11/20/2017 Haul Road Design Guidelines - MiningInfo

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Haul Road Design Guidelines
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Contents
Countries
Commodities 1 Stopping Distance
Mines 2 Sight Distance
Exploration Properties 3 Road Widths
Mining Technology 4 Crossfall
Sitemap 5 Superelevation
6 Gradient
7 Intersections
8 Cross roads

Surface mine haul roads are used for transporting raw products from the mine
to the preparation plant, and waste dumps. Every aspect of highway
engineering, including minimum slope inclines, properly banked curves,
and adequate drainage, must be followed to facilitate construction of safe
and efficient mine roads for fast and economical transportation of the mined
product to its destination. By maintaining good mine roads, both truck and
equipment maintenance will be kept to a minimum, resulting in reduced
mining costs and subsequently higher profits. Haul roads and ramps are the
lifeline of the open cut mine. Road design must accommodate a number of factors and expected weather
conditions, the largest vehicle on site and the speed of operations are taken into account in the design process.

Road parameters are limited by the largest and usally least agile vehicle on site. Haul trucks are usually the
heaviest, slowest and largest vehicle to traverse the roads on site. The haul truck turning radius, braking capacity
and sheer size must be considered in the design of any permanent haul road. Permanent haul roads are designed
with these limiting factors in mind, leaving a wide margin of safety for all other mining equipment.

Design speeds are an important factor in many of the different areas of design and these vary around site. These
speeds are appropriately signed and are tabulated below:

Typical Speed Limits on a Mine Site.

Area Speed Limit

Mining Area Surface Roads 45 km/hr

Ramps 30 km/hr

Workshop 10 km/hr

Plant site and Admin 20 km/hr

In many cases the following design parameters are also applicable to temporary haul roads and light vehicle
roads.

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Stopping Distance
Stopping distance is the minimum distance needed by a vehicle to stop, when travelling at a design speed, to
avoid an oncoming hazard. The distance takes into account driver reaction time, the retarding action time delay for
any vehicle and the time taken for the vehicle to come a complete stop. In each situation stopping distances may
vary according to the vehicle concerned, the grade and the travelling speed. As a result, designs are based on
those vehicles that have the lowest braking capacity that will be using the particular road and on the maximum
speed limit on the road.

Sight Distance
The sight distance is the distance measured along the carriageway from a driver to an object, or between two
drivers at specific heights above the carriageway, occurring in the same lane of travel. Sight distance is closely
correlated with stopping distance and in all instances, the distance ahead of the driver to an unforeseen hazard
must alway be greater than the distancerequired to bring the vehicle to a stop. Sight distance is dictated by:

the design speed of the road

lowest vehicle using the road
the stopping distance of the largest vehicle using the haul road in the worst case driving conditions.

Sight distance is particularly important for horizontal and vertical curves, and also at intersections. In the case of a
horizontal curve, sight distance may be impeded by steep rock cuts, trees or structures. Vertical curves that are
too sharp create similar problems. Simple solutions such as laying back rock cuts and smoothing of crests
increase the sight distance and lengthen the operator reaction time. With regard to intersections, optimising sight
distance for all incoming traffic is an important consideration. At intersections, batters, signs, windrows or other
obstructions may restrict the sight distance. Where possible bends and intersections shouldhave all sight
restrictions removed or minimised.

Road Widths
The width of any haul road is designed to allow ample room for vehicles to manoeuvre along the entire length of
the road. This basic design consideration reduces safety risks and improves operating efficiency.

Roadways that are too narrow create uncomfortable driving conditions which, in effect, slows traffic and increases
production cycle times. Inadequate clearance between vehicles is a major safety hazard. There are also risks of
damage to the road shoulder and to tyres. Specifications for road widths are intended to eliminate these
unnecessary risks.

Switchbacks or other areas of haul roads requiring sharp curves must be widened to take into account the
overhang of the vehicles and also a vehicles minimum turning radius. The minimum negotiable turning radius
must be exceeded in all but the most severe and restricting conditions.

Straight Sections

The following haul road traffic surface widths are to be applied to straight sections of all permanent and temporary
haul roads.

Straight Single-Lane Roads

This type of road is required to be a minimum of twice the width of the largest vehicle (830E) using the road.

ie. 2 x 7.3m = 14.6 m

This does not include standard windrows on either side of the road (2 x 5m). This width is intended to prevent
incapacitated vehicles that may be stopped on the side of the road from hindering the movements of other
vehicles.

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Straight Double-Lane Roads

This type of road is required to be a minimum width of 3.5 times the width of the largest vehicle (830E) using the
road.

ie. 3.5 x 7.3m = 25.6m

This does not include standard windrows on either side of the road (2 x 5m). This width allows vehicles to
comfortably pass one another or to pass stopped or incapacitated vehicles on the roadside.

Curved Sections

The following haul road traffic surface widths are to be applied to all curved sections of permanent and temporary
haul roads (a factor of 1.18 has been included to allow for the front and rear overhang of the 830E haul trucks):

Single-Lane roads

2.0 x 1.18 x the width of the largest vehicle using the road

ie. 2 x 1.18 x 7.3m = 17.3m

Double-Lane roads

3.5 x 1.18 x the width of the largest vehicle using the road

ie. 3.5 x 1.18 x 7.3m = 30.2m

Temporary Haul Roads and On-Bench Haul Roads

Straight Double-Laned Road Dimensions
Temporary haul roads and on-bench roads should be maintained at a minimum of the 3.5 x the width of the largest
vehicle using the road. If the road width is excessive, the time spent grading and watering for dust suppression is
non-productive and expensive. Anything less than this introduces safety risks and unnecessary production losses.

Crossfall
Crossfall is the difference in elevation between the crest (crown) and the road edge. It is a widely used technique
that effectively drains water from road surfaces and is to be incorporated in all road designs. Crossfall helps
protect the road pavement from damage by water by reducing pooling of water, mud and potholing. If water is
allowed to accumulate on the running surface, deterioration of the sub-base due to water saturation may occur. If
the sub-base becomes exposed, tyre damage may also occur

The rate of crossfall depends on a number of factors including the road gradient, the road surface and the
expected weather conditions. From an operators point of view, a level driving surface is most preferred because
this requires the least steering effort. However, to allow adequate drainage, crossfall must be applied and so the
rate must accommodate both a rapid removal of surface water and steerability.

Recommended rates of crossfall for roadways

Road Gradient Minimum crossfall Maximum Crossfall

Plan view of transitional cross slope into and out of superelevated corners
low rainfall or high rainfall or
smooth surface. rough surface

0 3% 2% 5%

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4 6% 2% 3%

6 - 10% (maximum grade) 1% 1.5%

The crossfall for double-laned roads slopes from the crown between the lanes, out to the road edges`. Single lane
roads slope one way, the direction of which is determined according to surrounding topography. Crowns are not to
extend across intersections or around corners.

Superelevation
Superelevation is a technique employed at Mine XYZ to assist vehicles in manoeuvring safely around corners.
Superelevation is the banking of the road surface at curves. It allows the vehicle taking the corner to counteract
centrifugal forces towards the outside of the curve, by directing the vehicle weight towards the centre of radius of
the curve. The amount of superelevation on a corner is directly related to the radius of the corner and the desired
vehicle speed through the corner.

The following table is a guide for providing the superelevation necessary to reduce lateral forces. 5% should be
regarded as the maximum superelevation. Curves superelevated between 5% and 10% should be used with
caution. Curves superelevated over 10% should not be used.

Superelevation is a particularly important design consideration for switchbacks on pit ramps at Mine XYZ. On such
corners, which typically have a small turn radius, superelevation is extremely important. On switchbacks that have
the centre of the curve located on the up-side of the ramp, a well-chosen superelevation rate prevents material
being spilled from laden trucks and also improves the vehicular control.

As with changes in grade, transition into and out of superelevated curves needs to be smooth so that machinery
can be eased into corners. Superelevation runout lengths depend on the crossfall change and the design speeds.
The larger the change in road alignment, the longer the runout. At Mine XYZ, runout lengths should be applied so
that one-third is in the curve and two-thirds are on the tangent. The following table outlines the recommended
lengths at this mine site.
Recommended Superelevation Rates
Recommended runout lengths

16 24 32 40 48 56 Turn Radius Speed (km/hr)

Vehicle Speed (km/hr)
(m)
0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 16 24 32 40 48 56
Cross slope change per
100m pavement (metre/metre) 30 7% 15 % 27 % - - -
To illustrate the use of this table, assume a vehicle is travelling at 32 km/hr on a tangent with a crossfall of 2% and
is approaching a switchback with superelevation of 4% the opposite way. The total cross slope change here is 6% 45 4% 10 % 18 % 28 % - -
and for a vehicle travelling at this speed, the recommended change is 0.08 per 100m. Thus the total runout length
is 75 metres.
60 3% 8% 13 % 21 % 30 % -
[(0.06 0.08) x 100 = 75 m]

90 2% 5% 9% 14 % 20 % 27 %
Gradient
150 1% 3% 5% 8% 12 % 16 %
The gradient on a ramp is the grade line profile along the road centre line, in the vertical plane. It is important to
find a good balance between low cycle times and minimum wearing on machinery and tyres. Excessively steep
gradients reduce the length of the haul road but require the use of low gears for all types of vehicles. Not only 215 1% 2% 4% 6% 9% 12 %
does this put more stress on machinery, it also increase production cycle times. Too gentle a grade requires more
excavation and construction for the longer road, and the added travel distance means cycle times are inefficient.
300 1% 2% 3% 4% 6% 8%
Road gradients are particularly important for in pit roads, whether they be temporary or permanent. Heavy haul
trucks frequent these roads and so the grades must accommodate the braking limits and stopping distances of
such vehicles. The brake performance of both the Komatsu 830E and 785C Caterpillar haul trucks have been
taken into account in the decision to construct in-pit haul roads at a maximum grade of 10%. This specification
allows these trucks manage this grade on unloaded descent and loaded ascent and is also the best balance
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between production cycles and wear on machinery. Major bends and switchbacks on in pit roads, should have no >10% Do not use
gradient on the road at all.

Any road is required to have smooth transitions between straight sections of road. The grade should be kept as 5% to 10% Outside of Mine Design
constant as possible to reduce the tendency of trucks to change through gears on the up grade hauls. This puts a
large amount of stress on the transmission of heavy machinery and also effects production cycle times, and
operating and maintenance costs. <5% Preferred

The maximum sustained grades for different types of roads are tabulated below:

Recommended Gradients

Road type Maximum grade

7%
Permanent surface haul roads

10%
Permanent in pit haul roads

7% Figure 4.3 Plan view of transitional gradient into and out of corners
Temporary surface haul roads

10%
Temporary in pit haul roads

10%
On-bench roads

20%
Light vehicle roads

0%
Major bends/Switchbacks

Some temporary and light vehicle roads may vary depending on the location and circumstances.

Intersections
Interactions between heavy and light vehicles on mine sites and the large discrepancies between travelling
speeds and dimensions mean that there is an ever-present risk of collisions. Poorly designed intersections in any
area of the mine enhance this risk and so it is extremely important to find the best design in the planning stages.

There are certain practices and numerous intersection designs that have lead to accidents in the past because
major risk and hazard were present. These are obviously to be avoided wherever possible and significant
examples are:

Y-junctions where vehicles approach the intersection at shallow angles creating major visibility restrictions
particularly in the left hand drive haul trucks.
T- junctions at the crest of a hill or at the bottom of a ramp. In the first instance, the hillcrest reduces sight
distance for operators, and in the latter, stopping distance is a problem with vehicles having to stop at the
bottom of a descent.
Minor roads crossing over major roads in a + formation. This creates an avenue for high speed crossing
movements by light vehicles and an increased risk of cross accidents.
The intersection of more than two roads at one point. This has the potential to create driver confusion when
it comes to selecting a departure path. These intersections need special traffic control devices and a larger
pavement area.

It is important for any intersection that priority of the roads involved is determined in the design stages so that
when conflicting traffic streams meet, one is required to give way. A range of traffic control devices such as stop
signs, give way signs or roundabouts, may establish priority. All intersections will, in some form, be signed to
clearly indicate priority and this will often be determined using the site traffic rules for giving way.

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It is also vital that adequate intersection sight distance be incorporated into design for a safe intersection. At
intersections the sight distance may be restricted by batters, signs or other obstructions. Consideration should be
given to the height of windrows and median strips, placement of sign posting and the proximity of nearby crests,
corners and intersections. Along with these factors, a minimum of 20m of flat road leading into any intersection will
give drivers enough distance to sight the intersection and road furniture, and to slow to a speed that allows them
to negotiate the intersection safely. A flat section of road also allows vehicles on a major road to sight an
approaching vehicle from a minor road so action to avoid a collision can be taken if the need arises.

Particular attention must also be paid to drainage at intersections. Intersections are usually the most frequently
used sections of road and so drainage is vital to help maintain surface integrity for such heavy use areas.

There are several standard intersection designs in use at Mine XYZ and the design considerations for these
follow.

Cross roads
Cross roads are to be avoided if possible unless it is the intent to purposely slow or stop traffic approaching a
main road. Where cross roads are used, the intersections should be at 90 creating a square orientation. Roads
intersecting major haul roads in this way are to have a flat area of a minimum 20m prior to the intersection to
ensure adequate sight distance for all vehicles.

All approach roads shall be divided down the road centre using median strips, which are to be at least 5m long.
Keep left signs at either end will indicate to operators the correct direction of travel. One road shall be given
priority and the other road marked with stop signs.

Skewed cross roads

To avoid the increased risks associated with a minor road crossing a major road, skewed cross roads are used.
This treatment places the minor road in a staggered geometry preventing high speed crossing movements and
cross accidents, which are more prevalent in areas where light vehicles operate.

Roads should intersect at 90 and are to have a minimum of 20 m of flat road on approach to the intersection. The
minor road is to have stop signs on approach. The minor road shall be divided down its centre using traffic islands,
which are to be at least 5m long. Keep left signs at either end will indicate to operators the correct direction of
travel.

Where possible the intersection should be orientated so that a vehicle crossing the major road makes a right turn
and then a left turn through the intersection. This prevents vehicles lining up in the centre of a road to turn right.
This geometry is demonstrated in figure 5.1.

T-intersections
Intersection layouts
T-intersections are a relatively safe and simple type of intersection to have in the road network. Priority is given to
through traffic with the intersecting road marked with a stop sign or give-way sign. The determination of the traffic
control sign to be used is at the discretion of the Mine Development Superintendent.

The roads should meet at 90. The terminating road should be divided in the centre of the road by a traffic island,
which is to be a minimum of 5m long. Keep left signs at either end will indicate to operators the correct direction of
travel.

Roundabouts

Roundabouts should regulate the intersection of no more than two roads wherever possible. All roads are given
the same level of priority and traffic is to give way to the right. This will be shown with roundabout give way signs
placed on all approaches to the intersection. Roads should intersect at 90. Major roads joining a roundabout will
be divided down their centre line by a traffic island at least 5m long. Keep left signs, placed at either end will
indicate correct direction of travel.

Three or four truck tyres painted white and laid on their sides will form the main structure of the roundabout. This
is a large enough obstacle for vehicles to have to slow down to negotiate and their width will not hinder sight
distances.

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