ASSIGNMENT NO 3

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 28/11/2017

TOPIC: TURBOCHARGED AND SUPERCHARGED IC-ENGINES

SUBMITTED TO: SIR ZAFFAR ABBAS

SUBMITTED BY: HUSSN-E-YAZDAN

ROLL NO: 14-MCE-40

NFC-IEFR-FSD
All rotating machines produce vibrations that are a function of the machine dynamics, such as the alignment and
balance of the rotating parts. Measuring the amplitude of vibration at certain frequencies can provide valuable
information about the accuracy of shaft alignment and balance, the condition of bearings or gears, and the effect
on the machine due to resonance from the housings, piping and other structures. Vibration measurement is an
effective, non-intrusive method to monitor machine condition during start-ups, shutdowns and normal operation.
Vibration analysis is used primarily on rotating equipment such as steam and gas turbines, pumps, motors,
compressors, paper machines, rolling mills, machine tools and gearboxes. Vibration analysis is used to determine
the operating and mechanical condition of equipment. A major advantage is that vibration analysis can identify
developing problems before they become too serious and cause unscheduled downtime. This can be achieved by
conducting regular monitoring of machine vibrations either on continuous basis or at scheduled intervals. Regular
vibration monitoring can detect deteriorating or defective bearings, mechanical looseness and worn or broken
gears. Vibration analysis can also detect misalignment and unbalance before these conditions result in bearing or
shaft deterioration. Trending vibration levels can identify poor maintenance practices, such as improper bearing
installation and replacement, inaccurate shaft alignment or imprecise rotor balancing.
In general, the following critical types of machines should be monitored on a regular basis in order to avoid
unexpected and costly problems:
(a) Machines that require expensive, lengthy, or difficult repairs if broken down
(b) Machines that are critical to production or general plant operations
(c) Machines that are known to frequently suffer damage
(d) Machines that are being evaluated for their reliability
(e) Machines that affect human or environmental safety

SOME STANDARDS OF VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS (SEVERITY)

There are some standards that define what and how to measure, these standards specifies different machines in
different categories depending upon their size, capacity and foundations, and then defines limit of bearable
vibrations for each category.
Some of these standards are

IS 11724
ISO 2372
BS 4675
VDE 2056

FREQUENCY OR SPECTRUM ANALYSIS OF VIBRATION

In vibration analysis it is essential to get to the root cause of the vibration. Thus we perform vibration analysis to
do so, frequency or spectrum analysis is technique which is used to identify the frequencies of the various
components of vibration, and their associated magnitude. Each frequency corresponds to the a specific mechanical
cause, using the wealth of experience and some common sense engineers can identify the exact cause of the
vibration and then the corrective efforts are focused on the exact reason.
Simple vibration analysis in the time domain reveals the sum of the frequencies associated with the different
components, in order to get a clear picture of the vibration frequency we perform spectrum analysis. In spectrum
analysis the frequency spectrum is generated from the waveform obtained by simple vibration analysis in time
domain using FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM (FFT). The FFT allows us to flip back and
forth in simple time (signal) domain and frequency space (Fourier domain). It allows us to
take a complicated function in real space and transform it into its constituents in frequency
space which can be easy to understand.
 VIBRATION CHARACTERISTICS
The principle characteristics of the vibration signal that we measure are the following

DISPLACEMENT(PK-PK)
One of the measures to check the severity of the vibrations is amplitude that emphasizes low frequency vibrations.
The displacement is measured in three ways peak to peak, zero to peak and RMS depending upon the signal that
we are measuring. Displacement measurements are recorded in three directions as velocity = axial, horizontal and
vertical. It was used as the representative of the vibration severity about 50 years ago. It does not convey the
complete picture because the energy of the vibration is not only how much the movement (displacement) is there
but also how fast it repeats (frequency). It is measured in microns.
Displacement measurement techniques
Following techniques are used to measure the displacement of the vibration
Optical Techniques.

If displacement is large enough, as at low frequencies, it can be measured with a scale, calipers, or a measuring
microscope. At higher frequencies, displacement measurement requires more sophisticated optical techniques.
Strobe lights and stroboscopic photography are useful when displacements are large enough, usually >0.1 in., to
make them practical. The change in intensity or angle of a light beam directed onto a reflective surface can be
used as an indication of its distance from the source. If the detection apparatus is fast enough, changes of
distance can be detected as well.

The most sensitive, accurate, and precise optical device for measuring distance or displacement is the laser
interferometer. With this apparatus, a reflected laser beam is mixed with the original incident beam. The
interference patterns formed by the phase differences can measure displacement down to <100 nm.

1. Contact Techniques
A variety of relative motion sensors use direct contact with two objects to measure relative motion or distance
between them. These include LVDTs, cable position transducers (string-pots), and linear potentiometers. All of
these devices depend on mechanical linkages and electromechanical transducers.
2. Double Integration of Acceleration.
With the increasing availability and decreasing cost of digital signal processing, more applications are using the
more rugged and more versatile accelerometers as sensors, then double integrating the acceleration signal to
derive displacements. While older analog integration techniques tended to be noisy and inaccurate, digital
processing can provide quite high-quality, high-accuracy results.

VELOCITY OF VIBRATION
It is the most common parameter used in vibration analysis. It places even emphasis on low and high frequency
vibrations. Measured in mm/sec, it is the best representative of the energy of vibration. Mostly it is measured in
true RMS value.

Velocity measurement techniques

1. Use of Transducers
Electromagnetic linear velocity transducers: Typically used to measure oscillatory velocity. A permanent
magnet moving back and forth within a coil winding induces an emf in the winding. This emf is proportional to
the velocity of oscillation of the magnet. This permanent magnet may be attached to the vibrating object to
measure its velocity.
Electromagnetic tachometer generators: Used to measure the angular velocity of vibrating objects. They
provide an output voltage/frequency that is proportional to the angular velocity. DC tachometers use a permanent
magnet or magneto, while the AC tachometers operate as a variable coupling transformer, with the coupling
coefficient proportional to the rotary speed.
2. Laser Vibrometers: Laser vibrometers or laser velocimeters are relatively new instruments capable of
providing high sensitivity and accuracy. They use a frequency-modulated (typically around 44 MHz) laser
beam reflected from a vibrating surface. The reflected beam is compared with the original beam and the
Doppler frequency shift is used to calculate the velocity of the vibrating surface

3. Integration of Acceleration: As with displacement measurements, low-cost digital signal processing makes it
practical to use rugged, reliable, versatile accelerometers as sensors and integrate their output to derive a
velocity signal.

ACCELERATION
Measured in the m.sec^2, it only emphasis on the high frequency vibration. Most modern vibration measurements
are made by measuring acceleration. If velocity or displacement data are required, the acceleration data can be
integrated (velocity) or double integrated (displacement). Some accelerometer signal conditioners have built-in
integrators for that purpose. The acceleration of the vibration is measured by using transducers that are called as
accelerometers. An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration, or acceleration of motion of a
structure. The force caused by vibration or a change in motion (acceleration) causes the mass to "squeeze" the
piezoelectric material which produces an electrical charge that is proportional to the force exerted upon it. Since
the charge is proportional to the force, and the mass is a constant, then the charge is also proportional to the
acceleration. Piezoelectric accelerometers rely on the piezoelectric effect of quartz or ceramic crystals to generate
an electrical output that is proportional to applied acceleration.