MARKETING RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT :-

Q.1. A

Market Research is a systematic, objective collection and analysis of data about a particular target
market, competition, and/or environment. It always incorporates some form of data collection
whether it be secondary research (often referred to as desk research) or primary research which is
collected direct from a respondent.
The purpose of any market research project is to achieve an increased understanding of the
subject matter. With markets throughout the world becoming increasingly more competitive,
market research is now on the agenda of many organizations, whether they be large or small.

Marketing is the process by which companies create customer interest in products or services. It
generates the strategy that underlies sales techniques, business communication, and business
development. It is an integrated process through which companies build strong customer
relationships and create value for their customers and for themselves.

Marketing is used to identify the customer, to keep the customer, and to satisfy the customer.
With the customer as the focus of its activities, it can be concluded that marketing management
is one of the major components of business management. Marketing evolved to meet the stasis in
developing new markets caused by mature markets and overcapacities in the last 2-3 centuries.
The adoption of marketing strategies requires businesses to shift their focus from production to
the perceived needs and wants of their customers as the means of staying profitable.

The term marketing concept holds that achieving organizational goals depends on knowing the
needs and wants of target markets and delivering the desired satisfactions. It proposes that in
order to satisfy its organizational objectives, an organization should anticipate the needs and
wants of consumers and satisfy these more effectively than competitors.

The Nature of Marketing Research Design

Marketing research design is the specification of procedures for collecting and analyzing the data
necessary to help identify or react to a problem or opportunity, such that the difference between
the cost of obtaining various levels of accuracy and the expected value of the information
associated with each level of accuracy is maximized.

Several aspects of this definition deserve emphasis. First, research design requires the
specification of procedures. These procedures involve decisions on what information to generate,
the data collection method, the measurement approach, the object to be measured, and the way in
which the data are to be analyzed.

Second, the data are to be collected to help identify or react to a problem or opportunity. All data
collected should eventually relate to decisions faced by management. Obviously, the efficient
collection of data relevant to a decision requires a clear definition of the problem/opportunity.

A third implication of the preceding definition is that information has value. Information acquires
value as it helps improve decisions. The fourth major implication is that varying levels of
accuracy of information can be generated in response to the same problem. Information accuracy
is affected by the occurrence of a number of potential errors. Finally, the goal of applied research
design is not to generate the most accurate information possible. Rather, the objective is to
generate the most valuable information in relation to the cost of generating the information.
It should be noted that research design for purposes other than solving applied business problems
will have different characteristics. For example, research for use in court proceedings will be
designed differently from applied marketing research.

Scope of Marketing Research

Market research is the systematic design, collection, analysis and reporting of data and findings
relevant to a specific marketing situation facing the company.
Market researchers have expanded their activities and techniques. The ten most common
activities of market research are –

1. Determination of marketing characteristics

2. Measurement of market potentials
3. Market share analysis
4. Sales analysis
5. Studies of business trends
6. Short range forecasting
7. Competitive product studies
8. Long range forecasting
9. Pricing studies, and
10. Testing of existing products.

Principles of Marketing Research Offers:

1. Online, self-paced course

2. Comprehensive, state-of-the-art curriculum
3. Developed by industry experts and instructional designers at the University of Georgia.
4. Accessible anywhere with an Internet connection.

Principles of Marketing Research makes learning enjoyable by providing continuous feedback

and encouraging course completion. Coach-mentors oversee your progress and respond
personally to your questions, while support staff at the University of Georgia delivers fast,
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The complexities of global markets demand fast decisions based on reliable evidence. To produce
actionable marketplace intelligence, research professionals must understand the fundamental
principles and practices governing the design, implementation and communication of marketing
research. Whether you are an experienced researcher or new to the field, you will find that
Principles of Marketing Research presents a combination of theory and real-world best practices
that is directly relevant to your job.
Principles of Marketing Research is offered by the Marketing Research Institute International
(MRII), a non-profit educational foundation whose purpose is to fulfill the fundamental
educational needs of marketing research professionals worldwide. MRII and the University of
Georgia share a common commitment to quality, accessibility and affordability that makes this
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For more than a decade, Principles of Marketing Research has provided a relevant academically
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Q.1. B.

The marketing research process includes the systematic identification, collection, analysis and
distribution of information for the purpose of knowledge development and decision making. The
reasons and times at which your company or organization might consider performing marketing
research varies, but the general purpose of gaining intelligence for decision making remains
constant throughout.
Customers occupy the central role in the marketing research process. As a company or
organization, the overwhelming majority of research you are currently considering likely revolves
around your customers:

• Current customers
• Prospective customers
• Lost customers
• Members
• Community
• Employees (internal customers)
• Shareholders (internal customers)

Whether you are creating a new marketing research program or perhaps revising an existing
marketing research program, what are the steps you should take?
While there are dozens of little steps along the way, each of those steps fits into one of the 6
major steps of the marketing research process.

Stages of marketing research process

Step 1: Problem Definition

The first step in any marketing research project is to define the problem. In defining the problem,
the researcher should take into account the purpose of the study, the relevant background
information, what information is needed, and how it will be used in decision making. Problem
definition involves discussion with the decision makers, interviews with industry experts, analysis
of secondary data, and, perhaps, some qualitative research, such as focus groups. Once the
problem has been precisely defined, the research can be designed and conducted properly.

Step 2: Development of an Approach to the Problem

Development of an approach to the problem includes formulating an objective or theoretical

framework, analytical models, research questions, hypotheses, and identifying characteristics or
factors that can influence the research design. This process is guided by discussions with
management and industry experts, case studies and simulations, analysis of secondary data,
qualitative research and pragmatic considerations.

Step 3: Research Design Formulation

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project. It
details the procedures necessary for obtaining the required information, and its purpose is to
design a study that will test the hypotheses of interest, determine possible answers to the research
questions, and provide the information needed for decision making. Conducting exploratory
research, precisely defining the variables, and designing appropriate scales to measure them are
also a part of the research design. The issue of how the data should be obtained from the
respondents (for example, by conducting a survey or an experiment) must be addressed. It is also
necessary to design a questionnaire and a sampling plan to select respondents for the study.

More formally, formulating the research design involves the following steps:

1. Secondary data analysis

2. Qualitative research
3. Methods of collecting quantitative data (survey, observation, and experimentation)
4. Definition of the information needed
5. Measurement and scaling procedures
6. Questionnaire design
7. Sampling process and sample size
8. Plan of data analysis

Step 4: Field Work or Data Collection

Data collection involves a field force or staff that operates either in the field, as in the case of
personal interviewing (in-home, mall intercept, or computer-assisted personal interviewing), from
an office by telephone (telephone or computer-assisted telephone interviewing), or through mail
(traditional mail and mail panel surveys with prerecruited households). Proper selection, training,
supervision, and evaluation of the field force helps minimize data-collection errors.

Step 5: Data Preparation and Analysis

Data preparation includes the editing, coding, transcription, and verification of data. Each
questionnaire or observation form is inspected, or edited, and, if necessary, corrected. Number or
letter codes are assigned to represent each response to each question in the questionnaire. The
data from the questionnaires are transcribed or key-punched on to magnetic tape, or disks or input
directly into the computer. Verification ensures that the data from the original questionnaires
have been accurately transcribed, while data analysis, guided by the plan of data analysis, gives
meaning to the data that have been collected. Unvaried techniques are used for analyzing data
when there is a single measurement of each element or unit in the sample, or, if there are several
measurements of each element, each RCH variable is analyzed in isolation. On the other hand,
multivariate techniques are used for analyzing data when there are two or more measurements on
each element and the variables are analyzed simultaneously.

Step 6: Report Preparation and Presentation

The entire project should be documented in a written report which addresses the specific research
questions identified, describes the approach, the research design, data collection, and data
analysis procedures adopted and present the results and the major findings. The findings should
be presented in a comprehensible format so that they can be readily used in the decision making
process. In addition, an oral presentation should be made to management using tables, figures,
and graphs to enhance clarity and impact.

For these reasons, interviews with experts are more useful in conducting marketing research for
industrial firms and for products of a technical nature, where it is relatively easy to identify and
approach the experts. This method is also helpful in situations where little information is
available from other sources, as in the case of radically new products.

Q.2. A.

Types of Market Research

Market research is the process of finding information about your competitors, current market
trends or your customers. Most companies invest in market research when they release a new
product, improve on an existing product or if they plan on introducing a particular product in a
new market.
Market research can also prove helpful if you want to explore business opportunities in new
markets. Market research can be conducted by two methods, primary research or secondary
research.
Primary research
Primary research refers to information that is directly collected from the source. Another simple
method of primary research would be to directly talk to your customers and get their feedback.
Primary research can be both qualitative and quantitative.
1. Qualitative primary research
Qualitative primary research involves gathering information from interviews or focus groups.
Open-ended interviews include questions that cannot be answered with a yes or no. You can get a
lot of information from such interviews and also find out about the dislikes, likes, requirements,
trends and emotional motivators of your primary market
A focus group should ideally be led by experienced professionals who can lead a group of 6 or
more people and ask them both general and specific questions. Since trained professionals are
required to handle focus groups, they are very expensive
2. Quantitative primary research
Quantitative primary research involves the collection of numerical information from surveys.
This information is then analyzed.
Surveys can provide you with the information you require if the survey has meaningful questions.
More people would be willing to take a survey as it takes less time. The cheapest and easiest way
of conducting a survey is through the telephone and on the place where your product is being sold
CATI Surveys
The best way to out beat competition is to listen to your consumers. Although there are several
methods of collecting reliable data from your customers, most data collection is conducted
through CATI (Computer aided telephone interviews) which are cost-effective as well as reliable.
CATI/Telephone surveys are the most effective method of collecting data from customers.
The process of the CATI survey is based on the objective brief, survey draft, call script and the
lead list that is usually provided by the company who wants to conduct the survey. The right
resources are identified and the technology /infrastructure needed to conduct the telephone
surveys allocated. The CATI surveys are then conducted. The accuracy of the data can be
measured and optimized through call center CRM technology.
CATI surveys can help you get an insight on why your customers are dissatisfied. You can also
find out where your product/service stands in comparison to competitors. Based on the feedback
that you get from your customers, you can customize your product to meet the requirements of
your consumers.
Secondary market research
Secondary research is more economical and easier to do when compared to primary research.
Here you will have to analyze the information that has been collected for some other reason. You
can find the data that you require through a set of articles, demographic/ statistical data, studies
etc.
By investing in secondary market research you can analyze your target markets, evaluate your
competitors and assess political, social and economic factors. The internet has a large number of
secondary data sources and most resources, magazines and press releases are now available
online.
Secondary research resources
There are a large number of resources from which secondary research information can be
obtained. Some of these sources are:
1. Trade associations
From the reports available with trade associations you can get information on the industries
served, the standards that they observe and the leaders in their field. You can also get information
on the latest trends, issues and competitors.
2. The marketing departments of local colleges
The marketing department of any college can give you access to special research projects and
reports prepared by students.
3. Chamber of commerce
The local chamber of commerce in your area can give you information on your local community
and local businesses. You can also get access to the maps of the area.
4. Insurance companies, banks and real estate companies
You can information on the statistics of the communities to whom they provide services.
5. Wholesalers and manufacturers
From manufactures and wholesalers you can get information on customers, problems if any,
costs, industry standards etc
6. Libraries and other public information centers
In the reference sections of libraries and information centers you can find a lot of resource
materials and data.
7. Books and publications
There are several books that can give you information on a particular type of industry or market.
Trade journals are another excellent source for information. You can also get information from
government publications.
8. Magazines and newspapers
You can get a lot of information from news events and get the latest information on politics,
economic indicators etc. The archives of leading newspapers and magazines can provide you with
a wealth of information. Industry journals are another source of information.
9. Media representatives
Media representatives who work with print, audio or audio-visual media mostly collect
information on the markets that their viewers, readers and listeners are interested in.
10. Competitors
By researching on the price, products/services, brochures and reports of your competitors you can
get a greater insight on how to move forward in your business.
11. Business information centers
Such centers usually have a large collection of videos, books, CDs, publications and other
information that are helpful for small businesses.
12. Federal government resources
You can get in-depth demographic data related to the economy, market or population.
13. Regional planning organizations
If you are looking for data on a community’s past or current growth trend, you can look up the
resources of regional planning organizations.
14. Discussion groups
Discussion groups are commonly known as Newsgroups.
Q.2.B.

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a collection of computer hardware, software and

geographic data used to analyse and display geographically referenced information.

Applications of GIS

Quite simply, GIS provides a method by which geographically dependent data can be displayed
in an easily understandable visual format to simplify the process of decision making. The possible
applications of such a tool would stretch to several volumes, but here are a few examples of the
possible uses:

* Earthquake Mapping

GIS is often used to map tectonic activity in earthquake prone regions for purposes of both public
safety and commercial interests.

Commercially, tectonic activity would be of great interest for the decision making process of
insurance companies in setting earthquake insurance premiums. Clearly, premiums will be much
higher in tectonically active areas such as the West Coast of the United States than in relatively
stable regions such as the Mid-West. To enable insurance brokers to determine premiums it is
necessary to utilise GIS software in mapping past tectonic activity in order to make a ‘best guess’
about future earthquake events.

Tectonic mapping through GIS is also used as a public safety measure by the United States
Geological Survey (USGS). These GIS maps are essential for creating and updating building
codes. They can also be extremely useful for the purposes of studying past earthquake events in
order to improve and perfect prediction techniques with a view to creating an early warning
system which would predict earthquakes and allow emergency response organisations such as
FEMA to react more quickly to natural disasters.

* Market Research
Rather less urgent - but no less important to industry - is the fact that GIS can be used to make
decisions regarding the provision of products and services. For instance, enterprises can use GIS
to analyse demographic data in an effort to locate the regions in which their products can be
expected to succeed (high-income regions for luxury items, for example). This sort of analysis
can be extremely useful in apportioning a limited advertising budget, allowing the funds to be
effectively channelled towards regions densely populated by the target demographic.

* Demographics, Health Research and Census Data

The range of data collected by governments about their citizens can be truly enormous. In their
raw form these data are largely useless to all but the most committed of researchers. When
translated into an easily understandable visual format by GIS software, however, census data can
be of great use in the shaping of public policy. Data regarding such subjects as health and
education levels can be used to better apportion government spending in these areas, leading
(ideally) to more efficient use of government funds, increased life expectancy, the creation of
jobs and an upturn in economic growth, along with a whole host of subsidiary social benefits.
Additionally, GIS can aid health workers in such fields as cancer research.
Q.3. A.

The informations collected from various sources through the use of’different
tools and techniques generally comprise numerical figures, ratings,
descriptive narrations, responses to open-ended questions, quotations, field
notes, etc. This information is called data. In educational research, usually
two types of data are used universally. They are, Quantitative data and
Qualitative data.

1. Quantitative Data

Quantitative data are obtained by applying various scales of measurement.

The experiences of people are fit into standard responses to which numerical
values are attached. These data are close-ended and hardly provide any
depth or details. Quantitative data are either parametric or non-parametric.
Parametric data undergo interval or ratio scale measurement. For example,
in measuring reaction time, we make use of ratio scale measurement. The
score on a psychological test or inventory is an illustration of interval scale
measurement. Non-parametric data are obtained by applying nominal or
ordinal scales of measurement. These data are either counted or ranked.

2. Qualitative Data

Qualitative data are verbal or symbolic. The detailed descriptions of

observed behaviours, people, situations and events, are some examples of
qualitative data. For example, the responses to open ended questions of a
questionnahe or a schedule, first hand information from people about their
experiences, ideas, beliefs, and selected content or excerpts from
documents, case histories, personal diaries and letters are other examples of
qualitative data.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

There are mainly three methods of obtaining data in

educational research: (i) one can ask.questions; (ii) one can observe the
behaviour of persons, groups or organisations, and their products or
outcomes; or (iii) one can utilise existing records or data already gathered
for purposes other than one's research. In all the three methods the
researcher needs to familiarise himselflherself with the procedure helshe is
to adopt for collecting data from sample groups or records.

a. Asking Questions

In the first method, the researcher may use psychological tests, inventories,
questionnaires, or schedules. In Unit I1 you have learnt that tests are
useful tools of educational research. They are devised to evaluate and
measure behaviour in a standardized way for the purpose of providing data
for most experimental and descriptive studies in education. Tests and
inventories yield objective and standardized descriptions of behaviour,
quantified in numerical scores. Under ideal situations, intelligence, aptitude
or achievement tests measure the best performance of which individuals are
capable. The inventories attempt to measure typical behaviour. In
experimental studies, a researcher may use test scores to equate the
experimeiltal and control groups, to describe relative skill at this task prior
to the application of the teaching methods, to assess gains in achievement
resulting from the application of the experimental and control teaching
methods, and to evaluate the relative effectiveness of teaching methods.
Tests and inventories are frequently used to describe prevailing conditions
at a particular time in descriptive research studies. For example,
achievement tests are used extensively in school surveys in the appraisal of
instruction. In selecting tests or inventories for collecting data in research situations, a
researcher must evaluate their validity, reliability and usability. The
information about these criteria are available in their accompanying
manuals. The researcher should carefully examine the standardized data of
the tests inventories contained in their manuals and extensive analysis of
published evaluations of the instruments. It makes the researcher aware
about their usefulness and limitations in different test situations.
Ease of administration, scoring, and interpretation are important factors in
selecting a test or inventory. The tests or inventories which are easily and
effectively administered, scored, and interpreted should generally be used.
The procedure given in the manual for administering a test or an inventory
should be strictly followed to collect dependable data. The cooperation of
the subjects must be ensured at each stage of data collection. The subjects
should be encouraged to provide objective information. The responses of
the subjects should be independent of the personal judgment & view of the
researcher who is using the test or inventory. The testing conditions should
be made interesting and fascinating so as to gain the cooperation of the
subjects. Questionnaires and interview schedules are the other tools of research
through which information is sought. The reliability and validity of the
data gathered through questionnaires or interview schedules depends not
only on their design but also on the manner of administering the
questionnaire or the technique of interviewing. The questionnaire is
generally sent through mail to the subjects for answering without any
further assistance from the sender (researcher). The schedule, on the other
hand, is generally filled out by the researcher who can interpret the
questions whenever necessary. In certain situations when the researcher
administers the questionnaire personally it creates an opportunity to
establish rapport with the subjects, explain them the purpose of the study,
and the learning of items that may not be clear. The availability of a
number of subjects in one place helps in exercising economy of time and
expense and provides a high proportion of usable responses. However,
subjects who have the desired information cannot always be contacted
personally without spending of a great deal of time and money in travel. It
is in such situations that mailed questionnaires are useful.
The researcher should choose the respondents carefully before administering
the questionnaire. It is important that questionnaires be sent only to those
who possess the desired information and are interested to respond
conscientiously and objectively. It is advisable to send a preliminary letter
to respond individually asking whether the individual would be willing
to participate in the proposed study. This is not only a courteous approach
but a practical way of identifying those who will cooperate in furnishing the
desired information. The researcher should also consider the possibility of
providing for anonymous responses if the desired information is delicate or
coinfidential in nature. That approach is helpful in producing objective and
the lonest responses.

b. Observation of Behaviour

Direct observation of the behaviour of persons, groups or organisations

provides reliable and conceptually meaningful data in field studies as well
as in laboratory experimentation. You have already learnt that observation
is the technique in which one or more persons observe what is occurring in
some real-life situation. This technique, like other research tools and
techniques, needs proper planning, expert execution, and adequate recording
and interpretation. Observation is always directed towards a specific goal.
It is neither haphazard nor unplanned. The planning for observation
includes definition of specific activities or units of behaviour to be
observed, the nature of the groups of subjects to be observed, determination
of the length of each observation period and decisions regarding the tools to
be used in observation and recording. Effective execution of observation
ensures proper arrangement of specific conditions for the subject or subjects
to be observed, objective and effective use of recording tools, aid
interpretation of observation data. Observation may be either participant or non-participant in
structured or unstructured situations. Structured observations are executed in controlled
situations like classroom or laboratory settings. Unstructured observation is
mainly associated with participant observation and it is often an exploratory
technique. The recording of the observation data may either be
simultaneous or soon after the observation. In the former case, the observer
goes on recording his or her observations along with the occurrence of the
phenomena observed. In the latter case, the observer undertakes to record
his or her observations not simultaneously with the actual observation process,
but immediately after he or she has observed for a unit of time while the details
are still fresh in the mind.

c. Utilisation of Existing Records or Data

The researcher uses the method of observation, either participant or non-participant, helshe
focuses on thoseaspects of the behaviour of an individual or individuals which are of interest to
him. If he or she uses tests or questionnaires, he or she chooses or frames the
tool to suit hislher research needs. 1-Ielshe uses interviews if he or she needs
infol-mation on nlatters of confidential or personal nature. In using these
tools, the researcher controls or manipulates the situation according to
hisher research objectives. In contrast, the existing data or
records/documents bring to the researcher's notice, certain data over which
he or she has relatively little control. These come to the researcher readymade.
Some other person, either a participant in a social situation or process, the
originator of a system of recording, or the creator of an index, has already
determined the form of the data. The data obtained through observation,
through tests and questionnaires, and through interviews are gathered for a
specific purpose. Documents and records, on the other hand, may bring
together data for scientific analysis from remote periods and places. These
data provide unique access to historical and social situations and to some
current social situations too, which are otherwise difficult or expensive to
observe. Personal letters, life histories, diaries, autobiographies, court
records, proceedings of commissions, seminars and conferences, newspaper
stories, registration and census records of information pertaining to births,
deaths, marriages, divorces, school attendance, drop out rate, performance
on psychological tests, crimes known to police, arrests, court actions, prison
records, voting pattern in the parliament and assembly elections, automobile
registrations, enrolment of distance learners in different study or regional
centres etc. are examples of documents and records.
Q.3 .B.

Measurement Plan
How will you measure the independent, dependent, and moderating variables? For some studies,
it is important to identify a way to measure the change in the variables. For quantitative deductive
studies non-parametric measurement instruments lead to non-parametric statistical analyses
which are acceptable but not as powerful as the parametric statistical analyses. For qualitative
studies the measurement might be qualitative descriptions based on the responses to the questions
in an interview guide. For mixed method quasi-deductive studies the measurement plan might
include both qualitative descriptions and quantitative measures (e.g., survey questions with
scales, performance measures such as financial performance). The measurement plan should be
consistent with the overall approach identified in the previous step and the conceptual framework
and research questions. Remember - we “measure” variables and “analyze” relationships.

Sampling is that part of statistical practice concerned with the selection of an unbiased or random
subset of individual observations within a population of individuals intended to yield some
knowledge about the population of concern, especially for the purposes of making predictions
based on statistical inference. Sampling is an important aspect of data collection.

Researchers rarely survey the entire population for two reasons (Adèr, Mellenbergh, & Hand,
2008): the cost is too high, and the population is dynamic in that the individuals making up the
 population may change over time. The three main advantages of sampling are that the cost is
lower, data collection is faster, and since the data set is smaller it is possible to ensure
homogeneity and to improve the accuracy and quality of the data.

Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight, location, color) of
observable bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals. In survey sampling, survey
weights can be applied to the data to adjust for the sample design. Results from probability theory
and statistical theory are employed to guide practice. In business and medical research, sampling
is widely used for gathering information about a population.

Process

The sampling process comprises several stages:

• Defining the population of concern
• Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure
• Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame
• Determining the sample size
• Implementing the sampling plan
• Sampling and data collecting
• Reviewing the sampling process

Sampling and data collection

Good data collection involves:-

• Following the defined sampling process
• Keeping the data in time order
• Noting comments and other contextual events
• Recording non-responses
• Most sampling books and papers written by non-statisticians focus only in the data
collection aspect, which is just a small though important part of the sampling process.

Sampling methods

1. Simple random sampling

2. Systematic sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Probability proportional to size sampling
5. Cluster sampling
6. Matched random sampling
7. Quota sampling
8. Convenience sampling
9. Line-intercept sampling
10. Panel sampling
11. Event sampling methodology
 Q.5. A.

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the
goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making.

Initial data analysis

The most important distinction between the initial data analysis phase and the main analysis
phase, is that during initial data analysis one refrains from any analysis that are aimed at
answering the original research question. The initial data analysis phase is guided by the
following four questions
Quality of data
The quality of the data should be checked as early as possible. Data quality can be assessed in
several ways, using different types of analyses: frequency counts, descriptive statistics (mean,
standard deviation, median), normality (skewness, kurtosis, frequency histograms, normal
probability plots), associations (correlations, scatter plots).
Other initial data quality checks are:
Checks on data cleaning: have decisions influenced the distribution of the variables? The
distribution of the variables before data cleaning is compared to the distribution of the variables
after data cleaning to see whether data cleaning has had unwanted effects on the data.
Analysis of missing observations: are there many missing values, and are the values missing at
random? The missing observations in the data are analyzed to see whether more than 25% of the
values are missing, whether they are missing at random (MAR), and whether some form of
imputation (statistics) is needed.
Analysis of extreme observations: outlying observations in the data are analyzed to see if they
seem to disturb the distribution.
Comparison and correction of differences in coding schemes: variables are compared with coding
schemes of variables external to the data set, and possibly corrected if coding schemes are not
comparable.
The choice of analyses to assess the data quality during the initial data analysis phase depends on
the analyses that will be conducted in the main analysis phase. by philip kotler
Quality of measurements
The quality of the measurement instruments should only be checked during the initial data
analysis phase when this is not the focus or research question of the study. One should check
whether structure of measurement instruments corresponds to structure reported in the literature.
There are two ways to assess measurement quality:
Confirmatory factor analysis
Analysis of homogeneity (internal consistency), which gives an indication of the reliability of a
measurement instrument, i.e., whether all items fit into a unidimensional scale. During this
analysis, one inspects the variances of the items and the scales, the Cronbach's α of the scales, and
the change in the Cronbach's alpha when an item would be deleted from a scale.
Initial transformations
After assessing the quality of the data and of the measurements, one might decide to impute
missing data, or to perform initial transformations of one or more variables, although this can also
be done during the main analysis phase.
Possible transformations of variables are:
Square root transformation (if the distribution differs moderately from normal)
Log-transformation (if the distribution differs substantially from normal)
Inverse transformation (if the distribution differs severely from normal)
Make categorical (ordinal / dichotomous) (if the distribution differs severely from normal, and no
transformations help)
Other possible data distortions that should be checked are:
dropout (this should be identified during the initial data analysis phase)
Item nonresponse (whether this is random or not should be assessed during the initial data
analysis phase)
Treatment quality (using manipulation checks)
Characteristics of data sample
In any report or article, the structure of the sample must be accurately described. It is especially
important to exactly determine the structure of the sample (and specifically the size of the
subgroups) when subgroup analyses will be performed during the main analysis phase.
The characteristics of the data sample can be assessed by looking at:
• Basic statistics of important variables
• Scatter plots
• Correlations
• Cross-tabulations

Final stage of the initial data analysis

During the final stage, the findings of the initial data analysis are documented, and necessary,
preferable, and possible corrective actions are taken.
Also, the original plan for the main data analyses can and should be specified in more detail
and/or rewritten.
In order to do this, several decisions about the main data analyses can and should be made:
In the case of non-normals: should one transform variables; make variables categorical
(ordinal/dichotomous); adapt the analysis method?
In the case of missing data: should one neglect or impute the missing data; which imputation
technique should be used?
In the case of outliers: should one use robust analysis techniques?
In case items do not fit the scale: should one adapt the measurement instrument by omitting
items, or rather ensure comparability with other (uses of the) measurement instrument(s)?
In the case of (too) small subgroups: should one drop the hypothesis about inter-group
differences, or use small sample techniques, like exact tests or bootstrapping?
In case the randomization procedure seems to be defective: can and should one calculate
propensity scores and include them as covariates in the main analyses?
Q.5 .B.

Objects and Importance of Tabulation

Tabulation is a technique to present and interpret the complex information in a simple and
systematic form. The main objectives of the process of tabulation are as follows:

• The main purpose of the tabulation is to simplify the complex information so that it can
be easily understood.
• Under tabulation, data is divided into various parts and for each part there are totals and
sub totals. Therefore, relationship between different parts can be easily known.
• Since data are arranged in a table with a title and a number so these can be easily
identified and used for the required purpose.
• Tabulation makes the data brief. Therefore, it can be easily presented in the form of
graphs.
• Tabulation presents the numerical figures in an attractive form.
• Tabulation makes complex data simple and as a result of this, it becomes easy to
understand the data.
• This form of the presentation of data is helpful in finding mistakes.
• Tabulation is useful in condensing the collected data.
• Tabulation makes it easy to analyze the data from tables.
• Tabulation is a very cheap mode to present the data. It saves time as well as space.
• Tabulation is a device to summaries the large scattered data. So, the maximum
information may be collected from these tables.

It is cumbersome to study or interpret large data without grouping it, even if it is arranged
sequentially. For this, the data are usually organized into groups called classes and presented
in a table which gives the frequency in each group. Such a frequency table gives a better
overall view of the distribution of data and enables a person to rapidly comprehend important
characteristics of the data.
For example, a test of 50 marks is administered on a class of 40 students and the marks
obtained by these students are as listed below in Table 12.5.

By going through the marks of 40 students listed in Table 12.5, you may be able to see that the
marks vary from 16 to 48, but if you try to comprehend the overall performance it is a difficult
propositibn.
Now conbider the same set of marks, arranged in a tabular form, as shown in Table 12.6.

From Table 12.6 one can easily comprehend the distribution of marks e.g. 10 students have
scores fr+m 25 to 29, while only 7 students have a score lower than 50% etc.

Yarious terms related to the tabulation of data are being discussed below :
Table 12.6 shows the marks arranged in descending order of magnitude and their corresponding
frequencies. Such a table is known as frequency distribution. A grouped frequency
distribution has a minimum of two columns - the first has the classes arranged in some
meaningful order, and a second has the corresponding frequencies. The classes are also referred
to as class intervals. The range of scores or values in each class interval is the same. In the
given example the first class interval is from 45 to 49 having a range of 5 marks i.e. 45,46,47,
48, and 49. Here 45 is the lower class limit and 49 is the upper class limit. As discussed
earlier the score of 45 may be anywhere from 44.5 to 45.5, so the exact lower class limit is
44.5 instead of 45. Similarly, the exact upper class limit is 49.5 instead of 49. The range of
the class interval is 49.5 - 44.5 = 5 i s . the difference between the upper limit of class interval
and the lower limit of class interval.

For the presentation of data in the form of a frequency distribution for grouped data, a number
of steps are required. These steps are :

1. Selection of non-overlapping classes.

2. Enumeration of data values that fall in each class.
3 . Construction of the table.
Q.7. (1)

A questionnaire format may be used to solicit opinions, obtain information, and collect feedback
regarding t h e work or training environment. For example, questionnaires can be used to collect
post-training feedback on initial or continuing training program effectiveness to gather data t h a t
assists in t h e evaluation of t h e proper scope of training program content and to investigate t h e
effects of industry events and/or regulatory changes on t h e content of a training program.
The following guidance can be helpful when developing a questionnaire-type evaluation
instrument:
• Define t h e purpose of t h e questionnaire. This can be done by determining what
information is needed, who w i l l provide t h e information, and how t h e
information w i l l be used.
• Determine t h e source of t h e evaluation questions to be used in t h e
questionnaire. Questions can come from managers and training staff, previous
observations and interview material, and other questionnaires t h a t have been
used f o r similar purposes.
• Determine t h e types of questions required on t h e questionnaire. Three different types of
questions can be used.The interview technique uses all three types.
Performance Questions - These questions ask what has actually been performed. They are aimed
at obtaining descriptions of actual experiences, activities, or actions where t h e corresponding
performance w o u l d be observable if an evaluator were present.

Different Types of Questions in Questionnaire Design

Outsource marketing questionnaire design to Outsoure2india and get access to proficient and
professional services within a fast turnaround time. If your organization wishes to collect data
from a large audience, well-formatted questionnaires can be your means to collect data.
Outsource2india, a pioneer in outsourcing has years of experience in designing effective
questionnaires.
We have a team of qualified marketing questionnaire design experts who are skilled in designing
ideal questionnaires. Apart from designing questionnaires, we also have expertise in devising
questions that can help you get the answers that you require.
There are different types of questions that can be put forth to a large audience. The key to getting
the right data depends on the questions that are asked. We have knowledge and expertise in the
different types of questions in questionnaire design.
The following is a list of the different types of questions in questionnaire design:
1. Open Format Questions
Open format questions are those questions that give your audience an opportunity to express their
opinions. In these types of questions, there are no predetermined set of responses and the person
is free to answer however he/she chooses. By including open format questions in your
questionnaire, you can get true, insightful and even unexpected suggestions. Qualitative questions
fall under the category of open format questions. An ideal questionnaire would include an open
format question at the end of the questionnaire that would ask the respondent about suggestions
for changes or improvements.
2. Closed Format Questions
Closed format questions are questions that include multiple choice answers. Multiple choice
questions fall under the category of closed format questions. These multiple choices could either
be in even numbers or in odd numbers. By including closed format questions in your
questionnaire design, you can easily calculate statistical data and percentages. Preliminary
analysis can also be performed with ease. Closed format questions can be asked to different
groups at different intervals. This can enable you to efficiently track opinion over time.
3. Leading Questions
Leading questions are questions that force your audience for a particular type of answer. In a
leading question, all the answers would be equally likely. An example of a leading question
would be a question that would have choices such as, fair, good, great, poor, superb, excellent etc.
By asking a question and then giving answers such as these, you will be able to get an opinion
from your audience.
4. Importance Questions
In importance questions, the respondents are usually asked to rate the importance of a particular
issue, on a rating scale of 1-5. These questions can help you grasp what are the things that hold
importance to your respondents. Importance questions can also help you make business critical
decisions.
5. Likert Questions
Likert questions can help you ascertain how strongly your respondent agrees with a particular
statement. Likert questions can also help you assess how your customers feel towards a certain
issue, product or service.
6. Dichotomous Questions
Dichotomous questions are simple questions that ask respondents to just answer yes or no. One
major drawback of a dichotomous question is that it cannot analyze any of the answers between
yes and no.
7. Bipolar Questions
Bipolar questions are questions that have two extreme answers. The respondent is asked to mark
his/her responses between the two opposite ends of the scale.
8. Rating Scale Questions
In rating scale questions, the respondent is asked to rate a particular issue on a scale that ranges
from poor to good. Rating scale questions usually have an even number of choices, so that
respondents are not given the choice of an middle option.
9. Buying Propensity Questions
Buying propensity questions are questions that try to assess the future intentions of customers.
These questions ask respondents if they want to buy a particular product, what requirements they
want to be addressed and whether they would buy such a product in the future.

Q.7.(3)

In statistics, regression analysis includes any techniques for modeling and analyzing several
variables, when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
independent variables. More specifically, regression analysis helps us understand how the typical
value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the independent variables is varied,
while the other independent variables are held fixed. Most commonly, regression analysis
estimates the conditional expectation of the dependent variable given the independent variables
— that is, the average value of the dependent variable when the independent variables are held
fixed. Less commonly, the focus is on a quantile, or other location parameter of the conditional
distribution of the dependent variable given the independent variables. In all cases, the estimation
target is a function of the independent variables called the regression function. In regression
analysis, it is also of interest to characterize the variation of the dependent variable around the
regression function, which can be described by a probability distribution.
Regression analysis is widely used for prediction and forecasting, where its use has substantial
overlap with the field of machine learning. Regression analysis is also used to understand which
among the independent variables are related to the dependent variable, and to explore the forms
of these relationships. In restricted circumstances, regression analysis can be used to infer causal
relationships between the independent and dependent variables.

A large body of techniques for carrying out regression analysis has been developed. Familiar
methods such as linear regression and ordinary least squares regression are parametric, in that the
regression function is defined in terms of a finite number of unknown parameters that are
estimated from the data. Nonparametric regression refers to techniques that allow the regression
function to lie in a specified set of functions, which may be infinite-dimensional.

The performance of regression analysis methods in practice depends on the form of the data-
generating process, and how it relates to the regression approach being used. Since the true form
of the data-generating process is not known, regression analysis depends to some extent on
making assumptions about this process. These assumptions are sometimes (but not always)
testable if a large amount of data is available. Regression models for prediction are often useful
even when the assumptions are moderately violated, although they may not perform optimally.
However, in many applications, especially with small effects or questions of causality based on
observational data, regression methods give misleading results

Regression models

Regression models involve the following variables:

• The unknown parameters denoted as β; this may be a scalar or a vector.

• The independent variables, X.
• The dependent variable, Y.

A regression model relates Y to a function of X and β.

The approximation is usually formalized as E(Y | X) = f(X, β). To carry out regression analysis,
the form of the function f must be specified. Sometimes the form of this function is based on
knowledge about the relationship between Y and X that does not rely on the data. If no such
knowledge is available, a flexible or convenient form for f is chosen.

Assume now that the vector of unknown parameters β is of length k. In order to perform a
regression analysis the user must provide information about the dependent variable Y:

• If N data points of the form (Y,X) are observed, where N < k, most classical approaches to
regression analysis cannot be performed: since the system of equations defining the
regression model is underdetermined, there is not enough data to recover β.
• If exactly N = k data points are observed, and the function f is linear, the equations
Y = f(X, β) can be solved exactly rather than approximately. This reduces to solving a set
of N equations with N unknowns (the elements of β), which has a unique solution as long
as the X are linearly independent. If f is nonlinear, a solution may not exist, or many
solutions may exist.
 • The most common situation is where N > k data points are observed. In this case, there is
enough information in the data to estimate a unique value for β that best fits the data in
some sense, and the regression model when applied to the data can be viewed as an
overdetermined system in β.

In the last case, the regression analysis provides the tools for:

1. Finding a solution for unknown parameters β that will, for example, minimize the
distance between the measured and predicted values of the dependent variable Y (also
known as method of least squares).
2. Under certain statistical assumptions, the regression analysis uses the surplus of
information to provide statistical information about the unknown parameters β and
predicted values of the dependent variable Y.

Q.7.(5)

Features of Qualitative & Quantitative Research

Qualitative Quantitative
"There's no such thing as qualitative
"All research ultimately has
data.
a qualitative grounding"
Everything is either 1 or 0"
- Donald Campbell
- Fred Kerlinger
The aim is to classify features, count
The aim is a complete, detailed description. them, and construct statistical models in
an attempt to explain what is observed.

Researcher may only know roughly in advance Researcher knows clearly in advance
what he/she is looking for. what he/she is looking for.

Recommended during earlier phases of research Recommended during latter phases of

projects. research projects.

All aspects of the study are carefully

The design emerges as the study unfolds.
designed before data is collected.

Researcher uses tools, such as

Researcher is the data gathering instrument. questionnaires or equipment to collect
numerical data.

Data is in the form of words, pictures or Data is in the form of numbers and
objects. statistics.

Subjective – individuals - interpretation of Objective - seeks precise measurement

events is important ,e.g., uses participant & analysis of target concepts, e.g., uses
observation, in-depth interviews etc. surveys, questionnaires etc.
 Quantitative data is more efficient, able
Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming,
to test hypotheses, but may miss
and less able to be generalized.
contextual detail.

Researcher tends to become subjectively Researcher tends to remain objectively

immersed in the subject matter. separated from the subject matter.

Q.7. (6)

Experiments can be conducted either in the field or in a laboratory setting. When operating within
a laboratory environment, the researcher has direct control over most, if not all, of the variables
that could impact upon the outcome of the experiment. For example, an agricultural research
station may wish to compare the acceptability of a new variety of maize. Since the taste
characteristics are likely to have a major influence on the level of acceptance, a blind taste panels
might be set up where volunteers are given small portions of maize porridge in unmarked bowls.
The participants would perhaps be given two porridge samples and the researcher would observe
whether they were able to distinguish between the maize varieties and which they preferred. In
addition to taste testing, laboratory experiments are widely used by marketing researchers in
concept testing, package testing, advertising research and test marketing.

When experiments are conducted within a natural setting then they are termed field experiments.
The variety test carried out by United Fruits on their Gros Michel and Valery bananas is an
example of a field experiment. The researcher obviously has less control over variables likely to
have an effect upon the experimental variable but will strive to exert whatever control is possible.

Basic concepts in experimentation

Dependency: Experiments allow marketing researchers to study the effects of an independent
variable on a dependent variable. The researcher is able to manipulate the independent variable
(i.e. he/she is able to change the value of the independent variable) and observe what effect, if
any, this has upon the value of the dependent variable. Put another way, an independent variable
is one which can be manipulated independently of other variables. Independent variables are
selected for inclusion in an experiment on the basis of an assumption that they are in some way
related to the dependent variable being studied. It is for this reason that independent variables are
on occasion referred to as explanatory variables. The dependent variable is the one under study.
The researcher begins from the premise that changes in the value of the dependent variable are at
least in part caused by changes in the independent variable. The experiment is designed to
determine whether or not this cause and effect relationship actually exists.

Causality: A causal relationship is said to exist where the value of one variable is known to
determine or influence the value of another. Green et al.3 draw a distinction between two types of
causation: deterministic and probabilistic.
Where the independent variable (X) wholly explains changes in the value of the dependent
variable (Y) and the researcher is able to establish the functional relationship between the two
variables then this can be expressed as follows:
y = f(x)
In this case, it is said that X is both a necessary and a sufficient condition for Y to occur. The
value of Y is determined by X, and X alone. Thus it can be said, in these circumstances, that X is
a deterministic cause of Y. An illustrative example would be where the demand for agricultural
commodities, say sugar, is dependent upon the world price. Further suppose that the functional
relationship between sugar demand and world prices is known, then the formula becomes:
Changes in demand for sugar (grade No. 6) = f(World Price)
Whilst this example serves to illustrate the point it is rare to find such relationships when
studying marketing problems. In most instances, the value of the dependent variable will be a
function of several variables. For instance, only in exceptional cases would the demand for a
product, even a commodity, depend solely upon price movements. Factors such as the reputation
of the supplier, terms of sale, promotional activities, packaging etc., are likely to have an impact
on demand as well. A more common causal model is one where the value of the dependent
variable is a function of several independent variables.
Marketing problems are more often multivariate than univariate and so the relationship between
dependent and independent variables is more often probabilistic than deterministic. A
probabilistic relationship could be expressed as:
y = f(x1, x2,...xn).
What is depicted here is a situation where the dependent variable (y) is a function of several
variables (x1, x2,...xn). If marketing research can establish the form of the relationship (f) between
the independent variables and also between the independent and dependent variables then the
value of y can be predicted. In this instance x1, for example, is a necessary but not sufficient
condition for y to occur. The same is true of each of the other independent variables. Rather, each
individual independent variable is said to be a probabilistic cause of the value of y.

Q.7. (7)
Chi-Square Distribution

The Chi Square Distribution is the distribution of the sum of squared standard normal deviates.
The degrees of freedom of the distribution is equal to the number of standard normal deviates
being summed. Therefore, Chi Square with one degree of freedom, written as χ2(1), is simply the
distribution of a single normal deviate squared. The area of a Chi Square distribution below 4 is
the same as the area of a standard normal distribution below 2 since 4 is 22.

A statistical experiment is conducted is as follows:-

We select a random sample of size n from a normal population, having a standard deviation
equal to σ. We find that the standard deviation in our sample is equal to s. Given these data, we
can define a statistic, called chi-square, using the following equation:
Χ2 = [ ( n - 1 ) * s2 ] / σ2
If we repeated this experiment an infinite number of times, we could obtain a sampling
distribution for the chi-square statistic. The chi-square distribution is defined by the following
probability density function:
Y = Y0 * ( Χ2 ) ( v/2 - 1 ) * e-Χ2 / 2
where Y0 is a constant that depends on the number of degrees of freedom, Χ2 is the chi-square
statistic, v = n - 1 is the number of degrees of freedom, and e is a constant equal to the base of the
natural logarithm system (approximately 2.71828). Y0 is defined, so that the area under the chi-
square curve is equal to one.
In the figure below, the red curve shows the distribution of chi-square values computed from all
possible samples of size 3, where degrees of freedom is n - 1 = 3 - 1 = 2. Similarly, the the green
curve shows the distribution for samples of size 5 (degrees of freedom equal to 4); and the blue
curve, for samples of size 11 (degrees of freedom equal to 10).

The chi-square distribution has the following properties:

• The mean of the distribution is equal to the number of degrees of freedom: μ = v.
• The variance is equal to two times the number of degrees of freedom: σ2 = 2 * v
• When the degrees of freedom are greater than or equal to 2, the maximum value for Y
occurs when Χ2 = v - 2.
• As the degrees of freedom increase, the chi-square curve approaches a normal
distribution.
Cumulative Probability and the Chi-Square Distribution

The chi-square distribution is constructed so that the total area under the curve is equal to 1. The
area under the curve between 0 and a particular chi-square value is a cumulative probability
associated with that chi-square value. For example, in the figure below, the shaded area
represents a cumulative probability associated with a chi-square statistic equal to A; that is, it is
the probability that the value of a chi-square statistic will fall between 0 and A.

Fortunately, we don't have to compute the area under the curve to find the probability. The easiest
way to find the cumulative probability associated with a particular chi-square statistic is to use the
Chi-Square Distribution Calculator, a free tool provided by Stat Trek.

Chi-Square Distribution Calculator

The Chi-Square Distribution Calculator solves common statistics problems, based on the chi-
square distribution. The calculator computes cumulative probabilities, based on simple inputs.
Clear instructions guide you to an accurate solution, quickly and easily.