberts. (6)

Aug.13th ,2008
Dear Kenneth,
Im sorry I havent written earlier.Ive heard about your accident from Henry.I hope
that its not serious and that you are following the doctors advice and staying in bed.Im
coming to see you next week.
I hope the book will cheer you up.Get well quick!
Love,
Jenny.

161
Refer again the students to texts 1, 2, 3, and 4 and ask them to choose one of them as a model

for writing a parallel text. Make Tips

Here is a format that personal letters usually take in English.

Senders address
85 Oxford Street,
Kenton, Sussex
14 March, 2005 (2)
Dear George, (3)
I am pleased/happy/glad to learn that you have moved to a new flat.

.
With best wishes (4)
(signature) (5)
Karim Boudri
1. The writers, i.e., the senders address, does not usually include the name, which is shown

by the signature (see number 5 in the letter layout above). It is usually written on the top right-

hand corner.

2. The date should figure just below the address. There is also an American way of writing the

date (e.g., March 14, 2005). Here are some of the ways of reading/saying the date.

In Br. English, you say March the fourteenth or the fourteenth of March. In American English,

you say March fourteenth.

3. Letters need salutations (Dear George , Hello) Here are some other salutations that you

can use in both personal and business letters.

Salutation

Personal Dear George/ My Dear George/ Dear Mr/Miss/ Mrs Kane

Formal or routine Dear Sir /Dear Sirs/ Dear Madam/ Dear Sir or Madam

(Business letters)

Informal (Business) Dear Mr/Miss/Mrs Kane

162
4. Letters also need complimentary closes (e. g, Love, Best wishes). Here are some other

complementary closes.

UK US

Personal Yours sincerely/ Sincerely/ Sincerely yours/With kind regards/With best

(Formal to Yours/ With best wishes/ All regards/Sincerely/Yours/Best wishes/ All the best/ With all
informal) the best/ my love/love
With all my love/Love
Informal Yours sincerely/ Yours truly Sincerely yours
(business) Cordially yours

Formal or routine Yours faithfully, Very truly yours/

(business) Sincerely yours/ Yours very truly

Keep in mind that in informal letters, love is a complimentary close used both by men and

women when writing to close friends or relatives. Best wishes, Yours, All the best, Kind

regards, Best regards are used when addressing people whom they are not close to. With all

my love is used by both men and women when writing to someone they are very close to (e.g.,

husband to wife or vice versa).

In business letters (formal or less formal), the complimentary close depends on the form of

salutation. For instance, if you start your letter with salutation Dear Mr/Miss/Mrs/Ms Kane

you will close your letter with Yours sincerely. But if you start with Dear Madam/Sir/Sir or

Madam/Sirs/Mesdames, you will close it with Yours faithfully.

Task five p.14

The aim of this task is to interpret and categorise messages according to style.

163
Procedure

Make sure the learners have understood what to do. Interact with them and have them

interpret the context of each of the goodwill letters. (e.g.,Who is the sender of the letter? Who

is the recipient of the letter? What is the context?) Check whether the learners have vocabulary

problems in reading the letters. Get them guess the difficult words from context. Once this is

done, give them enough time to read the goodwill letters and identify each of them according

to style. As you check the answers with your learners, encourage them to justify their answers

by giving evidence from the messages.

Task six

The aim is to get learners distinguish between degrees or levels of formality.

Procedure

Intearact with your learners about the register or style using the tips supplied in task one

of this book. You can attract your learners attention to the way the senders address their

conrespondents in the salutations, the length of the sentences, the vocabulary items, etc. You

can also ask them to make the sixth letter more informal/less formal than the fifth one by

asking them to use sorry instead of apologize .

Task seven

The learners will produce letters of apology following a model.

DEVELOPING SKILLS

1-Item 1-9 below are not in order .Reorder them according to the plan in the box on the left in

order to get a coherent letter of enquiry.

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A.Your address

B.Date

C.Name and address

D.Re:

E.Salutation

F.Say why you are writing

G.Introduce yourself.

H.Ask for information

I.Closing+ name

(1) Yours faithfully Meriem Djoual.

(2) April 24th,2008.

(3) 12,Rue Colonel Chabani,Laghouat,Algeria.

(4) Summer courses .

(5) Im writing to enquire about your summer courses .

(6) Please send me information about course dates and fees as soon as possible.

(7) Im sixteen and Im a stude nt at Emir Khaled Secondary School.I would like to take a course in July

or August of this year.

(8) The Stratford School of English,8 Tiddington Road,Stratford-Upon-Avon, ,England.

2- Imagine you are a secretary at Stratford School of English.You have been asked to reply to

Meriem Djoual.In which order would you write the following?Write numbers1-4 in the

boxes.

A-Saying you are enclosing an information prospectus.

B-Thanking Meriem Djoual for her enquiry.

C-Persuading her to follow summer courses at the Stratford School of English.

D-Inviting further contact/enquiries.

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4- Follow the re-ordered plan in exercise 3 above to write a reply to Meriem Djouals letter of

enquiry.Use the information below.

-Please find enclosed here our latest information prospectus,which we hope will be of interest

to you.

-Thank you for your enquiry about our summer courses.

-We are permanent,we are professional.We offer you a warm welcome here at our school.

-We look forward to hearing from you soon.

WRITE IT OUT

Read the Help Wantedadvert below.Then write 4 sentences with must and have

to to say what characteristic potential candidates are required to have.

Help Wanted Activities include:Swimming,singing,

Camp leaders for 7-10years old during school vacation. dancing,cooking,drama,telling

The job requires tolerance,patience,open- stories,sports.

mindedness,cheerfulness,and understanding. Apply to:

Duties:dealing with children,organizing and participating Mr Mechael Armstrong,

in daily activities. Director,Haryton Bay Summer

Camp,2187 Mountain Street

Miami,Florida 60306.

2-Now,read the letterof application below and decide whether the applicant has a chance or

not to be hired as a camp leader.Explain.

166
 46 Regent Street

Madison 15026

Wisconsin

May 20,2005

Mr Michael Armstrong,

Haryton Bay Summer

Camp,2187 Mountain Street

Miami,Florida 60306.

Re:Camp leader

Dear Mr Armstrong,

I have seen your advertisement for camp leaders in USA TODAY and would like to apply for the job.

I am a junior at Thomas Jefferson High School with good marks in arts and philosophy.Im a member of

photography and music clubs,and I enjoy meeting people.I often volunteer to work in infant hospital

wards.So I think I am suitable for the job.

I was in Columbus and I am sixteen years old.I will turn seventeen next January.I have lived at the address

above for the past ten years.So I think that I have quite a good experience in dealing with children.

Im ready to start work at the end of June,when the school summer vacation begins.

I have asked two of my teachers,Mr Jhon Clarck and Miss Emma Smithson,to send you two letters of

reference for me.

Yours sincerely,

Joy j.Parfit

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CONSOLIDATION AND EXTENSION

3.Fill in this rsum (curriculum vitae) with information from joys letter of application above.

RESUME

Name:
First middle last
Adress:
Place of Birth:
Age:
Education:
Language:.
Previous work experience:
Interest:.
References:.

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4-Match introducing sentences A-C below with the letters 1-3 that follow.Write the

introductory sentences in the blank speces of the letters that follow.

A.Thank you for offering me the post of camp leader.

B.I am writing to inform you that I am able to offer you the position as camp leader.

C.Thank you for your letter of June 6.

You will get a salary of 50 I should like you to come for an I will be on vacation from June

dollars a week. Would you please interview on Friday June 12. 30 to September 12.

confirm that this is acceptable to Could you please call number So I can start work on July 2.

you? 8880547 to confirm this? I am looking forward to joining

Can you also let us know the one of your camps.

exact date when you are free to

start wor (1) (2) (3 )

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5-Make your own rsum/curriculum vitae.Then write a letter of application in response to the

advert above.Use Joy Parfits letter of application.

PROJECT WORKSHOP

1-Making a job application booklet

Overall purpose:Designing a booklet intended for teenage job seekers

Your booklet should include the following items:

- Adverts with job descriptions,

- Phone enquiries about job vacancies,

- Rsum or C.V s,

- Letter of reference,

- Letters of application,

- Replies(positive,negative) from administration/ company,

- Letters of acceptance.

4.2.The Designed Version:

This section presents the designed material and its activities which were used with the

experimental group. These materials are adapted from (Mitchell H.Q & j.Scott, 2003, pp.72-

76) and (Brown Kristine & Hood Susan,1993, pp.92-99)

THE DESIGNED VERSION:(The adapted material)

UNIT ONE: JOB HUNTER

(Text simlified and task modification version )

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Lesson one: Presentation

1-Read the title of the unit, look at the picture and discuss the following :

1-what do you think the man and the woman are talking about ?

2-what s the piece of paper that the woman is holding ?

3- read the dialogue and complete the table below .

What Geoff has in his cv What else Geoff actually did What Jenny suuggests

Work Experience His previous job

Personal interests

Jenny : theres no point in sulking, Geoff. Youll get a job soon.

Geoff: dont be so sure. Im fed up with sending my CV to load of companies without getting
any reply.
Jenny: maybe it has to do with your CV.
Geoff: you think so? Do you mind having a look at it ?
Jenny: why not ? Ill give you a hand. Let me see now.
Geoff: What do you mean?
Jenny: I mean, under Work Experience youve just put your previous job and nothing else.
Geoff: well, thats the truth.
Jenny: what Im trying to say is that youre not selling yourself, Geoff.
Geoff: I still dont get you.
Jenny: listen, you worked in a corner shop once, right?
Geoff: yes, when I was younger, but I got the sack after just a couple of weeks.

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Jenny: doesnt matter. Well write sales assistant for local newsagent.
Geoff: that sounds good. But I dont want to lie.
Jenny: its not a lie. It just makes you look good.
Geoff: if you say so. What else?

Jenny: you havent got much under personal interests, either, just football.
Geoff: I didnt know what else to put.
Jenny: Mmm have you ever taken part in a play?
Geoff: well, yes, but it was just the local drama club. Isnt that a silly thing to mention?
Jenny: not at all! Lets put active member of local theatrical society.
Geoff: dont you think its too much to write that?
Jenny: why? What was a play?
Geoff: I wasnt actually, that is to say, I didnt play Robin Hood.
Jenny: no? what was your role?
Geoff: I was Third tree on the left, but I was a great tree!
Jenny: thats the spirit , Geoff.

4- Discuss the following:

*Do you think Geoff should add what Jenny suggested to his CV? Why / why not?

* if you had to write your own CV. What would you put in?

Intonation:

The expression below are used for asking for clarification or clarifying what has been said.

Listen and repeat.

What do you mean?

What are you trying to say?

I mean

What Im trying to say is that

, that is to say

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Lesson two: Reading and Writing:

I-Read the following job advertisements then complete the application letter below.

173
1-Complete the job application:

Dear

I am writing to apply..

I have worked as.

I am.

And I consider muself a most suitable applicant for the job

I have enclosed..

Please contact me..

Your sincerely.

Activity 02: A rsum is a summary of your personal information and experience. Look at the

example below, then write your own rsum:

Notes;

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1- For work experience, put your most recent job first, then list other jobs going back in

time. If a past job was relevant to this one, mention the duties you were responsible

for. Work experience programs and voluntary work can also be mentioned.

2- For referees, write the name and address of two people who you know well. At least

one should be a work reference.

Write your own rsum:

-Use the example and the notes above as a guide.

-Write as many drafts as you need to get correct.

-Ask your teacher to check it for you.

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Activity 03: The list below contains some words commonly used in job applications. They are

arranged in groups to help you remember spellings.

Preference Qualifications Company Apply

Reference information Opportunity Reply
Experience Position Vacancy Convenient
Qualified Enthusiastic Ability Excellent
Advertised Energic Necessary Suitable
Attached Possible Sincerely Available
Pleased Responsible Extremely rsum
Experienced Advertisement Recently
interested employment Immediately
Friendly

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Activity 04: The job application letter below is a canvassing letter, to enquire about the

possibility of employment. It was not written in response to an advertisement. Find suitable

words from the list above in Activity 03 to complete the letter. When you have chosen the

words try to write them from your memory.

Iam writing to enquire about the possibility of..Iam in any type of hotel or

kitchen work.

I have had three years ..in the kitchen of a large hotel in Perth. I was employed thre

as a kitchenhand but often worked as an assistant chef.

I completed a special English course called one day per week, when I worked at

the Mayfair Hotel.

I would welcome an to work for the Hilton and I feel I would make

an.employee.

Iam.. to start work and Iam willing to move if

My. And two are attached . Should you have a ..at present or

foresee any in the near future, I would be . To hear from you.

Your sincerely,

Activity 05: discuss the following:

What would your ideal job be? Why?

3- read the article below and circle the jobs which the writer considered when he was in

his last year of school

Dog stylist Football Chocolate journalist doctor

referee tester

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 4- Career choices

Im often asked the question how did you become a journalist? you see, everybody expected

me to follow in my fathers footsteps and become a doctor. Well, during my last year of

school I was given the opportunity to visit a career guidance counselor and I drove her crazy

with my choices.

My first choice was a chocolate tester. Although my counselor wasnt very impressed, she got

me the information. I discovered that chocolate testers earn a lot of money, so I was sure I had

found my dream job. However, when I found out that chocolate testers dont just sit around

eating chocolate all day, I lost my enthusiasm. It seems that they are also Brand Managers,

which means they are involved in the marketing and promotion of the product . I finally

decided against it when I realized a university degree would be needed.

Next, I thought of becoming a football referee. I had loved football from a young age, but

being a professional footballer was out of the question, as I couldnt play very well. Anyway,

it seems that referees must be able to run two and half miles in less than twelve minutes and

they are required to take exams throughout their training. On top of that, only after many years

of experience-and if they are lucky - do they get the chance to referee big professional

matches. So, my dream of showing David Beckham a red card was shattered .

Finally, I had this brilliant idea of becoming a dog stylist. That was after I realized how much

money our dog stylist, Shirley, was being paid every time we visited her with our Lhasa Apso,

Philipo. However, once, while she was styling Philipo, I noticed that he tried to bite her. it

happens all the time she told me. as you can imagine, that really put me off.

To cut a long story short, all this research made me realize I had a gift for investigation, so by

the end of the school year I had decided to become a journalist.

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 1- Read the text again and answer the following questions. Write C for chocolate tester, F

for football referee or D for dog stylist in the boxes.

In which job do you:

a-get paid well?

b-have to be physically fit?

c-take a long time to reach the top?

d- get injured quite often?

e- have to study for many years?

f-get involved in advertising?

Words and phrases

Words easily confused

Activiity 06: Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words in the boxes.

Job career work

a- we dont have a lot of..at this time of year.

b- I want to find a part-time.for the summer .
c- he thought a ..in business sounded boring.
W in gain earn
d- Ive a lot of experience working in this company.
e-Jerry gets very upset when his team doesnt .
f- how much money do you.a year?
Notice watch l ook
g-did youthat awful dress she she was wearing?
h- I think thats my coat. Let me .at it.
i- are you ..this, or can I switch to another channel?

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Grammar:

1- read the tables. Then, find similar examples of the passive voice in the text in the

reading text:

Active voice.

They gave Marta a bag as birthday present.

Or

Passive voice.

A bag had given to Marta as birthday present.

Subject+ am / is/are+ being+ past participle

e.g: look! We are being followed.

Subject+ was / were+ being+ past participle

e.g: when I got to the garage. My car was still being repaired

x Conversational English:

Activity 07:Find five examples of conversational English in the dialogue and match them with

the meanings given.

a- its no use ..

b-its related to ..

c- Ill help you

d- I dont understand you .

e- Im sure .

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x Collocations:

Look at the following collocations with get and use them to complete the sentences a-g. you

may need to change the form of the verb.

Get dark - Get ready - Get a job - Get the sack - Get rid of - Get down to business -

Get on somebodys nerves.

a- I think we should that old sofa and buy a new one.

b- stop that noise! Its..my..

c- my older sister takes an hour toin the morning.

d- in the winter itmuch earlier than in the summer.

e- John..because he fell asleep at his desk.

f- everybody is here, so lets..

g- you can..at the supermarket at weekends to make

some extra money.

Grammar:

1-underline all the examples of full infinitives ( e.g to do), bare infinitives (e.g do) and-ing

form (e.g doing) in the dialogue. Then, complete the rules.

Use after

* modal verbs (can, could, must, should, may etc.)

* let and make in the active voice

* would rather and rad better

Use

* certain verbs (want, would like, hope, decide, manage, agree, refuse, seem, promise etc.)

* it+ be+ adjective ( its nice, it was stupid etc.)

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* too and enough

* Question words ( how, what, when, where etc.)

Use

*certain verbs (avoid, enjoy, love, hate, finish, imagine, mind, risk, suggest, consider etc.)

* certain expressions ( how about, its no use, its no good, theres no point in, be used to etc.)

* prepositions (for, about, without etc.)

Activity 07: complete the text below with the full infinitive, the bare infinitive or the ing

form of the verbs in brackets.

Sooner or later, there comes a time when everyone needs(1)..(get) a job. In my

case that time was when I was sixteen and I wanted (2)..(buy) e pair of cool

trainers. Unfortunately, I couldnt (3) (afford) them, and my parents

wouldnt even consider (4)..(give) me money for that would be the third pair of

trainers that year. so, I got an evening job at a local Italian restaurant, but I quit after two

days. Let me (5) ..( explain) why. First of all(6).(clean)

the tables and the floor and (7)..( wash) dirty dishes till two oclock in

the morning. Then, there were all those people who couldnt ( 8)

(make) up their minds what(9) .(order) and others who were very impolite. One

night, a customer was so rude to me that I decided(10)..( make) him

(11).(wear) his pasta!

2- rewrite the following sentences in the passive voice. Begin with the words given and make

all the necessary changes.

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 a- the company offered me a well-paid job.

b- the police were taking the criminal to court when he escaped.

The criminal..

c-did the waiter bring you the menu?

Was

d- they are building a bank next to my house.

A bank

e- I havent sent your letter of application to the company.

Your letter..

listening

1- which of the jobs a-e appeals to you the most? Why?

a) Piizza delivery person b) fruit picker c) cook d) gardener e)Waiter/waitress

2- you will hear four students talking about different part-time jobs they had while they were

at college. Listen and match the four speakers with the jobs a-e above. There is one extra job

which you do not need to use.

Words and phrases

Word building:

Nouns that refer to people are commonly formed by adding the suffixes -er ,-or ,-ist and -ian

to verbs or other nouns.

1- complet the table with nouns that refer to people. Use the words in the box and a

suitable suffix.

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Music type- employ-act- manage build-direct- invent- visit- politics style- science-

mathematics- produce- entertain- reception- magic- collect- art.

Er Or Ist ian

-employer -actor -typist -musician

.. . .

2- complete the sentences with the correct form of some of the nouns in the table above.

a- my grandmother always votes for thewho wears the nicest suit.

b- whats the name of that.who starred in Star Wars?

c- Jack used to be ain the Suffolk Philharmonic Orchestra.

d- my previous..used to give us the day off when it was his birthday.

e- theres an exhibition of paintings by Spanishat the gallery on lee street.

f- the food at the restaurant was disgusting, so we asked to speak to the

speaking

work in pairs. Imagine that you are in charge of hiring new staff at the bay view hotel. Read

the advertisement below and the profiles of three people who have applied for the jobs

advertised. Discuss and decide which person would be the most suitable for each job and why

the others are unsuitable. Use the expressions given.

Bay view hotel Name: Nick Davis Name: Lauren west Name:Valerie Smith

Is looking for

Two energetic young people Age:42 Age:18 Age:22

Receptionist

Applicants must: Qualifications: Qualifications: Qualifications:

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- have good communications skills -masters in roman -Hight school -Business

- be prepared to work long hours ( one day history graduate Administration student

off per week) -fluent in French - Basic knowledge of

- have a friendly personality and German computers Experience:

Knowledge of foreign languages and -speaks spanish -Assistant on cruise ship

computer skills preferred -receptionist for local

Tour guide Experience: Experience: tourist agency

Applicants must: Guide in museum Part-time secretary Available: from July to

-enjoy working outdoors Interests: Interests: September

-have good communication skills Reading, travelling Sports, Drama

-speak foreign languages Available: Available: Any time

-be available during summer season weekdays only

knowledge of local history preferred

Expressions

I thinkwould be the most suitable for the job of .because

I believe..would be more suitable thanbecause.

I dont think..would be ( at all) suitable for the job ofas

I agree, but I also think..

Well, Im not so sure about.because..

Writing

1-Discuss the following:

- how do people find jobs?

1- have you ever had a job? What did you do?

2- read the advertisement and the letter of application. Then, answer the questions below

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a.Is the letter formal or informal? and why?

b.What do you notice about the layout of the letter?

c.What sort of information has been included in each paragraph?

Part-Time Shop Assistant

Reqired At Harlequin Music Store

Must be over 18
Sales experience necessary
Basic computer knowledge
Friendly personality.
Apply in writing to:
14 Station Road,Liverpool L18 8YZ

14 Station Road, 21 Grant Close

Liverpool L18 8YZ
Liverpool L15 8YF 23
23 January 2002
Dear Sir or Madam,
I am writing to apply for the position of part-time assistant as advertised in the Times on 22 January .
Im nineteen years old and Iam in my first year at University.I believe I am suitable for the job as,when I
was at school .I organized a CD bank,where students could students could exchange or sell CDs.

In addition ,I have some sales experience.I spent the last two summers working as an assistant in a gift
shop in Betchley.My employer was very satisfied with my work and regular customers commented on
what a nice person I was.Futhermore,I have a basic knowledge of computers.I believe
These qualities make me suitable for the job.

I have also enclosed my CV and a reference letter from my previous employer.I hope that my application
will be taken into consideration.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours faithfully.
May Weller.

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3-Improve Your Style

Tip: A letter of applicatrion is a formal letter.

-Follow the layout of formal letters.Use block paragraphs and write your address of the

person/company you are writing to.

-Start your letter with Dear Sir or Dear Madam and end it with your faithfully, followed by

your signature and full name.

-Use formal language.Dont use short forms(e.g. Im,dont) or abbreviations (e.g. ad,inf).

Below is part of a letter of application.Rewrite it in a more appropriate style and take out any

unnecessary information which you think should not be included.

Dear mr Richard,

I was looking through the Boston Herald the other day.I think it was on 3 april when I saw your ad for an

office assistant.Im 22 years old and Im a law student in my final year at uni.Im fluent in French,but my

Spanish is quite poor.I also have some work experience .You see,I was an assistant at a law firm over the

summer.Im good computers and I love surfing the net!

4-Writing task: Find a job advertisement in the newspaper that is suitable for you, or use

one of the examples below for practice.

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Write a letter to apply for one of the jobs advertised above.Your letter should be between 120

and 140 words.

x Read your chosen advertisement several times.

x Underline important parts you should mention in your letter (key words).

x Make some rough notes of the things you should mention.

x Write as many drafts as you need.

Tip:When you write a letter of application :

-Mention the position you are applying for and when and where you saw the job

advertised.Invent a name for a newspaper and a date if they are not given.

-Read the advertisement carefully,especially the qualities required for the job.Expand on

them,describing your qualifications and experience and explain why you believe you are

suitable for the job.

-Include only information that is relevant to the job you are applying for.

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-Dont mention your bad qualities.

-Dont write that you want the job for the money.

Mention that you are enclosing a CV and a reference letter,and end your letter with an

appropriate set phrase.

Our choice of using the first unit is based on the students' performance.

5. Content and Procedures

5.1. Pre-test: Description and Results:

A text-foused approach is adopted to writing in the pre-test. In other words, we have used

the technique of writing parallel or model paragraphs. We provide learners of the two groups

(CG & EG) with the advert and the application letter given in their textbook as a model. We

recommend that learners refer to the given application letter of the textbook, and have them

take it as a parallel or model of building and organizing the paragraphs of their own produced

application letters. The learners can check whether they have organized their paragraphs

correctly only by reffering to the given letter (the model) without any focus on particular

training in writing. The reason behind adopting text- focused approach in the experiment is

that secondary school learners are taught how to build and organized paragraphs, so they are

familiar to some extent with the approach. In this text-focused approach to writing, we usually

use the following techniques: writing parallel or model paragraphs, forming paragraphs from

jumbled sentences, or building paragraphs, forming paragraphs from topic-sentences with or

without cues. Learners have taken as a model the advert and the application letter below

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5.2.The Pre-Test Material and Tool:

Read the Help Wantedadvert below. Then write your own application letter. Use Jhons

application letter as a model.

Help Wanted Activities include:Swimming,singing,

dancing,cooking,drama,telling
Camp leaders for 7-10years old during school stories,sports.
vacation. Apply to:
The job requires tolerance,patience,open- Mr Mechael Armstrong,
mindedness,cheerfulness,and understanding. Director,Haryton Bay Summer
Duties:dealing with children,organizing and Camp,2187 Mountain Street
participating in daily activities. Miami,Florida 60306.

46 Regent Street
Madison 15026
Wisconsin
May 20,2005

Mr Michael Armstrong,
Haryton Bay Summer
Camp,2187 Mountain Street
Miami,Florida 60306.

Re:Camp leader
Dear Mr Armstrong,
I have seen your advertisement for camp leaders in USA TODAY and would like to apply for the job.
I am a junior at Thomas Jefferson High School with good marks in arts and philosophy.Im a member of
photography and music clubs,and I enjoy meeting people.I often volunteer to work in infant hospital
wards.So I think I am suitable for the job.
I was in Columbus and I am sixteen years old.I will turn seventeen next January.I have lived at the address
above for the past ten years.So I think that I have quite a good experience in dealing with children.
Im ready to start work at the end of June,when the school summer vacation begins.
I have asked two of my teachers,Mr Jhon Clarck and Miss Emma Smithson,to send you two letters of
reference for me.
Yours sincerely,
Joy j.Parfit

190
 The sixteen (16) participants are pre-tested through asking them to write an application

letter using only their background knowledge without receiving any instruction. They are only

exposed to a model (application letter). Learners read the given application letter silentely then

they start writing their own (the letters length is of 100 words). So, each participant is asked

to write his own letter. Then the letters are collected and scored by the teacher. The last step is

to pick up the median score of all the participants from the results of the pre-test. The

performance of learnerswriting in the pre-test is summarized in the following table.

5.3. The Control Group (pre-test) Scores:

Control group L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8
Organization of ideas 03.00 02.00 02.00 03.00 01.00 02.00 03.50 03.00
Vocabulary 02.00 02.00 03.00 03.00 01.00 02.50 03.50 03.00
Grammar 03.00 03.00 02.00 03.00 02.00 01.50 03.00 02.00
Form 02.00 02.00 02.0 02.00 02.00 02.00 02.00 02.00
Total 10.00 08.00 09.00 11.00 06.00 08.00 12.00 10.00

5.4. The Experimental Group( pre-test) Scores:

Control group L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8
Organization of ideas 02.00 02.50 02.00 03.00 03.50 03.00 03.00 02.00
Vocabulary 03.00 03.50 03.00 04.00 02.50 03.00 02.00 02.00
Grammar 01.00 03.00 02.00 03.00 03.00 02.00 02.00 02.00
Form 02.00 02.00 02.00 02.00 02.00 02.00 02.00 02.00
Total 08.00 11.00 09.00 12.00 11.00 10.00 09.00 08.00

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5.5. Pre-test Analysis of (CG) and (EG):

Pre-test L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8

Control group 1 0 .0 0 0 8 .0 0 0 9 .0 0 1 1 .0 0 0 6 .0 0 0 8 .0 0 1 2 .0 0 1 0 .0 0

Experimental gruop 0 8 .0 0 1 1 .0 0 0 9 .0 0 1 2 .0 0 1 1 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 0 9 .0 0 0 8 .0 0

Table 60 :Learners pre-test scores

From the pre-test scores, the control group and the experimental group have approximately

the same level. These results indicate that the participants of both groups started the

experiment from the same starting point. The collected data of which is represented by the

median score of both are compared, which helps us to set a goal to be reached after the

treatment period.

6. Treatment Period Description

6.1.Overview of Reading Material Design:

Among the advantages of using new modified and simplified reading materials to meet

learners needs, as mentioned by Nunan (1979), is to decide what will be the suitable

materials according to the learners grade level. As the present research has been carried in a

Foreign Language (FL) context, the task is not easy. First the majority of learners have low

level in English. Second we can not be sure that our learners are interested and motivated

because they consider English as a complementary subject and not as an essential one . To set

the learners proficieny in writing, we have relied on the pre-test results. The collected data of

the pre-test has been studied to know what the present writing proficiency level of the

participants is. These results are used both as the starting point for the treatment group, and

as a level of comparison with the post test scores.

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6.2. Description of the Treatment Phase:

The treatment phase of this study lasted six weeks, beginning in October 2010 and ending in

December 2010. The learners in the experimental group have followed the teachers own

reading materials which are authentic and modified according to their age, needs and

interests, knowing that all sessions of the treatment period are considered as make up sessions.

Normally, the sessions are within the regularly scheduled sessions of the English subject.

Since the number of learners in classes is overcrowded, and this would negatively influence

the implementation of the Unit (adaptation) with the experimental group and (adoption) with

the control group, we found that it would be better to apply the treatment in extra hours with

the selected experimental group as well as the control group.

The treatment period has been restricted to only six weeks because we spent the whole

trimester (3 months) in the implementation of the first unit Getting Through. The duration

of the treatment period is appropriate if we consider that the beginning of the trimester should

include the revision period, the tests and exams within the same period as well. To avoid the

participants' burden of the extra hours and regular absences, we promissed them that the marks

they would get in the post tests of both groups (experimental and control group) are their

official tests scores to keep them motivated during the treatment period.

7. Post test: Description and Results

After six weeks (the duration of the treatment period), the participants (of both EG and CG)

are asked to write their own application letters according to a given advert in order to

determine the improvement in their writing proficiency. Hence, the participants are post tested

193
using the same tool as the one used for the pre-test. The learners writing performance in the

post test is summarized in table 61 bow.

7.1.The Control Group Post-test Scores:

Control group L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8

Organization of ideas 03.00 03.00 03.00 02.50 03.00 03.00 02.00 03.00

Vocabulary 03.00 02.00 03.00 02.50 03.00 03.00 02.00 02.00

Grammar 03.00 02.00 02.00 03.00 02.00 02.00 03.00 01.00

Form 02.00 03.00 03.00 03.00 03.00 02.00 02.00 02.00

Total 11.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 11.00 10.00 09.00 08.00

7.2. The experimental group post test Scores:

Control group L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8

Organization of ideas 03.00 04.00 03.00 03.00 03.00 04.00 03.00 03.00

Vocabulary 03.00 03.00 04.00 04.00 03.00 04.00 04.00 04.00

Grammar 04.00 04.00 03.00 02.00 04.00 03.00 02.00 03.00

Form 03.00 03.00 03.00 03.00 03.00 03.00 03.00 03.00

Total 13.00 14.00 13.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 12.00 13.00

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7.3. Post- test Rasultes of (CG) and(EG):

Post test S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8

Control group 1 1 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 1 .0 0 1 2 .0 0 1 1 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 0 9 .0 0 0 8 .0 0

Experimental group 1 3 .0 0 1 4 .0 0 1 3 .0 0 1 2 .0 0 1 3 .0 0 1 4 .0 0 12.00 1 3 .0 0

Table 61: the Results of the Post-test

8. Data Analysis: Comparison of Results and Means

All the learners have been pre and post tested through writing an application letter. The

analysis of the pre-test and the post-test is done according to learners scores in both groups

(EG and CG) taking into account many aspects in scoring among which, the letter form, the

organization of ideas, the vocabulary used, grammar, and accuracy. After collecting the data

of the pre and post-test, the next step in this study is the analysis of this data which is divided

into two parts: first we calculate the means of both groups (experimental group and control

group) in the pre/post test, and then we compare the results. Second, a quantitative analysis is

followed where we have used a t test analysis to determine the validity of these results. This

analysis would confirm, or disconfirm our hypothesis. At the end of the experiment, both

groups (experimental and control group) have been tested again. When all the data is looked

at, there is a significant difference between the experimental group and the control group in

their writing performance. These differences in implementing the reading materials and tasks

(i.e., The experimental group has been exposed to a completely different reading material and

tasks from those which have been introduced to the control group) favour the learners who

follow the designed reading materials as it is shown in AppedixII. To give more validity for

these differences, we have first compared the means of both control and experimental groups

prior the beginning of the study ( in the pre-test) and at the end of the study (in the post-test).

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8.1.Calculating the Means of (CG) and (EG):

To calculate the mean of both groups, the sum of the scores have to be divided on the

number of the participants. The following tables sum up the median score of the two groups in

the pre and post-test, as well as their mean scores.

participants S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 The mean

Control group 10.00 08.00 09.00 11.00 06.00 08.00 12.00 10.00 09.25
Experimental 08.00 11.00 09.00 12.00 11.00 10.00 09.00 08.00 09.75
Group
Table 62: The means of the (EG) and the(CG) in the pre-test

participants S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 The means

Control group 11.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 11.00 10.00 09.00 8.00 10.25

Experimental 13.00 14.00 13.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 12.00 13.00 13.00

Group

Table 63: The means of the(EG) and the (CG) in the post-test.

8.2. Comparing the Means of the Pre-test.

The following table, which presents a summary of the pre-test means of both groups, helps us

comparing the writing performance as represented by learners before the beginning of the

experiment.

Pre-test Experimental group Control group

The mean 0 9 .7 5 0 9 .2 5

Table 64: The Means of the pre-test

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 Comparing the means of the two groups, there seem to be no significant difference between

the writing performances of the two groups in the pre-test. This means that both groups started

the experiment from the same starting point.

8.3. Comparing the Means of the Post-Test

Table 11 sums up the results obtained in the post-test of both groups

Post test Experimental group Control group

The mean 1 3 .8 7 1 0 .3 7

Table 65: The Means of the Post-test

By comparing the means, one can easily deduce that the experimental group outperforms the

control group. Even though, the difference between the means of the two groups has been

somehow negligible (only 0.25 difference) in the pre-test; this difference, however, increases

to reach (+3.50 points difference in scores) at the end of the experiment. This means that the

experimental group has shown a progress in writing performance which is not the case of the

control group. The comparison of the means is not so worthy to build on it solid interpretation

which concerns the truthfulness of the hypothesis. Hence, to reinforce the conclusions drawn

from this comparison, and thus give them more validity, we have used a t test analysis which

is the only issue that one can rely on.

9. t test Analysis:

Many factors underlie our choice of the t test: first it is the much more commonly used

statistical test in language studies; second, the t test does not require large samples as does the

Z statistics (Brown, 1988, p165). Both factors are in favour for this study, as we are testing the

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hypothesis with a small sample of secondary school learners. The t-test for independent

samples is more appropriate for a comparison between the control group and the experimental

group in terms of differences in scores in the post-test. The t test is a robust test which

determines the validity of an experiment base on two entities- comparison. This test assesses

whether the means of the two groups involved in the present study are statistically different

from each other. Once the t value is calculated, we have to look it up in a table of significance

to test whether the ratio is large enough to say that the difference between the groups is not

likely to have been a chance finding. On the basis of this comparison, one can accept or reject

the established hypothesis. The t test, then, helps in confirming or disconfirming the truth of

the established hypothesis.

To compute the t value, the following formula needs to be applied.

( 2)

+2 ( )

X 1 = Mean of the first group

X 2 = Mean of the second group

1 N = Number of the participants in the first group

2 N = Number of the participants in the second group

1 S = Standard Deviation (Sample Variance) of the first group

2 S = Standard Deviation (Sample Variance) of the second group

The Sample Variance is a sort of average of the differences of all scores from the mean.

X 1 = Mean of the first group

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X 2 = Mean of the second group

1 N = Number of the participants in the first group

2 N = Number of the participants in the second group

1 S = Standard Deviation (Sample Variance) of the first group

2 S = Standard Deviation (Sample Variance) of the second group

Because the study is based on one tailed test (directional hypothesis), to confirm the truth of

the hypothesis, the obtained t value (at 0, 05 level of significance) must equal or exceed the

half of the tabulated value of the t (the critical value of t). This would confirm the positive

effect of the use of teachers own reading materials design on learners writing proficiency, and

hence accept the hypothesis. To strengthen the conclusion drawn from the comparison of the

means and then confirm the truth of the hypothesis, we have relied on a t-test analysis. The

latter is the only guarantee of the validity of these results.

9.1. t test for the Difference between the CG and the EG in the Post test:

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 Means

11 10 11 12 11 10 9 8 1 0 .2 5

13 14 13 12 13 14 12 13 1 3 .0 0

121 100 121 144 121 100 81 64 1 0 6 .5

169 196 169 144 169 196 144 169 1 6 9 .5

Control Group:

82

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 852

82


8

= 10.25

Experimental Group

104

1356

104

= 13

9.2.The Sample Variance (Standard Deviation)

Control Group:

852
105.06
8

1.44

Experimental Group

1356
169
8
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 0.5

9.3. The t value

( 2)

+2 ( )

(10.25 13)(8 8 2)(8 8)

8+82 (8 (1.44) 8 0.5)8 8

5.22

We do not regard the sign () of the t value, since it will be positive if the first mean is larger

than the second mean and negative if the first mean is smaller. For such reason, the t test value

is normally reported as the absolute value of the statistics rather than as the signed value of the

statistics. That is, the sign of the t test is normally dropped when it is reported. The t value (the

t observed) is 5.22. The critical value of t, with 14 degrees of freedom, is 2,145, at 0, 05 level

of significance. Since it is one tailed hypothesis (directional hypothesis), this value should be

divided by 2(i.e., 2,1452=1,07). Because the value of our calculated t exceeds the value of

the tabulated t 5,22> 1,07, this means that the results are statistically significant. Thus,

confirming that the difference between means of the post-test for the control group and the

experimental is highly significant.

This conclusion means that the likelihood of the experimental result to be a mere chance

finding is less than 5%; thus we can have about 95% confidence that the observed results are

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statistically significant, and reflect the positive effect of the new condition to which the

experimental group has been exposed.

10. Reporting the Results

In the present study, it is hypothesized that the teachers own reading materials design has a

positive effect on learners proficiency in writing i.e., learners writing proficiency and

performance would increase if they follow authentic reading materials by their teachers. This

hypothesis has been tested by comparing the means of both groups (control and experimental)

in the post-test. The mean of the control group in the post-test (M= 10.37, SD=1.44) is less

than the mean of the experimental group in the post-test (M= 13, 87, SD= 0, 54), 14 t = 5, 22,

p= 2,145.

Since the results are in the direction of our hypothesis, one can say that the use of authentic

reading materials have a positive effect on learners proficiency in writing.

10.1. Quantitative Effects on Reading Performance

This section will focus on the investigation about the effects of the teachers own reading

materials of the learners performance in writing. To establish whether the adaptation of these

authentic reading materials versions contributed to better improvement in the learners writing

performance, independent t-test was conducted to compare the two groups mean scores in

pre-and post-tests. The t-tests was also conducted to evaluate whether or not there was

significant improvement in the learnerswriting test scores.

Learners participation in following the designed reading materials contributed in improving

their perception of the reading materials used and also their writing performance. The t-test

showed high significant difference in scores for the CG learners (M = 10.37, SD = 1.44) and
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the EG learners (M = 13.87, SD = 0.54; t (14) =5.22, p = 2.145, one-tailed test, d = 1.07), as

mentioned inthe tables above.

Therefore, we can say that the types of the designed reading materials outperformed in

terms of the learners reading scores at the completion of the first unit. So, the t-test indicated

significant improvement in the learners writing scores. To conclude, the differences in scores

between the two groups might be caused not only by the different types of materials but also

by the differences in specific teaching and learning situations, including the teachers distinct

styles of instruction and learners interactions, as discussed in the previous sections.

Conclusion

This research study has been carried out to answer the statement of the problem which is:

whether the use of teachers authentic reading materials design as a teaching instructional

method helps learners to improve their writing proficiency. Within this scope, the collected

data of the pretest and the post test, as well as, the treatment period data reveals that the

learners who follow the designed materials have shown progress in their writing performance.

Their post test scores show that they have benefited from the use of authentic reading

materials. The t test has confirmed that these results are statistically significant and not a mere

chance findings.

As a result, teacherscareful design of the material and the clarity of task purposes and

procedures were shown to be important variables affecting the classroom atmosphere and the

learners level of task achievement, and thus, need to be taken into consideration when

planning guidance for teachers involved in teaching reading courses to enhance learners
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writing proficiency. A major conclusion of the study was that EFL language programs should

consider introducing authentic reading materials into the curriculum as a tool to improve the

current learning environment.

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CHAPTER FIVE

PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

Introduction

1. Summary of research findings

2. Issues of the study

3. Limitations

4. Pedagogical Implications

5. Recommendations for future research

Conclusion

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 CHAPTER FIVE: PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

Introduction

This concluding chapter will briefly summarise the findings obtained from the use of

authentic reading materials designed or adapted by secondary school teachers to improve their

learners proficiency level in writing. It will focus on the interpretation of research findings

acoording to the research questions and hypothesis. In addition to some research limitations, It

will also provide a discussion of some issues related to pedagogical implications and

recommendations for materials development.

1. Summary of Research Findings:

1.1. Summary of Learners Perceptions of Original and Designed Materials:

Although the learners of the experimental group had significantly more positive opinions of

task objectives, language difficulty through the tasks implemented, it would be difficult to

conclude that the designed reading materials promoted better learners perceptions in writing

than the original materials did, because the materials were implemented with different groups

of learners and at a different time, in different teaching and learning situations. In addition to

that, materials implementation can be affected by many aspects, involving classroom

interactions and background, values and beliefs of learners and teachers ( Tomlinson, 2003a),

including teachers experience, learners motivation, classroom atmosphere and learning and

teaching styles. The analysis of the questionnaires show that learners were aware of the

importance of the reading materials and tasks in improving their writing. The t-test was also

conducted to evaluate whether or not there was significant improvement in learners writing

performance after introducing them to reading materials and tasks adopted from the

coursebook with the (CG) and adapted from authentic materials with (EG).
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 1.2.Summary of Quantitative Effects on Writing Performance

In brief, the results of the learners pre-and post-tests show that both groups of learners had

made progress in writing, over approximately six weeks of materials implementation and

instruction. It is clear that learners using both types of materials, the coursebook materials and

the teachers own designed materials, made significant improvements in writing performance.

However, the post tests achievements of both CG and EG show that there is a high statistically

significant improvements between them. This suggests that the design and the adaptation of

authentic reading materials led to significantly better writing performance, in terms of

progress. The findings of learners achievements in the tasks of the first unit as a whole and

on their writing performance, discussed in (Chapter four), will lead to final conclusions,

implications and recommendations for EAP reading materials development.

1.2.1. The Textbook Materials Vs The Designed Version:

The present study has established the strengths and weaknesses of first year secondary

school coursebook reading materials, as well as, the teachers own reading materials in unit

one ( the modifications implemented by the teacher), in terms of the selection of reading texts

and collaborative and pedagogical tasks. The textbook reading and writing tasks focus on

purpose as well as on text. They focus, on the one hand, on the text in the sense that it stresses

the importance of the paragraph as the basic unit of written expression. On the other hand,

they focuse on purpose. In other words, learners wont write just for writing but with a

purpose. In this respect the tasks should simulate authentic situations which is not the case in

first year secondary school textbook.

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 Apart from the focus on text and purpose, it is helpful to keep in mind that writing requires

from learners to follow some strategies like making a first draft and having the draft revised by

the leaners themselves or by their peers before writing the final version. These strategies are

part and parcel of two other approaches to writing: the fluency and accuracy approaches.

Learners write as much as possible during the preparation of the first draft without caring too

much about mistakes. The aim at this stage is fluency. The feedback that learners get from

their peers will allow them to focus on accuracy when writing the revised version of their

papers.

1.2.2. The Experimental Group and the Adapted Materials:

The experimental group (those who worked on the teachers own designed materials)

tended to have more positive views about the tasks . The experimental group learners reported

more task enjoyment and less language difficulty than did the control group. In relation to the

task enjoyment, the experimental group showed satisfaction with materials used, resulting in a

good classroom atmosphere; however, some learners who either belong to the experimental

group or control group have expressed their difficulties in communicating their ideas in

correct sentences in English because of their low level.

In the analysis of the questionnaires, the findings reveal that some learners prefer to use

their teachers designed or adapted materials and tasks because they satisfy their needs, in the

sense that authentic texts through which they encounter the real world language can be more

enjoyable and less linguistically difficult than the textbook texts and tasks. Additionally, the

experimental group learners believed that they had significantly greater text understanding.

This suggests that the designed materials promoted greater motivation in terms of text

enjoyment, text difficulty and text understanding through the use of authentic materials.
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 A comparison of the learnersreading performance in both groups(CG ad EG) led to the

conclusion that both the adapted and the designed materials, after the six-week

implementation and instruction, promoted writing performance. In addition, the t-test showed

significant improvement in the post-test scores. Thus, the t test is statistically significant and

leads to confirm the stated hypothesis. So, we can say that if teachers use their own reading

materials which are authentic and appropriate to their learners needs, this will have a positive

effect on learnersproficiency in writing.

2. Issues of the Study:

The review of the study issues will follow the order of the research questions as mentioned

in the general introduction and attempt to answer them according to the findings of the study.

2.1. Research questions: This research study includes five research questions;

x To what extent did learners perceive the use of the coursebook, as ameans of instruction

and discussion in the EAP reading classroom context, to be useful to text understanding?

x To what extent had the first unit Getting Throughas a whole been successful in

responding to the learners needs and interests in terms of selections of reading strategies,

of reading texts and of pedagogical tasks?

x To what extent the modified reading materials , the simplified texts or the authentic

versions brought by the teacher, contributed to learners better perceptions of the tasks and

the units as a whole?

x Did the adapted versions, create greater positive learners perceptions of the materials than

did the original version in the coursebook?

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x Did the use of the teachers designed materials promote learners better

performance?

x Research Question 1: To what extent did learners perceive the use of the coursebook, as

a means of instruction and discussion in the EAP reading classroom context, to be useful

to text understanding?

Overall, the learners from the control group who worked on the coursebook reading

materials expressed to some extent their satisfaction with the reading materials task objectives

throughout the first unit. The learners believed that the tasks had promoted their reading and

writing performance, and provided them with opportunities to practise, to apply strategies in

the specific context of reading, to learn more new vocabulary and to develop greater

awareness of strategy use.

x Rsearch Question 2:To what extent had the first unit Getting Through as a whole been

successful in responding to the learners needs and interests in terms of selections of

reading strategies, of reading texts and of pedagogical tasks?

Learners unconsciously used both cognitive and metacognitive strategies. The

metacognitive strategies, including asking oneself questions, evaluating ones action, and

cognitive strategies, particularly extracting the main idea, predicting the text by making

use of markers, guessing meaning of unknown words from context, skimming and

inferring the writers ideas. In relation to the tasks. Learners agreed that each particular

task was closely related to their background knowledge and to their personal interests,

particularly the topic related to internet, writing messages, e-mails, and at the end the

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 project workshop which is the writing of the application letter (first unit). The learners

complained that the open-ended tasks, which required them to write the answers in

complete sentences are considered difficult. They preferred group-work tasks through

which they were able to learn something new through collaborative work.

x Research Question 3: To what extent the modified reading materials, the simplified texts

or the authentic versions brought by the teacher, contributed to learners better perceptions

of the tasks and the unit as a whole?

The use of teachers own reading materials design which are generally considered as

authentic ones had a positive impact on the learners motivation, as well as on their writing

and reading performance. Even though the variety of tasks was seen as one of the strengths of

the materials, the learners and teachers worked on the tasks under time pressure. Teachers are

aware of the role of the instructional tasks in building up the learners reading and writing

proficiency. Although the authentic reading materials had been successful in increasing the

learners awareness of the impotance of the reading phase in their writing, but teachers must

meet the objectives of the academic syllable in the selection of the reading materials .

x Research Question 4: Did the adapted versions, create greater positive learners

perceptions of the materials than did the original version in the coursebook?

Through the use of teachers own designed reading materials and modified tasks, learners

had significantly greater positive perceptions of the text and task objectives. This led me to

conclude that the designed materials promote better motivation than did the original versions.

Despite the fact that the designed materials create more positive perceptions toward the tasks,

211
and positive writing, but teachers should be aware of the authentic materials cultural biases. In

this sense, the (EG) learners who used the designed materials expressed significantly greater

satisfaction with the authentic reading materials. Thus, Through the use of authentic reading

materials by the teacher, learners reading progress increased because they are motivated.

x Research Question 5: Did the use of the teachers designed materials promote learners

better performance?

The impact of the designed reading materials and the adopted ones from the textbook on

learners progress was also investigated with the use of pre- and post-tests to explore whether

the designed ones could promote progress. These findings were used to supplement the

responses emerged from the qualitative type of evaluating materials including: strategies,

collaborative work, task usefulness, and the variety of tasks and the text topics. According to

the learnersresponses to the questionnaires, coupled with my observations show that

secondadary school learners are aware of the degree of relationship between reading and

writing skills. In the treatment period, what distinguished the original from the designed

materials is that the experimental group worked on the authentic texts and tasks which had

clearer purposes for reading and discussion.

Through the use of such materials and collaborative tasks, learners expressed great

satisfaction. However, the control group who used the textbook have criticised its reading

materials for being too artificial and too linguistically difficult for the low level learners. This

suggests that learners lack of interest in the reading text topic can negatively affect their

attitudes towards writing about the given topic within the unit.

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3. Limitations of the Study

Before discussing possible implications and practical applications of the study, some

limitations in terms of access to classroom observation and presence in the classrooms must be

mentioned. First, classroom observations show that the majority of secondary school learners

do not have a good enough proficiency in English, it was noticed that many members of both

control and experimental groups do not distinguish between authentic reading texts which seek

to satisfy learners needs and artificial reading texts which seek to satisfy some pedagogical

objectives. However learners try to understand the words and write a successful application

letter in order to have good marks rather than to be able to use their reading and writing

abilities in real world situations successfully. In addition, learners of the experimental group

did not care about the designed materials objectives and purposes, but they just tried in vain to

satisfy their teachers through having good scores in the experiment. Second, though the

number of participants (N=16) was relatively small, it was adequate because we were engaged

in reading and writing processes which can not be done and implemented with over-crowded

classes.

In sum, even though the findings and conclusions reached in this study provide insights into

the implementation of teachers designed reading materials, they are limited in their

application (only few teachers are really engaged in the process of materials design). In other

words, there are only few experienced and creative teachers who tend to adapt and design new

materials including authentic ones to meet their learners needs and interests.

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4.Pedagogical Implications:

The results of this study have implications for six specific areas: (1) the selection of reading

strategies,(2 ) the selection of reading texts, (3) the selection of learning and teaching tasks, (4)

the teaching method, (5) the teachers role in the process, (6) the learners role in the process.

4.1. Implications for the selection of reading strategies:

Reading skills do not exist apart from other communication skills. Throughout these skills,

learners will share ideas to write about issues in the areas of communication. To achieve this

aim, learners should use many different reading strategies. The following reading skills and

strategies are focused on:

- reading for global information;

- reading for specific information;

- reading for main ideas;

- analysing style and tone to identify the authors implied attitude;

- analysing overall structure of texts;

- determining the meaning of words through the context in which they are used;

- interpreting texts;

The learners must be guided through numerous reading strategies. They should begin with

predicting the subject of articles (texts) from headlines and illustrations, brainstorming the

topic and brushing up vocabulary to hypothesis testing and reading comprehension tasks,

ending with the analysis of sentence and paragraph structure.

Thus, increasing learners awareness of strategy use, while reading such as guessing

meaning of unknown words from context, making use of markers or other contextual clues

to predict the text content, relating background knowledge to the text topic, making
214
inferences of the writers ideas and extracting the main and major supporting pointswould

help them to understand the text. Finally, the research findings imply a major pedagogical

implication that materials combining strategy training and collaborative tasks should lead to

learners progress in reading as well as in writing.

4.2.Implications for the Selection of Reading Texts:

Overall, the selected reading texts should be adapted to be enjoyable and motivating, since

they need to be interesting and related to learners background knowledge and personal

experiences. The present study also suggests that texts selection, combining different means

of text simplification including linguistic and content simplification, can enhance L2 learners

motivation in terms of their perceptions of text difficulty, text comprehension and text

enjoyment, as well as their writing performance. The research also supports the idea that

learners comments on text difficulty can guide the materials designer to create suitable texts

to the target learners level, background knowledge, interest and cognitive ability.

4.3.Implications for the Selection of Pedagogical tasks:

The learning tasks in the adapted materials were generally chosen to fit learners needs;

almost learners viewed the tasks in the unit as interesting. The learners believed that the tasks

were enjoyable and useful, and considerably valued the collaborative tasks, or small groups.

However, there were occasional complaints about insufficient time to complete their reading

tasks independently and collaboratively.

The learners explained that the tasks (pre-, while- and post-reading tasks) in the unit were

sequenced from the easiest to the most difficult, gradually, however, they dislike working on

open-ended tasks, as they had great difficulties in expressing their ideas in English. These
215
shortcomings and discrepencies in pedagogical task design should be taken into account when

the teacher is involved in materials design and adaptation

4.4.Implications for the Teaching Method: (Competency based approach):

The Algerian educational system adopted the Competency-Based Approach which is

characterised by the following:

(1) It is action-oriented in that it gears language learning to the acquisition of know-how

embedded in functions and skills,

(2) It is a problem-solving approach in that it places learners in situations that test and check

their capacity to overcome obstacles and problems,

(3) It is social-constructivist in that it regards learning as occurring through social interaction

with other people (Burns & Klinggstedt, 1972).

Over all, if the Competency-Based Approach expands on communicative approaches, it is

in the sense that it seeks to make the attainment of visible objectives, i.e., concrete, through

the realisation of projects in selected domains of instruction. Finally, and most importantly, the

Competency-Based Approach is a cognitive approach. It is indeed indebted to Blooms

taxonomy (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation). The

above mentioned charcaterisitic of CBA should be taken into account in materials design and

adaptation

4.5.Implications for the Teachers Role:

The teachers competence and professional skills should be reflected in his/her

knowledge of teaching methods and techniques. His/her role must have a positive effect on

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the designed reading materials, the learners knowledge of strategy use, text understanding,

and writing task.

4.6.Implications for Learners role in the Process:

When designing materials or lessons, the teacher should take into account the learners age,

attitudes, ability, previous language experience and native language and attitude to the target

language. These factors are important in the designing process. Thus, eliciting the learners

attitudes towards the coursebook tasks and the included reading materials together with

learning needs are of crucial importance to the whole process. In addition, learners should be

encouraged to report what they particularly like and dislike about the units of the textbook;

they should also be encoutraged to express their preferences for techniques and methods they

would use to improve their reading and writing proficiency. Their views can be reported

through the use of journals which could potentially reveal not only the suitability of the

materials in terms of learning needs, level and interest, but also their perception about the

importance of the reading process on their writing performances.

5. Recommendations for Future Research:

Some pedagogical recommendations for the design of reading materials for learners in the

teaching and learning contexts are necessary to enhance learners writing performance:

- Teachers Should make use of visual materials because they are of primary importance for

teaching reading. It is necessary for teachers to select and create materials relevant to the

interests, capabilities, and needs of learners. matching real objects to pictures, and then to

written symbols in an efficient method (Murcia, 1991, p.189).

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- Teachers shoud specify the purpose for reading, employ reading strategies to maximize the

learners level of task enjoyment as well as chances of accomplishing the learning outcomes.

- Teachers should take into consideration several aspects when designing their own materials

among which: learners needs and interest, theories of teaching and learning, principles of

sequencing , learning and teaching tasks, learner and teacher roles and roles of instructional

materials;

- Teachers should evaluate their produced-materials through the use of some tools, such as

questionnaire completion, interviews, and the use of journals.

- To increase the learners motivation to contribute to collaborative work, the materials should

consist of a variety of tasks in a unit.

-Teachers should increasing the effectiveness of collaborative work. Finally, we recommend

that the design of reading materials take into account the following aspects:

1. The text topic should be relevant to the learners interests to increase their motivation .

2. The selected texts should also be appropriate to learners proficiency level, in order to

promote their learning processes ( Tomlinson, 2003);

Conclusion:

The process of designing materials is not an easy task, but rather it is a complex process

embaracing the implementation, the evaluation, and the revision processes. Successful reading

materials are those which make use of authentic materials. Furthermore, the study revealed

learners positive perceptions toward the use of authentic materials in their readings. The study

tends to show teachers views on the suitability of their reading materials design to their

learnersneeds. This led to the implications and recommendations for the design and

218
evaluation of materials, as well as to ways of promoting the quality and appropriacy of

materials in the process of learning and teaching.

219
 General Conclusion

This research study has been carried out to investigate the situation of using authentic

reading texts as a teaching instructional tool in order to help learners improve their writing

proficiency through exposing them to the language that they encounter in real situations.

Within this scope, the collected data of the questionnaires, as well as, the treatment period data

(the post test results) reveal that the learners who use the designed reading materials which

include authentic texts and modified tasks have shown progress in their writing performance

writing an application letter. Accordingly, the t-test has confirmed that the results are

statistically significant.

Furthermore, the present study attempts to shed light on learners and teachers views on the

appropriateness or adequacy of the first year secondary school textbook reading and writing

materials (reading texts and learning tasks). Thus, teachers should find ways to overcome the

textbook shortcomings if it fails to meet their learners needs. Besides, teachers tend to

promote the quality and the appropriateness of the teaching materials through the process of

designing and evaluating materials. Successful reading teaching materials are those which

enhance learners writing proficiency. When the teachers design their own materials, they

have to take into consideration the principles underlying the material design process; that is,

the three major elements of the reading materials design which are:(1) the selection of reading

strategies, (2) the selection of reading texts and (3) the selection of learning tasks and activities

according to the targeted group of learners needs.

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 Evaluation criteria are helpful in the selection and use of instructional materials to ensure

that materials are consistent with the needs and interests of the learners. The selected materials

should suit the teachers beliefs and opinions about the nature of language and learning, as

well as the learners attitudes and preferences (the role of needs analysis). In this sense, there

are two types of evaluation, first, the evaluation which is carried out at the end of the

implementation of the material to measure how effective the selected material was in attaining

its goals (summative evaluation). Second, the evaluation which is carried out during the

development and the implementation of the material in order to modify and revise aspects and

elements of the material to ensure its efficiency ( formative evaluation or materials in use

evaluation). Thus, the evaluation and the selection of the teaching materials is a complex

process. Accordingly, no one can speak about the design and use of instructional materials

without speaking about materials evaluation because teaching materials should be evaluated to

see their effects on learners proficiency.

The experiment findings have, also, supported the previous researchers findings and have

proved that appropriate teaching reading materials are, therefore, required to help learners to

communicate their ideas in writing, to interact and to practise the language by means of

communicative activities and tasks. Such materials should be natural, realistic and based on

the principles of communicative methodology which views language learning as a thinking

process. In this sense, it is important to have authentic materials that help learners to get real

satisfaction by making use of real-life language. Furthermore, the teaching materials should

offer learners an opportunity to practise and to develop both the receptive and the productive

skills through language use. In addition to that, the use of authentic materials creates

motivation among learners, because there is a significant link between achievement and
221
success in learning the language and the learners willingness to learn. In other words, learners

should be able to take full part in interaction in the classroom, discuss texts, and participate in

group discussions and pair/group work activities.

222
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APPENDICES
Appendix I : Learners questionnaire
Appendix II : Teachers questionnaire
Appendix III : Control group post-test materials(the original version)
Appendix IV: Experimental group post-test materials(the designed version)

234
Appendix I.1: Learnersquestionnaire :
Questionnaire for learners

Dear learners,

You are kindly invited to fill in the following questionnaire :

Please, tick the appropriate box.

i-General Information:
Q1: Gender:
Male
Female

Q2-Age

a-Less than 15
b-15
c-More than 15

Q3-Stream :

Scientific
Litrary

Q4-How many times do you study English per week?

a-Three times
b-Four times
c-More than four times

235
ii-The reading and writing skills

Q5-Do you like learning English?

Yes No

Q6-If yes ,which skill would you like to master?

a-Listening
b-Speaking
c-Reading
d-Writing

Q7-Your ability to write is:

a-Good
b-Average
c-Low

Q8-Your actual levl in writing is:

a-Bigginner(Still at the level of the sentence)
b-Intermediate(able to write beyond the sentence level )

Q9-Classify the following items according to the importance you give them in your writings

a-Grammar .
b-Vocabulary.
c-Organisation of ideas.

Q10-Do you write in English outside your secondary school?

Yes No

236
Q11-If yes, what type of writing?

a-Home work
b-Letter
c-E-mail
d-Other? Please justify?

Q12-In class, do you like write?

a-Individually
b-In pairs
c-In small groups.

Q13-Where does your English learning difficulty lie?

a-Reading
b-Writing
c-Speaking
d-listening

Q14- Please precise your problem?

a-Grammar
b-Vocabulary
c-Form

Q15-Does the teacher make any effort to motivate you to learn English?
Yes No

Q16- If yes, please tick the right possibilities:

a-Do you read new texts

237
b-Do you have songs time
c-Do you play vocabulary game in class.

Q17-What types of reading and writing activities do you usually have in class?

a-Comprehension questions
b-Defining words
c-Matching items
d- Follow up activities(read then write)(summary or paraphrasing)

Q18-Do you have enough writing practice in class?

Yes No

Q19-What type of writing do you usually have in class?

a-Sentence
b-Paragraph
c-Letters
d-E-mails
e-Reports

Q20-What genr(s) of writing do you find the most difficult?

a-Exposition
b-Description
c-Narration
d-Letters

Q21-Did you have enough writing activities before writing an application letter?
Yes No

238
Q22-What type of activities do you usually have which enable you to write the letter?

a-Reading application letters.

b-Fill in the blanks with the key words
c-Reordering
d-Letter form(Introduction, body, conclusion)

Q23-Can you write a paragraph if you have already read a similar model?

Yes No

Q24-What kind of difficulty do you have in writing?

a-I have the ideas but can not translate them into words.
b-I lack the ideas.
c-I dont grasp grammar structures.
d-I lack the vocabulary
e-All of them
Q25-How was the teachers feedback?

a-Conferencing
b-Peer correction
c-Individually

iii-The coursebook reading and writing texts and activities:

Q26-Do the coursebook help you to develop both reading and writing skills?
Yes No

239
Q27- Do you enjoy the coursebook reading and writing activities in class?
Yes No

Q28- If no? Does your teachers designed reading activities help you in your writings more
than the textbook?
Yes No

Q29-What kind of activities do you like in the coursebook?

a-Pair, group work.

b-Dialogue
c-Fill in the gaps

Q30-What are your objectives in learning to write ?

a-To learn more vocabulary

b-To improve your language level
c-To become good writer.
d-To improve your writing skill to express your ideas

Q31-Does the coursebook reading and writing activities meet your aims and objectives?
Yes No

Q32-If no ,how your teacher help you meeting your aims and objectives? Tick the appropriate
answer

240
a-Provide you with new reading materials which suit your needs and aims
b-sticks to the coursebook reading materials but gives you extra explanation and new
techniques to meet your needs
Q33- Do projects offer real opportunities for writing practice?
Yes No

Q34-What were your earliest experiences with learning to read?

..

Q35-When your teacher correct your writing ,does she/he give more importance to:
a-Grammar
b-Vocabulary
c-Content
d-Organisation of ideas

Q36-Further suggestions:
How can your teacher improve your writing?

241
Appendix I.2: Teachersquestionnaire
Questionnaire for Teachers

Dear colleagues,
This questionnaire is a part of a Magistere research work in Course Book Evaluation
in Applied Linguistics).It aims at determining the type of correlations which exist
between reading materials design and writing.
Please, tick the appropriate box or give a full statement when required.

I General Information :
Q1 :Status :
Titulaire
stagiaire
Supplant

Q2 :Gender :
Male
Female

Q3 : How long have you been teaching in the secondary school ?

Less than 10 years.

Between 10 and 15 years.
More than 15 years.

II-Teachers Reading Materials Design:

Q4:Are the four skills equally focused in your teaching?
Yes No

242
Q5:I f no ,which ones are given priority?
a-Listening
b-Speaking
c-Reading
d-Writing

Q6: Do you rely only on the textbook to teach reading, or you design your own reading
materials?
Yes No

Q7: If no,do you make any initiative to provide learners with new materials out of the text
book?
Yes No

Q8: Does the reading material dsigned allow for integration of skills?
Yes No

Q09:On which basis do you prepare your reading and writing materials?
a-Pupils needs
b-Prescribed objectives.
c-Learners styles and preferences.

Q10:Why you design your own reading materials?

a-To help learners gain more understanding of the unit.
b-To provide learners with enough vocabulary for their writings.
c-To help learners to feel at ease.
d-To expose learners to authentic language.
e-To meet learners different learning styles.

Q11:What are your reasons for designing reading materials?

243
a-The topics and the readings in the textbook are up to date.
b-There is not enough grammar coverage within the textbook readings .
c-Textbook reading passages contain too much unknown vocabulary.
d-Comprehension questions are too easy or too difficult.
e-The textbook topics are not attractive.
f-The textbook readings do not teach about English peoples culture and ways of life.
g-Textbook reading activities are not significant enough to help learners to write.

Q12:Does the designed reading materials meet the learners needs?

Yes No

Q13: What you take into consideration when you design your own reading materials?
a-The correlation and appropriatness between the designed material and the particular
curriculum.
b-The correlation and the appropriateness between the designed material and the particular
methodology.
c-The designed material authenticity.
Reading and Writing Activities
Q14:Do the learners apply what they learn as vocabulary in reading in their writing?
Yes No

Q15: Do projects offer real opportunities for writing practice?

Yes No

Q16:Which writing techniques do you use to make learners interact with and through the
material ?
a-Having learners read and discuss texts which they would then go on to write about.
b-Using controlled guided writing tasks.

244
c-Writing relying on a similar model.
d-Others

Q17:When you teach writing,do you focus on:

a-Vocabulary
b-Grammar
c-Organisation of ideas
d-Form

Q18:Do you provide learners with opportunities to write when you design your reading
activities?
Yes No

Q19 : If yes how?

a-By providing them with Key words
b-Ideas
c-Form
d-Grammar
e-Vocabulary

Q20: In your opinion how the reading designed tasks can facilitate learners mastery
of writing skill.?
..
.

Q21:What techniques do you opt for to use reading as a tool for writing?
.

245
Q22: Do you believe a teacher should use :

a-Role play reading activities.

b-Task based activities.
c-Problem solving activities
d-Songs and poems.

Q23:Do you make pupils work :

a-Individually
b-In pairs
c-In groups

Teaching Vocabulary

Q24:Do the learners apply what they learn as vocabulary in reading in their writing?
Yes No

Q25: What is the importance of vocabulary in teaching writing?

Q26: How do you teach vocabulary to help learners to write?

a-Teaching a group of vocabulary related to the reading texts.

b-Teaching vocabulary through the context.

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Teacher Evaluation

Q27: Do you respond to the writing that the learners produce?

Yes No

Q28: Do you design special evaluation for the designed material?

Yes No

Q29: If yes how?

..
..
..

Q30:When you evaluate the learners writing material ,do you focus on:

a-Vocabulary
b-Grammar
c-Organisation of ideas
d-Form

Q31:What roles are given to the teacher?

a-Transmitter of knowledge.
b-A model
c-An evaluator who shares criteria for success or failure.

Q32:What roles are given to the learners?

247
a-Passive receivers
b-Active elements in the process.

Q33:How can we improve our learners writing?

Further Suggestions:

Q34:Do you have any ideas to add as to the relation between writing and reading on the one
hand and reading and vocabulary on the other hand?

248
Appendix III: Control group posttest materials (The textbook materials
The original material)
The Original Version (The Textbook):

Unit One: Getting Through at Crossroads

Original version of reading texts
UNIT ONE:GETTING THROUGH

LISTENING AND SPEAKING :

ANTICIPATE:
1- Match as many words and phrases(Aj) as you can with the parts of the computer(18) below
A.screen- B. floppy disks- C.central unit-D. keyboard-E.monitor -F.mouse-G.printer-H.
diskdrive- I.speaker

2-Find other words related to computers and the internet and write them in your copybook.
3-Listen and say aloud the e-mail address below.Then take turns to tell your e-mail address to
your classmates.
Sihem2008@yahoo.
READING AND WRITING
ANTICIPATE:
1 Match icons 1-6 in the screenshot with their functions(A-F).

249
A-to return to your web-browsers home page.
B-To mark web site for future use.
C-To move down the page.
D-To connect to a website giving information about keypals .
E-To type in a web site address or URL.
F-To go back to the previous page.
2-Look at the screenshot above and guess what kind(s) of internauts are most likely to visit the
advertised web-site.
3-What is the screenshot below used for?
READ AND CHECK:
1-Read the e-mail below and check your answer to question 2 on the previous page.
Dear Amel,
Ive found your adderess on the internet.Im writing because I want to know more about you
and your country.But I have to introduce myself first.
My names Kirsi.Kirsi is a name which is quite common in Finland.Im sixteen years
old.Nearly everyone my age goes to school in Finland.Children can finish school when they
are 16,but no one really wants to do so,because without any serious training ,they cant get a
good job.I want to become a journalist later.So I will have to study for six more years.

On weekdays,I generally very early in order to prepare myself for school ,which is a little bit
far from my home .I always go there by bus so as not to arrive late.I have classes from 8:30 to
12 in the morning and from 2 to 4 in the afternoon.I have lunch either at the school canteen or
at a fast-food restaurant.I revise my lessons until about 10 in the evening.I rarely go out at the
weekend because I prefer to relax at home listening to music or watching TV.

My family is a typical finish family :Mum and Dad and two children(my brother Jary and
me).Jarys fourteen years old.My mother is a housewife and my father is an electrician.Our
house is rather small.We all love animals.We have a dog and a parrot,but neither of them
really belongs to me .Both of them are Jerys pets.Im always happy to hear the parrot
repeating my name every time I come back home from school.The dog is sometimes furious at
the talkative parrot.

250
We live in Central Finland in a tiny village called Tikkakoski.Tikkakoski has only about 4,000
inhabitants,and we all know one an other.Jyvaskyla is our nearest town ,its very nice .It isnt
very big .It has only 63,000 people,but you know ,we have about 7 million people in the whole
country.

Finland is in the north of Europ,near the Arcaic Circle.Its very famous for its saunas and
lakes.Winter is terrible.Its always freezing .But summer is fairly cool.In summer,I like going
to public gardens in order to listen to elderly people telling funny stories about the time they
were young.

Well,I guess thats all for now!keep in touch!

P.S Find my photo in attachment.Please,send me some information about Algeria.

2-Use information from the email above to fill in the blanks in the screenshot on the previous
page.
3-Read the email above again and answer these questions:
A.What nationality is Kirsi?
B.Why does she want to correspond witrh Amel?
C.What is a sauna?What is the equivalent in your language?
D.Does she live in town or in countryside?justify your answer.
E.How often does she go out at the weekend?
4-What the words in bold type in the e-mail above refer to?
DISCOVER THE LANGUAGE
1-Arrange the frequency adverbs in the box below on the line that follows according to the
degree of frequency they express.
Hardly ever-never-sometimes-often-usually-always-rarely.
2-Go back to the email on page 21 and pick out the sentences with frequency adverbs from
the text .Write the sentences in your copybook.
3-Study the sentences you have picked out in execise 1 above.Circle the item (a-b) that best
completes rules A and B below .Then write 5 sentences of your own using frequency adverbs.
A.Frequency adverbs go-the verb ( auxiliary)be. a.before b.after

251
B.Frequency adverbs go-other verbs a.before b.after

4-Pair work:Take turns to interview each other using the questionnaire from below.Tick(+) the
questions given by your partner.
Example:A:Hello,Im doing a survey about students regular activities.Can you help me ?
B:Yes,of course.
A:Well,my first question is

Questionnaire:
1-What time do you get up?
Early in the morning-late in the morning-around 7 in the morning-any other
2-How do you go to school?
On foot-by bus-by bicycle-by train-either by bus or a taxi.
3-How often do you eat in the school canteen?
Always-often-sometimes-rarely-never-any other.
4-How often do you revise your lessons?
Everyday-more than twice a week-less than once a week-any other
5-How long do you do you revise your lessons?
From 8-12-from 8:30to 11-fromp 9 to 11-any other.
6-How long are you staying in secondary school?
Until:next year-the baccalaureate exam-the summer holidays-any other.

5-Now,report your findings about your partners regular activities to the class.
Start like this:Hamid (frequency adverb) gets up.He..

6-Read the email and pick out 4 extrem adjectives,i.e.,which mean:

A-very angry p4 B-very small p5 C-very bad p6 D-very cold p6.
7-Contrast the adjectives A-D with those you have picked out.What is the main difference
between them?Ask your teacher about gradable /non-gradable adjectives.
8-Pick out from the e-mail 4 ordinary adjectives with degree adverbs.Order the adverbs from
the highest to the lowest degree.

252
9-Mach ordinary adjectives 1-8 with extreme adjectives A-H.Then use 4 ordinary adjectives
with degree adverbs in sentences of your own.
1-good A-huge 5-large E-brilliant
2-hot B-huge 6-sad F-hilarious
3-tired C-tragic 7-funny G-fascinating
4-interesting D-exhausted 8-clever H-boiling
WRITE IT RIGHT

1-Read Kirsis e-mail and write a short reply following the plan below.
Plan:A-Say thank you.Then introduce yourself briefly.
B-Describe your regular activities using frequency adverbs.
C-Introduce your family.
D-Use cues from the table below to introduce your country briefly using degree adverbs with
adjectives.

Questions Answers
1-Which continent /region is your country Its in/situated in/located in
in?
2-Which country borders it to the east,to To the east,its bordered by.
the west,to the south-east.?
3-Whats its population? There are/It has a population of
4-What4s its area? It has an area of
5-How long is it from north to south and Its..Kilometres longfrom.to..
from east to west?
6-Whats the average temperature in The average temperature in summer/in
summer/winter? winter is less/more than
7-What is it famous for? Its famous/well known for

253
2-Correct your mistakes .Then exchange drafts with your partner for further error checking
before writing a final version of your reply.
DEVELOPING SKILLS
1-Match texts 1,2,3 and 4 on the next page with messages A-D in the box below.
A-an informal invitation.
B-an informal acceptance of invitation.
c-a formal invitation.
D-an informal refusal of invitation.
2-Read text 1 on the next page again and answer these questions:
A-What is the meaning of house warming?
B-What day is the house warming?
C-R.S.V.P is a French abbreviation .What is the full expression in French?Why do you think
the English use this abbreviation?
3-Read texts 5,6 and 7 on the next page and match them with messages A-C in the box below.
A.a formal letter of apology.
B.a formal note to ask for leave or absence.
C.an informal note of apology.
4-Pair work:Take turns to write invitations.Exchange your invitations.Then write thank-you
notes.Use texts 1,2,3,and 4 as modals.
5-Imagine you made a mistake.Write a letter of apology to whom it may concern.Use letters 5
and 6 as models.

November 2nd ,2007

Tom and Edora Smith
Would like to invite you to their HOUSE WARMING on Saturday 12th November,from
7:00 p.m to 9:00p.m.
We look forward to showing you our new house.
R.S.V.P. (1)

254
 May 14th,2008
Dear Peter,
Well celibrate Anns success at her exams on Thursday 21st ,from 6 to 9 p.m. Come and
share with us the celebration if youre free.
Regards
Sam.
(2)

September 9th ,2007

Dear Mr George,
Thank you very much for your invitation .It will be a real pleasure for me to meet you
again.
Im looking forward to seeing you on Friday at 8 p.m.
Yours sincerely ,
John Smithson (3)

Dec.16th ,2007
DearNora,
Thank you very much for your invitation.Im afraid I cant come to the party because
my father has the flu and I have ta attend to him.
I hope youll have a good time anyway.
With my best wishes,
Maya (4)

April 27th ,2008

Dear Mr Johnson,
Please excuse Tim from school next week .He will have to spend one week in hospital in
order to have an operation on his foot.
Yours sincerely,
Tom Jackson
(5)

255
 June 10th ,2008
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am writing to apologise for the absence of my daughter Melinda from school
yesterday. She had to take care of her little sister because of her mothers
Unexpected absence.
Yours faithfully,
Lynn Roberts. (6)

Aug.13th ,2008
Dear Kenneth,
Im sorry I havent written earlier.Ive heard about your accident from Henry.I hope
that its not serious and that you are following the doctors advice and staying in bed.Im
coming to see you next week.
I hope the book will cheer you up.Get well quick!
Love,
Jenny.

Refer again the students to texts 1, 2, 3, and 4 and ask them to choose one of them as a model
for writing a parallel text. Make Tips
Here is a format that personal letters usually take in English.
Senders address
85 Oxford Street,
Kenton, Sussex
14 March, 2005 (2)
Dear George, (3)
I am pleased/happy/glad to learn that you have moved to a new flat.

.
With best wishes (4)
(signature) (5) Karim Boudri

256
 1. The writers, i.e., the senders address, does not usually include the name, which is shown
by the signature (see number 5 in the letter layout above). It is usually written on the top right-
hand corner.
2. The date should figure just below the address. There is also an American way of writing the
date (e.g., March 14, 2005). Here are some of the ways of reading/saying the date.
In Br. English, you say March the fourteenth or the fourteenth of March. In American English,
you say March fourteenth.
3. Letters need salutations (Dear George , Hello) Here are some other salutations that you
can use in both personal and business letters.
Salutation

Personal Dear George/ My Dear George/

Dear Mr/Miss/ Mrs Kane
Formal or routine Dear Sir /Dear Sirs/ Dear Madam/
(Business letters) Dear Sir or Madam
Informal (Business) Dear Mr/Miss/Mrs Kane

4. Letters also need complimentary closes (e. g, Love, Best wishes). Here are some other
complementary closes.
UK US

Personal Yours sincerely/ Sincerely/ Sincerely yours/With kind

(Formal to informal) Yours/ With best wishes/ All the regards/With best
best/ regards/Sincerely/Yours/Best
With all my love/Love wishes/ All the best/ With all my
love/love
Informal (business) Yours sincerely/ Yours truly Sincerely yours
Cordially yours
Formal or routine Yours faithfully, Very truly yours/
(business) Sincerely yours/ Yours very truly

Keep in mind that in informal letters, love is a complimentary close used both by men and
women when writing to close friends or relatives. Best wishes, Yours, All the best, Kind
regards, Best regards are used when addressing people whom they are not close to. With all

257
my love is used by both men and women when writing to someone they are very close to (e.g.,
husband to wife or vice versa).
In business letters (formal or less formal), the complimentary close depends on the form of
salutation. For instance, if you start your letter with salutation Dear Mr/Miss/Mrs/Ms Kane
you will close your letter with Yours sincerely. But if you start with Dear Madam/Sir/Sir or
Madam/Sirs/Mesdames, you will close it with Yours faithfully.
Task five p.14
The aim of this task is to interpret and categorise messages according to style.
Procedure
Make sure the learners have understood what to do. Interact with them and have them
interpret the context of each of the goodwill letters. (e.g.,Who is the sender of the letter? Who
is the recipient of the letter? What is the context?) Check whether the learners have vocabulary
problems in reading the letters. Get them guess the difficult words from context. Once this is
done, give them enough time to read the goodwill letters and identify each of them according
to style. As you check the answers with your learners, encourage them to justify their answers
by giving evidence from the messages.

Task six
The aim is to get learners distinguish between degrees or levels of formality.
Procedure
Intearact with your learners about the register or style using the tips supplied in task one
of this book. You can attract your learners attention to the way the senders address their
conrespondents in the salutations, the length of the sentences, the vocabulary items, etc. You
can also ask them to make the sixth letter more informal/less formal than the fifth one by
asking them to use sorry instead of apologize .
Task seven
The learners will produce letters of apology following a model.

DEVELOPING SKILLS
1-Item 1-9 below are not in order .Reorder them according to the plan in the box on the left in
order to get a coherent letter of enquiry.

258
A.Your address
B.Date
C.Name and address
D.Re:
E.Salutation
F.Say why you are writing
G.Introduce yourself.
H.Ask for information
I.Closing+ name

(9) Yours faithfully Meriem Djoual.

(10) April 24th,2008.
(11) 12,Rue Colonel Chabani,Laghouat,Algeria.
(12) Summer courses .
(13) Im writing to enquire about your summer courses .
(14) Please send me information about course dates and fees as soon as possible.
(15) Im sixteen and Im a stude nt at Emir Khaled Secondary School.I would like to take a course in July
or August of this year.
(16) The Stratford School of English,8 Tiddington Road,Stratford-Upon-Avon, ,England.

2- Imagine you are a secretary at Stratford School of English.You have been asked to reply to
Meriem Djoual.In which order would you write the following?Write numbers1-4 in the
boxes.
A-Saying you are enclosing an information prospectus.
B-Thanking Meriem Djoual for her enquiry.
C-Persuading her to follow summer courses at the Stratford School of English.
D-Inviting further contact/enquiries.
4- Follow the re-ordered plan in exercise 3 above to write a reply to Meriem Djouals letter of
enquiry.Use the information below.
-Please find enclosed here our latest information prospectus,which we hope will be of interest
to you.
-Thank you for your enquiry about our summer courses.
-We are permanent,we are professional.We offer you a warm welcome here at our school.
-We look forward to hearing from you soon.

259
WRITE IT OUT
Read the Help Wantedadvert below.Then write 4 sentences with must and have
to to say what characteristic potential candidates are required to have.
Help Wanted Activities include:Swimming,singing,
dancing,cooking,drama,telling
Camp leaders for 7-10years old during school stories,sports.
vacation. Apply to:
The job requires tolerance,patience,open- Mr Mechael Armstrong,
mindedness,cheerfulness,and understanding. Director,Haryton Bay Summer
Duties:dealing with children,organizing and Camp,2187 Mountain Street
participating in daily activities. Miami,Florida 60306.

2-Now,read the letterof application below and decide whether the applicant has a chance or
not to be hired as a camp leader.Explain.
46 Regent Street
Madison 15026
Wisconsin
May 20,2005

Mr Michael Armstrong,
Haryton Bay Summer
Camp,2187 Mountain Street
Miami,Florida 60306.
Re:Camp leader
Dear Mr Armstrong,
I have seen your advertisement for camp leaders in USA TODAY and would like to apply for the job.
I am a junior at Thomas Jefferson High School with good marks in arts and philosophy.Im a member of
photography and music clubs,and I enjoy meeting people.I often volunteer to work in infant hospital
wards.So I think I am suitable for the job.
I was in Columbus and I am sixteen years old.I will turn seventeen next January.I have lived at the address
above for the past ten years.So I think that I have quite a good experience in dealing with children.
Im ready to start work at the end of June,when the school summer vacation begins.
I have asked two of my teachers,Mr Jhon Clarck and Miss Emma Smithson,to send you two letters of
reference for me.
Yours sincerely,
Joy j.Parfit

260
CONSOLIDATION AND EXTENSION

3.Fill in this rsum(curriculum vitae) with information from joys letter of application above.

RESUME

Name:
First middle last
Adress:
Place of Birth:
Age:
Education:
Language:.
Previous work experience:
Interest:.
References:.

261
4-Match introducing sentences A-C below with the letters 1-3 that follow.Write the
introductory sentences in the blank speces of the letters that follow.
A.Thank you for offering me the post of camp leader.
B.I am writing to inform you that I am able to offer you the position as camp leader.
C.Thank you for your letter of June 6.

You will get a salary of 50
dollars a week. Would you please
confirm that this is acceptable to
you?
Can you also let us know the
exact date when you are free to
start work?
(1)
I should like you to come for an
interview on Friday June 12.
Could you please call number
8880547 to confirm this?
(2)
I will be on vacation from June
30 to September 12.
So I can start work on July 2.
I am looking forward to joining
one of your camps.
(3 )

5-Make your own rsum/curriculum vitae.Then write a letter of application in response to the
advert above.Use Joy Parfits letter of application.
262
PROJECT WORKSHOP
1-Making a job application booklet
Overall purpose:Designing a booklet intended for teenage job seekers

Your booklet should include the following items:

- Adverts with job descriptions,
- Phone enquiries about job vacancies,
- Rsum or C.V s,
- Letter of reference,
- Letters of application,
- Replies(positive,negative) from administration/ company,
- Letters of acceptance.

263
Appendix IV:Experimental group post-test materials (The Designed
Version)
Sample second-version materials(The adapted material)
Unit One: JOB HUNTER
(Text simlify and task modified version )

The Designed Version:

THE DESIGNED VERSION:(The adapted material)

UNIT ONE: JOB HUNTER
(Text simlified and task modification version )

Lesson one
Presentation :
1-Read the title of the unit, look at the picture and discuss the following :

1-what do you think the man and the woman are talking about ?
2-what s the piece of paper that the woman is holding ?
3- read the dialogue and complete the table below .
What Geoff has in his cv What else Geoff actually What Jenny suuggests
did
Work Experience His previous job
Personal interests

Jenny : theres no point in sulking, Geoff. Youll get a job soon.

Geoff: dont be so sure. Im fed up with sending my CV to load of companies without getting
any reply.

264
Jenny: maybe it has to do with your CV.
Geoff: you think so? Do you mind having a look at it ?
Jenny: why not ? Ill give you a hand. Let me see now.
Geoff: What do you mean?
Jenny: I mean, under Work Experience youve just put your previous job and nothing else.
Geoff: well, thats the truth.
Jenny: what Im trying to say is that youre not selling yourself, Geoff.
Geoff: I still dont get you.
Jenny: listen, you worked in a corner shop once, right?
Geoff: yes, when I was younger, but I got the sack after just a couple of weeks.
Jenny: doesnt matter. Well write sales assistant for local newsagent.
Geoff: that sounds good. But I dont want to lie.
Jenny: its not a lie. It just makes you look good.
Geoff: if you say so. What else?
Jenny: you havent got much under personal interests, either, just football.
Geoff: I didnt know what else to put.
Jenny: Mmm have you ever taken part in a play?
Geoff: well, yes, but it was just the local drama club. Isnt that a silly thing to mention?
Jenny: not at all! Lets put active member of local theatrical society.
Geoff: dont you think its too much to write that?
Jenny: why? What was a play?
Geoff: I wasnt actually, that is to say, I didnt play Robin Hood.
Jenny: no? what was your role?
Geoff: I was Third tree on the left, but I was a great tree!
Jenny: thats the spirit , Geoff.
4- Discuss the following:
*Do you think Geoff should add what Jenny suggested to his CV? Why / why not?
* if you had to write your own CV. What would you put in?

265
Intonation:
The expression below are used for asking for clarification or clarifying what has been said.
Listen and repeat.
What do you mean?
What are you trying to say?

I mean
What Im trying to say is that
, that is to say

Lesson two:Reading and Writing:

I-Read the following job advertisements then complete the application letter below.

266
1-Complete the job application:
Dear
I am writing to apply..
I have worked as.
I am.
And I consider muself a most suitable applicant for the job
I have enclosed..
.
Please contact me..
Your sincerely.
Activity 02: A rsum is a summary of your personal information and experience. Look at the
example below, then write your own rsum:
Notes;
5- For work experience, put your most recent job first, then list other jobs going back in
time. If a past job was relevant to this one, mention the duties you were responsible
for. Work experience programs and voluntary work can also be mentioned.
6- For referees, write the name and address of two people who you know well. At least
one should be a work reference.

267
 Write your own rsum:
-Use the example and the notes above as a guide.
-Write as many drafts as you need to get correct.
-Ask your teacher to check it for you.

Activity 03: The list below contains some words commonly used in job applications. They are
arranged in groups to help you remember spellings.
Preference Qualifications Company Apply
information
Reference Opportunity Reply
Position
Experience Vacancy Convenient

268
Qualified Enthusiastic Ability Excellent

Advertised Energic Necessary Suitable

Attached Possible Sincerely Available

Pleased Responsible Extremely rsum

Experienced Advertisement Recently

interested employment Immediately

friendly

Activity 04: The job application letter below is a canvassing letter, to enquire about the
possibility of employment. It was not written in response to an advertisement. Find suitable
words from the list above in Activity 03 to complete the letter. When you have chosen the
words try to write them from your memory.
Iam writing to enquire about the possibility of..Iam in any type of hotel or
kitchen work.
I have had three years ..in the kitchen of a large hotel in Perth. I was employed thre
as a kitchenhand but often worked as an assistant chef.
I completed a special English course called one day per week, when I worked at
the Mayfair Hotel.
I would welcome an to work for the Hilton and I feel I would make
an.employee.
Iam.. to start work and Iam willing to move if
My. And two are attached . Should you have a ..at present or
foresee any in the near future, I would be . To hear from you.
Your sincerely,
Activity 05: discuss the following:
What would your ideal job be? Why?
7- read the article below and circle the jobs which the writer considered when he was in
his last year of school

269
Dog stylist Football Chocolate journalist doctor
referee tester
Career choices
Im often asked the question how did you become a journalist? you see, everybody expected
me to follow in my fathers footsteps and become a doctor. Well, during my last year of
school I was given the opportunity to visit a career guidance counselor and I drove her crazy
with my choices.
My first choice was a chocolate tester. Although my counselor wasnt very impressed, she got
me the information. I discovered that chocolate testers earn a lot of money, so I was sure I had
found my dream job. However, when I found out that chocolate testers dont just sit around
eating chocolate all day, I lost my enthusiasm. It seems that they are also Brand Managers,
which means they are involved in the marketing and promotion of the product . I finally
decided against it when I realized a university degree would be needed.
Next, I thought of becoming a football referee. I had loved football from a young age, but
being a professional footballer was out of the question, as I couldnt play very well. Anyway,
it seems that referees must be able to run two and half miles in less than twelve minutes and
they are required to take exams throughout their training. On top of that, only after many years
of experience-and if they are lucky - do they get the chance to referee big professional
matches. So, my dream of showing David Beckham a red card was shattered .
Finally, I had this brilliant idea of becoming a dog stylist. That was after I realized how much
money our dog stylist, Shirley, was being paid every time we visited her with our Lhasa Apso,
Philipo. However, once, while she was styling Philipo, I noticed that he tried to bite her. it
happens all the time she told me. as you can imagine, that really put me off.
To cut a long story short, all this research made me realize I had a gift for investigation, so by
the end of the school year I had decided to become a journalist.
2- Read the text again and answer the following questions. Write C for chocolate tester, F
for football referee or D for dog stylist in the boxes.
In which job do you:
a-get paid well?
b-have to be physically fit?
c-take a long time to reach the top?
d- get injured quite often?
e- have to study for many years?

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f-get involved in advertising?
Word and phrases
Words easily confused
Activiity 06: Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words in the boxes.
Job career work
a- we dont have a lot of..at this time of year.
b- I want to find a part-time.for the summer .
c- he thought a ..in business sounded boring.
W in gain earn
d- Ive a lot of experience working in this company.
e-Jerry gets very upset when his team doesnt .
f- how much money do you.a year?
Notice watch l ook
g-did youthat awful dress she she was wearing?
h- I think thats my coat. Let me .at it.
i- are you ..this, or can I switch to another channel?
Grammer:
2- read the tables. Then, find similar examples of the passive voice in the text in the
reading text:
Active voice.
They gave Marta a bag as birthday present.
Or
Passive voice.
A bag had given to Marta as birthday present.

Subject+ am / is/are+ being+ past participle

e.g: look! We are being followed.

Subject+ was / were+ being+ past participle

e.g: when I got to the garage. My car was still being repaired

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x Conversational English:
Activity 07:Find five examples of conversational English in the dialogue and match them with
the meanings given.
a- its no use ..
b-its related to ..
c- Ill help you
d- I dont understand you .
e- Im sure .
x Collocations:
Look at the following collocations with get and use them to complete the sentences a-g. you
may need to change the form of the verb.
Get dark - Get ready - Get a job - Get the sack - Get rid of - Get down to business -
Get on somebodys nerves.
a- I think we should that old sofa and buy a new one.
b- stop that noise! Its..my..
c- my older sister takes an hour toin the morning.
d- in the winter itmuch earlier than in the summer.
e- John..because he fell asleep at his desk.
f- everybody is here, so lets..
g- you can..at the supermarket at weekends to make
some extra money.
Grammar:
1-underline all the examples of full infinitives ( e.g to do), bare infinitives (e.g do) and-ing
form (e.g doing) in the dialogue. Then, complete the rules.
Use after
* modal verbs (can, could, must, should, may etc.)
* let and make in the active voice
* would rather and rad better
Use
* certain verbs (want, would like, hope, decide, manage, agree, refuse, seem, promise etc.)
* it+ be+ adjective ( its nice, it was stupid etc.)

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* too and enough
* Question words ( how, what, when, where etc.)
Use
*certain verbs (avoid, enjoy, love, hate, finish, imagine, mind, risk, suggest, consider etc.)
* certain expressions ( how about, its no use, its no good, theres no point in, be used to etc.)
* prepositions (for, about, without etc.)
Activity 07: complete the text below with the full infinitive, the bare infinitive or the ing
form of the verbs in brackets.
Sooner or later, there comes a time when everyone needs(1)..(get) a job. In my
case that time was when I was sixteen and I wanted (2)..(buy) e pair of cool
trainers. Unfortunately, I couldnt (3) (afford) them, and my parents
wouldnt even consider (4)..(give) me money for that would be the third pair of
trainers that year. so, I got an evening job at a local Italian restaurant, but I quit after two
days. Let me (5) ..( explain) why. First of all(6).(clean)
the tables and the floor and (7)..( wash) dirty dishes till two oclock in
the morning. Then, there were all those people who couldnt ( 8)
(make) up their minds what(9) .(order) and others who were very impolite. One
night, a customer was so rude to me that I decided(10)..( make) him
(11).(wear) his pasta!
2- rewrite the following sentences in the passive voice. Begin with the words given and make
all the necessary changes.
a- the company offered me a well-paid job.
i
b- the police were taking the criminal to court when he escaped.
The criminal..
c-did the waiter bring you the menu?
Was
d- they are building a bank next to my house.
A bank
e- I havent sent your letter of application to the company.
Your letter..

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 listening
1- which of the jobs a-e appeals to you the most? Why?

a) Piizza delivery person b) fruit picker c) cook d) gardener e)Waiter/waitress

2- you will hear four students talking about different part-time jobs they had while they were
at college. Listen and match the four speakers with the jobs a-e above. There is one extra job
which you do not need to use.
Words and phrases
Word building:
Nouns that refer to people are commonly formed by adding the suffixes -er ,-or ,-ist and -ian
to verbs or other nouns.
2- complet the table with nouns that refer to people. Use the words in the box and a
suitable suffix.
Music type- employ-act- manage build-direct- invent- visit- politics style- science-
mathematics- produce- entertain- reception- magic- collect- art.
Er Or Ist ian
-employer -actor -typist -musician
.. . .
2- complete the sentences with the correct form of some of the nouns in the table above.
a- my grandmother always votes for thewho wears the nicest suit.
b- whats the name of that.who starred in Star Wars?
c- Jack used to be ain the Suffolk Philharmonic Orchestra.
d- my previous..used to give us the day off when it was his birthday.
e- theres an exhibition of paintings by Spanishat the gallery on lee street.
f- the food at the restaurant was disgusting, so we asked to speak to the

speaking
work in pairs. Imagine that you are in charge of hiring new staff at the bay view hotel. Read
the advertisement below and the profiles of three people who have applied for the jobs
advertised. Discuss and decide which person would be the most suitable for each job and why
the others are unsuitable. Use the expressions given.

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Bay view hotel Name: Nick Davis Name: Lauren west Name:Valerie Smith
Is looking for
Two energetic young people Age:42 Age:18 Age:22
Receptionist
Applicants must: Qualifications: Qualifications: Qualifications:
- have good communications skills -masters in roman -Hight school -Business
- be prepared to work long hours ( one day history graduate Administration student
off per week) -fluent in French - Basic knowledge of
- have a friendly personality and German computers Experience:
Knowledge of foreign languages and -speaks spanish -Assistant on cruise ship
computer skills preferred -receptionist for local
Tour guide Experience: Experience: tourist agency
Applicants must: Guide in museum Part-time secretary Available: from July to
-enjoy working outdoors Interests: Interests: September
-have good communication skills Reading, travelling Sports, Drama
-speak foreign languages Available: Available: Any time
-be available during summer season weekdays only
knowledge of local history preferred
Expressions
I thinkwould be the most suitable for the job of .because
I believe..would be more suitable thanbecause.
I dont think..would be ( at all) suitable for the job ofas
I agree, but I also think..
Well, Im not so sure about.because..

writing
1-Discuss the following:
- how do people find jobs?
1- have you ever had a job? What did you do?
2- read the advertisement and the letter of application. Then, answer the questions below
a.Is the letter formal or informal? and why?
b.What do you notice about the layout of the letter?
c.What sort of information has been included in each paragraph?

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 Part-Time Shop Assistant
Reqired At Harlequin Music Store

Must be over 18
Sales experience necessary
Basic computer knowledge
Friendly personality.
Apply in writing to:
14 Station Road,Liverpool L18 8YZ

14 Station Road, 21 Grant Close

Liverpool L18 8YZ
Liverpool L15 8YF 23
23 January 2002
Dear Sir or Madam,
I am writing to apply for the position of part-time assistant as advertised in the Times on 22 January .
Im nineteen years old and Iam in my first year at University.I believe I am suitable for the job as,when I
was at school .I organized a CD bank,where students could students could exchange or sell CDs.

In addition ,I have some sales experience.I spent the last two summers working as an assistant in a gift
shop in Betchley.My employer was very satisfied with my work and regular customers commented on
what a nice person I was.Futhermore,I have a basic knowledge of computers.I believe
These qualities make me suitable for the job.

I have also enclosed my CV and a reference letter from my previous employer.I hope that my application
will be taken into consideration.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours faithfully.
May Weller.

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3-Improve Your Style
Tip: A letter of applicatrion is a formal letter.
-Follow the layout of formal letters.Use block paragraphs and write your address of the
person/company you are writing to.
-Start your letter with Dear Sir or Dear Madam and end it with your faithfully, followed by
your signature and full name.
-Use formal language.Dont use short forms(e.g. Im,dont) or abbreviations (e.g. ad,inf).
Below is part of a letter of application.Rewrite it in a more appropriate style and take out any
unnecessary information which you think should not be included.

Dear mr Richard,

I was looking through the Boston Herald the other day.I think it was on 3 april when I saw your ad for an
office assistant.Im 22 years old and Im a law student in my final year at uni.Im fluent in French,but my
Spanish is quite poor.I also have some work experience .You see,I was an assistant at a law firm over the
summer.Im good computers and I love surfing the net!

4-Writing task: Find a job advertisement in the newspaper that is suitable for you, or use
one of the examples below for practice.

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Write a letter to apply for one of the jobs advertised above.Your letter should be between 120
and 140 words.
x Read your chosen advertisement several times.
x Underline important parts you should mention in your letter (key words).
x Make some rough notes of the things you should mention.
x Write as many drafts as you need.

Tip:When you write a letter of application :

-Mention the position you are applying for and when and where you saw the job
advertised.Invent a name for a newspaper and a date if they are not given.
-Read the advertisement carefully,especially the qualities required for the job.Expand on
them,describing your qualifications and experience and explain why you believe you are
suitable for the job.
-Include only information that is relevant to the job you are applying for.
-Dont mention your bad qualities.
-Dont write that you want the job for the money.
Mention that you are enclosing a CV and a reference letter,and end your letter with an
appropriate set phrase.

Our choice of using the first unit is the students' performance

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RSUME
Cette tude tente a extraire la conviction et lintention des lves et des enseignants dAnglais
envers leffet de la conception du matriel de lecture utilis par les enseignants sur les
comptences dexpressions crites des lves au niveau des Lyces secondaires de
Constantine a travers lusage des textes simplifi (TS) et la modifications des activits. Ce
travail de recherche vise examiner les effets des matriels didactiques (des textes
authentiques) sur le dveloppement de la matrise de lcrit. Limportance de cette tude se
base sur lengagement des enseignants dvelopper leurs propres matriels didactiques pour
satisfaire les besoins des apprenants. Cette tude a pour objectif de dmontrer que
lenseignement de lexpression crite peut tre plus efficace si elle est relie lenseignement
de la lecture. L tude actuelle est base sur deux questionnaires adresss des chantillons
reprsentatifs : des lves de la premire anne secondaire, et un groupe denseignants d
Anglais pour connatre leurs opinions concernant le rle et limportance quils attribuent la
lecture et a lcrit. L analyse des questionnaires a rvl que les levs et les enseignants
considrent que la lecture est un aspect important dans lapprentissage de lcrit. Pour
atteindre lobjectif ci-dessus, lobservation de deux classes de premire anne secondaires a
t choisi comme outil dinvestigation. Afin de raliser notre objectif, on a mis en excution
une tude exprimentale au lyce Keteb Yacine de Constantine avec seize (16) lves de la
premire anne secondaire durant lanne (2010-2011). Les participants slectionns ont t
rpartis au hasard en deux groupes. Avant dappliquer cette exprience aux lves, on a test
le niveaux de lcrit des deux groupes. Durant six semaines (dure du traitement), le group
exprimental suit les textes et les activits du livre At the Crossroad , quand au group de
contrle suivent les matriels pdagogiques ramens par leurs enseignants. Les rsultats
montrent que les lves du group exprimental ont montr un progrs dans la matrise de
lcrit ce qui ntait pas le cas du groupe de contrle. Dans cette perspective, nous avons
suggr quelques recommandations pour aider les lves amliorer leurs aptitudes en
expression crite. La conclusion principale de l'tude tait la suivante : Les programmes
denseignement dAnglais comme tant une langue trangre devrait envisager l'introduction
des textes authentiques de la lecture dans le programme comme tant un outil pour amliorer
ltat actuel d'apprentissage.

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