Introduction

Networks provide users with the ability to share files, printers, resources, and mail, as
though they resided locally on the user’s computer. Computer networks have become so
important in some settings that they provide the basis for nearly all business transactions.
Networks make it possible to share documents and images with people all around the world,
literally at the click of a mouse.
Computer networking is a very broad topic. There are many types of networks, from
simple peer-to-peer ones to huge intranets and even the Internet itself. Each type of network can
employ a different combination of network OS, cabling, protocols, and security measures. These
combinations are known as the network’s architecture. In fact, CompTIA’s Network+ certification
is based entirely on networking concepts and network architectures. Obviously, a discussion of
the full spectrum of network details and specifications is too broad in scope to be contained in
this chapter. However, as a computer technician, you should be aware of basic networking
concepts so that you can troubleshoot minor problems on networks that have already been
established. This chapter focuses on basic concepts of physical networks; Chapter 11 focuses on
network protocols and how to configure Windows for network access.

7.1 Classification of Networks

Network is broadly classified into three types based on the distance, how they are
connected and how they are related. The classifications are given below

Geographical Division: (Based on the distance between two computers)

LAN, MAN and WAN are the three types of network which are based on distance
between the computers.

LAN (Local Area Network):

The Local Area Network (LAN) is by far the most common type of data network. As the
name suggests, a LAN serves a local area (typically the area of a floor of a building or within a
room) [Fig 7.11].LANs are defined by three primary characteristics: topology, protocol, and
media. A typical LAN may share resources such as printers, files, or other resources on the LAN.

Fig 7.11: Local Area Network

 LANs are typically very fast and have become extremely cost effective in most situations.
An office or home can share a single high-speed laser printer using a LAN and each user would
have the perception that they are directly connected to the printer. Typical data transmission
speeds are one to 100 megabits per second.
A wide variety of LANs have been built and installed, but a few types have more recently
become dominant. The most widely used LAN system is the Ethernet system developed by the
Xerox Corporation.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

The network size falls intermediate between LANs and WANs. A MAN typically covers an
area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow
sharing of regional resources (similar to a large LAN) Fig 7.12. It is also frequently used to
provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN. Simply we can say that
interconnection of LAN’s spread over larger area is MAN. MAN’s are usually characterized by
very high-speed connections using fiber optical cable or other digital media.

Fig 7.12: Metropolitan Area Network

WAN (Wide Area Network):

The term Wide Area Network (WAN) Fig 7.13 usually refers to a network which covers a
large geographical area, and use communications circuits to connect the intermediate nodes.

Fig 7.13 Metropolitan Area Network

A major factor impacting WAN design and performance is a requirement that they lease
communications circuits from telephone companies or other communications carriers.
Transmission rates are typically 2 Mbps, 34 Mbps, 45 Mbps, 155 Mbps, 625 Mbps (or sometimes
considerably more). Simple example is Internet.
Topology: (Based on how they are connected)

A topology is defined as the layout of the network. This describes how the network
physically looks or how the network is physically designed. The concept of a topology is
important because each network card is designed to work with a specific topology. Conversely, if
your network cable is already installed and you want to use existing wiring, you must select your
network cards based on the preexisting physical topology. Ideally, you can design your network
from scratch. Then you can choose your topology, cabling, and network cards based on what
best meets your needs.
This section will review the commonly defined topologies:
1. Star topology
2. Bus topology
3. Ring topology

Bus Topology:

Physically, a bus topology uses a linear segment of cable to connect all network devices.
Devices typically connect to the bus (the cable) through T-connectors (Fig 7.14). At each end of
the bus are terminators. Each terminator absorbs the signal when it reaches the end of the cable.
Without a terminator, a signal would bounce back and cause network errors.
The physical bus topology uses a logical bus to transmit data on the cable in both
directions. In a logical bus topology, only one transmission can occur at any given moment.
Otherwise, two transmissions would collide and cause network errors. Termination ensures that
the signal is removed from the cable when it reaches either end, preventing possible network
errors.

Fig 7.14 Bus Topology

Benefits:

The benefits of a bus topology include the following:

1. This is one of the least expensive topologies to install, because it uses less cable than
the star topology and needs no hardware for a central device.
2. It is an easy way to network a small number of computers.

Drawbacks

The drawbacks of a bus topology include the following:

1. If there is a break in the cable, the entire network will fail.
2. This topology can be difficult to troubleshoot because cabling problems often cannot
be isolated to one computer.
 3. On a medium-sized to large network, reconfiguration is more difficult than the cable
management of a star topology.

Star Topology

The star topology looks like a star. The hub is at the center of the star, and all devices
attach to the hub via a cable (Fig 7.15). Logically, the physical star topology operates as a logical
bus topology by sending the data signal to all nodes at once. The hub at the center of the star
works as a signal splitter, which means the signal is split and sent to all computers at the same
time, with one exception-it is not sent back to the computer from which the signal originated. The
signal is terminated at each network card, thereby preventing the signal from accidentally
reentering the network. If this were to happen, data packets would travel the network endlessly-
seriously slowing down network performance.

Fig 7.15 Star Topology

Benefits

The benefits of a star topology include the following:

1. A star topology is more fault tolerant than other topologies, because a cable break
does not bring down the entire network.
2. Reconfiguring the network, or adding nodes, is easy because each node connects to
the central hub independent of other nodes.
3. Isolating cable failures is easy because each node connects independently to the
central hub.

Drawbacks

The drawbacks of a star topology include the following:

1. If the central hub fails, the entire network becomes unavailable.
2. This topology is more expensive than others to install because of the additional cable
and equipment involved.

Ring Topology:

Physically, the ring topology is shaped in a ring (Fig 7.16). Cables pass from computer to
computer until the ring is complete. When data is transmitted, each workstation receives the
signal and then passes it on when the workstation is done with the data. Other than Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), no current networks use a physical ring topology, because a
break in the ring makes the entire network unavailable.
Logically, a ring topology works by passing the signal, traditionally called a token, from
one node to another until it reaches all the way around the ring. Token-passing schemes use the
logical ring topology.
 Fig 7.16 Ring Topology

Benefits

A logical ring topology ensures access to the network without the risk of collisions, which
can occur in logical star or bus topologies.

Note: collisions - A problem on Ethernet networks that occurs when two computers transmit
on the wire simultaneously, causing an electrical spike twice the strength than is normal for
the network.

Drawbacks

The drawbacks of a ring topology include the following:

1. If there is a break in the cable of a physical ring topology, the network becomes
unavailable.
2. Physical ring topologies are difficult to troubleshoot.
3. Physical ring topologies are hard to reconfigure.
4. There is limited support for ring networks.
5. The costs for a ring network are significantly higher than for star or bus.

Grouping: (Based on relations between computers)

Based on how they are grouped we can divide network into two types: Peer to Peer
(Workgroup) or Client Server Model (Domain Model).

Peer to Peer Network:

This type of network does not use dedicated network servers for logging in users or
providing secure access to network resources. Instead, clients simply share resources, and other
clients have access to whatever has been shared. Peer-to-peer is an excellent choice for this
budding company because it enables users to share resources on their personal computers.
Resources can include files, printers, and modems. More than anything else, peer-to-peer
networks offer a cost-effective solution that does not require significant expertise, management,
or support.
As you can see in Fig 7.17, a peer-to-peer network does not require a dedicated
computer called a server. Instead, each user can share resources on his or her computer. From
a management standpoint, each user carries some of the responsibility for networking. If Paul
needs access to a file on Meredith's computer, Meredith must share the folder that
 Fig 7.17 Peer-to-Peer Network

contains the file. Also, Meredith's computer will have the added responsibility of performing tasks
that Paul requests, such as transferring files. This transfer could happen at the same time that
Meredith is using her computer to print a document. In other words, a user sitting at a computer
(called a network client) can share network resources while also accessing local resources (such
as the hard drive) for running local applications.
When users share resources on their computers, they have the option of assigning
passwords to the resources. The use of a password provides a minimum level of security.
Passwords should be used anytime that the resource being shared is meant to be used only by
authorized persons. In a peer-to-peer network using operating systems such as Windows 98 or
95, it is possible to assign a password to the shared resource only-not to individual users. An
employee who wants to use a particular printer, for example, must have the password for that
printer. This design limitation makes management of passwords confusing for users, and
therefore limits the effectiveness of using passwords.
Typically, you use the peer-to-peer network model in small workgroups of 10 or fewer
people. Larger networks become difficult to manage and support. In addition, virtually every client
operating system is limited to 12 or fewer users accessing one computer at the same time. The
peer-to-peer model is well suited to organizations that need a cost-effective solution for fulfilling
basic networking needs, such as file and print sharing.

Here are some advantages in choosing a peer-to-peer network:

1. It is easy to set up because it is designed for a small network.

2. Administration is maintained by each user (so that a separate administrator is not
required).
3. It does not require dedicated server hardware and software.
4. Peer-to-peer networking software is built into all popular operating system software.

There are also some disadvantages:

1. This model does not work well if there are a large number of users.
2. Security is poor because each individual is responsible for assigning and maintaining
passwords to the shared resources.
3. Passwords can be assigned only to resources, not users.
4. Because network resources are dispersed, backup of critical data is irregular.

Client-Server Network:

As the number of users grows, the peer-to-peer network model loses its value and
eventually becomes unfeasible. Also, large or growing companies might have different needs
than a small company has. The needs might include support for hundreds of users or the
creation of a centralized order processing system that can be accessed by retail stores and on
the Internet. However you size it up, the needs require a powerful and flexible model. The client-
server network was designed specifically to meet the complex and challenging needs of larger
organizations. The name client-server originates from a design that requires some tasks to be
completed by the user's workstation and other tasks to be processed centrally on a server. As an
example of a client-server model, consider a user accessing a site on the World Wide Web. In
this Fig 7.18, a user at a workstation opens a web browser. The web browser is the client
application. The user enters the URL of a website into the browser, which then makes a request
to the web server for that site. The server sends the page with all its Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML) code. Now that the server has completed its job, the client application is responsible for
converting the HTML into a web page.

Fig 7.18 Client-Server Network

The client-server model can be recommended to companies of all sizes and should be
the first choice when there are 15 or more users. Second, you should consider potential growth.
You might be a company of 10 people now, but plans might include increasing personnel to 20 or
more in a short time. Planning for that growth can have a significant effect on cost savings and
user productivity. Finally, certain application needs, especially those involving the Internet,
require a client-server model. Common applications for centralizing resources include messaging
(for example, e-mail), file and print sharing, databases, and fax/voice services.

The client-server network offers several key advantages:

1. Administration is centralized.
2. This model provides centralization of resources for easier backups.
3. Multiple levels of network security exist through management of usernames and
passwords and through controlled access to network resources.
4. The network offers performance and reliability that can grow as demand grows.

However, the client-server model has some drawbacks:

1. A dedicated server is normally required.

2. It requires a more experienced administrator to install and manage the network than
the peer-to-peer network model does.
3. It needs duplicate administration if users have to access more than one server.
7.1 Classification of Networks

Geographical Division: (Based on the distance between two computers)

LAN, MAN, WAN are the three types of network which are based on distance between
the computers.

LAN (Local Area Network):

 The Local Area Network (LAN) is by far the most common type of data network. As the
name suggests, a LAN serves a local area (typically the area of a floor of a building or within a
room) [Fig 7.11].LANs are defined by three primary characteristics: topology, protocol, and
media. A typical LAN may share resources such as printers, files, or other resources on the LAN.

Fig 7.11: Local Area Network

LANs are typically very fast and have become extremely cost effective in most situations.
An office or home can share a single high-speed laser printer using a LAN and each user would
have the perception that they are directly connected to the printer. Typical data transmission
speeds are one to 100 megabits per second.
A wide variety of LANs have been built and installed, but a few types have more recently
become dominant. The most widely used LAN system is the Ethernet system developed by the
Xerox Corporation.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

The network size falls intermediate between LANs and WANs. A MAN typically covers an
area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow
sharing of regional resources (similar to a large LAN) Fig 7.12. It is also frequently used to
provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN. Simply we can say that
interconnection of LAN’s spread over larger area is MAN. MAN’s are usually characterized by
very high-speed connections using fiber optical cable or other digital media.

Fig 7.12: Metropolitan Area Network

WAN (Wide Area Network):

The term Wide Area Network (WAN) Fig 7.13 usually refers to a network which covers a
large geographical area, and use communications circuits to connect the intermediate nodes.

Fig 7.13 Metropolitan Area Network

A major factor impacting WAN design and performance is a requirement that they lease
communications circuits from telephone companies or other communications carriers.
Transmission rates are typically 2 Mbps, 34 Mbps, 45 Mbps, 155 Mbps, 625 Mbps (or sometimes
considerably more). Simple example is Internet.
Topology: (Based on how they are connected)

A topology is defined as the layout of the network. This describes how the network
physically looks or how the network is physically designed. The concept of a topology is
important because each network card is designed to work with a specific topology. Conversely, if
your network cable is already installed and you want to use existing wiring, you must select your
network cards based on the preexisting physical topology. Ideally, you can design your network
from scratch. Then you can choose your topology, cabling, and network cards based on what
best meets your needs.
This section will review the commonly defined topologies:
1. Star topology
2. Bus topology
3. Ring topology

Bus Topology:

Physically, a bus topology uses a linear segment of cable to connect all network devices.
Devices typically connect to the bus (the cable) through T-connectors (Fig 7.14). At each end of
the bus are terminators. Each terminator absorbs the signal when it reaches the end of the cable.
Without a terminator, a signal would bounce back and cause network errors.
The physical bus topology uses a logical bus to transmit data on the cable in both
directions. In a logical bus topology, only one transmission can occur at any given moment.
Otherwise, two transmissions would collide and cause network errors. Termination ensures that
the signal is removed from the cable when it reaches either end, preventing possible network
errors.
 Fig 7.14 Bus Topology

Benefits:

The benefits of a bus topology include the following:

1. This is one of the least expensive topologies to install, because it uses less cable than
the star topology and needs no hardware for a central device.
2. It is an easy way to network a small number of computers.

Drawbacks

The drawbacks of a bus topology include the following:

1. If there is a break in the cable, the entire network will fail.
2. This topology can be difficult to troubleshoot because cabling problems often cannot
be isolated to one computer.
3. On a medium-sized to large network, reconfiguration is more difficult than the cable
management of a star topology.

Star Topology

The star topology looks like a star. The hub is at the center of the star, and all devices
attach to the hub via a cable (Fig 7.15). Logically, the physical star topology operates as a logical
bus topology by sending the data signal to all nodes at once. The hub at the center of the star
works as a signal splitter, which means the signal is split and sent to all computers at the same
time, with one exception-it is not sent back to the computer from which the signal originated. The
signal is terminated at each network card, thereby preventing the signal from accidentally
reentering the network. If this were to happen, data packets would travel the network endlessly-
seriously slowing down network performance.
 Fig 7.15 Star Topology

Benefits

The benefits of a star topology include the following:

1. A star topology is more fault tolerant than other topologies, because a cable break
does not bring down the entire network.
2. Reconfiguring the network, or adding nodes, is easy because each node connects to
the central hub independent of other nodes.
3. Isolating cable failures is easy because each node connects independently to the
central hub.

Drawbacks

The drawbacks of a star topology include the following:

1. If the central hub fails, the entire network becomes unavailable.
2. This topology is more expensive than others to install because of the additional cable
and equipment involved.

Ring Topology:

Physically, the ring topology is shaped in a ring (Fig 7.16). Cables pass from computer to
computer until the ring is complete. When data is transmitted, each workstation receives the
signal and then passes it on when the workstation is done with the data. Other than Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), no current networks use a physical ring topology, because a
break in the ring makes the entire network unavailable.
Logically, a ring topology works by passing the signal, traditionally called a token, from
one node to another until it reaches all the way around the ring. Token-passing schemes use the
logical ring topology.
 Fig 7.16 Ring Topology

Benefits

A logical ring topology ensures access to the network without the risk of collisions, which
can occur in logical star or bus topologies.

Note: collisions - A problem on Ethernet networks that occurs when two computers transmit
on the wire simultaneously, causing an electrical spike twice the strength than is normal for
the network.

Drawbacks

The drawbacks of a ring topology include the following:

1. If there is a break in the cable of a physical ring topology, the network becomes
unavailable.
2. Physical ring topologies are difficult to troubleshoot.
3. Physical ring topologies are hard to reconfigure.
4. There is limited support for ring networks.
5. The costs for a ring network are significantly higher than for star or bus.
Grouping: (Based on relations between computers)

Based on how they are grouped we can divide network into two types: Peer to Peer
(Workgroup) or Client Server Model (Domain Model).

Peer to Peer Network:

This type of network does not use dedicated network servers for logging in users or
providing secure access to network resources. Instead, clients simply share resources, and other
clients have access to whatever has been shared. Peer-to-peer is an excellent choice for this
budding company because it enables users to share resources on their personal computers.
Resources can include files, printers, and modems. More than anything else, peer-to-peer
networks offer a cost-effective solution that does not require significant expertise, management,
or support.
As you can see in Fig 7.17, a peer-to-peer network does not require a dedicated
computer called a server. Instead, each user can share resources on his or her computer. From
a management standpoint, each user carries some of the responsibility for networking. If Paul
needs access to a file on Meredith's computer, Meredith must share the folder that
 Fig 7.17 Peer-to-Peer Network

contains the file. Also, Meredith's computer will have the added responsibility of performing tasks
that Paul requests, such as transferring files. This transfer could happen at the same time that
Meredith is using her computer to print a document. In other words, a user sitting at a computer
(called a network client) can share network resources while also accessing local resources (such
as the hard drive) for running local applications.
When users share resources on their computers, they have the option of assigning
passwords to the resources. The use of a password provides a minimum level of security.
Passwords should be used anytime that the resource being shared is meant to be used only by
authorized persons. In a peer-to-peer network using operating systems such as Windows 98 or
95, it is possible to assign a password to the shared resource only-not to individual users. An
employee who wants to use a particular printer, for example, must have the password for that
printer. This design limitation makes management of passwords confusing for users, and
therefore limits the effectiveness of using passwords.
Typically, you use the peer-to-peer network model in small workgroups of 10 or fewer
people. Larger networks become difficult to manage and support. In addition, virtually every client
operating system is limited to 12 or fewer users accessing one computer at the same time. The
peer-to-peer model is well suited to organizations that need a cost-effective solution for fulfilling
basic networking needs, such as file and print sharing.

Here are some advantages in choosing a peer-to-peer network:

1. It is easy to set up because it is designed for a small network.

2. Administration is maintained by each user (so that a separate administrator is not
required).
3. It does not require dedicated server hardware and software.
4. Peer-to-peer networking software is built into all popular operating system software.

There are also some disadvantages:

1. This model does not work well if there are a large number of users.
2. Security is poor because each individual is responsible for assigning and maintaining
passwords to the shared resources.
3. Passwords can be assigned only to resources, not users.
4. Because network resources are dispersed, backup of critical data is irregular.

Client-Server Network:

As the number of users grows, the peer-to-peer network model loses its value and
eventually becomes unfeasible. Also, large or growing companies might have different needs
than a small company has. The needs might include support for hundreds of users or the
creation of a centralized order processing system that can be accessed by retail stores and on
the Internet. However you size it up, the needs require a powerful and flexible model.The client-
server network was designed specifically to meet the complex and challenging needs of larger
organizations. The name client-server originates from a design that requires some tasks to be
completed by the user's workstation and other tasks to be processed centrally on a server. As an
example of a client-server model, consider a user accessing a site on the World Wide Web. In
this Fig 7.18, a user at a workstation opens a web browser. The web browser is the client
application. The user enters the URL of a website into the browser, which then makes a request
to the web server for that site. The server sends the page with all its Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML) code. Now that the server has completed its job, the client application is responsible for
converting the HTML into a web page.

Fig 7.18 Client-Server Network

The client-server model can be recommended to companies of all sizes and should be
the first choice when there are 15 or more users. Second, you should consider potential growth.
You might be a company of 10 people now, but plans might include increasing personnel to 20 or
more in a short time. Planning for that growth can have a significant effect on cost savings and
user productivity. Finally, certain application needs, especially those involving the Internet,
require a client-server model. Common applications for centralizing resources include messaging
(for example, e-mail), file and print sharing, databases, and fax/voice services.

The client-server network offers several key advantages:

1. Administration is centralized.
2. This model provides centralization of resources for easier backups.
3. Multiple levels of network security exist through management of usernames and
passwords and through controlled access to network resources.
4. The network offers performance and reliability that can grow as demand grows.

However, the client-server model has some drawbacks:

1. A dedicated server is normally required.

2. It requires a more experienced administrator to install and manage the network than
the peer-to-peer network model does.
3. It needs duplicate administration if users have to access more than one server.
7.5 Ways to Network PCs
By combining topologies, cable types, protocols, access methods, and other network
variables, it is possible to come up with hundreds of different network architectures. There are,
however, a few standardized combinations, as described in this section.

7.5.1 802.3 (Ethernet)

The Ethernet standard, developed by IEEE, is by far the most common. Also known as
IEEE 802.3, this type of network combines CSMA/CD access with half-duplex communication
and supports transmission speeds of either 10Mbps or 100Mbps. Ethernet networks can use
twisted-pair, coax, or fiber-optic cable and can use bus or star topologies. You must use a special
Ethernet NIC to access an Ethernet network.
Ethernet networks are often referred to by their speed, channel type, and cable type. For
example, the term 10BaseF indicates a 10Mbps network that uses one
(base) channel and fiber-optic (F) cable. 100BaseT is a 100Mbps Ethernet network that uses
twisted-pair. Table -2 contains Ethernet types and their characteristics.

Note: Ethernet networks are identified by this configuration: speedBasecable. The 10 or 100 at
the start of the configuration signifies the speed in Mbps, and the letter or number at the end
indicates the cable type (T = twisted-pair,2 = thinnet, 5 = thicknet, and F = fiber).

7.5.2 Token-Passing Networks

Token-passing networks are those that use the token-passing access method. There are
several IEEE-defined standards for token passing, including Token Ring, Token Bus, and Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). Token-passing networks can use star, ring, or bus topologies
and coax, twisted-pair, or fiber-optic cabling. For each token- passing network type, you must
install the proper type of NIC.
Token Ring networks are based on the IEEE 802.5 standard and have transmission rates
of either 4Mbps or 16Mbps. They use twisted-pair cable and half-duplex communication.
Although Token Ring networks may actually have a physical ring topology, it is more common for
them to have a star topology. In either case, the token travels from one computer to the next, in
order, in a conceptual ring. This type of network uses a multiple access unit (MAU) instead of a
hub. See Figure -8 for an illustration of a conceptual ring on a physical star topology.
Another type of token-passing network is Token Bus. This network, based on IEEE
standard 802.4, is similar to Token Ring but uses a coax bus topology rather than a twisted-pair
ring or star. A Token Bus network can transmit at 4Mbps only.
FDDI networks use the FDDI standard, which was developed by ANSI and based on the
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring standard. FDDI networks use a fiber-optic dual-ring structure and are
capable of transmitting up to 100Mbps

Note: Token Ring networks with a star topology use a MAU, not a hub.

Table 2: Ethernet Types and Characteristics

7.5.3 Dial-Up Networks

 A dial-up network connection uses a modem rather than a network card and uses regular
phone cables instead of network cables. In a dial-up connection, one computer must be
configured to dial the host computer, and the host computer must be configured to permit dial-up
access. Once a dial-up connection has been established, the two computers can communicate
as though they were part of a LAN. If the host computer is already part of a LAN, the dial-up
connection can be used to allow remote access to it.

Fig 7.5.31 Internal and external Modem for dial-up Network

7.5.4 Direct Connection

It is possible to network two PCs simply by connecting them via their parallel or serial
ports. Direct connections require special cables with different pinouts so that the send wires on
one computer match the receive wires on the other computer. This is called a crossover cable.
Although this type of connection provides relatively fast data transmission it is limited to two
computers only, and distances are limited to 25 meters for a serial connection and 8 meters for a
parallel connection. To configure a direct cable connection in Windows 9x and Me, follow the
procedure in Exercise1. This exercise describes how to first configure the host, then the guest
machine. In the case of a serial connection the connection is usually accomplished using the RS
232 serial standard. Parallel connections typically use the IEEE 1284 standard for
communications.

Exercise 1
Configuring Windows 98 Computers for a Direct Connection
1. Click Start, then select Programs | Accessories | Communications | Direct Cable
Connection. If you do not see Direct Cable Connection in the Communications menu, use
the Add/Remove Programs utility to install it.
2. The Direct Cable Connection Wizard will open. Select Host, then select Next.
3. You will be prompted to select a computer port to use for the connection. Select the
appropriate port. Plug the cable in, and click Next.
4. You will be prompted to configure the computer to use File and Printer
Sharing, if it has not already been set up. Click File and Printer Sharing.
5. The Network dialog box will open. Click File and Print Sharing, and then elect to allow
access to both files and printers. Click OK, and then click OK again. If you have made a
change in the network dialog box, you will need to restart your computer.
6. Click Next in the Direct Cable Connection Wizard.
 7. In the final screen, you can choose to force guests to use a password to access the
host computer. To do so, enable the Use Password Protection option, then click Set
Password. Enter the password, and click OK.
8. Click Finish.
9. To configure the guest computer, start the Direct Cable Connection Wizard and select
Guest rather than Host.
10. Select the port, and then click Next.
11. Click Finish.
12. The two devices should be able to “see” each other in Network Neighborhood.

7.5.5 ISDN Connections

Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) was an early international standard for sending
voice and data over digital or normal telephone wire; these days it is being largely replaced by
newer technologies such as DSL and cable. ISDN uses existing telephone circuits or higher
speed conditioned lines to get speeds of either 64K or 128K. This considerably beats the
maximum speed of 56K that you can get from a dial-up modem. ISDN lines also have the ability
to simultaneously carry voice and data over the circuit. ISDN connections are made using an
ISDN modem on both ends of the circuit. ISDN modems are also known as Digital modems or
Terminal Adapters. Fig 7.5.51 shows a typical ISDN connection between two networks. This
connection uses a conditioned phone line provided by the phone company. There are three types
of ISDN connections. They are Basic Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI) and
BroadBand ISDN (B-ISDN).

Fig 7.5.51 ISDN Connection

Basic Rate Interface (BRI)

This is provided for residential users with basic digital service through the existing
telephone lines. The cost is low. BRI information exists as a pair of 64Kbps channel and one
16Kbps channel. The two 64Kbps channels called bearer channels or B channels can be used to
transmit and receive voice and data information. The 16Kbps channel is used to implement
advanced control features such as call waiting, call forwarding and caller ID.

Primary Rate Interface (PRI)

This is used for live Video transmissions.

Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN)

This is used for high transfer rates upto 622Mbps.

7.5.6 DSL Connections

 Fig 7.5.61 DSL Connection

Digital subscriber line (DSL) is a relatively new entry into the data market. DSL uses
existing copper telephone wire for the communications circuit. The existing phone line is split.
into two bands to accomplish this, and the frequency below 4,000Hz is reserved for voice
transmission while everything else is used for data transmission. This is accomplished through a
DSL modem Fig 7.5.61 shows the total bandwidth being separated into two channels; one is
used for voice, the other for data. Voice communications operate normally, and the data
connection is always on and available. DSL is up to 140 times faster than available analog dial-
up connections.

7.5.7 Cable Connections

Cable communications or cable modems use existing cable TV connections for data
transmission. The cable provider uses an existing channel in the cable network for data
communications, which are connected via a cable modem. The cable modem provides a network
connection for a local computer or is installed directly in a PC system. This allows
 Fig 7.5.71 Cable Connection

for very high-speed, always-on networking for clients that have cable TV installed. Fig 7.5.71
shows the cable connection in a household. Interestingly enough, if you have digital cable
service into a house, you have been using cable modem technology for some time, whether you
were using it with your computer or not. The cable box actually contains a cable modem to use
advanced services of digital cable.

7.6.8 Satellite Connection

Satellite communications systems have long been seen as a way to connect people in
remote locations to the Internet. A number of different models have been tried to make this a
commercially viable service. To the best of my knowledge, none of these ventures have yet
succeeded. However, there are available satellite Earth stations that can be purchased, and
satellite channels can be rented to make it virtually impossible to be out of touch anywhere in the
world. These services are expensive and are mostly used by governmental agencies, the
military, and ships for communications. The premise of a satellite network is that each
workstation must have access to a ground station that uplinks the data to a satellite. The satellite
then downlinks to another Earth station to complete the circuit.

7.6.9 Infrared Networks

Computers can also be networked using infrared communications. There are several
ways to do this, including direct cable connection, in which two computers can be networked as
long as their IrDA (Infrared Data Association) ports are properly configured and are facing each
other. A more recent implementation of infrared access is the IEEE 802.11 standard. This
standard specifies an Ethernet network that uses infrared rather than network cables and can
transmit up to 20Mbps. IR networks tend to be slower than other networks, though higher speed
alternatives are becoming available.

7.6.10 Wireless Connections

 Wireless communications using the 802.11 standard is rapidly becoming very popular.
There are several standards within the 802.11 protocol, and more are being proposed all the
time. The 802.11 standard is also known as Wi-Fi. These systems use either 2.4GHz or 5GHz
frequencies to communicate between systems. The range on these systems is relatively short
but it offers the advantage of not having to install cable to have network services. Fig 7.6.101
shows a typical wireless network in a home. Notice that in this installation, all of the users in the
network have access to the Internet using a single cable modem. The wireless communications
network uses a wireless router to connect to the Internet. Each workstation in the network has a
wireless adapter to connect to the router. Most of these adapters connect directly to the USB port
on the workstation.

Fig 7.6.101 Wireless Network

7.5.11 Connecting LANs

Most computer LANs are now connected to other LANs or wide area networks (WAN)
such as the Internet. These connections usually require some form of translation and routing
capability. In the case of the Internet, each computer in the network requires
a TCP/IP address. In order to reach another network, the originating computer must know how to
reach the other computer. To accomplish this, routes are established and a device called a router
is used to store information about destinations. A router knows which computers are connected
to it on the LAN and knows at least the next destination that information can be transferred to.
The Internet has thousands of routers managing the connections between the millions of
computers connected to it. Fig 7.5.111 shows a router between a LAN and a WAN. The router
typically includes bridging circuitry to connect multiple network technologies together such as a
LAN and a T-1 network. This technology is very complicated but is needed to manage the
millions of connections that exist in the Internet.
The second commonly used technology is called a bridge. Abridge was needed to
provide a translation of protocols from 802.11 to 802.3. There are numerous types of bridges that
allow connections between the various protocols, network topologies, and media. If you wanted
to connect a 100BaseT network to a ring network, a device would be needed to bridge these two
topologies. This bridge device would be used to tie the two network topologies together as shown
in Fig 7.5.111. PC systems can also be used to bridge networks if they have multiple network
interface cards in them. This might be the case if you were working with a communication server
to bridge an IBM proprietary communications standard to the Internet.
 Fig 7.5.111 Connecting LANs

7.5.1 802.3 (Ethernet)

The Ethernet standard, developed by IEEE, is by far the most common. Also known as
IEEE 802.3, this type of network combines CSMA/CD access with half-duplex communication
and supports transmission speeds of either 10Mbps or 100Mbps. Ethernet networks can use
twisted-pair, coax, or fiber-optic cable and can use bus or star topologies. You must use a special
Ethernet NIC to access an Ethernet network.
Ethernet networks are often referred to by their speed, channel type, and cable type. For
example, the term 10BaseF indicates a 10Mbps network that uses one
(base) channel and fiber-optic (F) cable. 100BaseT is a 100Mbps Ethernet network that uses
twisted-pair. Table -2 contains Ethernet types and their characteristics.

Note: Ethernet networks are identified by this configuration: speedBasecable. The 10 or 100 at
the start of the configuration signifies the speed in Mbps, and the letter or number at the end
indicates the cable type (T = twisted-pair,2 = thinnet, 5 = thicknet, and F = fiber).
7.6.10 Wireless Connections

Wireless communications using the 802.11 standard is rapidly becoming very popular.
There are several standards within the 802.11 protocol, and more are being proposed all the
time. The 802.11 standard is also known as Wi-Fi. These systems use either 2.4GHz or 5GHz
frequencies to communicate between systems. The range on these systems is relatively short
but it offers the advantage of not having to install cable to have network services. Fig 7.6.101
shows a typical wireless network in a home. Notice that in this installation, all of the users in the
network have access to the Internet using a single cable modem. The wireless communications
network uses a wireless router to connect to the Internet. Each workstation in the network has a
wireless adapter to connect to the router. Most of these adapters connect directly to the USB port
on the workstation.
 Fig 7.6.101 Wireless Network

7.5.11 Connecting LANs

Most computer LANs are now connected to other LANs or wide area networks (WAN)
such as the Internet. These connections usually require some form of translation and routing
capability. In the case of the Internet, each computer in the network requires
a TCP/IP address. In order to reach another network, the originating computer must know how to
reach the other computer. To accomplish this, routes are established and a device called a router
is used to store information about destinations. A router knows which computers are connected
to it on the LAN and knows at least the next destination that information can be transferred to.
The Internet has thousands of routers managing the connections between the millions of
computers connected to it. Fig 7.5.111 shows a router between a LAN and a WAN. The router
typically includes bridging circuitry to connect multiple network technologies together such as a
LAN and a T-1 network. This technology is very complicated but is needed to manage the
millions of connections that exist in the Internet.
The second commonly used technology is called a bridge. Abridge was needed to
provide a translation of protocols from 802.11 to 802.3. There are numerous types of bridges that
allow connections between the various protocols, network topologies, and media. If you wanted
to connect a 100BaseT network to a ring network, a device would be needed to bridge these two
topologies. This bridge device would be used to tie the two network topologies together as shown
in Fig 7.5.111. PC systems can also be used to bridge networks if they have multiple network
interface cards in them. This might be the case if you were working with a communication server
to bridge an IBM proprietary communications standard to the Internet.
 Fig 7.5.111 Connecting LANs

7.5.2 Token-Passing Networks

Token-passing networks are those that use the token-passing access method. There are
several IEEE-defined standards for token passing, including Token Ring, Token Bus, and Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). Token-passing networks can use star, ring, or bus topologies
and coax, twisted-pair, or fiber-optic cabling. For each token- passing network type, you must
install the proper type of NIC.
Token Ring networks are based on the IEEE 802.5 standard and have transmission rates
of either 4Mbps or 16Mbps. They use twisted-pair cable and half-duplex communication.
Although Token Ring networks may actually have a physical ring topology, it is more common for
them to have a star topology. In either case, the token travels from one computer to the next, in
order, in a conceptual ring. This type of network uses a multiple access unit (MAU) instead of a
hub. See Figure -8 for an illustration of a conceptual ring on a physical star topology.
Another type of token-passing network is Token Bus. This network, based on IEEE
standard 802.4, is similar to Token Ring but uses a coax bus topology rather than a twisted-pair
ring or star. A Token Bus network can transmit at 4Mbps only.
FDDI networks use the FDDI standard, which was developed by ANSI and based on the
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring standard. FDDI networks use a fiber-optic dual-ring structure and are
capable of transmitting up to 100Mbps

Note: Token Ring networks with a star topology use a MAU, not a hub.

Table 2: Ethernet Types and Characteristics

7.5.3 Dial-Up Networks

A dial-up network connection uses a modem rather than a network card and uses regular
phone cables instead of network cables. In a dial-up connection, one computer must be
configured to dial the host computer, and the host computer must be configured to permit dial-up
access. Once a dial-up connection has been established, the two computers can communicate
as though they were part of a LAN. If the host computer is already part of a LAN, the dial-up
connection can be used to allow remote access to it.

Fig 7.5.31 Internal and external Modem for dial-up Network

7.5.4 Direct Connection

It is possible to network two PCs simply by connecting them via their parallel or serial
ports. Direct connections require special cables with different pinouts so that the send wires on
one computer match the receive wires on the other computer. This is called a crossover cable.
Although this type of connection provides relatively fast data transmission it is limited to two
computers only, and distances are limited to 25 meters for a serial connection and 8 meters for a
parallel connection. To configure a direct cable connection in Windows 9x and Me, follow the
procedure in Exercise1. This exercise describes how to first configure the host, then the guest
machine. In the case of a serial connection the connection is usually accomplished using the RS
232 serial standard. Parallel connections typically use the IEEE 1284 standard for
communications.

Exercise 1
Configuring Windows 98 Computers for a Direct Connection
1. Click Start, then select Programs | Accessories | Communications | Direct Cable
Connection. If you do not see Direct Cable Connection in the Communications menu, use
the Add/Remove Programs utility to install it.
2. The Direct Cable Connection Wizard will open. Select Host, then select Next.
3. You will be prompted to select a computer port to use for the connection. Select the
appropriate port. Plug the cable in, and click Next.
4. You will be prompted to configure the computer to use File and Printer
Sharing, if it has not already been set up. Click File and Printer Sharing.
5. The Network dialog box will open. Click File and Print Sharing, and then elect to allow
access to both files and printers. Click OK, and then click OK again. If you have made a
change in the network dialog box, you will need to restart your computer.
6. Click Next in the Direct Cable Connection Wizard.
7. In the final screen, you can choose to force guests to use a password to access the
host computer. To do so, enable the Use Password Protection option, then click Set
Password. Enter the password, and click OK.
8. Click Finish.
9. To configure the guest computer, start the Direct Cable Connection Wizard and select
Guest rather than Host.
10. Select the port, and then click Next.
11. Click Finish.
12. The two devices should be able to “see” each other in Network Neighborhood.

7.5.5 ISDN Connections

Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) was an early international standard for sending
voice and data over digital or normal telephone wire; these days it is being largely replaced by
newer technologies such as DSL and cable. ISDN uses existing telephone circuits or higher
speed conditioned lines to get speeds of either 64K or 128K. This considerably beats the
maximum speed of 56K that you can get from a dial-up modem. ISDN lines also have the ability
to simultaneously carry voice and data over the circuit. ISDN connections are made using an
ISDN modem on both ends of the circuit. ISDN modems are also known as Digital modems or
Terminal Adapters. Fig 7.5.51 shows a typical ISDN connection between two networks. This
connection uses a conditioned phone line provided by the phone company. There are three types
of ISDN connections. They are Basic Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI) and
BroadBand ISDN (B-ISDN).

Fig 7.5.51 ISDN Connection

Basic Rate Interface (BRI)

This is provided for residential users with basic digital service through the existing
telephone lines. The cost is low. BRI information exists as a pair of 64Kbps channel and one
16Kbps channel. The two 64Kbps channels called bearer channels or B channels can be used to
transmit and receive voice and data information. The 16Kbps channel is used to implement
advanced control features such as call waiting, call forwarding and caller ID.

Primary Rate Interface (PRI)

 This is used for live Video transmissions.

Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN)

This is used for high transfer rates upto 622Mbps.

7.5.6 DSL Connections

Fig 7.5.61 DSL Connection

Digital subscriber line (DSL) is a relatively new entry into the data market. DSL uses
existing copper telephone wire for the communications circuit. The existing phone line is split.
into two bands to accomplish this, and the frequency below 4,000Hz is reserved for voice
transmission while everything else is used for data transmission. This is accomplished through a
DSL modem Fig 7.5.61 shows the total bandwidth being separated into two channels; one is
used for voice, the other for data. Voice communications operate normally, and the data
connection is always on and available. DSL is up to 140 times faster than available analog dial-
up connections.

7.5.7 Cable Connections

Cable communications or cable modems use existing cable TV connections for data
transmission. The cable provider uses an existing channel in the cable network for data
communications, which are connected via a cable modem. The cable modem provides a network
connection for a local computer or is installed directly in a PC system. This allows
 Fig 7.5.71 Cable Connection

for very high-speed, always-on networking for clients that have cable TV installed. Fig 7.5.71
shows the cable connection in a household. Interestingly enough, if you have digital cable
service into a house, you have been using cable modem technology for some time, whether you
were using it with your computer or not. The cable box actually contains a cable modem to use
advanced services of digital cable.
7.6.8 Satellite Connection

Satellite communications systems have long been seen as a way to connect people in
remote locations to the Internet. A number of different models have been tried to make this a
commercially viable service. To the best of my knowledge, none of these ventures have yet
succeeded. However, there are available satellite Earth stations that can be purchased, and
satellite channels can be rented to make it virtually impossible to be out of touch anywhere in the
world. These services are expensive and are mostly used by governmental agencies, the
military, and ships for communications. The premise of a satellite network is that each
workstation must have access to a ground station that uplinks the data to a satellite. The satellite
then downlinks to another Earth station to complete the circuit.

7.6.9 Infrared Networks

Computers can also be networked using infrared communications. There are several
ways to do this, including direct cable connection, in which two computers can be networked as
long as their IrDA (Infrared Data Association) ports are properly configured and are facing each
other. A more recent implementation of infrared access is the IEEE 802.11 standard. This
standard specifies an Ethernet network that uses infrared rather than network cables and can
transmit up to 20Mbps. IR networks tend to be slower than other networks, though higher speed
alternatives are becoming available.
7.4 Devices, Cables and Connectors

To connect pc’s we need cables, connecters and some devices depending upon the
topology we use. Let us see some devices, cables and connectors in this chapter.

7.4.1 Devices

Devices used in Networks are NIC’s, HUB, Repeater, Switch, Bridge, Router, Modem and
Firewall.

NIC – Network Interface Cards

Network interface cards (NICs) are known by a variety of names including network
adapters or cards, network adapter boards, and media access cards. Regardless of their name,
they share a common set of functions in enabling computers to communicate across a network.
Network interface cards are often defined by:
1. The type of Data Link protocol they support, such as an Ethernet adapter or a Token
Ring adapter
2. The type of media they connect to
3. The data bus for which they were designed

Fig 7.4.11 Token Ring NIC and Ethernet NIC

In order to interact with the computer where it is installed, the network adapter, like any other
peripheral device, must have a software driver installed. This driver allows the operating system
and higher level protocols to control the functions of the adapter.

The NIC performs the following functions:

1. Translates data from the parallel data bus to a serial bit stream for transmission across
the network.
2. Formats packets of data in accordance with protocol.
3. Transmits and receives data based on the hardware address of the card.

Translating from Parallel to Serial

The network adapter, like any device installed in a system, is attached to the CPU via a
parallel data bus, such as an ISA or PCI bus. These parallel buses move data quickly between
devices internal to the system. Network transmission, on the other hand, relies on a serial data
stream in order to transmit messages. Therefore, all data coming into the network card from the
bus must be transformed into a serial data stream before transmission.
Formatting Packets

Data transmission within a network interface card has two characteristics. The first of
these is the transmission of binary bits across the network medium. A Physical Layer protocol
defines the voltages and signal standards used to represent binary data on the network. This is
built into the hardware on the card. In addition, the Data Link protocol supported by the card
defines a packet structure for sending and receiving data. This structure includes fields for
addressing and control information as well as the data. This function is implemented by the card
and its software driver.

Transmitting and Receiving Data

The primary function of the network adapter is to transmit and receive data between
other network interface cards across the network media. It does this based on the fact that each
card has an address, known as the MAC (media access control) address or hardware address.
This address is generally built into the card by the manufacturer, and includes portions that
identify the brand, as well as uniquely identifying the card itself. Each card is designed to pick out
messages on the network destined for their hardware address as well as broadcast messages.

Specialized NICs

There are network interface cards available for a wide variety of situations and
environments. Two of these are NICs for wireless media and network adapters used in diskless
workstations.

Wireless NICs
There are a variety of wireless media that involve the use of radio frequency
transmission, or light transmission via laser or infrared. Wireless NICs are used to accommodate
these transmission methods. The main difference between a wireless NIC and a more traditional
cabled NIC lies in the transceiver. In the case of radio frequency NICs, the transceiver performs
the functions of a radio transceiver, and generally has an antenna attached. See Fig
7.4.12.These may interact directly with other wireless nodes, or may attach to a wired LAN via a
wireless concentrator.
In the case of an optical transmission method such as infrared, the transceiver uses
LEDs and photosensitive devices to generate and recognize the data stream. These
transmission methods generally require "line-of-sight" alignment between communicating nodes.

Fig 7.4.12 Wireless NIC

Remote Boot PROMs

The diskless workstation is a concept that has been around for some time. Designed for
use in fairly large environments, it originally had two goals. The first was to enhance security on
the network by removing local storage from the end user, and requiring that all data and
applications be stored on servers. By managing user access to this information via server
permissions, the LAN administrator could more effectively control the environment. The second
goal of diskless workstations was the cost of mass storage. By removing the cost of local
storage, particularly as workstation populations increased, companies could save costs. This has
become less of an issue as the cost of mass storage has declined.
The challenge of using diskless workstations is how to boot them. Normally, a system at
startup looks for a hard disk that is bootable in order to start the operating system. This
specifically involves looking for a Master Boot Record that tells the system where to find the boot
files. In the case of a diskless workstation, there is no disk available to perform this function,
since all storage is accessed through the network adapter.

Fig 7.4.13 Boot PROMs

A remote boot PROM can be added to a network adapter to allow the system to boot
using files stored on the network. An adapter capable of doing remote boot has an empty socket
that can be populated with a boot PROM. Once installed and configured, this boot PROM directs
the system to the network location of the boot files.

Repeater

A repeater is probably one of the conceptually simplest devices on a network. Repeaters,

although not necessary for functionality, enable your network to span a greater distance.
Repeaters allow you to extend your network beyond the physical limits of the cabling. A repeater
accomplishes this simply by repeating packets from one side of the wire to another while
increasing or boosting the signal.

OSI Physical Layer

A repeater resides within the Physical Layer of the OSI Model, meaning that it does not
look within the packets; the repeater simply receives packets on one side, and sends them on
another side. A repeater never filters packets; all packets are always repeated.

HUB
Hubs are one of the most important components of a network. They are the central
location that all cabling must connect to in most topologies. (See Fig 7.4.14)

Role of Hubs in Topologies

Most network topologies can use for a hub in one way or another. The most prominent
user of hubs is the 10BaseT topology. 10BaseT is entirely dependent on hubs for the
infrastructure of the topology.
Passive

The function of a passive hub is simply to receive data from one port of the hub and send
it out to the other ports. For example, an 8-port hub receives data from port 3 and then resends
that data to ports 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. It is as simple as that.

Active (Multi-Port Repeaters)

An active hub provides the same functionality of a passive hub with an additional feature.
Active hubs repeat the data while resending it to all of the ports. By using active hubs you can
increase the length of your network. It is important to remember that UTP (unshielded twisted
pair) Category 5 cabling can be run a maximum of 100 meters. With an active hub, you can run
Category 5 UTP 100 meters on each side of the hub.

Fig 7.4.14 HUB

Switch:

Switches have become an increasingly important part of our networks today. As network
usage increases, so do traffic problems. As a systems engineer, you will be faced with this
problem on an almost continuous basis. A common solution to traffic problems is to implement
switches.

Multi-Port Bridging

Switches, also referred to as multi-port bridges, automatically determine the MAC

addresses of the devices connected to each port of the switch. The switch then examines each
packet it receives to find its destination MAC address. The switch then determines which port the
packet is destined for and sends it out to that port only.
 Fig 7.4.15 Switch

Network Performance Improvement with Switching

The primary benefit of implementing switching technology is that network performance

will be improved a great deal. It is important to note that if you are not having traffic problems on
your network, adding a switch will probably not change your network’s performance. If your
network is having traffic problems, switching, when implemented properly, can greatly increase
your performance.

OSI Data Link Layer

Switches operate by knowing the destination MAC address and allowing the packet to
use the direct route within the switch from the source port to the port that the device with the
destination MAC address is connected to. The only information that a switch needs to operate is
the MAC address, so the switch is said to reside in the Data Link Layer of the OSI Model.

Bridges

A bridge is a network connectivity device that connects two different networks and makes
them appear to be one network. The bridge filters local traffic between the two networks and
copies all other traffic to the other side of the bridge.

Network Segmentation

A bridge is a simple way to accomplish network segmentation. Placing a bridge between

two different segments of the network decreases the amount of traffic on each of the local
networks. Although this does accomplish network segmentation, most network administrators opt
to use routers or switches, which are discussed later in the chapter.

OSI Data Link Layer

Switches operate by knowing the destination MAC address and allowing the packet to
use the direct route within the switch from the source port to the port that the device with the
destination MAC address is connected to. The only information that a switch needs to operate is
the MAC address, so the switch is said to reside in the Data Link Layer of the OSI Model.

Routers
 Routers operate similarly to switches. It connects two different The major difference is
that a router is not quite as intelligent as a switch. Where a switch calculates which devices are
connected to each port, a router receives packets from one side and determines if the
destination is on the other side of the router. If the destination of the packet is on the other side of
the router, the packet is forwarded. If the destination is not on the other side of the router, it is
then forwarded to the next router.

Gateways

A gateway is a device that enables two dissimilar systems that have similar functions to
communicate with each other.

Connecting Dissimilar Systems

Dissimilar systems are defined as two systems that have similar functions, but are unable
to directly communicate with each other. For example, two Token Ring networks and Ethernet
qualify under this definition.

In Fig 7.4.16, the PC on the left is able to use data and applications that are on the Mainframe
on the right. As packets cross the gateway from the Mainframe to the PC, the Gateway converts
them to a format that is understandable by the PC. The opposite operation occurs when the PC
sends packets to the Mainframe. In this figure, PC and Mainframe are dissimilar systems.

Fig 7.4.16 Gateways connect two dissimilar systems and allow them to share data.

Mainframe Gateways

A mainframe gateway is a common type of gateway. Many companies want to continue

to use their older mainframe. This is quite often a more cost-effective solution rather than
immediately replacing all services that the mainframe is performing. To allow users to connect to
the mainframe from their desktop rather than going to a special mainframe terminal, a gateway is
installed. The gateway converts information from a format that the workstation understands to
one that the mainframe understands, and vice versa.

7.4.2 Cables and Connectors

Cabling is the LAN’s transmission medium. LANs can be connected together using a
variety of cable types. Each cable type has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Cabling Types

There are three primary types of physical media that can be used at the Physical Layer:
coaxial cable, twisted-pair cable, and fiber-optic cable. Transmission rates that can be supported
on each of these physical media are measured in millions of bits per second (Mbps).

Coaxial
 Coaxial (or coax) cable looks like the cable used to bring the cable TV signal to your
television. One strand (a solid-core wire) runs down the middle of the cable. Around that strand is
insulation. Covering that insulation is braided wire and metal foil, which shields against
electromagnetic interference, as illustrated in Fig 7.4.21. A final layer of insulation covers the
braided wire. Coaxial cable is resistant to the interference and signal weakening that other
cabling, such as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable, can experience. In general, coax is better
than UTP cable in connecting longer distances and for reliably supporting higher data rates with
less sophisticated equipment.

Fig 7.4.21 Coaxial Cable

Just because the TV cable is coax does not mean it will work with computer networks.
Network coaxial cable has very specific requirements such as the gauge, the impedance, and
the attenuation.

Thinnet Coaxial Cable

Thinnet refers to RG-58 cabling, is a flexible coaxial cable about ¼ inch thick. Thinnet is
used for short distance communication and is flexible enough to facilitate routing between
workstations. Thinnet connects directly to a workstation’s network adapter card using a BNC T-
connector (See Fig 7.4.22) and uses the network adapter card’s internal transceiver. 10Base2
refers to Ethernet LANs that use thinnet cabling.

Fig 7.4.22 BNC Connectors

Fig 7.4.23 illustrates a bus type of network called a local bus. At each end of the bus there is a
terminating resistor, or a terminator, of 50 ohms. Each workstation’s network adapter is
connected to the bus via a single cable, called a drop, using a BNC T-connector.

Fig 7.4.23 Bus Network

The network adapter’s internal transceiver is a device that transmits and receives signals. Even if
your network consisted of only two computers, T-connectors and terminates are still required
.The bus carries a message from one end of the network to the other. As the bus passes each
workstation, the workstation checks the destination address on the message. If the address in
the message matches the workstation’s address, the workstation then receives the message;
otherwise the message is disregarded.
A passive network is when workstations listen for data on the network but do not move
data along the network. A bus network is a passive network. If one workstation fails, it doesn’t
affect the entire LAN. On the other hand, if the connection to one workstation comes loose or if a
cable breaks, the entire cable segment (the length between two terminators) loses its
connectivity, causing the entire segment to be nonfunctional until it can be repaired.

Thicknet Coaxial Cable

Thicknet coaxial cable can support data transfer over longer distances better than thinnet
and is usually used as a backbone to connect several smaller thinnet-based networks. The
diameter of a thicknet cable is about ½ inch and is harder to work with than a thinnet cable. A
transceiver is often connected directly to thicknet cable using a connector known as a piercing
tap. Connection from the transceiver to the network adapter card is made using a drop cable to
connect to the adapter unit interface (AUI) port connector. 10Base5 refers to Ethernet LANs that
use thicknet cabling. Fig 7.4.24 illustrates an AUI connector.

Fig 7.4.24 AUI Connector

Twisted-Pair Cables

Twisted-pair cable is the most popular cable type for internal networks. These cables are
so named because the cable contains pairs of wires that are twisted around each other. These
twists help “boost” each wire’s signals and make them less susceptible to EMI. Additionally,
twisted-pair cables may be shielded. Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cables contain an extra
insulating layer that helps prevent data loss and block EMI. However, due to the expense of STP
cables, unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cables are used more often.
There are several standards for twisted-pair cables, each with a different number of wires, speed,
and implementation. These standards are often referred to as CAT#— for example, CAT3 or
CAT4 (CAT is short for category). CAT5, a type of UTP, is the most common twisted-pair cable.

Table-1: Twisted Pair Cable Standards

Table -1 presents a summary of twisted-pair cable offerings. CAT 5/E is an enhanced version of
CAT5 that is more stringently tested and offers better transmission characteristics than CAT5.
CAT6 is the newest twisted pair standard and offers higher bandwidth and improved signal
handling characteristics

Note: CAT6 is still a tentative specification and may go as high as 550MHz testing as opposed
to the proposed 200MHz rating.

Twisted-pair cables can be identified by their use of RJ-45 connectors, which look like regular
phone connectors but are slightly larger. This type of cable is most commonly implemented in
star networks.

Fiber-Optic Cable

Fiber-optic cable, or fiber for short, is not commonly used within local area networks
(LANs) but is often used to join separate networks over long distances. Fiber transmits light
rather than electrical signals, so it is not susceptible to EMI. It is capable of faster transmission
than other types of cable, but it is also the most expensive cable. Fiber-optic cable is most
commonly implemented in ring networks but can also be used in ring and bus topologies.
A single light wave passing down a cable is a mode. Fiber optic cables are either single-mode or
multimode. A single-mode cable allows only a single wave to pass down the cable. Multimode
fiber allows for multiple modes or waves to be passed simultaneously. Multimodes are usually
accomplished using a larger diameter fiber, and each wave uses a certain portion of the fiber
cable for transmission.
The standard connectors used with fiber cable are ST and SC connectors
(See Fig 7.4.25). The straight tip (ST) connector is a straight round connector used to connect
fiber to a network device. The subscriber connector (SC) is square and is used to connect
network devices or other cables.

Fig 7.4.25 ST and SC connectors used in a fiber network

7.4.1 Devices

Devices used in Networks are NIC’s, HUB, Repeater, Switch, Bridge, Router, Modem and
Firewall.

NIC – Network Interface Cards

Network interface cards (NICs) are known by a variety of names including network
adapters or cards, network adapter boards, and media access cards. Regardless of their name,
they share a common set of functions in enabling computers to communicate across a network.
Network interface cards are often defined by:
1. The type of Data Link protocol they support, such as an Ethernet adapter or a Token
Ring adapter
2. The type of media they connect to
3. The data bus for which they were designed
 Fig 7.4.11 Token Ring NIC and Ethernet NIC

In order to interact with the computer where it is installed, the network adapter, like any other
peripheral device, must have a software driver installed. This driver allows the operating system
and higher level protocols to control the functions of the adapter.

The NIC performs the following functions:

1. Translates data from the parallel data bus to a serial bit stream for transmission across
the network.
2. Formats packets of data in accordance with protocol.
3. Transmits and receives data based on the hardware address of the card.

Translating from Parallel to Serial

The network adapter, like any device installed in a system, is attached to the CPU via a
parallel data bus, such as an ISA or PCI bus. These parallel buses move data quickly between
devices internal to the system. Network transmission, on the other hand, relies on a serial data
stream in order to transmit messages. Therefore, all data coming into the network card from the
bus must be transformed into a serial data stream before transmission.

Formatting Packets

Data transmission within a network interface card has two characteristics. The first of
these is the transmission of binary bits across the network medium. A Physical Layer protocol
defines the voltages and signal standards used to represent binary data on the network. This is
built into the hardware on the card. In addition, the Data Link protocol supported by the card
defines a packet structure for sending and receiving data. This structure includes fields for
addressing and control information as well as the data. This function is implemented by the card
and its software driver.

Transmitting and Receiving Data

The primary function of the network adapter is to transmit and receive data between
other network interface cards across the network media. It does this based on the fact that each
card has an address, known as the MAC (media access control) address or hardware address.
This address is generally built into the card by the manufacturer, and includes portions that
identify the brand, as well as uniquely identifying the card itself. Each card is designed to pick out
messages on the network destined for their hardware address as well as broadcast messages.

Specialized NICs
 There are network interface cards available for a wide variety of situations and
environments. Two of these are NICs for wireless media and network adapters used in diskless
workstations.

Wireless NICs
There are a variety of wireless media that involve the use of radio frequency
transmission, or light transmission via laser or infrared. Wireless NICs are used to accommodate
these transmission methods. The main difference between a wireless NIC and a more traditional
cabled NIC lies in the transceiver. In the case of radio frequency NICs, the transceiver performs
the functions of a radio transceiver, and generally has an antenna attached. See Fig
7.4.12.These may interact directly with other wireless nodes, or may attach to a wired LAN via a
wireless concentrator.
In the case of an optical transmission method such as infrared, the transceiver uses
LEDs and photosensitive devices to generate and recognize the data stream. These
transmission methods generally require "line-of-sight" alignment between communicating nodes.

Fig 7.4.12 Wireless NIC

Remote Boot PROMs

The diskless workstation is a concept that has been around for some time. Designed for
use in fairly large environments, it originally had two goals. The first was to enhance security on
the network by removing local storage from the end user, and requiring that all data and
applications be stored on servers. By managing user access to this information via server
permissions, the LAN administrator could more effectively control the environment. The second
goal of diskless workstations was the cost of mass storage. By removing the cost of local
storage, particularly as workstation populations increased, companies could save costs. This has
become less of an issue as the cost of mass storage has declined.
The challenge of using diskless workstations is how to boot them. Normally, a system at
startup looks for a hard disk that is bootable in order to start the operating system. This
specifically involves looking for a Master Boot Record that tells the system where to find the boot
files. In the case of a diskless workstation, there is no disk available to perform this function,
since all storage is accessed through the network adapter.
 Fig 7.4.13 Boot PROMs

A remote boot PROM can be added to a network adapter to allow the system to boot
using files stored on the network. An adapter capable of doing remote boot has an empty socket
that can be populated with a boot PROM. Once installed and configured, this boot PROM directs
the system to the network location of the boot files.

Repeater

A repeater is probably one of the conceptually simplest devices on a network. Repeaters,

although not necessary for functionality, enable your network to span a greater distance.
Repeaters allow you to extend your network beyond the physical limits of the cabling. A repeater
accomplishes this simply by repeating packets from one side of the wire to another while
increasing or boosting the signal.

OSI Physical Layer

A repeater resides within the Physical Layer of the OSI Model, meaning that it does not
look within the packets; the repeater simply receives packets on one side, and sends them on
another side. A repeater never filters packets; all packets are always repeated.

HUB
Hubs are one of the most important components of a network. They are the central
location that all cabling must connect to in most topologies. (See Fig 7.4.14)

Role of Hubs in Topologies

Most network topologies can use for a hub in one way or another. The most prominent
user of hubs is the 10BaseT topology. 10BaseT is entirely dependent on hubs for the
infrastructure of the topology.

Passive

The function of a passive hub is simply to receive data from one port of the hub and send
it out to the other ports. For example, an 8-port hub receives data from port 3 and then resends
that data to ports 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. It is as simple as that.

Active (Multi-Port Repeaters)

An active hub provides the same functionality of a passive hub with an additional feature.
Active hubs repeat the data while resending it to all of the ports. By using active hubs you can
increase the length of your network. It is important to remember that UTP (unshielded twisted
pair) Category 5 cabling can be run a maximum of 100 meters. With an active hub, you can run
Category 5 UTP 100 meters on each side of the hub.

Fig 7.4.14 HUB

Switch:

Switches have become an increasingly important part of our networks today. As network
usage increases, so do traffic problems. As a systems engineer, you will be faced with this
problem on an almost continuous basis. A common solution to traffic problems is to implement
switches.

Multi-Port Bridging

Switches, also referred to as multi-port bridges, automatically determine the MAC

addresses of the devices connected to each port of the switch. The switch then examines each
packet it receives to find its destination MAC address. The switch then determines which port the
packet is destined for and sends it out to that port only.

Fig 7.4.15 Switch

Network Performance Improvement with Switching

The primary benefit of implementing switching technology is that network performance

will be improved a great deal. It is important to note that if you are not having traffic problems on
your network, adding a switch will probably not change your network’s performance. If your
network is having traffic problems, switching, when implemented properly, can greatly increase
your performance.

OSI Data Link Layer

 Switches operate by knowing the destination MAC address and allowing the packet to
use the direct route within the switch from the source port to the port that the device with the
destination MAC address is connected to. The only information that a switch needs to operate is
the MAC address, so the switch is said to reside in the Data Link Layer of the OSI Model.

Bridges

A bridge is a network connectivity device that connects two different networks and makes
them appear to be one network. The bridge filters local traffic between the two networks and
copies all other traffic to the other side of the bridge.

Network Segmentation

A bridge is a simple way to accomplish network segmentation. Placing a bridge between

two different segments of the network decreases the amount of traffic on each of the local
networks. Although this does accomplish network segmentation, most network administrators opt
to use routers or switches, which are discussed later in the chapter.

OSI Data Link Layer

Switches operate by knowing the destination MAC address and allowing the packet to
use the direct route within the switch from the source port to the port that the device with the
destination MAC address is connected to. The only information that a switch needs to operate is
the MAC address, so the switch is said to reside in the Data Link Layer of the OSI Model.

Routers

Routers operate similarly to switches. It connects two different The major difference is
that a router is not quite as intelligent as a switch. Where a switch calculates which devices are
connected to each port, a router receives packets from one side and determines if the
destination is on the other side of the router. If the destination of the packet is on the other side of
the router, the packet is forwarded. If the destination is not on the other side of the router, it is
then forwarded to the next router.

Gateways

A gateway is a device that enables two dissimilar systems that have similar functions to
communicate with each other.

Connecting Dissimilar Systems

Dissimilar systems are defined as two systems that have similar functions, but are unable
to directly communicate with each other. For example, two Token Ring networks and Ethernet
qualify under this definition.

In Fig 7.4.16, the PC on the left is able to use data and applications that are on the Mainframe
on the right. As packets cross the gateway from the Mainframe to the PC, the Gateway converts
them to a format that is understandable by the PC. The opposite operation occurs when the PC
sends packets to the Mainframe. In this figure, PC and Mainframe are dissimilar systems.
 Fig 7.4.16 Gateways connect two dissimilar systems and allow them to share data.

Mainframe Gateways

A mainframe gateway is a common type of gateway. Many companies want to continue

to use their older mainframe. This is quite often a more cost-effective solution rather than
immediately replacing all services that the mainframe is performing. To allow users to connect to
the mainframe from their desktop rather than going to a special mainframe terminal, a gateway is
installed. The gateway converts information from a format that the workstation understands to
one that the mainframe understands, and vice versa.

7.4.2 Cables and Connectors

Cabling is the LAN’s transmission medium. LANs can be connected together using a
variety of cable types. Each cable type has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Cabling Types

There are three primary types of physical media that can be used at the Physical Layer:
coaxial cable, twisted-pair cable, and fiber-optic cable. Transmission rates that can be supported
on each of these physical media are measured in millions of bits per second (Mbps).

Coaxial
Coaxial (or coax) cable looks like the cable used to bring the cable TV signal to your
television. One strand (a solid-core wire) runs down the middle of the cable. Around that strand is
insulation. Covering that insulation is braided wire and metal foil, which shields against
electromagnetic interference, as illustrated in Fig 7.4.21. A final layer of insulation covers the
braided wire. Coaxial cable is resistant to the interference and signal weakening that other
cabling, such as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable, can experience. In general, coax is better
than UTP cable in connecting longer distances and for reliably supporting higher data rates with
less sophisticated equipment.

Fig 7.4.21 Coaxial Cable

 Just because the TV cable is coax does not mean it will work with computer networks.
Network coaxial cable has very specific requirements such as the gauge, the impedance, and
the attenuation.

Thinnet Coaxial Cable

Thinnet refers to RG-58 cabling, is a flexible coaxial cable about ¼ inch thick. Thinnet is
used for short distance communication and is flexible enough to facilitate routing between
workstations. Thinnet connects directly to a workstation’s network adapter card using a BNC T-
connector (See Fig 7.4.22) and uses the network adapter card’s internal transceiver. 10Base2
refers to Ethernet LANs that use thinnet cabling.

Fig 7.4.22 BNC Connectors

Fig 7.4.23 illustrates a bus type of network called a local bus. At each end of the bus there is a
terminating resistor, or a terminator, of 50 ohms. Each workstation’s network adapter is
connected to the bus via a single cable, called a drop, using a BNC T-connector.

Fig 7.4.23 Bus Network

The network adapter’s internal transceiver is a device that transmits and receives signals. Even if
your network consisted of only two computers, T-connectors and terminates are still required
.The bus carries a message from one end of the network to the other. As the bus passes each
workstation, the workstation checks the destination address on the message. If the address in
the message matches the workstation’s address, the workstation then receives the message;
otherwise the message is disregarded.
A passive network is when workstations listen for data on the network but do not move
data along the network. A bus network is a passive network. If one workstation fails, it doesn’t
affect the entire LAN. On the other hand, if the connection to one workstation comes loose or if a
cable breaks, the entire cable segment (the length between two terminators) loses its
connectivity, causing the entire segment to be nonfunctional until it can be repaired.

Thicknet Coaxial Cable

Thicknet coaxial cable can support data transfer over longer distances better than thinnet
and is usually used as a backbone to connect several smaller thinnet-based networks. The
diameter of a thicknet cable is about ½ inch and is harder to work with than a thinnet cable. A
transceiver is often connected directly to thicknet cable using a connector known as a piercing
tap. Connection from the transceiver to the network adapter card is made using a drop cable to
connect to the adapter unit interface (AUI) port connector. 10Base5 refers to Ethernet LANs that
use thicknet cabling. Fig 7.4.24 illustrates an AUI connector.

Fig 7.4.24 AUI Connector

Twisted-Pair Cables

Twisted-pair cable is the most popular cable type for internal networks. These cables are
so named because the cable contains pairs of wires that are twisted around each other. These
twists help “boost” each wire’s signals and make them less susceptible to EMI. Additionally,
twisted-pair cables may be shielded. Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cables contain an extra
insulating layer that helps prevent data loss and block EMI. However, due to the expense of STP
cables, unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cables are used more often.
There are several standards for twisted-pair cables, each with a different number of wires, speed,
and implementation. These standards are often referred to as CAT#— for example, CAT3 or
CAT4 (CAT is short for category). CAT5, a type of UTP, is the most common twisted-pair cable.

Table-1: Twisted Pair Cable Standards

Table -1 presents a summary of twisted-pair cable offerings. CAT 5/E is an enhanced version of
CAT5 that is more stringently tested and offers better transmission characteristics than CAT5.
CAT6 is the newest twisted pair standard and offers higher bandwidth and improved signal
handling characteristics

Note: CAT6 is still a tentative specification and may go as high as 550MHz testing as opposed
to the proposed 200MHz rating.

Twisted-pair cables can be identified by their use of RJ-45 connectors, which look like regular
phone connectors but are slightly larger. This type of cable is most commonly implemented in
star networks.

Fiber-Optic Cable

Fiber-optic cable, or fiber for short, is not commonly used within local area networks
(LANs) but is often used to join separate networks over long distances. Fiber transmits light
rather than electrical signals, so it is not susceptible to EMI. It is capable of faster transmission
than other types of cable, but it is also the most expensive cable. Fiber-optic cable is most
commonly implemented in ring networks but can also be used in ring and bus topologies.
A single light wave passing down a cable is a mode. Fiber optic cables are either single-mode or
multimode. A single-mode cable allows only a single wave to pass down the cable. Multimode
fiber allows for multiple modes or waves to be passed simultaneously. Multimodes are usually
accomplished using a larger diameter fiber, and each wave uses a certain portion of the fiber
cable for transmission.
The standard connectors used with fiber cable are ST and SC connectors
(See Fig 7.4.25). The straight tip (ST) connector is a straight round connector used to connect
fiber to a network device. The subscriber connector (SC) is square and is used to connect
network devices or other cables.

Fig 7.4.25 ST and SC connectors used in a fiber network

7.3 Protocols

A network’s protocol is the “language” it uses for data transmission. The protocol includes
the rules for communication, packet size, addressing, and ability to be routed. Computers on a
network cannot communicate with other computers unless they are using the same protocol. The
most common protocols on Windows-based systems are TCP/IP, NetBEUI, AppleTalk, and
IPX/SPX. Protocol is defined technically as Set of rules and regulation that governs the
communication between systems.

OSI Model

The International Standards Organization (ISO) began developing the OSI model in 1974
and finally adopted the model in 1977. The OSI model is not something you can buy, yet it is built
into nearly all networking devices. It is a theoretical model that defines how networks are built
and function from the ground up. By understanding the OSI model, you can develop a better
understanding of networking protocols and standards. Even though networks are implemented
differently, they are all based on the same or similar reference model. The OSI model defines
seven layers and the function of the data flow within each layer.
The smallest unit of data begins at the Application layer. As data moves down the OSI
model, more information is added at each layer to enable network communication to take place.
At the receiving computer, the layers are stripped off at corresponding layers, called peer layers.
The process is then reversed for the reply.

The functions of the seven layers of the OSI model are:

OSI Layer Function Example of Layer Function

Application Supports the communication of Examples of Application layer
applications with the network. services include sending and
receiving messages and
transferring files.
Presentation Formats and translates data. An example of a Presentation
layer service is the compression
or encryption of data.
Session Manages communication At the Session layer, a web
sessions between service server may close the session
requesters and service with a user after a specified
providers. This layer manages period of time has elapsed
communications by establishing, without activity.
synchronizing, and maintaining
the connection between sender
and receiver.
Transport Is usually associated with When part of a web page does
reliable end-to-end not download due to heavy
communication. It is the layer traffic, the Transport layer will
responsible for managing resend the missing data.
connections, error control, and
flow control between sender
and receiver.
Network Is responsible for moving The IP address of a device is
packets over an internetwork used on the Internet to
so that they can be routed to the determine the route that
correct network. information travels to get to the
correct sender and receiver.
Data-Link Includes information about the Devices that use Data-Link layer
OSI Layer Function Example of Layer Function
source and destination hardware protocols are network cards and
addresses of the communicating bridges.
devices. It also specifies lower-
layer flow control and error
control.
Physical Is responsible for the Cables and physical connection
transmission of data over a specifications are defined at the
physical medium. Physical layer.

Using this type of model has three main advantages:

1. Breaking down a large concept such as a network into smaller parts (in this case,
layers) makes it easier to understand.
2. Compartmentalizing network functions enables you to easily replace specific
technologies without having to replace the entire network.
3. Devices that are built around a common model should work together, or interoperate,
regardless of the manufacturer that built the device.

Now let us discuss the protocols used for communication.

NetBEUI
NetBEUI stands for NetBIOS Extended User Interface and can be used only in small
networks. It requires no address configuration and provides faster data transfer than TCP/IP.
Each Windows computer in a NetBEUI network is configured only with a computer and
workgroup name. However, NetBEUI’s cross-platform support is limited to Windows and other
Microsoft OS. Furthermore, NetBEUI is not routable and not robust in unstable networks.

Note: The NetBEUI protocol is useful if you are creating a very small internal network at the
office or at home. NetBEUI is included with Windows, so all that is required is that you connect
the computers, elect to use the protocol, and assign a computer name to each computer. It’s
free and it's extremely easy to implement.

IPX/SPX

IPX/SPX stands for Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange. It is

designed specifically for use with the Novell NetWare OS. It is routable and otherwise similar to
TCP/IP, except that it has limited cross-platform support and cannot be used on the Internet.

AppleTalk

Apple Computer was an early player in networks. AppleTalk allows for connection
between Apple Macintosh and other systems. AppleTalk can work through a variety of network
topologies and is included with Mac computers. AppleTalk as a protocol is not usable across the
Internet without TCP/IP.

TCP/IP

The most popular networking protocols is Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet

Protocol (TCP/IP). TCP/IP was originally developed in the 1970s by the Department of Defense
(DoD) as a way of connecting dissimilar networks that would be capable of withstanding a
nuclear attack. Since then, TCP/IP has become a de facto industry standard. It is important to
note that although TCP and IP are the cornerstone protocols, TCP/IP is actually a collection of
many protocols that are generically referred to as the TCP/IP protocol suite.
The two main protocols that make up the TCP/IP suite of protocols are TCP and IP.
These protocols fall into the Transport and Network layers of the OSI model, respectively.
IP functions at the Network layer of the OSI model. The primary function of IP is to provide each
attached device with a unique address. Each address indicates not only the individual device, but
also the network to which the device belongs. The IP protocol is also responsible for routing
packets over an internetwork.
The IP address is used to determine the exact location of the destination network where
the device exists. For example, assume that you have four subnets (independent network
segments) connected through routers, and you want to send a packet from subnet A to subnet B.
IP is responsible for routing the packet through the internetwork.

Fig 7.31 IP Network

TCP is a Transport layer protocol whose primary function is to provide reliable delivery of data
through a connection-oriented service. Sending data through TCP is a two-part process: The
sender and receiver exchange a 'handshake' to establish communication, and then
acknowledgments are sent to verify that data was received. Acknowledgements are being sent
throughout the transmission.
If you do not need the reliability of TCP, you can send packets through the Transport
layer with a protocol called User Datagram Protocol (UDP). UDP provides connectionless service
and has considerably less overhead than TCP but provides no reliability in the transmission of
data. As a connectionless protocol, UDP packets are sent over the network without any
confirmation from the receiver that the packets were received successfully. The packets either
get there or they don't. The sender doesn't worry about it.

Benefits of TCP/IP:

TCP/IP is commonly used as the Transport and Network layer protocol for these
reasons:
1. It is supported by almost all network operating systems. It is the required protocol for
communicating over the Internet; if you want to connect to the Internet, your computer
has to use TCP/IP.
2. TCP/IP is scalable to small and large networks.
3. The protocol is designed to be fault tolerant and is able to dynamically reroute packets
if network links become unavailable (assuming alternate paths exist).
4. Protocol companions such as Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) simplify IP
address management.
5. Domain Name System (DNS) is used with TCP/IP to resolve a fully qualified domain
name (FQDN), such as sybex.com, with its corresponding IP address.

Disadvantages of TCP/IP:

Although TCP/IP and the Internet have been wildly successful, using this protocol has
disadvantages. Of course, the disadvantages do not outweigh the advantages, but they should
be taken into consideration when building your network. When you connect your network to the
Internet, you will want to consider ways to avoid or minimize the following disadvantages:

1. Managing IP addresses is complicated and cumbersome. IP address errors are

usually due to administrative error.
 2. Troubleshooting TCP/IP problems on your network requires an understanding of how
TCP/IP works and of the more than a dozen protocols that are included in the suite.
3. Taking advantage of some of the best features of the TCP/IP suite requires
considerable skill and knowledge. Depending on your type of business, mastering
TCP/IP will require a significant amount of education for you or necessitate the hiring of
an expert.

IP Addressing
A central concept of IP is addressing. The current IP version, IPv4, requires a 32-bit
network address. Each octet consists of a number between 0 and 255 separated by a period. IP
addresses must be unique for each network device that can be reached on the Internet. You
should request your IP addresses from InterNIC or from an ISP. IP addresses commonly fall
within three classes: Class A, Class B, and Class C. Class assignments are based on network
size and the availability of IP addresses.

Note: Currently, only Class C addresses are available. The supply of IP addresses has
dwindled to the point that all addresses are almost allocated. A new IP addressing scheme
with 6 octets, 48 bits, is in the works. Known as IPv6, this standard will supply billions of new
IP addresses.

Address Range of First Number of Networks Number of Host Nodes

Network Class
Field Supported Available

A 1-127 126 16,777,214

B 128-191 65,534 65,534

C 192-223 16,777,214 254

IP Configuration

When you configure a network device with TCP/IP, you typically need three pieces of
information:
IP address
Subnet mask
Default gateway, which is the IP address of a router

IP Address

As we mentioned earlier, each network device needs a unique IP address. The system
administrator, or someone who coordinates IP address assignment and configuration, should
assign this address from the pool of addresses assigned by InterNIC or your ISP.
Subnet Mask

A subnet mask defines which part of the IP address is the network address and which is
the host address. By defining subnet masks, you specify which network your node belongs to.
With this information and the destination address for your data, TCP/IP can determine whether
source and destination nodes are on the same network segment. If they are on different
segments, routing will be needed.

Default Router, or Gateway

You need a default router, or gateway, configured on your workstations if you want your
packets routed over an internetwork. The default router is the IP address of the local router that
you use to connect your network to the Internet. The workstation needs to have this information if
it wants to send packets out to the Internet. Without it, the workstation is clueless about where to
send packets destined for external networks.
OSI Model

The International Standards Organization (ISO) began developing the OSI model in 1974
and finally adopted the model in 1977. The OSI model is not something you can buy, yet it is built
into nearly all networking devices. It is a theoretical model that defines how networks are built
and function from the ground up. By understanding the OSI model, you can develop a better
understanding of networking protocols and standards. Even though networks are implemented
differently, they are all based on the same or similar reference model. The OSI model defines
seven layers and the function of the data flow within each layer.
The smallest unit of data begins at the Application layer. As data moves down the OSI
model, more information is added at each layer to enable network communication to take place.
At the receiving computer, the layers are stripped off at corresponding layers, called peer layers.
The process is then reversed for the reply.

The functions of the seven layers of the OSI model are:

OSI Layer Function Example of Layer Function

Application Supports the communication of Examples of Application layer
applications with the network. services include sending and
receiving messages and
transferring files.
Presentation Formats and translates data. An example of a Presentation
layer service is the compression
or encryption of data.
Session Manages communication At the Session layer, a web
sessions between service server may close the session
requesters and service with a user after a specified
providers. This layer manages period of time has elapsed
communications by establishing, without activity.
synchronizing, and maintaining
the connection between sender
and receiver.
Transport Is usually associated with When part of a web page does
reliable end-to-end not download due to heavy
communication. It is the layer traffic, the Transport layer will
responsible for managing resend the missing data.
connections, error control, and
flow control between sender
and receiver.
Network Is responsible for moving The IP address of a device is
OSI Layer Function Example of Layer Function
packets over an internetwork used on the Internet to
so that they can be routed to the determine the route that
correct network. information travels to get to the
correct sender and receiver.
Data-Link Includes information about the Devices that use Data-Link layer
source and destination hardware protocols are network cards and
addresses of the communicating bridges.
devices. It also specifies lower-
layer flow control and error
control.
Physical Is responsible for the Cables and physical connection
transmission of data over a specifications are defined at the
physical medium. Physical layer.

Using this type of model has three main advantages:

1. Breaking down a large concept such as a network into smaller parts (in this case,
layers) makes it easier to understand.
2. Compartmentalizing network functions enables you to easily replace specific
technologies without having to replace the entire network.
3. Devices that are built around a common model should work together, or interoperate,
regardless of the manufacturer that built the device.

NetBEUI
NetBEUI stands for NetBIOS Extended User Interface and can be used only in small
networks. It requires no address configuration and provides faster data transfer than TCP/IP.
Each Windows computer in a NetBEUI network is configured only with a computer and
workgroup name. However, NetBEUI’s cross-platform support is limited to Windows and other
Microsoft OS. Furthermore, NetBEUI is not routable and not robust in unstable networks.

Note: The NetBEUI protocol is useful if you are creating a very small internal network at the
office or at home. NetBEUI is included with Windows, so all that is required is that you connect
the computers, elect to use the protocol, and assign a computer name to each computer. It’s
free and it's extremely easy to implement.

IPX/SPX

IPX/SPX stands for Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange. It is

designed specifically for use with the Novell NetWare OS. It is routable and otherwise similar to
TCP/IP, except that it has limited cross-platform support and cannot be used on the Internet.

AppleTalk

Apple Computer was an early player in networks. AppleTalk allows for connection
between Apple Macintosh and other systems. AppleTalk can work through a variety of network
topologies and is included with Mac computers. AppleTalk as a protocol is not usable across the
Internet without TCP/IP.

TCP/IP

The most popular networking protocols is Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet

Protocol (TCP/IP). TCP/IP was originally developed in the 1970s by the Department of Defense
(DoD) as a way of connecting dissimilar networks that would be capable of withstanding a
nuclear attack. Since then, TCP/IP has become a de facto industry standard. It is important to
note that although TCP and IP are the cornerstone protocols, TCP/IP is actually a collection of
many protocols that are generically referred to as the TCP/IP protocol suite.
The two main protocols that make up the TCP/IP suite of protocols are TCP and IP.
These protocols fall into the Transport and Network layers of the OSI model, respectively.
IP functions at the Network layer of the OSI model. The primary function of IP is to provide each
attached device with a unique address. Each address indicates not only the individual device, but
also the network to which the device belongs. The IP protocol is also responsible for routing
packets over an internetwork.
The IP address is used to determine the exact location of the destination network where
the device exists. For example, assume that you have four subnets (independent network
segments) connected through routers, and you want to send a packet from subnet A to subnet B.
IP is responsible for routing the packet through the internetwork.

Fig 7.31 IP Network

TCP is a Transport layer protocol whose primary function is to provide reliable delivery of data
through a connection-oriented service. Sending data through TCP is a two-part process: The
sender and receiver exchange a 'handshake' to establish communication, and then
acknowledgments are sent to verify that data was received. Acknowledgements are being sent
throughout the transmission.
If you do not need the reliability of TCP, you can send packets through the Transport
layer with a protocol called User Datagram Protocol (UDP). UDP provides connectionless service
and has considerably less overhead than TCP but provides no reliability in the transmission of
data. As a connectionless protocol, UDP packets are sent over the network without any
confirmation from the receiver that the packets were received successfully. The packets either
get there or they don't. The sender doesn't worry about it.

Benefits of TCP/IP:

TCP/IP is commonly used as the Transport and Network layer protocol for these
reasons:
1. It is supported by almost all network operating systems. It is the required protocol for
communicating over the Internet; if you want to connect to the Internet, your computer
has to use TCP/IP.
2. TCP/IP is scalable to small and large networks.
3. The protocol is designed to be fault tolerant and is able to dynamically reroute packets
if network links become unavailable (assuming alternate paths exist).
4. Protocol companions such as Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) simplify IP
address management.
5. Domain Name System (DNS) is used with TCP/IP to resolve a fully qualified domain
name (FQDN), such as sybex.com, with its corresponding IP address.

Disadvantages of TCP/IP:

Although TCP/IP and the Internet have been wildly successful, using this protocol has
disadvantages. Of course, the disadvantages do not outweigh the advantages, but they should
be taken into consideration when building your network. When you connect your network to the
Internet, you will want to consider ways to avoid or minimize the following disadvantages:
 1. Managing IP addresses is complicated and cumbersome. IP address errors are
usually due to administrative error.
2. Troubleshooting TCP/IP problems on your network requires an understanding of how
TCP/IP works and of the more than a dozen protocols that are included in the suite.
3. Taking advantage of some of the best features of the TCP/IP suite requires
considerable skill and knowledge. Depending on your type of business, mastering
TCP/IP will require a significant amount of education for you or necessitate the hiring of
an expert.

IP Addressing
A central concept of IP is addressing. The current IP version, IPv4, requires a 32-bit
network address. Each octet consists of a number between 0 and 255 separated by a period. IP
addresses must be unique for each network device that can be reached on the Internet. You
should request your IP addresses from InterNIC or from an ISP. IP addresses commonly fall
within three classes: Class A, Class B, and Class C. Class assignments are based on network
size and the availability of IP addresses.

Note: Currently, only Class C addresses are available. The supply of IP addresses has
dwindled to the point that all addresses are almost allocated. A new IP addressing scheme
with 6 octets, 48 bits, is in the works. Known as IPv6, this standard will supply billions of new
IP addresses.

Address Range of First Number of Networks Number of Host Nodes

Network Class
Field Supported Available

A 1-127 126 16,777,214

B 128-191 65,534 65,534

C 192-223 16,777,214 254

IP Configuration

When you configure a network device with TCP/IP, you typically need three pieces of
information:
IP address
Subnet mask
Default gateway, which is the IP address of a router
IP Address

As we mentioned earlier, each network device needs a unique IP address. The system
administrator, or someone who coordinates IP address assignment and configuration, should
assign this address from the pool of addresses assigned by InterNIC or your ISP.
Subnet Mask

A subnet mask defines which part of the IP address is the network address and which is
the host address. By defining subnet masks, you specify which network your node belongs to.
With this information and the destination address for your data, TCP/IP can determine whether
source and destination nodes are on the same network segment. If they are on different
segments, routing will be needed.

Default Router, or Gateway

You need a default router, or gateway, configured on your workstations if you want your
packets routed over an internetwork. The default router is the IP address of the local router that
you use to connect your network to the Internet. The workstation needs to have this information if
it wants to send packets out to the Internet. Without it, the workstation is clueless about where to
send packets destined for external networks.
7.2 Network Access

Network access refers to the method that computers use to determine when they can
communicate, how messages are transferred, and what to do in the case of a data collision.
Accessing a network by the computer can be of two types, based on the NIC card they use. Both
of them are discussed below.

Ethernet Communication Architecture: (CSMA/CD)

Ethernet is one of the oldest network protocols and it is the most popular. Xerox first
developed it in the 1970s. And in the 1980s, Xerox, Intel, and Digital Equipment Corporation
proposed formal Ethernet specifications. It has its own standard from the Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), the IEEE 802.3 standard.
Ethernet works with a contention scheme (a way of accessing the network) called Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). CSMA/CD works by allowing any
computer to transmit at any time, assuming the line is free. The steps in this process are as
follows:
• When a workstation wants to send a packet on the network, the workstation
listens to see whether any other nodes are transmitting packets over the network.
• If the network is in use, the workstation waits.
• If the network is not in use, the workstation sends its packet.
• If two or more workstations send packets at the same time because they both
thought the line was free, a collision occurs.(Fig 7.21)
• If a collision occurs, all workstations on the network cease transmission and each
implements a back-off timer that generates a random number indicating how long
the workstation must wait before it retransmits.
• After the time expires, workstations can begin transmitting again

Fig 7.21 CSMA/CD

Benefits

1. The benefits of Ethernet include the following:

2. The protocol is fairly simple and does not have the overhead associated with Token
Ring.
3. As long as the network segment is not too busy, stations can transmit without any wait.
4. Because Ethernet hardware is nonproprietary and less complicated than Token Ring
hardware, Ethernet is less expensive.

Drawbacks

1. The drawbacks of Ethernet include the following:

2. As network traffic increases, so does the probability of network collisions, which
degrade network performance.
3. Because all stations have equal access, there is no way to establish higher priority for
nodes such as servers.
Token Passing

Token passing is less common but much more orderly than CSMA/CD. In this access
method, one computer in the network generates an electronic signal, called a token. The token is
passed from computer to computer on the network. If a computer receives the token but has no
data to transmit, it simply passes the token along. If the computer does have data to transmit, it
places the data behind the token, then sends them both to the next computer in line. A computer
cannot transmit data until it receives an “empty” token (one with no data packet attached).
When a token is accompanied by data, its address is examined by each computer, then
sent along again until it reaches its destination. The destination computer examines the token,
removes the data packet, and then sends the empty token around again. Unfortunately, if there is
a lot of network traffic, it could take a very long time for a computer to get an empty token so that
it can transmit its data. For this reason, token passing is typically used only on smaller networks.
Because computers can transmit only if they have the token and because there is only
one token per network, there is no chance of a data collision. However, the token itself can get
lost in the network, or a computer could hang on to the token without resending it. In either case,
network traffic is halted until the token is regenerated.

Full- and Half-Duplex Transmission

In computer terms, data can be unidirectional or bidirectional. In unidirectional

communications, data can travel in one direction only. This type of communication is used in ring
networks. In bidirectional communications, data can travel in either direction. The term half-
duplex indicates that data can travel in either direction but only in one direction at a time. In full-
duplex communications, data can travel in both directions at the same time.

Ethernet Communication Architecture: (CSMA/CD)

Ethernet is one of the oldest network protocols and it is the most popular. Xerox first
developed it in the 1970s. And in the 1980s, Xerox, Intel, and Digital Equipment Corporation
proposed formal Ethernet specifications. It has its own standard from the Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), the IEEE 802.3 standard.
Ethernet works with a contention scheme (a way of accessing the network) called Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). CSMA/CD works by allowing any
computer to transmit at any time, assuming the line is free. The steps in this process are as
follows:
• When a workstation wants to send a packet on the network, the workstation
listens to see whether any other nodes are transmitting packets over the network.
• If the network is in use, the workstation waits.
• If the network is not in use, the workstation sends its packet.
• If two or more workstations send packets at the same time because they both
thought the line was free, a collision occurs.(Fig 7.21)
• If a collision occurs, all workstations on the network cease transmission and each
implements a back-off timer that generates a random number indicating how long
the workstation must wait before it retransmits.
• After the time expires, workstations can begin transmitting again
 Fig 7.21 CSMA/CD

Benefits

1. The benefits of Ethernet include the following:

2. The protocol is fairly simple and does not have the overhead associated with Token
Ring.
3. As long as the network segment is not too busy, stations can transmit without any wait.
4. Because Ethernet hardware is nonproprietary and less complicated than Token Ring
hardware, Ethernet is less expensive.

Drawbacks

1. The drawbacks of Ethernet include the following:

2. As network traffic increases, so does the probability of network collisions, which
degrade network performance.
3. Because all stations have equal access, there is no way to establish higher priority for
nodes such as servers.
Token Passing

Token passing is less common but much more orderly than CSMA/CD. In this access
method, one computer in the network generates an electronic signal, called a token. The token is
passed from computer to computer on the network. If a computer receives the token but has no
data to transmit, it simply passes the token along. If the computer does have data to transmit, it
places the data behind the token, then sends them both to the next computer in line. A computer
cannot transmit data until it receives an “empty” token (one with no data packet attached).
When a token is accompanied by data, its address is examined by each computer, then
sent along again until it reaches its destination. The destination computer examines the token,
removes the data packet, and then sends the empty token around again. Unfortunately, if there is
a lot of network traffic, it could take a very long time for a computer to get an empty token so that
it can transmit its data. For this reason, token passing is typically used only on smaller networks.
Because computers can transmit only if they have the token and because there is only
one token per network, there is no chance of a data collision. However, the token itself can get
lost in the network, or a computer could hang on to the token without resending it. In either case,
network traffic is halted until the token is regenerated.

Full- and Half-Duplex Transmission

In computer terms, data can be unidirectional or bidirectional. In unidirectional

communications, data can travel in one direction only. This type of communication is used in ring
networks. In bidirectional communications, data can travel in either direction. The term half-
duplex indicates that data can travel in either direction but only in one direction at a time. In full-
duplex communications, data can travel in both directions at the same time.
7.6 Network Setup and Troubleshooting

The actual implementation of a network is a very large and complex task. It requires
intensive preplanning in terms of design, access, security, fault tolerance, and scalability issues,
on top of the physical implementation of the protocols, topologies, and access methods
described already in this chapter. This job is typically the domain of computer network specialists.
However, there are some relatively common and simple network problems that you will be able
to resolve without complete training as a network specialist. These troubleshooting issues, as
well as procedures for configuring a computer to join a network, are described in this section.

7.6.1 Installing and Configuring Network Adapters

The process of installing a network adapter involves two activities. The first of concerns
the physical installation of the card into the computer. The second involves installing and
configuring the software driver, and possibly setting up the high-level protocol software to which it
will be bound.

Physical Installation
Before beginning the physical installation of the network adapter, the following issues
should be addressed:
• Ensure that the adapter is compatible with the data bus, the protocol, the media, and the
network operating system. In the case of Windows NT, the hardware compatibility list
(HCL) lists adapters that have been verified for use with NT.
• Ensure that there is an open bus slot on the machine in which to install the adapter.
• Ensure that there are system resources, including an IRQ level, base I/O address, and
DMA channel available to be assigned to the adapter. Choose and record parameters
from available settings, unless the adapter will be configured automatically through plug
and play.
• Ensure that the adapter includes all items necessary for installation. These may include
external transceivers or adapters. It may also include such items as a T-connector for a
thin wire Ethernet adapter and product documentation. Software, including the network
driver and utilities for testing and configuring the adapter, should also be included.
• If a software driver is not provided, a driver may be included with operating system
installation media. If not, drivers and driver updates may be available for download from
the adapter manufacturer via the Internet or a bulletin board service.
• Remember that the network adapter cannot do any useful work until high-level protocols
and network services have also been installed and configured.

Installation Process

To install a network adapter, take the following steps:

1. Review the installation instructions included in the documentation. This can help you
avoid unnecessary problems and make the installation more efficient.
2. If necessary, configure selected settings on the network adapter, using either jumper
plugs or DIP switches. If this is required, make sure that all settings are completed before
installing the card or it will have to be removed again. With a software-configurable
adapter, this configuration occurs after the physical adapter is installed.
3. Power down the computer and remove the outer case. The system chassis and the
installing technician should be grounded using ESD (electrostatic discharge} protection,
such as wrist strap or static mat. This prevents damage to the adapter from static
electricity.
4. There may also be a cover plate on the back of the system chassis, over the chosen bus
slot that must be removed to allow access to the card. Retain the screw holding on this
plate and reuse it to secure the adapter card once it is installed.
 5. Insert the network adapter into the chosen data bus slot and make sure it is securely
seated in the slot. Care should be taken during this process so that the adapter and
adjacent cards are not inadvertently damaged or shorted to each other. Make sure that
the rear connectors on the adapter are properly aligned, so that they are not damaged or
partially obstructed by the computer chassis. Once properly positioned, secure the card
using the screw retained in step 4.
6. Finally, replace the outer cover on the system and make the external connections to the
adapter, including the media or the external transceiver and media.

Testing

Once the network adapter is physically installed in the machine, it may be possible to use
the supplied diagnostics to test it. Alternatively, testing may occur as part of the driver installation.
The adapter may also have some status LEDs that show when it is operating. These may not
function, however, until the driver installation and configuration are complete.With a plug-and-
play operating system like Windows 95, restarting the system may cause it to discover the card,
identify it, and prompt for the driver software. If this driver is available on the hard disk and can
be found, it may be loaded automatically. Remember to attach the network interface card to the
media or it may report an error.

Installing and Configuring Drivers

When a new device is installed in a computer system, the corresponding software driver
for that device must also be installed. The following sections describe the steps necessary to
complete the network adapter driver installation. They also explain the parameters that need to
be set on the driver software.

Driver Installation

To install the network adapter driver, you need to copy files to the appropriate location on
the system hard disk, and make the operating system aware of the adapter and its drivers. This
may be accomplished using a setup utility provided by the adapter manufacturer. It may also be
done through operating system configuration utilities, such as the Control Panel–Network icon in
Windows 95 and Windows NT. If a vendor-provided setup program is used, it is normally invoked
from a command line. The setup program goes through various steps to

Fig 7.6.11 Adding an adapter under Windows 95

prompt for parameter input, check the card, and load the required files. To manually install a
network driver in Windows 95 or Windows NT, open the Control Panel and select Networks. At
this point, the dialog boxes diverge for the different operating systems. In Windows 95, select
Add New. The system will prompt you to select an adapter as illustrated in Fig 7.6.11

In Windows NT, select the Adapters tab, and select Add. The system will prompt you to select an
adapter as illustrated in Fig 7.6.12.

Fig 7.6.12 Adding an adapter under Windows NT

1. If the driver was bundled with the operating system, it will be listed. When you choose a
driver, you are prompted to provide the path to the installation media.
2. If the driver is not listed, select the Have Disk button and indicate the path to the driver.
Once the driver is installed, the system needs to be rebooted so the registry changes can
take effect.

Increasing Bandwidth

A network’s bandwidth is the amount of data that can transmitted on the network at one
time. For example, a 10Base2 network has a bandwidth of 10Mbps. If a network is perceived to
be slow, increasing the bandwidth can improve its speed. That is, the more data that can be sent
at once, the faster transmissions will be delivered from beginning to end and the faster the
network will run overall.
In many cases, you can increase the bandwidth by upgrading the network’s components.
For example, you can replace 10Mbps cards with 100Mbps cards.
You might also need to upgrade the cable types—for example, from CAT3 to CAT5/ E—to
support the new speed. The entire network will run at the speed of the hub or MAU (if one exists)
or the speed of the cable, whichever is slower. If a single NIC supports a lower speed than all
other network components, the network will be unaffected except in communications with that
NIC. For example, suppose that an entire network supports 100Mbps, except for a NIC that
supports only 10Mbps. All communications to or from that NIC will run at 10Mbps. All other
communications will run at 100Mbps.
Finally, recall that most networks are baseband, meaning they use one of the cable’s channels to
transmit data. Some network technologies, such as 1000BaseT, can use more than one channel
on a single cable. This is called broadband, and it is the same technology that allows a television
cable to provide more than one channel.

Loss of Network Connectivity

When you suspect that a computer is not on the network, first check the Windows
Network Neighborhood. Under normal conditions, all other computers that can be accessed in
the current workgroup will be listed. If a computer cannot access the network, the Network
Neighborhood window will open and a message will appear, stating “Unable to browse network.”
If this is the case, check the NIC itself. Most NICs indicate network connectivity with an indicator
light. Check the cable by swapping it with a known good one. Try to restart the computer, and
ensure that the proper network name and password are entered, if necessary.
If these procedures don’t work, check the configuration of the NIC in Network Settings. Make
sure that it is configured with the proper workgroup, and ensure that it is not using a conflicting IP
address. You should also check the NIC’s driver and use of system resources. As a last resort,
replace the NIC.

Data Loss

Because NICs use error checking, it is rare for data to get lost en route. However, many
networks use servers that store users’ data. A server is a computer that controls network access
or provides resources to a network, such as a printer, application, or storage space. It is very
important in these cases to ensure that data is available if the server temporarily goes down or to
ensure that data is not permanently lost if the server is not recoverable. There are several
techniques for preventing loss of data in the event of a server failure. Data-loss prevention
techniques provide fault tolerance to the network, meaning that the network can tolerate a failure
and continue to function even if there is a failure.

Tape Backups

Servers can be configured to automatically and regularly back up their entire contents to
tape. For example, if a server performs a nightly backup, it makes a copy of all data that was
saved on the server earlier that day. Then if the server fails, the current day’s data will be lost,
but all previously created files can be recovered from the tape.

Mirroring

Many networks employ backup servers that take over the function of the primary server if
it fails. This is called server mirroring, and it involves saving all data to both the primary and
backup servers. If the main server fails, the backup server can take over its function, and users
might never even know the problem occurred. Unfortunately, the process of saving all data twice
can be time consuming and might make the network appear slow.

Clustering

Another way to prevent data loss is to spread data over more than one server so that
data and services can be accessed even if the original server loses its data. This type of strategy
is called server clustering. As well as providing fault tolerance, clustering also provides load
balancing, which means that the workload is divided (balanced) between two or more servers.

Network Slowdown

Many things, including reduced bandwidth or excessive traffic, can result in network
slowdowns. The very nature of some networks makes them prone to slow data transmission. For
example, recall that in a token-passing network, a computer cannot transmit until it has an empty
token. If there is a lot of traffic on the network, it could take a long time before the computer gets
the empty token. The reason for this delay will not be apparent to the user, however. To the user,
it will simply appear that the data is taking a long time to get to its destination.
Furthermore, recall the function of a hub. When a computer sends data, the hub receives it, then
retransmits it to all other computers. On a 16-port hub, this means that 14 packets were sent out
unnecessarily (16 minus the sending and receiving computers). This extra traffic can cause more
collisions, which ultimately results in slower data transfer.
If the network experiences a single busy period, there is little you can do to resolve the problem.
However, if a network gradually gets slower and slower over time, it could be that there is too
much traffic for the network’s capabilities, and the network will have to be split up or upgraded.
Furthermore, if there is a lot of interference, there could be many data errors, which result in the
resending of entire data packets. Again, this situation raises the total amount of traffic on the
network and slows down its overall performance.

7.6.1 Installing and Configuring Network Adapters

The process of installing a network adapter involves two activities. The first of concerns
the physical installation of the card into the computer. The second involves installing and
configuring the software driver, and possibly setting up the high-level protocol software to which it
will be bound.

Physical Installation
Before beginning the physical installation of the network adapter, the following issues
should be addressed:
• Ensure that the adapter is compatible with the data bus, the protocol, the media, and the
network operating system. In the case of Windows NT, the hardware compatibility list
(HCL) lists adapters that have been verified for use with NT.
• Ensure that there is an open bus slot on the machine in which to install the adapter.
• Ensure that there are system resources, including an IRQ level, base I/O address, and
DMA channel available to be assigned to the adapter. Choose and record parameters
from available settings, unless the adapter will be configured automatically through plug
and play.
• Ensure that the adapter includes all items necessary for installation. These may include
external transceivers or adapters. It may also include such items as a T-connector for a
thin wire Ethernet adapter and product documentation. Software, including the network
driver and utilities for testing and configuring the adapter, should also be included.
• If a software driver is not provided, a driver may be included with operating system
installation media. If not, drivers and driver updates may be available for download from
the adapter manufacturer via the Internet or a bulletin board service.
• Remember that the network adapter cannot do any useful work until high-level protocols
and network services have also been installed and configured.

Installation Process

To install a network adapter, take the following steps:

7. Review the installation instructions included in the documentation. This can help you
avoid unnecessary problems and make the installation more efficient.
8. If necessary, configure selected settings on the network adapter, using either jumper
plugs or DIP switches. If this is required, make sure that all settings are completed before
installing the card or it will have to be removed again. With a software-configurable
adapter, this configuration occurs after the physical adapter is installed.
9. Power down the computer and remove the outer case. The system chassis and the
installing technician should be grounded using ESD (electrostatic discharge} protection,
such as wrist strap or static mat. This prevents damage to the adapter from static
electricity.
 10. There may also be a cover plate on the back of the system chassis, over the chosen bus
slot that must be removed to allow access to the card. Retain the screw holding on this
plate and reuse it to secure the adapter card once it is installed.
11. Insert the network adapter into the chosen data bus slot and make sure it is securely
seated in the slot. Care should be taken during this process so that the adapter and
adjacent cards are not inadvertently damaged or shorted to each other. Make sure that
the rear connectors on the adapter are properly aligned, so that they are not damaged or
partially obstructed by the computer chassis. Once properly positioned, secure the card
using the screw retained in step 4.
12. Finally, replace the outer cover on the system and make the external connections to the
adapter, including the media or the external transceiver and media.

Testing

Once the network adapter is physically installed in the machine, it may be possible to use
the supplied diagnostics to test it. Alternatively, testing may occur as part of the driver installation.
The adapter may also have some status LEDs that show when it is operating. These may not
function, however, until the driver installation and configuration are complete.With a plug-and-
play operating system like Windows 95, restarting the system may cause it to discover the card,
identify it, and prompt for the driver software. If this driver is available on the hard disk and can
be found, it may be loaded automatically. Remember to attach the network interface card to the
media or it may report an error.

Installing and Configuring Drivers

When a new device is installed in a computer system, the corresponding software driver
for that device must also be installed. The following sections describe the steps necessary to
complete the network adapter driver installation. They also explain the parameters that need to
be set on the driver software.

Driver Installation

To install the network adapter driver, you need to copy files to the appropriate location on
the system hard disk, and make the operating system aware of the adapter and its drivers. This
may be accomplished using a setup utility provided by the adapter manufacturer. It may also be
done through operating system configuration utilities, such as the Control Panel–Network icon in
Windows 95 and Windows NT. If a vendor-provided setup program is used, it is normally invoked
from a command line. The setup program goes through various steps to
 Fig 7.6.11 Adding an adapter under Windows 95

prompt for parameter input, check the card, and load the required files. To manually install a
network driver in Windows 95 or Windows NT, open the Control Panel and select Networks. At
this point, the dialog boxes diverge for the different operating systems. In Windows 95, select
Add New. The system will prompt you to select an adapter as illustrated in Fig 7.6.11

In Windows NT, select the Adapters tab, and select Add. The system will prompt you to select an
adapter as illustrated in Fig 7.6.12.

Fig 7.6.12 Adding an adapter under Windows NT

3. If the driver was bundled with the operating system, it will be listed. When you choose a
driver, you are prompted to provide the path to the installation media.
4. If the driver is not listed, select the Have Disk button and indicate the path to the driver.
 Once the driver is installed, the system needs to be rebooted so the registry changes can
take effect.

Increasing Bandwidth

A network’s bandwidth is the amount of data that can transmitted on the network at one
time. For example, a 10Base2 network has a bandwidth of 10Mbps. If a network is perceived to
be slow, increasing the bandwidth can improve its speed. That is, the more data that can be sent
at once, the faster transmissions will be delivered from beginning to end and the faster the
network will run overall.
In many cases, you can increase the bandwidth by upgrading the network’s components.
For example, you can replace 10Mbps cards with 100Mbps cards.
You might also need to upgrade the cable types—for example, from CAT3 to CAT5/ E—to
support the new speed. The entire network will run at the speed of the hub or MAU (if one exists)
or the speed of the cable, whichever is slower. If a single NIC supports a lower speed than all
other network components, the network will be unaffected except in communications with that
NIC. For example, suppose that an entire network supports 100Mbps, except for a NIC that
supports only 10Mbps. All communications to or from that NIC will run at 10Mbps. All other
communications will run at 100Mbps.
Finally, recall that most networks are baseband, meaning they use one of the cable’s channels to
transmit data. Some network technologies, such as 1000BaseT, can use more than one channel
on a single cable. This is called broadband, and it is the same technology that allows a television
cable to provide more than one channel.

Loss of Network Connectivity

When you suspect that a computer is not on the network, first check the Windows
Network Neighborhood. Under normal conditions, all other computers that can be accessed in
the current workgroup will be listed. If a computer cannot access the network, the Network
Neighborhood window will open and a message will appear, stating “Unable to browse network.”
If this is the case, check the NIC itself. Most NICs indicate network connectivity with an indicator
light. Check the cable by swapping it with a known good one. Try to restart the computer, and
ensure that the proper network name and password are entered, if necessary.
If these procedures don’t work, check the configuration of the NIC in Network Settings. Make
sure that it is configured with the proper workgroup, and ensure that it is not using a conflicting IP
address. You should also check the NIC’s driver and use of system resources. As a last resort,
replace the NIC.

Data Loss

Because NICs use error checking, it is rare for data to get lost en route. However, many
networks use servers that store users’ data. A server is a computer that controls network access
or provides resources to a network, such as a printer, application, or storage space. It is very
important in these cases to ensure that data is available if the server temporarily goes down or to
ensure that data is not permanently lost if the server is not recoverable. There are several
techniques for preventing loss of data in the event of a server failure. Data-loss prevention
techniques provide fault tolerance to the network, meaning that the network can tolerate a failure
and continue to function even if there is a failure.

Tape Backups

Servers can be configured to automatically and regularly back up their entire contents to
tape. For example, if a server performs a nightly backup, it makes a copy of all data that was
saved on the server earlier that day. Then if the server fails, the current day’s data will be lost,
but all previously created files can be recovered from the tape.

Mirroring
 Many networks employ backup servers that take over the function of the primary server if
it fails. This is called server mirroring, and it involves saving all data to both the primary and
backup servers. If the main server fails, the backup server can take over its function, and users
might never even know the problem occurred. Unfortunately, the process of saving all data twice
can be time consuming and might make the network appear slow.

Clustering

Another way to prevent data loss is to spread data over more than one server so that
data and services can be accessed even if the original server loses its data. This type of strategy
is called server clustering. As well as providing fault tolerance, clustering also provides load
balancing, which means that the workload is divided (balanced) between two or more servers.

Network Slowdown

Many things, including reduced bandwidth or excessive traffic, can result in network
slowdowns. The very nature of some networks makes them prone to slow data transmission. For
example, recall that in a token-passing network, a computer cannot transmit until it has an empty
token. If there is a lot of traffic on the network, it could take a long time before the computer gets
the empty token. The reason for this delay will not be apparent to the user, however. To the user,
it will simply appear that the data is taking a long time to get to its destination.
Furthermore, recall the function of a hub. When a computer sends data, the hub receives it, then
retransmits it to all other computers. On a 16-port hub, this means that 14 packets were sent out
unnecessarily (16 minus the sending and receiving computers). This extra traffic can cause more
collisions, which ultimately results in slower data transfer.
If the network experiences a single busy period, there is little you can do to resolve the problem.
However, if a network gradually gets slower and slower over time, it could be that there is too
much traffic for the network’s capabilities, and the network will have to be split up or upgraded.
Furthermore, if there is a lot of interference, there could be many data errors, which result in the
resending of entire data packets. Again, this situation raises the total amount of traffic on the
network and slows down its overall performance.