LATHE MACHINE

INTRODUNCTION

Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the world. It is commonly
known as the mother of all other machine tool. The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from
a job to give it the required shape and size. The job is secure1y and rigid1y held in the chuck or in
between centers on the lathe machine and then turn it against a single point cutting tool which wi1l
remove meta1 from the job in the form of chips. Fig. 21.1 shows the working principle of lathe. An
engine lathe is the most basic and simplest form of the lathe. It derives its name from the early
lathes, which obtained their power from engines. Besides the simple turning operation as described
above, lathe can be used to carry out other operations also, such as drilling, reaming, boring, taper
turning, knurling, screw thread cutting, grinding etc. for precision work to huge lathes used for
turning large steel shafts. But the principle of operation and function of all types of lathes is same.

The different types of lathes are:

1. Speed lathe
Wood working
Spinning
Centering
Po1ishing
2. Centre or engine lathe
Be1t drive
Individual motor drive
Gear head lathe
3. Bench lathe
4. Tool room Lathe
5. Capstan and Turret 1athe
6. Special purpose lathe
Whee1 lathe
Gap bed lathe
Dup1icating lathe
T-lathe
7. Automatic lathe

Some of common lathes are

described as under.

Speed Lathe

Speed lathe is simplest of all

types of lathes in construction and operation. The important parts of speed lathe are following-

1. Bed
2. Headstock
3. Tailstock, and
4. Tool post mounted on an adjustable slide.

It has no feed box, 1eadscrew or conventional type of carriage. The tool is mounted on the adjustable
slide and is fed into the work by hand contro1. The speed lathe finds applications where cutting force
is least such as in wood working, spinning, centering, polishing, winding, buffing etc. This lathe has
been so named because of the very high speed of the headstock spindle.

Centre Lathe or Engine Lathe

The term engine is associated with this lathe due to the fact that in the very early days of its
development it was driven by steam engine. This lathe is the important member of the lathe family
and is the most widely used. Similar to the speed lathe, the engine lathe has all the basic parts, e.g.,
bed, headstock, and tailstock. But its headstock is much more robust in construction and contains
additional mechanism for driving the lathe spindle at multiple speeds. An engine lathe is shown in
Fig. 21.2. Unlike the speed lathe, the engine lathe can feed the cutting tool both in cross and
longitudinal direction with reference to the lathe axis with the help of a carriage, feed rod and lead
screw. Centre lathes or engine lathes are classified according to methods of transmitting power to the
machine. The power may be transmitted by means of belt, electric motor or through gears.

Bench Lathe

This is a small lathe usually mounted on a bench. It has practically all the parts of an engine lathe or
speed lathe and it performs almost all the operations. This is used for small and precision work.

Tool Room Lathe

This lathe has features similar to an engine lathe but it is much more accurately built. It has a wide
range of spindle speeds ranging from a very low to a quite high speed up to 2500 rpm. This lathe is
mainly used for precision work on tools, dies, gauges and in machining work where accuracy is
needed.

Capstan and Turret Lathe

The development of these 1athes results from the technological advancement of the engine lathe and
these are vastly used for mass production work. The distinguishing feature of this type of lathe is that
the tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced by a hexagonal turret, on the face of which multiple tools
may be fitted and fed into the work in proper sequence. Due to this arrangement, several different
types of operations can be done on a job without re-setting of work or tools, and a number of
identical parts can be produced in the minimum time.

Special Purpose Lathes

These lathes are constructed for special purposes and for jobs, which cannot be accommodated or
conveniently machined on a standard lathe. The wheel lathe is made for finishing the journals and
turning the tread on railroad car and locomotive wheels. The gap bed lathe, in which a section of the
bed adjacent to the headstock is removable, is used to swing extra-large-diameter pieces. The T-lathe
is used for machining of rotors for jet engines. The bed of this lathe has T-shape. Duplicating lathe is
one for duplicating the shape of a flat or round template on to the job.

Automatic Lathes

These lathes are so designed that all the working and job handling movements of the complete
manufacturing process for a job are done automatically. These are high speed, heavy duty, mass
production lathes with complete automatic control.

CONSTRUCTION OF LATHE MACHINE

A simple lathe comprises of a bed made of grey cast iron on which headstock, tailstock, carriage and
other components of lathe are mounted. Fig. 21.3 shows the different parts of engine lathe or central
lathe. The major parts of lathe machine are given as under:

1. Bed
2. Head stock
3. Tailstock
4. Carriage
5. Feed mechanism
6. Thread cutting mechanism

Bed

The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of lathe are mounted. It is massive
and rigid single piece casting made to support other active parts of lathe. On left end of the bed,
headstock of lathe machine is located while on right side tailstock is located. The carriage of the
machine rests over the bed and slides on it. On the top of the bed there are two sets of guideways-
innerways and outer ways. The inner ways provide sliding surfaces for the tailstock and the outer
ways for the carriage. The guide ways of the lathe bed may be flat and inverted V shape. Generally
cast iron alloyed with nickel and chromium material is used for manufacturing of the lathe bed.

Head Stock

The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe. It comprises of
the headstock casting to accommodate all the parts within it including gear train arrangement. The
main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses live centre to which the work can be attached. It
supports the work and revolves with the work, fitted into the main spindle of the headstock. The
cone pulley is also attached with this arrangement, which is used to get various spindle speed
through electric motor. The back gear arrangement is used for obtaining a wide range of slower
speeds. Some gears called change wheels are used to produce different velocity ratio required for
thread cutting.

Tail Stock
Fig. 21.4 shows the tail stock of central lathe,
which is commonly used for the objective of
primarily giving an outer bearing and support
the circular job being turned on centers. Tail
stock can be easily set or adjusted for alignment
or non-alignment with respect to the spindle
centre and carries a centre called dead centre for
supporting one end of the work. Both live and
dead centers have 60 conical points to fit
centre holes in the circular job, the other end
tapering to allow for good fitting into the
spindles. The dead centre can be mounted in
ball bearing so that it rotates with the job
avoiding friction of the job with dead centre as
it important to hold heavy jobs.

DRILLING

Drilling is the process of originating holes in the work piece by using a rotating cutter called drill.
The machine used for this purpose is called drilling machine. Although it was primarily designed to
originate a hole, it can perform a number of similar operations. In a drilling machine holes may be
drilled quickly and at a low cost. As the machine tool exerts vertical pressure to originate a hole it is
also called drill press. Holes were drilled by the Egyptians in 1200 B.C. by bow drills. The bow drill
is the mother of present day metal cutting drilling machine.

Types of drilling machine

The different types of drilling machine which are most commonly used are:

Portable drilling machine.

Sensitive drilling machine (Bench mounting or table top and Floor mounting).
Upright drilling machine (Pillar or Round column section and Box column section)
Radial drilling machine (Plain, Semi-universal and Universal)
Gang drilling machine.
Multiple spindle drilling machine.
Deep hole drilling machine.
Turret type drilling machine

But in working principle all are more or less the same.

Portable drilling machine or hand drilling machine

Unlike the mounted stationary drilling machines, the hand drill is portable drilling devices which is
mostly held in hand and used at the locations where holes have to be drilled light hand drilling
machines are run by a high speed electric motor. In fire hazardous areas the hand drilling machine is
often rotated by compressed air. Accommodate is not more than 12 to 18 mm.
Bench mounting or table top sensitive drilling machine

This small capacity ( 0.5 kW) upright (vertical) single spindle drilling machine is rigid table and
manually operated using usually small size ( 10 mm) drills fig table top sensitive drilling
machine.

Floor mounting sensitive drilling machine

The floor mounting sensitive drilling machine is a small machine designed for drilling small holes at
high speed in light jobs. The base of the machine is mounted on the floor. It consists of a vertical
column, a horizontal table, a head supporting the motor and driving mechanism, and a vertical
spindle for driving and rotating the drill. There is no arrangement for any automatic feed of the drill
spindle. The drill is fed into the work by purely hand control. High speeds are necessary to attain
required cutting speed by small diameter drill. Hand feed permits the operator to feel or sense the
progress of the drill into the work, so that if the drill becomes worn out jams on any account, the
pressure on the drill may be released immediately to prevent it from breaking. As the operator senses
the cutting action, at any instant, it is called sensitive drilling. Sensitive drilling machines are capable
of rotating drills of diameter from 1.5 to 15.5 mm. super sensitive drilling machines are designed to
drill holes as small as 0.35 mm in diameter and the machine is rotated at a high speed of 20,000
r.p.m. or above. Fig illustrates a floor mounting sensitive drilling machine.
Pillar or Round column section upright drilling machine

Fig. 3.112 illustrates a pillar or round column section upright drilling machine. This machine is
usually called pillar drilling machine. It is quite similar to the table top drilling machine but of little
larger size and higher capacity (0.55 ~ 1.1 kW) and are mounted on the floor. In this machine the
drill feed and the work table movements are done manually. This low cost drilling machine has a
base, a tall tubular column, an arm supporting the table and a drill head assembly. The arm may be
moved up and down on the column and also be moved in an arc up to 180 0 around the column. The
table may be rotated 3600 about its own centre independent of the position of the arm. It is generally
used for small jobs and light drilling. The maximum size of holes that can be drilled is not more than
50 mm.

Box column section upright drilling machine

Fig. 3.113 illustrates a box column section upright drilling machine. The major parts are:

Base It is a part of the machine on which vertical column is mounted. The top of the base is
accurately machined and has T-slots on it so that large work pieces and work holding devices may
be set up and bolted to it.

Column It is the vertical member of the machine which supports the table and the head containing
all the driving mechanism. The column should be sufficiently rigid so that it can take up the entire
cutting pressure of the drill. The column may be made of box section or of round section. Box
column is a more rigid unit. In box column type, the front face of the column is accurately machined
to form guide ways on which the table can slide up and down for vertical adjustment.

Table It is mounted on the column and is provided with T-slots for clamping the work directly on its
face. The table may be round or rectangular in shape. The table may have three types of adjustments:
vertical adjustment, radial adjustment about the column, and circular adjustment about its own axis.
After the required adjustments have been made the table and the arm are clamped in position.
Drill head It is mounted on the top of the column and houses the driving and feeding mechanism for
the spindle. In some of the machines the drill head may be adjusted up or down for accommodating
different heights of work in addition to the table adjustment

Spindle Holds the drill and transmits rotation and axial translation to the tool for providing cutting
motion and feed motion - both to the drill.

Radial drilling machine

Fig. 3.114 illustrates a radial drilling machine. The major parts are:

Base

It is a large rectangular casting that is finished on its top to support a column on its one end and to
hold the work table at the other end. In some machines T-slots are provided on the base for clamping
work when it serves as a table.

Column The column is a cylindrical casting that is mounted vertically at one end of the base. It
supports the radial arm which may slide up or down on its face. An electric motor is mounted on the
top of the column which imparts vertical adjustment of the arm by rotating a screw passing through a
nut attached to the arm.

Radial arm The radial arm that is mounted on the column extends horizontally over the base. It is a
massive casting with its front vertical face accurately machined to provide guide ways on which the
drill head may be made to slide. The arm may be swung round the column. In some machines this
movement is controlled by a separate motor.

Drill head The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and drives the drill spindle. It encloses all the
mechanism for driving the drill at multiple speeds and at different feed. All the mechanisms and
controls are housed within a small drill head which may be made to slide on the guide ways of the
arm for adjusting the position of drill spindle with respect to the work.
Spindle drive and feed mechanism

There are two common methods of driving the spindle. A constant speed motor is mounted at the
extreme end of the radial arm. The motor drives a horizontal spindle which runs along the length of
the arm and the motion is transmitted to the drill head through bevel gears. By the gear train within
the drill head, the speed of the spindle may be varied. Through another gear train within the drill
head, different feeds of the spindle are obtained. In some machines, a vertical motor is fitted directly
on the drill head and through gear box multiple speed and the feed of the spindle can be obtained.

Working principle The work is mounted on the table or when the work is very large it may be
placed on the floor or in a pit. Then the position of the arm and the drill head is altered so that the
drill may be pointed exactly on the location where the hole is to be drilled. When several holes are
drilled on a large work piece, the drill head is moved from one position to the other after drilling the
hole without altering the setting of the work. This versatility of the machine allows it to work on
large work pieces. There are some more machines where the drill spindle can be additionally
swiveled and / or tilted.

Gang drilling machine

In this almost single purpose and more productive drilling machine a number of spindles (2 to 6)
with drills (of same or different size) in a row are made to produce number of holes progressively or
simultaneously through the jig. Fig. 3.115 illustrates a typical gang drilling machine.

Multiple spindle drilling machine

Fig. 3.116 schematically shows a typical multiple spindle drilling machine. In this high production
machine a large number of drills work concurrently on a blank through a jig specially made for the
particular work. The entire drilling head works repeatedly using the same jig for batch or lot
production. The rotations of the drills are derived from the main spindle and the central gear through
a number of planetary gears in mesh with the central gear and the corresponding flexible shafts. The
positions of those parallel shafts holding the drills are adjusted depending upon the locations of the
holes to be made on the job. Each shaft possesses a telescopic part and two universal joints at its
ends to allow its change in length and orientation respectively for adjustment of location of the drills
of varying size and length. In some heavy duty multi spindle drilling machines, the work-table is
raised to give feed motion instead of moving the heavy drilling head.

MILLING MACHINE

This is a machine tool that removes material as the work is fed against a rotating cutter. The cutter
rotates at a high speed and because of the multiple cutting edges it removes material at a very fast
rate. The machine can also hold two or more number of cutters at a time. That is why a milling
machine finds wide application in machine shop. The first milling machine came into existence in
about 1770 and was of French origin. The milling cutter was developed by Jacques de Vaucanson in
the year 1782. The first successful plain milling machine was designed by Eli Whitney in the year
1818. The universal milling machine was invented in the year 1861 by Joseph R Brown.

TYPES OF MILLING MACHINE

Milling machines are broadly classified as follows:

Column and knee type

Hand milling machine.

Plain or horizontal milling machine.
Universal milling machine.
Omniversal milling machine.
Vertical milling machine.

Manufacturing or bed type

Simplex milling machine.

Duplex milling machine.
Triplex milling machine.

Planer type

Special type

Drum milling machine.

Rotary table milling machine.
Profile milling machine.
Pantograph milling machine.
Planetary milling machine.

Column and knee type milling machines

This is the most commonly used machine in view of its flexibility and easier setup. In such small and
medium duty machines the table with work travels above the saddle in horizontal direction (X axis)
(left and right). The saddle with table moves on the slideways provided on the knee in transverse
direction (Y axis) (front and back). The knee with saddle and table moves on a dovetail guide ways
provided on the column in vertical direction (Z axis) (up and down).

Hand milling machine

This is the simplest form of milling machine where even the table feed is also given manually. The
cutter is mounted on a horizontal arbor. This is suitable for light and simple milling operations such
as machining slots, grooves and keyways. Fig. 3.52 (a) shows the photographic view of a horizontal
hand milling machine and Fig. 3.52 (b) shows that of a vertical hand milling machine.

Plain or horizontal milling

This non automatic general purpose milling machine of small to medium size possesses a single
horizontal axis milling arbor. The work table can be linearly fed along three axes (X, Y, and Z) only.
The table may be fed by hand or power. These machines are most widely used for piece or batch
production of jobs of relatively simple design and geometry. Fig. 3.53 schematically shows the basic
configuration of a horizontal milling machine.

Universal milling machine

It is so named because it may be adapted to a very wide range of milling operations. It can be
distinguished from a plain milling machine in that the table of a universal milling machine is
mounted on a circular swiveling base which has degree graduations, and the table can be swiveled to
any angle up to 450 on either side of the normal position.

Thus in a universal milling machine, in addition to the three movements as incorporated in a plain
milling machine, the table have a fourth movement when it is fed at an angle to the milling cutter.
This additional feature enables it to perform helical milling operation which cannot be done on a
plain milling machine unless a spiral milling attachment is used. The capacity of a universal milling
machine is considerably increased by the use of special attachments such as dividing head or index
head, vertical milling attachment, rotary attachment, slotting attachment, etc. The machine can
produce spur, spiral, bevel gears, twist drills, reamers, milling cutters, etc. besides doing all
conventional milling operations.

Fig. 3.54 schematically shows the basic configuration of a universal milling machine.

Vertical milling machine

This machine is very similar to a horizontal milling machine. The only difference is the spindle is
vertical. The work table may or may not have swiveling features. The spindle head may be swiveled
at an angle, permitting the milling cutter to work on angular surfaces. In some machines, the spindle
can also be adjusted up or down relative to the work piece. This machine works using end milling
and face milling cutters. This machine is adapted for machining grooves, slots and flat surfaces.

Fig. 3.56 schematically shows the basic configuration of a Vertical milling machine

Manufacturing or bed type

The fixed bed type milling machines are comparatively large, heavy, and rigid and differ radically
from column and knee type milling machines by the construction of its table mounting. The table is
mounted directly on the guide ways of the fixed bed. The table movement is restricted to
reciprocation at right angles to the spindle axis with no provision for cross or vertical adjustment.
The cutter mounted on the spindle head may be moved vertically on the column, and the spindle may
be adjusted horizontally to provide cross adjustment. The name simplex, duplex and triplex indicates
that the machine is provided with single, double and triple spindle heads respectively. In a duplex
machine, the spindle heads are arranged one on each side of the table. In triplex type the third
spindle (vertical) is mounted on a cross rail. The usual feature of these machines is the automatic
cycle of operation for feeding the table, which is repeated in a regular sequence. The feed cycle of
the table includes the following: Start, rapid approach, slow feed for cutting, rapid traverse to the
next work piece, quick return and stop. This automatic control of the machine enables it to be used
with advantage in repetitive types of work. Fig. 3.57 (a) and (b) shows the simplex milling machine
and duplex milling machine.

SHAPER

The main function of the shaper is to produce flat surfaces in different planes. In general the shaper
can produce any surface composed of straight line elements. Modern shapers can generate contoured
surface. The shaper was first developed in the year 1836 by James Nasmyth, an Englishman.
Because of the poor productivity and process capability the shapers are not widely used nowadays
for production. The shaper is a low cost machine tool and is used for initial rough machining of the
blanks.

Classification of shapers

Shapers are broadly classified as follows:

According to the type of mechanism used:

Crank shaper.
Geared shaper.
Hydraulic shaper.

According to the position and travel of ram:

Horizontal shaper.
 Vertical shaper.
Traveling head shaper.

According to the type of design of the table:

Standard or plain shaper.

Universal shaper.

According to the type of cutting stroke:

Push type shaper.

Draw type shaper.

According to the type of mechanism used

Crank shaper

This is the most common type of shaper in which a single point cutting tool is given a reciprocating
motion equal to the length of the stroke desired while the work is clamped in position on an
adjustable table. In construction, the crank shaper employs a crank mechanism to change circular
motion of bull gear to reciprocating motion of the ram.

Geared type shaper

The reciprocating motion of the ram is some type of shaper is effect by means of a rack and pinion.
The rack teeth which are cut directly below the ram mesh with a spur gear. The pinion meshing with
the rack is driven by a gear train. The speed and the direction in which the ram will traverse depend
on the number of gears in the gear train. This type of shaper is not very widely used.

Hydraulic shaper

In a hydraulic shaper, reciprocating movement of the ram is obtained by hydraulic power. Oil under
high pressure is pumped into the operating cylinder fitted with a piston. The end of the piston rod is
connected to the ram. The high pressure oil first acts on one side of the piston and then on the other
causing the piston to reciprocate and the motion is transmitted to the ram. The speed of the ram is
changed by varying the amount of liquid delivered to the piston by the pump.

According to the position and travel of ram

Horizontal shaper

In a horizontal shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a horizontal axis. Horizontal shapers
are mainly used to produce flat surfaces.

Vertical shaper

In a vertical shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical axis. The work table of a
vertical shaper can be given cross, longitudinal, and rotary movement. Vertical shapers are very
convenient for machining internal surfaces, keyways, slots or grooves. Large internal and external
gears may also be machined by indexing arrangement of the rotary table. The vertical shaper which
is specially designed for machining internal keyway is called as Keyseater.
Travelling head shaper

The ram carrying the tool while it reciprocates moves crosswise to give the required feed. Heavy
jobs which are very difficult to hold on the table of a standard shaper and fed past the tool are held
static on the basement of the machine while the ram reciprocates and supplies the feeding
movements.

According to the type of design of the table

Standard or plain shaper

A shaper is termed as standard or plain when the table has only two movements, vertical and
horizontal, to give the feed. The table may or may not be supported at the outer end.

Universal shaper

In this type, in addition to the two movements provided on the table of a standard shaper, the table
can be swiveled about an axis parallel to the ram ways, and the upper portion of the table can be
tilted about a second horizontal axis perpendicular to the first axis. As the work mounted on the table
can be adjusted in different planes, the machine is most suitable for different types of work and is
given the name Universal. A universal shaper is mostly used in tool room work.

According to the type of cutting stroke

Push type shaper

This is the most general type of shaper used in common practice. The metal is removed when the
ram moves away from the column, i.e. pushes the work.

Draw type shaper

In this type, the metal is removed when the ram moves towards the column of the machine, i.e.
draws the work towards the machine. The tool is set in a reversed direction to that of a standard
shaper. In this shaper the cutting pressure acts towards the column which relieves the cross rail and
other bearings from excessive loading and allows to take deep cuts. Vibration in these machines is
practically eliminated. The ram is generally supported by an overhead arm which ensures rigidity
and eliminates deflection of the tool.

Major parts of a standard shaper

Fig. 3.1 shows the basic configuration of a standard shaper. The major parts are:
Base

It provides the necessary support to the machine tool. It is rigidly bolted to the shop floor. All parts
are mounted on the base. It is made up of cast iron to resist vibration and take up high compressive
load. It takes the entire load of the machine and the forces set up by the cutting tool during
machining.

Column

It is a box like casting mounted upon the base. It encloses the drive mechanisms for the ram and the
table. Two accurately machined guide ways are provided on the top of the column on which the ram
reciprocates. The front vertical face of the column which serves as the guide ways for the cross rail
is also accurately machined.

Cross rail

It is mounted on the front vertical guide ways of the column. It has two parallel guide ways on its top
in the vertical plane that is perpendicular to the ram axis. The table may be raised or lowered to
accommodate different sizes of jobs by rotating an elevating screw which causes the cross rail to
slide up and down on the vertical face of the column. A horizontal cross feed screw which is fitted
within the cross rail and parallel to the top guide ways of the cross rail actuates the table to move in a
crosswise direction.

Saddle

It is mounted on the cross rail which holds the table firmly on its top. Crosswise movement of the
saddle by rotating the cross feed screw by hand or power causes the table to move sideways.

Table
It is bolted to the saddle receives crosswise and vertical movements from the saddle and cross rail. It
is a box like casting having T- slots both on the top and sides for clamping the work. In a universal
shaper the table may be swiveled on a horizontal axis and the upper part of the table may be tilted up
or down. In a heavier type shaper, the front face of the table is clamped with a table support to make
it more rigid.

Ram

It holds and imparts cutting motion to the tool through reciprocation. It is connected to the
reciprocating mechanism contained within the column. It is semi cylindrical in form and heavily
ribbed inside to make it more rigid. It houses a screwed shaft for altering the position of the ram with
respect to the work and holds the tool head at the extreme forward end.

Tool head

It holds the tool rigidly, provides the feed movement of the tool and allows the tool to have an
automatic relief during its return stroke. The vertical slide of the tool head has a swivel base which is
held on a circular seat on the ram. So the vertical slide may be set at any desired angle. By rotating
the down feed screw handle, the vertical slide carrying the tool executes the feed or depth of cut. The
amount of feed or depth of cut may be adjusted by a micrometer dial on the top of the down feed
screw. Apron consisting of clapper box, clapper block and tool post is clamped upon the vertical
slide by a screw. By releasing the clamping screw, the apron may be swiveled upon the apron swivel
pin with respect to the vertical slide. This arrangement is necessary to provide relief to the tool while
making vertical or angular cuts. The two vertical walls on the apron called clapper box houses the
clapper block which is connected to it by means of a hinge pin. The tool post is mounted upon the
clapper block. On the forward cutting stroke the clapper block fits securely to the clapper box to
make a rigid tool support. On the return stroke a slight frictional drag of the tool on the work lifts the
block out of the clapper box a sufficient amount preventing the tool cutting edge from dragging and
consequent water. the work surface is also prevented from any damage due to dragging.

Fig. 3.3 (a) schematically shows the kinematic system of a standard shaper. Fig. 3.3 (b) shows the
basic principle of producing flat surface in a standard shaper. The bull gear receives its rotation
from the motor through the pinion. The rotation of the crank causes oscillation of the link and there
by reciprocation of the ram and hence the tool in straight path. The cutting motion provided by the
reciprocating tool and the intermittent feed motion provided by the slow transverse motion of the
work at different rate by using the ratchet - pawl system along with the saddle result in producing a
flat surface by gradual removal of excess material layer by layer in the form of chips.
The vertical in feed is given either by descending the tool holder or raising the cross rail or both.
Straight grooves of various curved sections are also made in shaper by using specific form tools. The
single point straight or form tool is clamped in the vertical slide of the tool head, which is mounted
at the front face of the reciprocating ram. The work piece is clamped directly on the table or clamped
in a vice which is mounted on the table. The changes in length of stroke and position of the stroke
required for different machining are accomplished respectively by

Adjusting the crank length by rotating the bevel gear mounted coaxially with the bull gear
Shifting the ram block nut by rotating the lead screw

Ram drive mechanism of a shaper

In a shaper, rotary movement of the drive is converted into reciprocating movement of the ram by
the mechanism contained within the column of the machine. In a standard shaper metal is removed
in the forward cutting stroke and during the return stroke no metal is removed. To reduce the total
machining time it is necessary to reduce the time taken by the return stroke. Thus the shaper
mechanism should be so designed that it can allow the ram to forward cutting stroke and during the
return stoke it can allow the ram to move at a faster rate to reduce the idle return time. This
mechanism is known as quick return mechanism. The reciprocating movement and the quick return
of the ram are usually obtained by using any one of the following mechanisms.

Crank and slotted link quick return mechanism

The crank and slotted link quick return mechanism is shown in Fig. This mechanism has a bull gear
mounted within the column. The motion or power is transmitted to the bull gear through a pinion
which receives its motion from an individual motor. A radial slide is bolted to the centre of the bull
gear. This radial slide carries a bull gear sliding block into which the crank pin is fitted. Rotation of
the bull gear will cause the crank pin to revolve at a constant speed about the centre of the bull gear.
Rocker arm sliding block is mounted upon the crank pin and is free to rotate about the pin. The
rocker arm sliding block is fitted within the slotted link and can slide along the slot in the slotted link
(rocker arm). The bottom end of the rocker arm is pivoted to the frame of the column. The upper end
is forked and connected to the ram block by a pin which can slide in the forked end.

As the bull gear rotates causing the crank pin to rotate, the rocker arm sliding block fastened to the
crank pin will rotate on the crank pin circle, and at the same time will move up and down in the slot
provided in the slotted link. This up and down movement will give rocking motion (oscillatory
motion) to the slotted link (rocker arm), which communicated to the ram. Thus the rotary motion of
the bull gear is converted into reciprocating movement of the ram.

Quick return principle

The principle of quick return motion is illustrated in Fig. When the slotted link is in the position
PA1, the ram will be at the extreme backward position of its stroke. When the slotted link is in the
position PA2, the ram will be at the extreme forward position of its stroke.

PA1 and PA2 are shown tangent to the crank pin circle. Therefore the forward cutting stroke takes
place when the crank pin rotates through the angle C1KC2 () and the return stroke takes place when
the crank pin rotates through the angle C2LC1 (). It is clear that the angle made by the forward or
cutting stroke is greater than that the angle described by the return stroke. The angular velocity of
the crank pin being constant, therefore the return stroke is completed within a shorter time for which
it is known as quick return motion.

PLANER

Like shapers, planers are also basically used for producing flat surfaces. But planers are very large
and massive compared to the shapers. Planers are generally used for machining large work pieces
which cannot be held in a shaper. The planers are capable of taking heavier cuts. The planer was first
developed in the year 1817 by Richard Roberts, an Englishman.

Types of planer

The different types of planer which are most commonly used are:

Standard or double housing planer.

Open side planer.
Pit planer.
Edge or plate planer.
Divided or latching table planer.

Standard or double housing planer

It is most widely used in workshops. It has a long heavy base on which a table reciprocates on
accurate guide ways. It has one draw back. Because of the two housings, one on each side of the bed,
it limits the width of the work that can be machined. Fig. 3.30 shows a double housing planer.

Open side planer

It has a housing only on one side of the base and the cross rail is suspended from the housing as a
cantilever. This feature of the machine allows large and wide jobs to be clamped on the table. As the
single housing has to take up the entire load, it is made extra-massive to resist the forces. Only three
tool heads are mounted on this machine. The constructional and driving features of the machine are
same as that of a double housing planer. Fig. 3.31 shows an open side planer.

Pit planer

It is massive in construction. It differs from an ordinary planer in that the table is stationary and the
column carrying the cross rail reciprocates on massive horizontal rails mounted on both sides of the
table. This type of planer is suitable for machining a very large work which cannot be
accommodated on a standard planer and the design saves much of floor space. The length of the bed
required in a pit type planer is little over the length of the table. Fig. 3.32 shows a pit planer.

Edge or plate planer

The design of a plate or edge planer is totally unlike that of an ordinary planer. It is specially
intended for squaring and beveling the edges of steel plates used for different pressure vessels and
shipbuilding works. Fig. 3.33 shows an edge planer.
Divided table planer

This type of planer has two tables on the bed which may be reciprocated separately or together. This
type of design saves much of idle time while setting the work. To have a continuous production one
of the tables is used for setting up the work and the other is used for machining. This planer is
mainly used for machining identical work pieces. The two sections of the table may be coupled
together for machining long work. Fig. 3.34 shows a divided table planer.
Major parts of a double housing planer

Fig. 3.30 shows the basic configuration of a double housing planer. The major parts are:

Bed It is box like casting having cross ribs. It is a very large in size and heavy in weight and it
supports the column and all other moving parts of the machine. The bed is made slightly longer than
twice the length of the table so that the full length of the table may be moved on it. It is provided
with precision ways over the entire length on its top surface and the table slides on it. The hollow
space within the box like structure of the bed houses the driving mechanism for the table.

Table It supports the work and reciprocates along the ways of the bed. The top face of the planer
table is accurately finished in order to locate the work correctly. T-Slots are provided on the entire
length of the table so that the work and work holding devices may be bolted upon it. Accurate holes
are drilled on the top surface of the planer table at regular intervals for supporting the poppet and
stop pins. At each end of the table a hollow space is left which acts as a trough for collecting chips.
Long works can also rest upon the troughs. A groove is cut on the side of the table for clamping
planer reversing dogs at different positions.

Housing It is also called columns or uprights are rigid box like vertical structures placed on each
side of the bed and are fastened to the sides of the bed. They are heavily ribbed to trace up severe
forces due to cutting. The front face of each housing is accurately machined to provide precision
ways on which the cross rail may be made to slide up and down for accommodating different heights
of work. Two side-tool heads also slide upon it. The housing encloses the cross rail elevating screw,
vertical and cross feed screws for tool heads, counterbalancing weight for the cross rail, etc. these
screws may be operated either by hand or power.

Cross rail It is a rigid box like casting connecting the two housings. This construction ensures
rigidity of the machine. The cross rail may be raised or lowered on the face of the housing and can
be clamped at any desired position by manual, hydraulic or electrical clamping devices. The two
elevating screws in two housing are rotated by an equal amount to keep the cross rail horizontal in
any position.

The front face of the cross rail is accurately machined to provide a guide surface for the tool head
saddle. Usually two tool heads are mounted upon the cross rail which are called railheads. The cross
rail has screws for vertical and cross feed of the tool heads and a screw for elevating the rail. These
screws may be rotated either by hand or by power.

Tool head It is similar to that of a shaper both in construction and operation.

NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS

FUNDAMENTALS OF NUMERICAL CONTROL

Definitions

Numerical Control (NC) refers to the method of controlling the manufacturing operation by means
of directly inserted coded numerical instructions into the machine tool. It is important to realize that
NC is not a machining method; rather, it is a concept of machine control. Although the most popular
applications of NC are in machining, NC can be applied to many other operations, including
welding, sheet metalworking, riveting, etc.

Because of the introductory character of this chapter, we will restrict our discussion only to two
dimensional machining operations (e.g. turning), which are among the most simple applications of
NC. Nevertheless, most of the principles and conclusions here are also valid for more advanced NC
applications.

The major advantages of NC over conventional methods of machine control are as follows:

higher precision: NC machine tool are capable of machining at very close tolerances, in
some operations as small as 0.005 mm;
machining of complex three-dimensional shapes: this is discussed in Section 6.2 in
connection with the problem of milling of complex shapes;
better quality: NC systems are capable of maintaining constant working conditions for all
parts in a batch thus ensuring less spread of quality characteristics;
higher productivity: NC machine tools reduce drastically the non machining time. Adjusting
the machine tool for a different product is as easy as changing the computer program and
tool turret with the new set of cutting tools required for the particular part.
multi-operational machining: some NC machine tools, for example machine centers, are
capable of accomplishing a very high number of machining operations thus reducing
significantly the number of machine tools in the workshops.
low operator qualification: the role of the operation of a NC machine is simply to upload the
workpiece and to download the finished part. In some cases, industrial robots are employed
for material handling, thus eliminating the human operator.

Types of NC systems

Machine controls are divided into three groups,

traditional numerical control (NC);

computer numerical control (CNC);
Distributed numerical control (DNC).

The original numerical control machines were referred to as NC machine tool. They have
hardwired control, whereby control is accomplished through the use of punched paper (or plastic)
tapes or cards. Tapes tend to wear, and become dirty, thus causing misreading. Many other problems
arise from the use of NC tapes, for example the need to manual reload the NC tapes for each new
part and the lack of program editing abilities, which increases the lead time. The end of NC tapes
was the result of two competing developments, CNC and DNC.
CNC refers to a system that has a local computer to store all required numerical data. While CNC
was used to enhance tapes for a while, they eventually allowed the use of other storage media,
magnetic tapes and hard disks. The advantages of CNC systems include but are not limited to the
possibility to store and execute a number of large programs (especially if a three or more
dimensional machining of complex shapes is considered), to allow editing of programs, to execute
cycles of machining commands, etc.

The development of CNC over many years, along with the development of local area networking,
has evolved in the modern concept of DNC. Distributed numerical control is similar to CNC, except
a remote computer is used to control a number of machines. An off-site mainframe host computer
holds programs for all parts to be produced in the DNC facility. Programs are downloaded from the
mainframe computer, and then the local controller feeds instructions to the hardwired NC machine.
The recent developments use a central computer which communicates with local CNC computers
(also called Direct Numerical Control)

Controlled axes

NC system can be classified on the number of directions of motion they are capable to control
simultaneously on a machine tool. Each free body has six degree of freedom, three positive or
negative translations along x, y, and z-axis, and three rotations clockwise or counter clockwise about
these axes. Commercial NC systems are capable of controlling simultaneously two, two and half,
three, four and five degrees of freedom, or axes. The NC systems which control three linear
translations (3-axis systems), or three linear translations and one rotation of the worktable (4-axis
systems) are the most common.

Although the directions of axes for a particular machine tool are generally agreed as shown in the
figure, the coordinate system origin is individual for each part to be machined and has to be decided
in the very beginning of the process of CNC part programming (Section 9.2).

Point-to-point vs. continuous systems

The two major types of NC systems are (see the figure):

point-to-point (PTP) system, and

Contouring system.

PTP is a NC system, which controls only the position of the components. In this system, the path of
the component motion relative to the work piece is not controlled. The travelling between different
positions is performed at the traverse speed allowable for the machine tool and following the shortest
way.

Contouring NC systems are capable of controlling not only the positions but also the component
motion, i.e., the travelling velocity and the programmed path between the desired positions: