Electrical Actuation Systems

Chapter 7; Mechatronics 3rd

Edition by W. Bolton

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Actuation Systems
Actuation systems are the elements of
control systems which are responsible for
transforming the output of a
microprocessor or control system into a
controlling action on a machine or device
Types of actuation systems
Pneumatic and hydraulic actuation
systems
Mechanical actuation systems
Electrical actuation systems

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 Electrical Systems
In any discussion of electrical systems
used as actuators for control, the
discussion has to include:
(1) Switching devices
Mechanical switches (relays); solid state
switches (diodes, thyristors, transistors)
(2) Solenoid type devices
(3) Drive systems, such as d.c. and a.c.
motors where a current through a motor
is used to produce rotation

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Mechanical Switches; Relays

Relay: an electrically operated

switch in which changing a
current in one electrical circuit
switches a current ON or OFF
in another circuit
Contacts types
Normally open (NO)
Normally closed (NC)
Q: Why are the relays used in
control systems?
Q: Why do we need the
1N4001 diode?

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 Cont; Relays Used to Control the
Operation of Pneumatic Valves

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Solid State Switches

There are a number of solid state devices
that can be used to electronically switch
circuits. These include:
Diodes
Thyristors and triacs
Bipolar transistors
Power MOSFETs

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 Diodes
A diode can be regarded as a
directional element, only
passing a current when
forward biased, i.e. with the
anode being positive with
respect to the cathode
At very high reversed biased
voltages the diode will break
down
A diode can be used to rectify
and alternating current

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Thyristors and
Triacs
Gate: controls the
conditions under which
the diode can be switched
on
Forward breakdown
voltage is a function of
gate current
When forward breakdown
occurs the voltage across
the thyristor drops to 1-2
V and the current is
limited by the Rext
Example

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 Cont
The triac is equivalent with a
pair of thyristors connected in
reverse parallel on the same
chip
The triac can be turned on in
either the forward or reverse
direction
Example: MAC212-4 triac
Max off-state voltage = 200V
Max on-state current = 12 A
Triacs are simple, inexpensive
methods of controlling a.c
power
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Examples of Applications with

Thyristors

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 Cont

When a source voltage is suddenly applied to a

thyristor, or a triac, with the gate off, the thyristor may
switch from off to on. In order to prevent this sudden
change in source voltage producing this effect, the rate
dV/dt, is controlled by using a snubber circuit.

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Bipolar Transistors
Comes in two forms:
npn, and pnp
Both transistors have a
terminal called base
that is used to control
the current flow
through the transistor
The main current flows:
For npn: in at the
collector and out at the
emitter
For pnp: in at the
emitter out at collector

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 Cont; Functionality
Cut-off mode IC current in the
Linear mode linear mode is:
Saturation mode

In saturation mode is:

Minimum IB necessary
to drive the transistor
in saturation is

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Cont; Switching a Load

By switching the IB
between 0 and a value
that drives the
transistor into
saturation => bipolar
transistors can be used
as switches
Vin = 0 => Vout = Vcc
When Vin sufficiently
high => Vout =
VCEsat
Darlington pairs are
used to allow control of
high currents
The protection diode
prevents damage when
the transistor is
switched off

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 Cont ; Control of a d.c. Motor

In using transistors
with a uprocessor,
the size of the IB
must be carefully
considered

If the base current required is too large

A buffer can increase current and invert the
signal if needed (74LC240 ); (241 and 244 )
Bipolar transistor switching is implemented by
base currents and a higher frequency of
switching is possible than with thyristors

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MOSFETs

Types: n-type and p-type

The gate potential is used to control
the current through the MOS
Gate current is practically zero
Advantages
No need to be concerned about the
level of the base current
High switching
frequencies possible
The level shifter is used
to raise the voltage level
to that required by the
MOSFET

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 Solenoids
Solenoids can be used to provide
electrically operated actuators
Solenoid valves are an example of such
devices, being used to control flow in
hydraulic or pneumatic systems
When a current passes through a coil a
soft iron core is pulled into the coil and, in
doing so, can open or close ports to allow
the flow of a fluid

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D.C. Motors
Electric motors are used as
the final control element in
positional or speed-control
systems
Classification of motors
D.c. motors; a.c motors
Basic principles involved in
the action of a motor are:
A force is exerted on a
conductor in a magnetic field
When conductor moves an
emf is induced across it

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 Cont; Basic Principles of D.C. Motors
A loop of wire is free to rotate in the
field of a permanent magnet
Components of the d.c motors
Armature
Mounted on bearings
Filed poles
Permanent magnets
Electromagnets
Filed coils
Commutator
Brushers
As the armature rotates, the
commutator reverses the current in
each coil as it moves between the
field poles
The direction of rotation

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Permanent Magnet D.C Motors

F=NBiL; T = Fb;

Where kt is the torque const.

Since an armature coil is rotating
in a constant magnetic field =>

Equivalent circuit equations:

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 D.C. Motors with
Field Coils
(a) series wound motor
Highest starting torque
Greatest no-load
(b) shunt wound motor
Lowest starting torque
Lower no-load speed
Good speed regulation
(c) compound motor

(d) separately excited
motor

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Control of D.C. Motors

Permanent magnet motor

Speed: armature current
Field coil motor
Speed: by varying the armature
current or the field current
Control of d.c. motors by means
of control signals:
Pulse width modulation (PWM)
technique is used: dc voltage is
chopped
PWM can be obtained by means
of basic transistors

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 Cont

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Methods
of
Feedback
Motor
Control

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 Brushless Permanent D.C. Motors

Problem with the d.c motors

They need a commutator
Brushless motors consist of
a sequence of stator coils; and
a permanent magnet rotor
Functionality:
A current carrying conductor
The current carrying
conductors are fixed and the
magnet moves

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Transistor Switching Circuit for

Brushless Motors

Brushless motors are becoming

increasingly used in situations where
high performance coupled with
reliability and low maintenance are
essential.
Brushless motors are:
* Quiet
* Capable of reaching high speeds
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 A.C. Motors
Can be classified into two groups:
Single-phase
Used for low-power requirements
Multi-phase
Used for higher power requirements
Each of the above groups can be further
subdivided into:
Inductionmotors
Synchronous motors

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A.C. Single-phase Squirrel-Cage

Induction Motor
Elements of the motor
Squirrel-cage rotor
Copper or aluminum bars that fit
into slots in end rings to form a
complete circuit
There are no electrical connections
to the rotor
Stator
Having a set of windings to form
the poles
Functionality
emf is induced into the conductors
The motor is not self-starting
Use an auxiliary starting winding
Synchronous speed: the speed of
the magnetic field

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 A.C. 3-Phase Induction Motor
Has a stator with 3 windings
located 120 degree apart
Each winding is connected to one
of the 3 supply lines
The 3-phases reach their
maximum currents at different
times => the magnetic field
rotates around the stator poles
The rotation of the field is much
smoother than with the single-
phase motor
The 3-phase motor is self starting
The direction of rotation is
reversed by interchanging any 2 of
the line connections

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A.C. Synchronous Motors

Similar stators with the 3-
phase induction motor
The rotor is a permanent
magnet
The magnetic field produced
by the stator rotates
With one pair of poles per
phase of supply, the
magnetic field rotates
Are not self-starting
Synchronous motors are used
when a precise speed is
required

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 A.C Motors Versus D.C. Motors
AC motors are cheaper, more rugged, reliable and
maintenance free
The speed control of the A.C motors is more complex
and thus more expensive
Speed control of AC motors is based on providing a
variable frequency supply
The torque developed by an AC motor is constant when
the ratio of V/f is constant
Methods to maintain constant torque are:
ac at f1-> dc > ac at f2; ac at f1 -> ac at f2

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Stepper Motors
The stepper motor is a device that
produces rotation through equal angles,
the so-called steps, for each digital
pulse supplied
Example
Variable reluctance stepper
The rotor is made of soft steel and is
cylindrical with 4 poles, i.e. fewer poles
than on the stator
Functionality:
When an opposite pair of windings has
current switched to them => rotor
moves => rotor and stator poles line up
This is termed the position of minimum
reluctance
Step angles produced by this type of
motor are: 7.5 or 15

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 Permanent Magnet Stepper
The stator has poles
with field windings
The rotor is a
permanent magnet
The figure presents a
stepper motor that
moves 45 degree/step
Common step angles
for permanent magnet
steppers are: 1.8, 7.5,
15, 30, 34, or 90.

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Hybrid Stepper
Combine the features of both
the variable reluctance and
permanent magnet motors
Have a permanent magnet
encased in iron caps which are
cut to have teeth
The rotor sets itself in the min
reluctance position in response
to a pair of stator coils being
energized
Typical step angles: 0.9, 1.8
Are used in high-accuracy
positioning applications, e.g. in
computer hard disc drives

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 Stepper Motor Specifications
Phase
Refers to the number
of independent
windings on the
stator
Step angle
Holding torque
Pull-in torque
Pull-out torque
Pull-in rate
Pull-out rate
Slew range

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Stepper Motor

An electronic controller applies dc electrical pulses to the

windings => motor rotates in multiples of angle steps
As long as the pulse is maintain to a pole the motor holds
In this variable reluctance stepper motor the rotor rotates to
shorten the air gaps between the active pole and the rotor
Example
Applying power to the coils in the order ABCDABC the shaft
rotates in clockwise direction in steps of 15 degrees
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 Stepper Motor Control; Bipolar Motors

Solid-state electronic can be used to switch the

d.c. supply between the pairs of stator windings
2-phased motors are termed bipolar motors
Four connecting wires are used to connect the
signals that follow the switching sequence

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Cont ; Control Circuitry

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 Cont ; Unipolar Motors

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SAA 1027

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Typical Application of the SAA 1027 as

a Stepping Motor Driver

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 Assignments
Chapter 7, page 184
Problems: 1 to 7

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