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Determining Producing Bottom-Hole Pressures in

Wells Having Gaseous Columns

Introduction
An accurate method to determine the producing bottom-
hole pressures in oil wells, using acoustic liquid-level
instruments, is desirable when measuringproducing well
efficiency. When gas is produced from the casing an-
nulus, the oil column is lightened. If gas bubbles are
present in an oil column, a correction for the oil gradient
is necessary to get an accurate producing bottom-hole
pressure. This paper presents a simple technique to find
the gradient of a gaseous oil column and the producing
bottom-hole pressure, using acoustic liquid-level instru-
ments, in oil wells that produce gas through the casing
annulus, T!le data needed to obtain the producing
bottom-hole pressure are (1) a liquid-level test, (2) the
casing pressure at the time of the test, (3) the time re-
quired for an increasein casing pressure(when the casing
valvesare closed and the well continuesto pump), and(4)
the amount of casing pressure increase. The test can be
performed in less than 30 minutes.
Gaseous Liquid Columns
When gas bubbles through a liquid column, the gradient
of the column is reduced. A correctionfactor is necessary
to compensate for the amount of gas present in the annu-
lar space: Fig. 1 shows the gradient correction factor in
the annulus of a well for different flow rates and cas-
ing annul us areas at various pressures. The gradient
correctionfactor indicates the amount of Iiquid present in
a gaseous Iiquid column. compared with a completely
0149-21 36/78/0001 .6476S00.25
@
1978 Society of Petroleum Engnwrs of Al ME
liquid column. This curve was preparedby W. E. Gilbert
and is presented in Ref. 1.
Application of Gilberts Curve to Producing
Oil Wells
When an acoustic liquid-level test is run on a well, the
volume of casing annulus above the liquid level can be
determined, If the casing valve is closed and the tme
required for a certain buildup in casing pressure is ob-
tained, the gas flow rate through the gaseous liquid col-
umn in the annular spacecan be found. Thus, a ccmrection
factor is obtained from the Gilbert curve and is applied to
the gaseous liquid column.
Fig, 2 is the adaption of the Gilbert curve to data
obtained easily during a liquid-level test, The flow rate,
instead of being expressed in thousands of cubic feet pel
day, is expressed by the increasing casing pressure in a
specific time and the length and area of the gas column.
Because the Gilbert relationship divides the flow rate by
the casing annulus area, the annular area is cancelled in
the new relationship. This allows the relationship to be
expressed by the change in casing pressure, the time for
the pressure buildup, the length of the gas column, and
the pressure to the 0.4 power at the point of interest, By
indicating the different pressures in Fig. 2, the calcula-
tion of pressure to the 0.4 power is not necessary. Thus,
the liquid level, pressurebuildup, and time of the buildup
give the operatora relationshipthat measures the gradient
correction factor in a producing oil well at any pressure.
The equation used by Gilbert isl

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where q is the flow rate, A is the casing annulus, and p is
the pressure at the point of interest, The flow rate can be
expressed as
Lx Lx~x24:t60,
144 . An exampleof determining the producingbottom-hole
whereL x A/144 is the casing annulus volume, Ap/14.7
is the fraction of casing annulus volume filled during the
shut-in period, and 24 x 60/At represents the number of
gas volumes obtained per day, If gas temperature is
ignored, Gilberts equation can be restated as
Lx Lx+x24:t60
144
9
A X ~0.4
which reduces to
4?#,
if the constant is removed and the pressure to the 0.4
power is presented on the curve.
To determine the gradient correction factor for a gas-
eous column, the operator shuts in the casing valve and
continues to pump the well. Immediately, an acoustic
liquid-level test is taken to determine the depth of the
gaseous liquid column. The well is pumped until a
buildup of casing pressureoccurs, The increasein casing
pressureand the time required for that increaseare noted.
Generally, less than 30 minutes is needed to run he entire
test. Normally, the increasein casing pressure during the
test should result in less than a 5-percent change in flow
rate. (Determinethe flow rate change presented in Ref. 2
if there is a question.) Determine Ap x L + A?and find
the pressure at the top of the gaseous liquid column
(described in Ref. 2). Refer to Fig. 2 and enter the value
of Ap X L + At, Look at the right of Fig. }to the gaseous
liquid column pressure, then look down to read the gra-
dient correctionfactor.
pressure in a well with the indicated data follows, A
liquid-leveltest indicates the liquid level is 4,000 ft. The
casing pressure increases from 15 to 24 psig during a
40-minute period. The total depth of the well is 4,200 ft,
The casing pressure is 15 psig and the gas column pres-
sure is 4 psi,2Thus, the pressure at the top of the gaseous
oil column is 19psig. The change in pressure (Ap) times
the length of the gas column (L) divided by the time
period (AI)equals 900. Fig, 2 shows a gradient correction
factorof 0.7 at the top of the liquid column. If the oil has a
gradient of 0,35, then the effective gradient of the gas-
eous oil column is 0.7 x 0,35, or 0.245 psi/ft. The
gaseous oil-column pressure is 49 psi. Thus, the produc-
ing bottom-hole pressure is 68 psig.
In long, gaseous oil columns, the gradient correction
factorgets larger as the pressure increasesdown the well.
Thus, the pressure and the new gradient correction factor

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@RADIENT ~RECTION fACIDR 8RADIENT CORRECTION FACTOR

Fig, lAnnulus gradientcorrectionfor gas bubblingthrougha Fig, 2Annulus gradieht correctionfor gas bubblingthrougha
static liquidcolumn. staticliquid column.

118 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

should be obtained at 500- to i ,000-ft increments down
the gaseous oil column to determine the pressure at the
bottom of a long column. Because pressure to the 0.4
power is expressedin the equation, a variation in pressure
affects the gradient correction factor less than might be
expected. Smaller intervals can be selected for greater
accuracy if desired; however, 500-ft intervals are prob-
ably within the accuracy available from the data.
Equation To Determine Instantaneous
Casing-Annulus Gas Flow Rates
~=o.68x Lx AxA~,
At
where
9 = gm flow rate, cu ft/D
A = area of casing anmdus, sq in.
L = distance to liquid level, ft
Ap = casing pressure increase, psi
At= time during casing pressure increase,
minutes.
Comments and Assumptions
1, Temperature changes in the casing annulus are
ignored.
Fracturing With a High-Viscosity, Cross-Linked Gel
Continuous Fracturing Technique
Introduction
Highly viscous fracturing fluids that could be pumped at
relatively high rates with acceptable friction pressure
were first introduced8 years ago. l)2These viscous fluids
were oil-water dispersions that created some problems
because they required special mixing and pumping tech-
niques. The fluids did, however, prove their value by
creating wide, deeply penetrating fractures and by carry-
ing high concentrations of propping agents. Since then,
other high-viscosityfluids have been introducedand their
propertiesand effectiveness reported.3-6Such fluids now
are used commonly in all areas. Because there is some
variation in fluid requirements of different areas and
formations, several types of fluids have evolved. All can
be classed as viscousfracturing fluids. While these fluids
havebeen used successfully, most have the same primary
disadvantage: they must be batch mixed before use.
Batch mixing requires that all water-gelling agents be
premixed in fracturing tanks before pumping. Often this
leads to additional rig-time expense for the operator and
additional equipment time and man hours for the service
company. Also, if the procedure is not completed as
planned, there can be considerable expense in prepara-
014S.21%/78/0001.5840$00.25
(@ 1976 SocWyof Patrolaum E~iwera of AlME
JANUARY, 1978
2, The instantaneouscasing-annulusgas flow rate is at
casing-annulustemperature,
3. The increase in casing pressure is assumed to have
no affect on the gas flowrate through the 1iquid column.
4, A, L. Podio at the U, of Texas is supervising a
graduate student research paper to verify Gilberts data
with the financial support of Echometer Co.
Acknowledgment
The author thanks Buford Neely of Shell Oil Co. for
information concerning the data prepared by W. E.
Gilbert.
References
1. Gipson, Fred and Swaim, Howard: Designed Beam Pumping,
paper presentedat the Southwestern PetroleumShoit Course, Lub-
bock,Tex. (1972).
2. McCoy, J. N.: Analyzing Well Performance X, i%c., CIM,
Edmonton,Aha. (June 1977).
James N. McCoy, SPE-AIME
EchometerCo.
Wichita Falls, Tex.
l)rbifia!manuscript receNad in Society of Petroleum Engineers oflica Jan. 12,1977.
Paper accaprad for publicat!n July 11, 1977, Revised manuscript ramived *PI. 15,
1977. PaPar (SPE 6476) was
Msatktg cm Oparatiig Practis
presented at the SPE.A[ME Oklahoma City Ragiortal
in Drilling Md Production, held in Oklaftoma City, Feb.
21-Z?, 1977.
tion of fluid that is not used. These expenses can become
prohibitively high on large jobs, such as the massive-
fracturing typeof treatment. To overcomethe disadvan-
tages of batch mixing, specially prepared materials for
gelling water have been developed that can be mixed
continuously as the fluid is pumped down hole,e These
materials, first prepared from guar gum polymers, have
been in use for 3 years and have provedhighly successful.
More recently, lower residue guar derivatives have been
used successfully.
Cross-Linked Guar Gels
Very high viscosities can be achieved by cross-linking
the guar gels. However, preparation of cross-linked guar
gels at the well location on a large volume basis has been
troublesome and time consuming in the past because of
the required batch-mixing technique. That is, the guar
gelling agent and cross-linkerare premixedin the fractur-
ing water. Adjustments of the fluids pH are often neces-
sary and present problems in achieving a uniform pH in
large fracturing tanks. The guar gelling agent hydrates
and produces a high-viscosity solution. This high-
viscosity,guar gum solution is cross-linked by the addi-
tion of an activator solution that produces a very high-
119
 TABLE 1RESIDUE COMPARISON OF TYPICAL GUAR viscosity gel as the fluid is pumped down the well. This
WITH GUAR=DERIVATIVE POLYMERS technique often requires additional high-pressure pumpi-
Percent ng capacity.
Percent of Residue
of Residue (by weight Complex buffer systems will allow continuous mixing
(by volume) of gellant) of cross-linked guar gels. These systems consist of a ~
L
Guar 2t08 4to17 specially formulated guar gelling agent (guar gum plus
Ciuarderivative 0.5 to 6 2.5t04 buffers), a cross-linker, and a gel breaker. The high-
viscosity, cross-linked gel is prepared by continuously
mixing the gelling agent in a suitable watercontaining the
breakerand the cross-linker.(On some of the smallerjobs
that involve only a few tanks, the breaker and the cross-
linker have been batch mixed in the fracturing water
before the job. On larger jobs, however, a concentrated
180 solution is prepared and continuously metered on the
water before adding the gelling agent. This method pro-
vides the simplicity of a totally continuous-mixed job.)
160 -
When the water and gelling agent are mixed first, the
buffer system provides a controlled pH that allows hydra-
-i ,40 tion of the guar. A normal, high-viscosity guar gel is
*
* producedat this time. As this fluid moves down the hole,
o the buffer produces a controlled pH change that activates
2 120 the cross-linker gel. The cross-linking occurs before the
a fluid enters the formation. The actual time needed for
cross-linking varies from 2 to 4 minutes, depending
~loo
on mix-water temperature. Fig. 1 shows viscosity de-
J!
velopment at mix-water temperatures of 60Fand 90F.
~ 80 The buffer-type gelling systems offer many advan-
* tages, including a simple mixing procedure that reduces
o
u both the on site job time and the equipment normally
: 60 - required for a batch-mixing technique. Eliminating the
need for pregelling prevents possible wasted expense
because of unexpected treatment delays. A totally
40 m water-based gel, this continuous-mix system offers a
major safety advantage by reducing the chanse of fire or
2 0-
HZOH clr70!i
o~ o

c)
01 23 456
Ho
H
H H
TIME (MINUTES) H H
HH
Fig, lViscosity development of guar and continuous-mix,
cross-linkedguar solutionsat 60F and 90F. H OH
o
c>
HH d0
h,
GELIATIO?d RATE OF CONTINUOUS-MIX
CROSSLINKED WAR DERIVATIVE
HH HH HH H21

GUARMOLECULE

Q Q o 0

...

1 1 1 t # 1
%123456 HH H21 HH HH

TIME (MINUTES) (EXAM?LE) : R* CH2CH(CH3]0

Fig. 2-Viscos~ development of cross-linkedguarfluid GUARDERIVATIVE

MOLECULE
,
continuouslymuradat temperatures of ,$rF and 75F. Fig. 3Similarity of guar and guar-derivativemolecules.

120 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY