Construction and Building Materials 147 (2017) 827836

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Tropical residual soil stabilization: A powder form material for

increasing soil strength
Nima Latifi a,, Amin Eisazadeh b, Aminaton Marto c, Christopher L. Meehan d
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA
b
School of Civil Engineering and Technology, Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology, Thammasat University, Khlong Nung, Khlong Luang District, Pathum Thani
12120, Thailand
c
Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 54100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
d
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware, 301 DuPont Hall, Newark, DE 19716, USA

h i g h l i g h t s

 Laterite soil stabilized using a calcium-based additive prepared from biomass silica.
 Stabilized laterite exhibited significant strength gain, even with short curing times.
 Strength gain attributed to formation of calcium aluminate hydrate cementing agents.
 Selected stabilizer appears effective for field treatment of tropical laterite soil.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Stabilization of problematic soils for earthwork applications can be performed using a variety of chemical
Received 7 November 2016 additives, with lime, cement, or fly ash all being traditionally employed for this purpose. More recently,
Received in revised form 10 April 2017 various new calcium-based additives have been actively marketed by a number of companies for soil sta-
Accepted 13 April 2017
bilization applications. The stabilizing mechanisms of these commercially available products are not fully
Available online 8 May 2017
understood, and their proprietary chemical composition makes it difficult to predict their effectiveness.
The current study examines the effectiveness of SH-85, a new calcium-based powder additive which is
Keywords:
prepared from biomass silica, for stabilization of a tropical residual laterite soil. At the macro-level,
Laterite soil
Non-traditional additive
changes in soil strength due to additive stabilization were assessed using a series of unconfined compres-
Unconfined compression strength (UCS) sion strength (UCS) tests. The underlying mechanisms that contributed to the stabilization process were
X-ray diffractometry (XRD) explored using spectroscopic and microscopic techniques, including X-ray diffractometry (XRD), energy-
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDAX), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and Fourier
(EDAX) transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The UCS test results indicated that the addition of SH-85 powder
Field emission scanning electron had a significant stabilizing effect on the laterite soil, with the UCS values increasing fivefold after a 7-day
microscopy (FESEM) curing period. At the micro-level, addition of SH-85 had a weathering effect on the clay minerals, chang-
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
ing the peak intensities of the observed minerals in the XRD spectrums as the stabilized soil was cured. A
(FTIR)
significant change in the soil fabric was also observed with curing time in the FESEM tests, with additive
stabilization yielding a less porous and denser soil fabric, and changes in the surface appearance of trea-
ted clay particles. This research study confirms the potential of SH-85 as an alternative to traditional sta-
bilizers for construction involving tropical residual soils.
2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
For transportation earthwork applications in geotechnical engi-
neering, the availability of high quality soil for construction is often
limited in many parts of the world [1,2]. More often than not, engi-
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nlatifi@cee.msstate.edu (N. Latifi).
neers are forced to find alternatives to the use of locally available
soils in order to meet soil strength, compressibility, or permeability
requirements that are stipulated by a given project. For most appli-
cations, engineers are generally left with two alternatives: (1)
excavate and replace problematic soils with imported backfill
materials, generally an expensive proposition with significant
logistical and sustainability problems, or (2) stabilize or otherwise
improve locally available soils to achieve the required material

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.115
0950-0618/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
828 N. Latifi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 147 (2017) 827836

properties [37]. For the second approach, there are a variety of
options available to chemically stabilize poor quality soils, using
either traditional or non-traditional additives [815].
In tropical regions, the weathering process for soil and rock is
typically much more rapid than what occurs in more temperate cli-
mates, with speedy disintegration of feldspars and ferromagnesian
raw materials, displacement of silica and bases (Na2O, K2O, MgO),
and absorption of aluminum and iron oxides being common [16].
This residual soil formation process, which includes leakage of sil-
ica and decomposition of iron and aluminum oxides, is commonly
referred to as laterization [17]. Tropical regions are ideal for forma-
tion of laterite residual soils, as warm temperatures, significant
quantities of rainfall, and the presence of deeper geologic deposits
that allow for subsurface drainage are common [18,19]. Conse-
quently, substantial layers of lateritic residual soil are often
formed, which typically have significant amounts of aluminum,
iron, and kaolinite clays [16]. The existence of iron oxides makes
the color of laterite soils red (from light to bright red), with brown
shades also being common [20,21]. The presence of significant
quantities of fine-grained soil within most laterite deposits can
be attributed to the significant soil weathering that has occurred.
The fine-grained nature of laterite soil deposits causes this type
of soil to be problematic from an engineering point of view, with
natural soils sometimes needing stabilization [22,23].
Traditional chemical stabilizers such as cement, lime, fly ash,
and bituminous materials are widely studied and their essential
stabilization mechanisms are generally well-understood [2433].
The list of non-traditional chemical additives is much broader,
including enzymes, liquid polymers, resins, acids, silicates, ions
and lignin derivatives [3439]. The chemical nature of these non-
traditional additives is quite varied relative to traditional chemical
stabilizers, and the manner in which they react with soil during the
stabilization process is consequently also quite different for each
type of stabilizer that is used [4042]. Relative to traditional stabi-
lizers, only limited information exists in the technical literature
about the underlying stabilization mechanisms that occur when
different non-traditional additives are used to stabilize different
types of natural soils [43,44].
In recent years, various types of non-traditional additives have
been actively marketed by different companies for stabilization
of fine-grained soils [45,46]. Due to their proprietary chemical
tropical residual soil stabilization using SH-85, and for assessing
the underlying mechanisms through which the laterite soil was
stabilized.
2. Materials and experimental program
2.1. Materials
For this study, soil testing was performed on a residual laterite
soil that is common in tropical areas. Representative block samples
of a reddish laterite clay rich in iron oxides were obtained from a
depth of 2 to 3 m below the ground surface, by performing excava-
tions in a hillside located at the Skudai campus of Universiti Tekno-
logi Malaysia (UTM). The natural soil was air-dried under
laboratory conditions, after which pebbles and plant roots were
removed. Grain size analyses of the resulting soil indicated that a
significant quantity of fine-grained particles are present, as shown
in Fig. 1. Table 1 presents the physical properties of this soil, which
were determined using a variety of traditional soil characterization
tests. Additional characterization test results for this soil (including
more details from compaction testing) are available in Marto et al.
[8]. The color of this clayey soil is reddish due to the high amount
of iron oxides that are present.
The stabilizing additive that was utilized, which goes by the
commercial name SH-85, is a calcium-based powder additive
which is prepared from biomass silica. The selected additive was
sold by the Probase factory located in the Johor province of Malay-
sia; the exact chemical composition of this stabilizer has not been
released by the manufacturer, since it is a commercially registered
brand. Table 2 shows the general chemical properties of this addi-
tive and the selected laterite soil, which were determined using
EDAX testing; the associated pH (L/S = 2.5) for this additive is
12.65. As shown in Table 2, the dominant compounds in SH-85
are calcium oxide (68.21%), silica (9.25%), alumina (12.30%), and
carbon dioxide (10.24%).
US Standard Sieves Hydrometer
100
140
200
60
10
16
20
30
40
4
6
8

composition, the stabilizing mechanism of these products is not 100

fully understood and hence, it is difficult to predict their perfor-
mance. Some previous studies have indicated that various non- 90
traditional additives can be used to increase the strength proper-
ties of certain natural soils [4752]. Other studies have effectively 80
used X-ray diffractometry (XRD), energy-dispersive X-ray spec-
Percent Finer by Weight

70
trometry (EDAX), field emission scanning electron microscopy
(FESEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) tests 60
to examine the mineralogical composition and micro-structure of
soils [5355]. These techniques have also been used to study the 50
micro-structure of soils that have been stabilized using different
types of non-traditional additives [4,5658]. 40
The objective of the current study is to assess the capabilities of
SH-85, a commercially available calcium-based powder form addi- 30
tive prepared from biomass silica, for stabilization of a tropical
20
residual laterite soil from Malaysia. To accomplish this task,
changes in the macro- and micro-structural properties of a laterite 10
soil stabilized with SH-85 were explored over various curing peri-
ods. A series of unconfined compression strength (UCS) tests were 0
performed to examine the physical changes in soil strength that 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
were induced by the additive stabilization process over time. In
Grain Size (millimeters)
parallel, changes in the soil micro-structure over time were
investigated using a series of spectroscopic and microscopic C.S. M.Sand F.Sand Silt or Clay
tests, including XRD, EDAX, FESEM, and FTIR tests. The results
from these tests are useful for understanding the effectiveness of Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of the tested laterite soil.
 N. Latifi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 147 (2017) 827836 829

Table 1 in a steel cylindrical mold of known volume using a hydraulic jack.

Characteristics of the tested laterite soil. This approach allowed for precise preparation of UCS specimens at
Engineering and physical properties Values the OMC and at 90% of the MDD, as determined from the prior
pH (L/S = 2.5) 5.35 standard proctor tests that were conducted [8]. The resulting cylin-
Specific gravity 2.69 drical specimens were extruded using a steel plunger, trimmed,
External surface area (m2 g 1) 41.96 and wrapped in several runs of cling film. These specimens were
Liquid limit, LL (%) 75 cured for 3, 7, 14, 28, and 90 days in a temperature controlled room
Plastic limit, PL (%) 41
Plasticity index, PI (%) 34
(27 2 C) prior to UCS testing. A minimum of three specimens
BS classification MH were tested for each specific mixture, in order to assess the average
Maximum dry density* (kg m 3) 1.31 strength gain of the soil that occurred after soil stabilization. UCS
Optimum moisture content* (%) 34 specimens were loaded at an axial strain rate of 1% per minute,
Unconfined compressive strength (kPa) 226
with an automated data acquisition unit being used to record the
*
Determined using the Standard Proctor test. applied load and axial deformation [60]. The ultimate strength of
each UCS specimen was determined based on its peak axial stress
for tests conducted to a 15% strain level [39].
Table 2 A powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique was used to mea-
Chemical composition of the tested laterite soil and SH-85.
sure the mineralogical changes in soil structure that occur with
Chemical composition (oxides) Values (%) the addition of the soil stabilizer, and to identify new crystalline
Laterite SH-85 compounds that were formed during the stabilization process.
SiO2 25.46 9.25
XRD tests were performed on cured samples using a Bruker D8
Al2O3 31.10 12.30 advanced diffractometer. Specimen scans were performed using
Fe2O3 35.53 0 CuKa radiation (k = 1.54 ) at an angle scan (2h) between 6 and
CO2 7.91 10.24 90, with a 0.02 step size and dwelling time of 1 s at each step.
CaO 0 68.21
A comparison was made between the resulting diffraction patterns
and the standard dataset of the Joint Committee for Powder
2.2. Sample preparation and testing program Diffraction Standards [61].
In order to capture high resolution images of soil fabric, a field
The results from previous studies on this laterite soil have indi- emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) that was equipped
cated that its plasticity and compaction properties can be changed with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDAX) was utilized
significantly by oven drying [8,22]. Consequently, the present for microstructural characterization of untreated and stabilized
study has used air-drying for preparation of all of the associated soil specimens. Each sample was sputtered with platinum for
soil/additive mixtures for testing. As a first step, in order to ensure 120 s at 30 mA under high vacuum until it was completely covered
uniformity of the soil prior to mixing, the air-dried soil was broken and ready to be used for the microscopic analysis. EDAX analysis
up into smaller particles using a mortar and pestle and sieved was used to characterize the major elemental changes that occur
through a 2 mm sieve [11]. De-ionized water was then mixed with on the surface of treated particles as a result of the stabilization
the air dried soil to achieve the desired moisture content. A series process.
of standard proctor compaction tests were conducted following the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis was uti-
British Standard approach (Clause 4.1.5 of BS 1924: Part 2: 1990b), lized to study the changes in the molecular structure of treated
in order to determine the maximum dry density (MDD) and opti- samples. For each FTIR test, approximately 2 mg of dried ground
mum moisture content (OMC) of the natural laterite soil [59]. soil was mixed with 200 mg KBr. In order to measure the absorp-
In order to prepare homogeneous mixtures for unconfined com- tion bands of the prepared KBr disc, it was exposed to an infrared
pressive strength (UCS) testing, hand mixing of air dried soil, de- spectra and scanned using a Perkin Elmer Spectrum 2000 instru-
ionized water and SH-85 was performed using palette knives. ment. The adsorption bands were examined for characteristic wave
Additive-to-soil mix ratios of 3%, 6%, 9%, 12%, and 15% SH-85 by numbers ranging between 400 and 4000 cm 1.
dry weight were prepared. UCS test specimens were created by In the subsequent sections and associated figures in this manu-
compressing a known mass of the resulting soil/additive mixture script, it is helpful to use abbreviations to describe the state of the

LUNT LT 9% Note: All bar charts are arranged with increasing additive
concentrations being shown from left to right.
Compressive Strength (kPa)

1500 LT 3% LT 12%
LT 6% LT 15%

1000

500

0
3 7 14 28 90
Curing Time (Days)

Fig. 2. Unconfined compressive strengths for untreated and SH-85 stabilized laterite soil, for different additive contents and curing times.
830 N. Latifi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 147 (2017) 827836

specimen and curing period: the notation used for this purpose is 85 stabilized laterite soil, at various stabilizer mix ratios and curing
LUNT for untreated laterite clay, LT for treated laterite, and D for time intervals. As shown, the compressive strength of the SH-85
days of curing. stabilized laterite was significantly larger than the compressive
strength measured for untreated specimens, for each of the curing
time intervals that was examined. In general, the stabilized laterite
3. Results and discussion strengths increased with increasing curing times, at a diminishing
rate with each additional curing time increment (Fig. 2). With
3.1. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test results respect to the different additive levels that were examined, the
addition of 9% SH-85 showed a significant jump in strength relative
The UCS test was used to investigate the effectiveness of the to the change that was observed between 3% and 6% SH-85 addi-
selected additive for increasing the compressive strength of laterite tive levels; moreover, additional stabilizer usage beyond 9% (i.e.,
soil. Fig. 2 shows the results from UCS tests on untreated and SH- the 12% and 15% mixes) showed only marginal increases in com-
pressive strength. Consequently, a 9% SH-85 additive level was
Table 3 determined to be the optimum amount of stabilizer usage for the
Unconfined compressive strength of granitic residual soils sampled from various tested laterite soil.
locations in the Malaysian Peninsula mixed with different types of stabilizers. With respect to curing time, most of the observed gain in
Source Type of stabilizer Curing time Compressive strength occurred in the first 7 days. As an example, the 9% SH-
(Day) strength (kPa) 85 treated samples with a 7-day curing time achieved a compres-
Current Study SH-85 7 1087
sive strength of 1087 kPa. This was approximately 5 times greater
Rashid et al. [75] Cement 7 800 than the untreated soil strength (226 kPa). Table 3 shows compres-
Saeed et al. [76] Lime 7 325 sive strength values that have been measured by other researchers
Eisazadeh et al. [18] Lime 240 633 for granitic residual soils from various places in the Malaysian
Geliga and Ismail [77] Fly Ash 7 260
Peninsula that have been mixed with different types of stabilizers.
Basha et al. [28] Rice Husk Ash 7 150
Basha et al. [28] Cement 7 320 Compared to the other stabilizers that were assessed in these stud-
Chew et al. [33] Cement 7 600 ies, SH-85 yielded unconfined compressive strengths that were
Chern [78] Lime 7 385 generally superior after 7 days of curing. In particular, the perfor-

800 Calcium Aluminate Hydrate (CAH)

Intensity (Counts)

LT90D

600

400

200

800
Intensity (Counts)

LT28D

600

400

200

800
Intensity (Counts)

LT7D

600

400

200

GE Q K Q
800
Intensity (Counts)

LUNT K = Kaolinite
Q Q = Quartz
K K K GE K GI = Gibbsite
600
GI Q GE = Goethite
K
400 GI GE Q
GI

200

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Two-Theta (Deg.)

Fig. 3. XRD intensity counts for untreated and SH-85 stabilized laterite soil at different curing times.
 N. Latifi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 147 (2017) 827836 831

mance of SH-85 was noticeably superior to lime stabilization (a
more traditional calcium-based stabilizer), which exhibited signif-
icantly lower strengths, even after extensive curing times [18]. The
mechanism of strength increase during curing for SH-85 stabilized
soils is attributed to a pozzolonic reaction and the production of
cementing gel materials (hydrates).
The relatively rapid strength gain that occurred as a result of
SH-85 stabilization is also attributed to the catalyst nature of the
additive, which belonged to the zeolite family, as confirmed by
the EDAX tests that were performed; these results are consistent
with the findings presented in Latifi et al. [38]. Generally speaking,
zeolites are microporous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used
as commercial absorbents, which include a wide variety of cations,
such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and others. These positive ions are
rather loosely held and can readily be exchanged for others in a
contact solution. It is well established that catalysts, in particular
zeolites, will increase the rate of cation exchange and chemical
reaction of one or more reactants due to the participation of an
additional substance [62,63].
3.2. Microstructural characterization test results
Microstructural characterization provides useful information
about the underlying mechanisms of a chemical stabilization pro-
cess, including elemental composition, mineralogical changes, the
formation of cementitious compounds, molecular characterization
of the new cementing products, and the filling in of open pore
space due to cementation. Following the results from UCS testing,
the optimum level of SH-85 stabilization was determined to be 9%.
Consequently, the goal of the microstructural characterization test-
ing that was performed is to compare specimens of untreated
laterite soil with specimens of 9% SH-85 stabilized laterite.
Fig. 3 provides a comparison of XRD test results for untreated
and SH-85 stabilized laterite soil. The XRD results indicated that
the main minerals present in the laterite soil were kaolinite
(2h = 12.5, 20, 35, 38, 46, 55), quartz (2h = 26, 36.5, 42.5,
50, 62), goethite (2h = 21.5, 37, 41, 53), and gibbsite
(2h = 18, 19, 27, 39) [61]. Although no fundamental changes
took place in the XRD patterns of treated samples in comparison
to the natural laterite soil, the intensity of the kaolinite peaks
appeared to decrease slightly. One possible reason for this reduc-
tion was the effect of the stabilizer on the soil matrix and the asso-
ciated weathering of the kaolinite minerals. The intensity of the
peaks for quartz remained relatively unchanged as a result of the
stabilization process. The apparent occurrences of several new
reflections can also be observed due to the formation of new prod-
ucts at various 2h angles, including 29, 34, 47 and 51 for SH-85
treated samples. These peaks are associated with the formation of
calcium aluminate hydrate (C-A-H), a cementing compound
[38,61].

3500
O
3000
Al
Intensity (Counts)

2500

2000 Si

1500

1000

500 Fe Fe
Fe FeKesc Fe
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Energy (keV)

Fig. 4. EDAX spectrums of untreated laterite soil.

1400 Ca

1200
Intensity (Counts)

1000

800

600

400
O
Ca
200 Si
C Al

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Energy (keV)

Fig. 5. EDAX spectrums of SH-85 additive.

832 N. Latifi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 147 (2017) 827836

In order to obtain more details regarding the surface composi-
tion of treated particles, a series of EDAX analyses were performed.
Figs. 4 and 5 show the EDAX spectrums for the untreated laterite
soil and pure SH-85 additive, respectively. Relatively high intensi-
ties of the silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), and iron (Fe) peaks were
observed in the untreated laterite soil, which is consistent with
its lateritic nature [64]. In addition, the presence of a high intensity
peak of calcium (Ca) in the SH-85 sample confirmed its calcium-
based nature.
Fig. 6(ac) shows the EDAX results for SH-85 treated samples
after 7, 28 and 90 day curing periods, respectively. As shown in
these figures, the peak intensities of the calcium have a significant
reduction with increases in the curing time. Table 4 shows the cor-
responding changes in the ratios of Al:Si and Ca:Si, for different
curing times. As shown, there was an appreciable change in Al:Si
ratio and the Ca:Si ratio for the SH-85 treated samples as the curing
time increased from 7 to 90 days.

O
400
Intensity (Counts)

300
Al Ca
Si
200

100
C Fe Ca Fe
FeKesc Fe
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(a) Energy (keV)

120
Ca
Si
100 Al
Intensity (Counts)

80

60

40
Ca
C Fe Fe
20 FeKesc Fe

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(b) Energy (keV)

1800
O

1500
Intensity (Counts)

1200
Al
Si
900

600

300 Fe
C CaCa FeKesc Fe Fe
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(c) Energy (keV)

Fig. 6. EDAX spectrums of 9% SH-85 treated laterite soil after: (a) 7 days of curing, (b) 28 days of curing, and (c) 90 days of curing.
 N. Latifi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 147 (2017) 827836 833

Table 4 FESEM image analysis was utilized in the current study to

EDAX analysis test results: Al:Si, and Ca:Si ratios for 9% SH-85 treated laterite soil at examine the morphology of the stabilized soil. Figs. 7 and 8 show
various curing times.
the results from FESEM imaging of untreated soil and pure SH-85
Al:Si and Ca:Si Untreated soil Al:Si and Ca:Si ratios for treated additive, and Fig. 9(ac) show the FESEM results for treated soil
soils at various curing periods after 7, 28 and 90 days of curing, respectively. As shown, the
7 days 28 days 90 days untreated soil exhibited a dispersed and discontinuous structure,
Al/Si 1.17 0.99 1.08 1.21 where the voids and porosity are generally visible because of the
Ca/Si 0 2.72 2.37 0.53 absence of hydration products. At the same scale, SH-85 appeared

The reaction that occurred between the laterite soil constituent

minerals and SH-85 was hypothesized to be one of cation exchange
and physical bonding. Cation exchange is expected as part of the
stabilization process with SH-85, because when the SH-85 is added
to a clay-water system, the divalent calcium cations are absorbed
into the diffuse double layer, where they can then interact and
react with the clay particles directly. The presence of Calcium ions
and water allows for chemical reactions with the Aluminum on the
surface of the clay particles, which can combine to form calcium
aluminate hydrate products. The reduction in the Ca:Si ratio and
increase in Al:Si ratio that were observed in the EDAX test results
described in the previous paragraph can be attributed to this gen-
eral reaction process [11,18,38,65,66].

Fig. 7. FESEM image of untreated laterite soil.

Fig. 9. FESEM images of 9% SH-85 treated laterite soil after: (a) 7 days of curing, (b)
Fig. 8. FESEM image of pure SH-85 additive. 28 days of curing, and (c) 90 days of curing.
834 N. Latifi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 147 (2017) 827836
Transmission (%)
3378 cm
-1
3446 cm
-1
-1 3615 cm
3692 cm
4000 3500
Fig. 10. FTIR spectrums for untreated and SH-85 stabilized laterite soil at different curing times.
to have a continuous and flaky shaped structure. From the micro-
graph of the treated soil after 7 days of curing, it can be observed
that there were new crystalline cementing products that were
formed. These new products were accompanied by a tendency
for infilling the pore space in the soil structure, which resulted
in the appearance of a more continuous mass of soil particles over
time; this trend can be observed by comparing the 7, 28, and
90 day images with each other and with the untreated soil speci-
men image. This change in pore structure at the micro-level
yielded a denser soil fabric with enhanced soil particle interlock-
ing, which is one possible reason for the increase in the UCS results
that were observed after SH-85 stabilization of the laterite soil
[40,67]. Generally, based on the FESEM and EDAX analyses that
were performed on treated samples, it can be concluded that the
stabilization mechanism of the selected non-traditional additive
was one of cationic exchange and physical bonding; these results
are consistent with those that have been reported by others that
have tested various calcium-based stabilizers [11,68,69].
FTIR was utilized in the current study to determine the func-
tional groups of soil minerals that are present before and after sta-
bilization of the laterite soil with SH-85. During FTIR testing, the
absorption bands at characteristic wavelengths of bonds that
vibrate independently of one another are measured. Fig. 10 shows
the common features that were observed in the FTIR spectrums for
the untreated and stabilized laterite soil. As shown, these spec-
trums included bands at 1111 and 1032 cm 1 for the perpendicular
and in-plane SiO stretching, respectively. Additional peaks at
3615 and 3692 cm 1 can be attributed to the OH stretching vibra-
tions that correspond to inner-surface hydroxyl groups [18,70].
The presence of hematite and quartz was indicated by the bands
observed at 913 cm 1 and 792 cm 1, respectively [71,72]. The exis-
tence of kaolinite minerals was indicated by the SiO vibrations
observed at 537 and 466 cm 1. The remaining bands can be attrib-
uted to water vibrations, including the stretching vibration at the
3446 cm 1 band, a HOH bending band of water at the
1635 cm 1 band, and an overtone occurring at 3378 cm 1. These
LT 90D
LT 28D
LT 7D
LUNT
-1
1635 cm
-1
-1 Ca-OH 792 cm
-1
-1
913 cm
1111 cm -1
537 cm
-1
1032 cm -1
466 cm
3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
-1
Wavenumber (cm )
FTIR spectrum results for the samples cured for 7, 28 and 90 days
confirmed that the chemical treatment was able to make a notice-
able difference in the Si-O functional groups of soil particles. In
particular, a new absorption band with a weak intensity was
observed in the neighborhood of 1400 cm 1; this band formation
is attributed to the CaOH bond that occurs as a result of SH-85
stabilization. From Fig. 10 it can also be observed that the intensi-
ties of some of the wavelengths were reduced with curing time,
such as the reduction in the relative low points in the curve at
537 and 466 cm 1 with additional curing time, which corre-
sponded to the SiO vibrations that are associated with the kaolin-
ite minerals. This behavior is attributed to the weathering action of
the stabilizer on the clay minerals, as was also observed by other
researchers [53,73,74].
4. Summary and conclusions
The current study examined the effectiveness of stabilization of
a natural laterite clay using a commercially available calcium-
based stabilizer (SH-85). UCS test results showed that SH-85 stabi-
lization of the laterite increased soil strengths significantly, at a
fairly rapid rate (i.e., approximately 80% of the strength improve-
ment that was observed happened within the first 7 days). The
results from SH-85 stabilization were generally observed to be
superior to stabilization results for other granitic residual soils
sampled from various locations in the Malaysian Peninsula that
were improved using lime, cement, fly ash, or rice husk ash mate-
rials. From the UCS testing that was performed, a 9% additive mix
level was selected as the optimum amount for the laterite soil.
The XRD results showed a reduction in some of the clay mineral
peaks with curing time for the SH-85 stabilized specimens. This
was due to the weathering action of the additive on the clay min-
eral structure. Additionally, while none of the peaks for the natural
soil disappeared with time, some new peaks were observed inside
the treated samples. These peaks were attributed to the formation
 N. Latifi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 147 (2017) 827836
of new cementing compounds, in particular calcium aluminate
hydrate (C-A-H). The micro-structural analysis of SH-85 treated
laterite soil by FESEM and EDAX confirmed the occurrence of the
crystallization and cementation phenomenon within the soil
microstructure. In addition, the FTIR results indicated the presence
of a new absorption band at 1390 cm 1 with a weak intensity
which can be attributed to the CaOH bond in the SH-85 treated
soil matrix. Generally, based on the micro-structural analysis of
treated samples, it can be concluded that the stabilization mecha-
nism of the selected non-traditional additive was by cationic
exchange and physical bonding within the natural laterite matrix.
Finally, the outcome of this research confirms the potential of
using SH-85 for stabilization of tropical residual soils, in particular
the construction of pavement base or subbase layers in Malaysia,
or other construction projects in tropical regions that have exten-
sive earthwork that involves a large volume of residual soils as
the primary construction material.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge financial support pro-
vided by the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia and support
from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), under the Research
University Grant (GUP) Q.J130000.2522.13H85.
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