Ill: SO260-8774(98,00017-X 1126WX771iYX $lY.OO+ 0.

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Effect of Principal Ingredients on Rheological Behaviour of

Biscuit Dough and on Quality of Biscuits

Zoulikha Maache-Rezzoug, Jean-Marie Bouvier, Karim Alla?

& Christian Patras
Univcrsit6 de La Rochelle, Laboratoire Maitrise des Technologies Agro-lndustricllcs
(LMTAI), Avenue Marillac. 17042 La Rochelle, cedex 1. France
CLEXTRAL 1, Rue du Colonel Riez B.P. IO, 42702 Firminy. France
Biscuitcric Nantaise (B.N.). 60200 Compikgne. France

(Received 20 July 1997; accepted I7 January I99X)

ABSTRACT

A specific study of the effect of three ingredients in biscuit dough (sugal; fat and
water) and of the protein content of the ,flour has allowed the determination of
their respective effects on mixing, on the rheological hehaviour; on biscuit size
after cooking and on their mechanical properties. Addition of sugar to the
,formula decreases dough viscosity and relaxation time. It promotes hiscuitT
length, and reduces their thickness and weight. Biscuits which are rich in sugar
are characterized by a highly cohesive structure and a crisp texture. Addition of
,fat softens the dough and decreases the viscosity and relaxation time. Flrt
likewise contributes to an increase in length and to a reduction in thickness and
weight of biscuits, which are then characterized by a friable structure, easy to
break. Increase in water leads to an significant decrease in the dough viscosirv
and a slight reduction of the relaxation time. The biscuits expand lengthwist;
with a smaller thickness. Finally, varying the protein content of the fiour from
14 to 20%) induces major changes at the mixing stage in the rheological
properties of the dough and in the dimensions and texture qf the biscuits.
0 I998 Elsevier Science Limited. All rights reserved

INTRODUCTION

In biscuit-making, the main ingredients are flour, water, sugar, fat and salt. A variety
of shapes and textures may be produced by varying the proportions of these ingred-

To whom all correspondence should be addressed.

2.7
24 Z. Maache-Rezzoug et al.

ients. Rotary-mold cookies are characterized by a formula fairly high in sugar and
fat and very low amounts of water (~20% based on the flour) (Hoseney, 1986). The
quality of the biscuit is governed by the nature and quantity of the ingredients used.
At present, the quality criteria of the finished product changes, mainly due to the
absence of a significant correlation between the characteristics of the raw materials
(flour) and the quality of the product. Several authors have nevertheless attempted
to describe the effect of ingredients in a dough and formula balance on the final
structure of the product (Gaines, 1982; Mizukoshi, 1985; Abboud et al., 1985).
As in the case of flour, water is an essential ingredient in dough formation: it is
necessary for solubilizing other ingredients, for hydrating proteins and carbohydrates
and for the development of a gluten network. Water has a complex role, since it
determines the conformational state of biopolymers, affects the nature of inter-
actions between the various constituents of the formula and contributes to dough
structuring (Eliasson & Larsson, 1993). It is also an essential factor in the rheo-
logical behaviour of flour doughs (Webb et al., 1970). Hibberd (1970), Navikis et al.
(1982) and Smith et al. (1970) observed that elastic (G) and loss (G) modulus are
reduced when the water content is increased. Similarly, Bloskma (1971) observed
that adding water to the formula reduced the viscosity and increased dough extensi-
bility. If the proportion of water is too low, the dough becomes brittle, not
consistent, and exhibits a marked crust effect due to rapid dehydration at the
surface.
The effect of sugar on dough behaviour is an important factor in biscuit-making.
In excess, sugar causes a softening of the dough, due in part to competition between
the added sugar and the availability of water in the system (Bure, 1980). Using a
Farinograph, Olewnik and Kulp (1984) observed that increase in the sugar concen-
tration in a cookie dough reduces its consistency and cohesion. Mizukoshi (1985)
studied the effect of varying sugar content on shear modulus measured during cake
baking, while keeping the proportion of other ingredients constant. He showed that
below 20% sugar has no effect on shear modulus, whereas an increase from 30 to
40% reduces it appreciably, revealing the existence of a threshold value associated
with the variation of sugar content in the formula. Vettern (1984) studied the effects
of sugar quantity and its grain size on biscuit spreading. They concluded that a fine
grain size and a high concentration of sugar contribute to a significant spreading of
the biscuit. Sucrose acts as a hardening agent by crystallizing as the cookie cools,
which makes the product crisp. However, at moderate amounts, it acts as a softener,
due to the ability of sucrose to retain water (Schanot, 1981). Sugar makes the
cooked product fragile, since it controls hydration and tends to disperse the protein
and starch molecules, thereby preventing the formation of a continuous mass (Bean
& Setser, 1992).
The fat (or shortening) contributes to the plasticity of the dough and acts as a
lubricant. When present in large quantities, its lubricating effect is so pronounced
that very little water is needed to achieve a soft consistency. When mixed with the
flour before its hydration, the fat prevents the formation of a gluten network and
produces a less elastic dough. A highly elastic dough is not desirable in biscuit-
making, since it shrinks after lamination (Faubion & Hoseney, 1990). Fat influences
the dough machinability during process, the dough spread after cutting-out, and
textural and gustatory qualities of the biscuit after baking (Vettern, 1984). Accord-
ing to BurC (1980) the effect of fat on dough quality and on the finished product
depends not only on their composition, but also on basic flour and on native lipids.
 He and Hoseney (1991) showed that gluten-water dough made with gluten iso-
lated from flour of different baking quality had different rheological characteristics.
Smith et al. (1970) showed that if the water concentration is kept constant, the
elastic (G) and loss (G) modulus increased when proteins were added in the
formula (flour and water). Recent work of Petrofsky and Hoseney (1995) shows that
the source of gluten has a significant effect on dough rheology. Hard wheat gluten
doughs had low G and G values, indicating a possible less starch-gluten inter-
action, and vice versa.
According to De La Roche and Fowler (1975), an increase in the protein content
tends to reduce the length of biscuit after baking. Unlike breadmaking, where
quantitative and qualitative importance of the proteins are well known, the influence
of gluten on the quality of biscuit doughs is difficult to define. There are, moreover,
very few works concerning the role of gluten in biscuit-making.
The objectives of this study were to describe the effect of major ingredients on
the physical changes during mixing and their influence on the rheological properties
of doughs and on the quality of the biscuits after cooking.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Dough preparation

The doughs were prepared using a laboratory mixing apparatus. It was equipped
with a torque-meter and a tachometer to monitor the instantaneous specific energy
(ISE) transmitted to the dough during the mixing cycle, as well as the total specific
energy (TSE) which is the integral ISE. Production of biscuit doughs using the
laboratory mixing apparatus followed a well-established protocol. At first, the liquid
premix was prepared. Then the ingredients were placed in the mixing apparatus in
a precise order. The temperature of ingredients, the duration of mixing (7 min) and
the temperature of the dough at the end of mixing (31.5C) were kept constant. At
30 min rest time, dough specimens were formed using a cylinder (25 mm diame-
ter x 20 mm height), inside a thermostatically controlled enclosure, in order to keep
the specimens at constant temperature (maximum acceptable deviation is 03C).

Biscuit formula and ingredients

The study was based on a quaternary system of flour, water, sugar and fat. The
biscuit formula waas simplified in order to isolate the specific effect of each of the
ingredients on the properties of dough before and after baking. For the various
formulas, only the quantity of the ingredient being studied was varied, keeping the
proportions of the other ingredients constant (Table 1). The tests were carried out
using the same flour.

Rheological measurement

The rheological behaviour of the biscuit doughs was measured by uniaxial compres-
sion test at a constant speed of 0.7 mm/s. The test apparatus consisted of a
differential jack, a PC to drive the jack and to monitor changes in the force and to
determine the displacement of deformed material over time. The parallel plates
26 Z. Maache-Rezzoug et al.

TABLE 1
Summary of the Various Formulas Studied

Fixed-quantity in the Studied percentages

formulak)
Effect of sugar Flour 1500
Water 340 25-30-35-40-50-60
Fat 210
Effect of fat Flour 1500
Water 340 5-10-12.5-15-20-25
Sugar 575
Effect of water Flour 1500
Sugar 575 13.5-15.5-17-18-19-20-21-22-23.5
Fat 210

<P > % by wt on 1.5 kg of flour basis. <P > Italic values correspond to the standard formula
of the biscuit dough.

were lubricated with a silicone oil. This lubrication was needed to eliminate fric-
tional effects between plate and specimen and thus to limit barrel effects. The
apparatus was placed in a thermostatically-controlled enclosure (31C). The rheo-
grams were converted into stress/time curves or stress/deformation curves, then
modeled by appropriate differential equation, derived for an upper convected Max-
well model (Bagley et al., 1988) to determine the relaxation time (y) and the
viscosity (3.).

Mechanical measurement on biscuits

Biscuits are products with a slightly compact granular structure, consisting of an

assembly of grains, trapping a quantity of air not uniformly distributed. Mechanical
properties of the biscuits were measured by conical penetrometry, adopting the
method developed by Goullieux (1994). Measurements were made with a test appa-
ratus (Fig. 1) connected to a PC equipped with ANALISA software permitting
control and data acquisition. In the test, the changes in the penetration force were
recorded against time. When a mechanical stress was applied in one direction, an
instantaneous and irreversible deformation could be accompanied by the partial or
total fracture of the specimen. Conical penetrometry combined a repeated compres-
sion and a shear.
In the absence of shear, the compressive force (F), normal to the cone surface, is
divided into two components (Fig. 2): a force (Fp) parallel to the axis of the cone
and a force (F,) normal to the axis. The force measured, integrating all the parallel
forces (F,), is linked to force F by the equation:
F,(y,U) = F(y,O). sin0
Only the effective force F will be taken into account, being applied in a repeated
manner to the biscuit, destroying its structure by breaking the bonds between a
particle or group of particles under stress and the whole product. The signal
recorded represents the detection of the change in the force plotted against dis-
placement (Fig. 3). Three criteria were adopted on the force/displacement curve.
 &fed qf ingredients on biscuit dough 27

Work (S) during displacement y, corresponding to the area under the curve
between 0 and y (N.m),
Drop in the force (AF), characterizing each peak and representing the resistance
to the detachment of grains or group of grains,
Number of peaks (N) during displacement y, representative of the number of
grains or group of grains detached.
On the basis of these criteria, three significant parameters were derived, enabling
to describe mechanical profile of biscuits:
Overall mean penetration force, S,,,:
S,, = S/y (N)
Spatial tearing frequency (number of grains or groups of grains per unit of
penetration distance), N,,:
No= N/y (I/mm)

Fig. 1. Measuring system. (1) Electrical jack; (2) force sensor: (3) conical piston:
(4) specimen.
28 Z. Muache-Rezzoug et al.

Fn

Fig. 2. Diagram of forces applied.

Mean specific tearing force, Fs:

F,s = C( AF)IN (N)

Effect of proteins

In order to obtain flours with different protein contents and to study their effects on
rheological behaviour of biscuit dough, and on dimensional and mechanical proper-
ties of biscuits, specific combinations were produced by adding to a standard flour
wheat gluten isolated from soft wheat flour. The quantity of added gluten is quoted
on flour mass basis. Analyses of protein content were carried out using the Kjeldahl
method. These analyses are summarized in Table 2 for all considered mixes, the
moisture content of the flour was kept constant (14.4 ?0.2%). For this study, the

Accumulation

Displacement (mm)
Fig. 3. Recording of force versus displacement
 TABLE 2
Protein content in the Studied Flours

Added gluten (5%) * Proteins corrtent (V )

0 Il.2
2 12.x
4 14.4
15.X
: 17.3
IO IX.7
12 20.0
14 21.2
IS 31.9

*% by wt on flour basis.

biscuit dough was prepared according to standard biscuit formulas described elsc-
where (Maache-Rezzoug et al., submitted).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of sugar concentration

It can bc observed from Fig. 4 that once the ingredients are well mixed and the
network has been established (after roughly 30 s of mixing), the curves profiles
obtained show very clear differences. When the hydration of flours is too low, the
flour/ingredients mixes do not form a homogeneous dough; they are in agglomerates
form. In this case, ISE oscillates very widely (amplitudes about 20 daJ/kg.s for
doughs with 25 and 30% sugar content). When the dough is homogeneous. the
energy-change amplitudes are far smaller (40 and 50%). When the mixed dough is
very soft, it becomes sticky and wraps itself round the mixer blades, and the trans-
mitted energy consequently becomes considerable (dough with 50% sugar content).
The useable range of sugar contents is thus limited by the nature of dough obtained:
doughs with a sugar concentration below 25% are very poorly hydrated and do not
cohere sufficiently, while doughs with a sugar content in excess of SOV are
extremely soft.
Increasing the concentration of sugar in the mix produces an increase in the total
specific energy (TSE) consumed during a mixing cycle (Table 3). It also causes a rise
in the temperature of the mix as a result of heating by viscous dissipation. The
dough changes from a solid and consistent texture (dough with 25% sugar) to an
extremely soft texture (SO% sugar).
In order to maintain constant temperature (31YC) of doughs, the temperature of
the double jacket of the mixing apparatus was kept at 33C for firm doughs and at
30C for soft doughs. Under these conditions, it was possible to obtain firm and soft
doughs at relatively similar temperatures.
It can be observed from Fig. 5 that addition of sugar caused a fall in the viscosity.
If present in excess, sugar softens the dough, due to its physico-chemical role in
relation to water and starch. Increase in sugar quantity produced a sharp reduction
30 Z. Maache-Rezzoug et al.

50
G 40
bb
g 30

-u 20
g 10
u
0
0 120 240 360 0 120 240 360

Mixing time (set) Mixing time (set)

Fig. 4. Effect of varying sugar on mixograms.

of relaxation time upwards 30% of sugar content. A complex behaviour-pattern was

observed, enabling two ranges: one corresponding to sugar contents less or equal to
30%, in which 3. was roughly constant; the other relating to sugar contents between
30 and 50%, where the relaxation time was reduced considerably, from 1.5 to 1
second.
For each series of tests previously presented, biscuits were made in an industrial
oven after 45 min resting time of dough. The measurements carried out (Fig. 6)
showed a positive correlation between sugar content and length: the greater the
quantity of sugar, the greater the increase in biscuit length. However, a considerable
decrease was observed in biscuit thickness when the sugar content was increased.
Consequently, an increase in sugar content produced a considerable fall in biscuit

TABLE 3
Effect of Sugar Content on the Total Specific Energy Consumed during the Mixing Cycle, on
Temperature of the Mix and Dough Quality

Sugar content (76,) TSE (daJ/kg) T (CJ Dough quality

2.5 28 424 31.4 Firm and consistent

30 29 445 31.7 Firm and consistent
35 29972 31.6 Soft
40 30 778 31.9 Soft
SO 31695 32.1 Extremely soft
 6 1.6
-b---h

2 I I I II I I I I I I 1.0
25 30 35 40 50 60
Sugar (%)
Fig. 5. Effect of sugar content on viscosity (I/) and relaxation time (i.).

weight (approx. 1.4 g between 20 and 30% of sugar), probably due to the slight
shrinkage of the biscuit after rolling.
Sugar influenced the mechanical properties of biscuits (Fig. 7); an increase in its
concentration was directly reflected in an increase in the mean specific force Is,,.
which gave an indication of the cohesion of biscuit structure. This cohesion is
therefore greater if sugar concentration is high. An increase in sugar concentration
in the formula should create stronger bonds between the particles after crystalliza-
tion. Spatial frequency N,, rose when sugar content was increased, particularly for

65 8.5 4.6
+ Weight

60
8.0 ,-$ 4.4
z? z
55
7.5 G ; 4.2
50
$?9
7.0 8 4.0
45

40 6.5 3.8
25 30 35 40 50 60 25 30 35 40 50 60
Sugar (%) Sugar (%)
Fig. 6. Effect of sugar content on biscuit length, weight and thickness.
32 Z. Maache-Rezzoug et al.

0.6 10

8
0.5
6
0.4
4
0.3
2

0.2 0

Sugar (%)
Fig. 7. Effect of varying sugar on mechanical parameters.

sugar contents in excess of 30%. Thus, when it crystallizes, sugar forms grains which
are difficult to tear apart, contributing to increase in IV,,: the sugar acts as a
hardener by crystallization as the biscuit cools, which makes the product crunchy.

Effect of fat

An increase in the fat content (Fig. 8) was accompanied by a reduction of the

mixing energy. This exhibited a mean value of approx. 3.5 daJ/kgs for a dough with
10% fat, with very wide oscillation amplitudes. Conversely, doughs were more
homogeneous and soft if the fat content was increased from 15 to 20%. After
homogenization of the ingredients and formation of a network, the specific energy
profiles were very smooth. Although, in technological respects (consistency of
dough), fat had a similar effect to sugar, their physico-chemical roles were different.
The globules of fat surround the proteins and the grains of starch, isolate them and
prevent the formation of polymers, thereby reducing the density of the network.
It will be apparent from Table 4 that TSE decreased with increasing fat content,
hence a fall in the mix consistency. The reduction of TSE was essentially due to the
discontinuous nature of the dough during mixing, given that fats tend to disperse the
constituents of the mix by opposing the formation of a cohesive and continuous
mass.
Moreover, analysis of the results obtained with the compression-relaxation test,
for a resting time of 30 min, showed that the effects of excess fat were significant on
viscosity and relaxation time (Fig. 9). A quasi-exponential decrease in viscosity was
observed when the fat content was increased. This is because adding fat to the
formula softens the dough and imparts it a plastic character. The ability of fat to
disperse the constituents of mix is due to its insolubility in water. According to
Hoseney (1986), at given consistency, when the fat content in formula is increased,
 33

0 I 20 240 360 0 120 240 360

Mixing time (set) Mixing time (set) Mixingtime (set)

Fig. 8. Effect of fat content on instankmeous specific cncrgy during mixing.

the quantity of water must decrease and vice versa, Also, a considerable reduction
of the relaxation time was observed from 10% of fat content. A range, sensitive to
variation of the fat concentration, was apparent from the curve between 10 and
20%, where a considerable reduction of i can be observed. Beyond that point. the
relaxation time appeared to stabilize at around 1 s.
Figure 10 shows that the presence of fat in the formula favoured increased biscuit
length: it is observed that up to 20% the increase in length seemed considerable and
it tended to stabilize beyond 20Y~;.The presence of fat contributed to the reduction
of the elastic nature of dough, shrinking of the dough at cut-out was consequently
less. Moreover, a quasi-linear decrease in weight and a quasi-exponential diminution

TABLE 4
Effect of Fat Content on the Specific Energy. on Tcmperaturc of the Mix and Dough Quality
--
l&t CotltCtlt (5) TSE (cluJlkg) T (Y) lh~q$i qrrality

5 3768 I 30.7 Poor consistency

10 32.328 30.0 Firm, light consistency
II.5 30 484 31.3 Firm and consistent
15 27244 31.7 Soft
20 21 140 31.4 Very soft and non-sticky
25 18267 31.(, Extremely soft

P > 12.5r/r of fat corresponds to standard formula for biscuit dough.

34 Z. Maache-Rezzoug et al.

1.7

7 - 1.5
G
a
d
5 - 1.3
b
d

x
3 - 1.1
F

Fat (%)
Fig. 9. Effect of varying fat content on dough viscosity and relaxation time.

in the biscuit thickness were observed when the fat content was increased. Thickness
decreasing seemed to be more significant for fat contents between 10 and 20%.
Adding fat was reflected in an extremely large reduction of Fs (Fig. ll), and thus
in the cohesion of biscuit structure. Friability (or shortbread structure) of the
finished product was closely related to fat content. The greater the fat content, the
more friable the biscuits obtained after baking. This is because the fat encapsulates
flour particles, thereby isolating them from each other, and they are more easily
detachable. These results confirm the relevance of this mechanical parameter in the
analysis of biscuit structure. Moreover, change in the spatial frequency N,, depend-

5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fat (%) Fat (%)
Fig. 10. Effect of varying fat on biscuit length, weight and thickness.
 2 I 1 I I I I I I I 0.2
5 IO 1s 20 25 30
Fat (5%)
Fig. 11. Effect of fat content on specific force (F,) and spatial frequency (N,,).

ing on fat content showed a slight decrease when the percentage of fat was
increased. A high fat concentration produced biscuits exhibiting a fragile non-crisp
structure, with a tendency towards crumbling.

Effect of water

Figure 12 shows effect of varying the quantity of water on ISE. Increasing of water
quantity produced a reduction of consistency, an increase in fluidity and in adhesive-
ness of dough. In the mixing curves, this is illustrated by smoother profiles (soft
doughs) and higher specific energy values (sticky doughs). It should be noted that
the more the dough lacked hydration, the more amplitude variation in the recorded
specific energy. This was verified on all doughs exhibiting these characteristics (study
of sugar and fat). Conversely, the amplitudes of variation in the mixes obtained with
water contents in excess of 2OYcl(soft and sticky doughs) were far smaller and the
curves smoother.
It can be observed from Table 5 that increasing water content brings about an
increase in TSE consumption. The excess water increases the fluidity and adhesive
capacity of the dough. During mixing, the dough wrapped round the mixing machine
blades, and the transmitted energy became considerable (water content above 20%).
According to Baig and Hoseney (1977), increase in water absorption decreased
mixograms curve height.
Increase in water content (Fig. 13) produced a quasi-linear decrease in viscosity
and decrease in relaxation time i.. Water contributed to a reduction in dough
elasticity. Cutting off cylindrical portions was impossible for the poorly-consistent
doughs (13.5 and 15.5%) and for very soft doughs (2X%), thereby restricting the
scope for study of rheological properties of doughs.
The quantity of water affected the behaviour of the dough after baking. A slight
increase in biscuit length was observed when the water content was increased.
36 Z. Maache-Rezzoug et al.

particularly from 21% upwards (Fig. 14). In addition, the thickness and weight of
biscuits were reduced when the water concentration was increased. Overall, the
effects of water content on the dimensional characteristics of the biscuits were less
marked than those recorded with sugar and fat.
Analysis of biscuits shows that water has no significant effect on the mechanical
properties, as evidenced by the parameters Fs, and No (Fig. 15).

Effect of proteins

The quantity and quality of the proteins present in flour have a major role in
influencing the rheological behaviour of the dough, particularly when flour is the
major constituent of the formula. This concerns principally their physico-chemical
properties which impart differing rheological characteristics of doughs with an
equivalent formula (He & Hoseney, 1991). For this reason in biscuit-making, each
flour requires a specific formula. Increasein the protein content produced a-reduc-

50

40
G

S 3o
g 20

8 0
0

50

40
C?
P 30

2 20

w IO
2
0
50

;; 40

4 30

= 20
W
s 10

0
0 120 240 360 0 120 240 360 0 120 240 360
Mixing time (set) Mixing time (set) Mixing time (set)
Fig. 12. Effect of water levels on mixograms.
 Efject of ingredients on biscuit dough 37

TABLE 5
Effect of Water Content on thespecitic Energy, on Temperature of the Mix and Dough
Quality

Water content (c/o) TSE (daJlkg) T (Y) Dough quuli$l

13.5 15578 _ Not consistent

IS.5 20 642 _ Not consistent
17 2172) 30.6 Firm and poorly consistent
18 24 100 30.8 Firm and consistent
19 24 226 32.1 Slightly soft and consistent
20 26 842 32.4 Slightly soft
21 30 404 32.7 Very soft
22.5 30 485 32.8 Extremely soft
23.5 29 277 33.0 Extremely soft and sticky

tion in TSE consumption which was considerable, in the range between 14 and 20%
(Table 6). Outside that range, the protein effect seemed to be negligible. It can be
observed that the higher percentage of protein, the lower will be the dough hydra-
tion; the doughs were lacking in consistency and were crumbly. Both quantity and
quality of protein influenced water absorption (MacRitchie, 1984) the greater the
protein content, the more water was absorbed.
It is generally accepted the gluten is responsible for the rheological properties of
dough. In Fig. 16, it can be observed that any increase in protein content was
reflected in an increase in dough viscosity, which seemed to be particularly high, in
the range between 14% and 20%. Outside that range, the protein effect seemed to
be slighter. The viscosity of the dough was intrinsically related to the quantity of

1 I I I I 8 I I 1 I
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Water (%)
Fig. 13. Effect of water content on viscosity and relaxation time.
38 Z. Maache-Rezzoug et al.

53 -

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Water (%) Water (%)

Fig. 14. Effect of water content on biscuit length, weight and thickness.

water available in the system, since it affected the amount of water absorbed by the
flour, which was itself related to the quantity of proteins. According to Eliasson and
Larsson (1993) absorption increases linearly with the amount of protein, but the
slope of the regression line depends on the wheat variety. Up to 14% and beyond
20%, the protein content appeared to have no effect on relaxation time, whereas it
increased linearly between 14% and 20%. Within this range, we believe that any

1.0 iI 10

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Water (%)
Fig. 15. Changes in F.y and No with water content.
 .!?fect qf ingredients on biscuit dough 39

TABLE 6
Effect of Protein Content on the Specific Energy, on Temperature of the Mix and Dough
Quality

Proteins content (7~) TSE (daJlkg) T (C)

Il.2 28 467 32.1 Very soft

12.8 27852 31.9 Soft
14.4 28 400 31.7 Slightly soft
15.x 25 142 31.4 Firm and consistent
17.3 23318 31.X Firm and consistent
IX.7 2104X 31.5 Firm and consistent
20.0 20 670 31.3 Poor consistency
21.2 20 903 31.X Very poor consistency
71.9 2 1029 30.6 Crumbly dough

addition of proteins will lead directly to an increase in dough elasticity. Consc-

quently, the shrinkage of dough after cutting would be considerable.
Increasing the protein content produced an overall reduction in the spread of the
biscuit after cooking. Figure 17 shows a considerable decrease in biscuit length for
protein content between 14% and 20%. However, the length was not affected
outside that range. Since the dough elasticity expressed by L was directly correlated
with biscuit length after cooking, their areas of influence were exactly the same.
Moreover, thickness decreased slightly with protein content. Increase in protein
content favoured the structuring of the gluten network formed during mixing. In the
presence of an excessively structured gluten network, the gaseous emission was

1.8

h
1.6
2 8
e
b 1.4
3

g 6
1.2

4 1.0
0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Protein content (%)
Fig. 16. Effect of protein percentage on viscosity and relaxation time.
 Z. Maache-Rezzoug et al.

6.0 -

61.5- \

61.0- 6.0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Protein content (%) Protein content (%)

Fig. 17. Effect of protein content on biscuit length, weight and thickness.

poor. Consequently, the produced biscuit was thin and its texture compact. On the
other hand, no significant relationship was found between biscuit weight and varia-
tion in the quantity of proteins.
Concerning mechanical parameters, it was observed that Fs increased quasi-lin-
early between 14% and 20% of protein content (Fig. 18). No significant variation
could be detected outside that range. FLYparameter provided information concerning
the cohesion of biscuit structure, which appeared to be stronger the larger the
quantity of protein. According to Yamazaki and Donelson (1976), the gluten, which

0.60 14
-+- Fs
*No

~ 0.50:; ::; i

Z ,t r
0.40 - +,+-+ E
-8 -

0.30 6
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Protein content (%)
Fig. 18. Effect of protein content on Fs and N,,.
 IZffect qf ingredients on biscuit dough

forms a protein network entrapping the starch, largely contributes to the internal
structure of biscuits. It is therefore a decisive factor in the biscuit-making quality of
a flour. However, the spatial frequency N,, did not appear to be sensitive to protein
variation.

CONCLUSION

This study enabled an assessment of the parameters sensitive to changes in biscuit

formula. Addition of sugar produced a fall in viscosity and a great reduction in
relaxation time. It favoured increase in length, and reduced the thickness and weight
of the biscuit. Also, sugar-rich biscuits were characterized by a highly cohesive
structure and crunchiness. Adding fat softened the dough, and caused a reduction in
viscosity and relaxation time. Fat also contributed to an increase in length, and to a
reduction in the thickness and weight of the biscuits, which were characterized by a
friable structure easy to break. Water lead to an increase in the consumption of
total specific energy (TSE), to a sharp decrease in dough viscosity and to a slight
reduction of relaxation time. The biscuits became longer, with slightly smaller thick-
nesses. Among the biochemical constituents, proteins were quantitatively and
qualitatively very important for the biscuit-making quality of flours. By keeping the
formula constant, addition of proteins in the range between 14 and 20% lead to an
increase in the water absorption by the flour, and in the viscosity and relaxation time
of the dough. In this range, a reduction in the length can be observed, with only a
slight expansion of the biscuit.

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