26 IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS [CHAP.

Table 1-2

Description of Soils
(Based on the Unified Classification System)

Sub
Information
Major division
Field identification for complete
division and
description
symbol

COARSE-GRAINED Cobbles All larger than 3 in. in diameter Relative density

SOILS and Cobbles if 3 to 8 in. Particle shape
boulders Boulders if greater than 8 in.
Any dry Gravel G Smaller than 3 in. but larger Grading (grain-
strength than no. 10 sieve (2 mm). size analysis)
indicates Relative density
presence of Particle shape
clay sizes. Stratification
Sand S Smaller than no. 10 sieve but Grading (grain-
larger than no. 200 sieve size analysis)
(0.074 mm). Particles are Relative density
generally visible to the naked Particle shape
eye. Stratification
fine-grained Silt M Mostly passes no. 200 sieve. Grading (grain-
soils Exhibits dilatancy. Powders size analysis)
easily when dry, only slight Consistency
Medium dry strength. Gritty to the undisturbed
plasticity if teeth. Dries rapidly. No remolded
liquid limit is shine imparted when moist Plasticity (liquid
between 35 and stroked with knife blade. and plastic
and 50; highly limits if appli
plastic if it is cable)
more than 50. Dry strength
Structure
Natural moisture
content
Clay C Not dilatant. Possesses appre Color
ciable dry strength. When Consistency
moist, sticks to fingers and undisturbed
does not wash off readily. remolded
Not gritty to the teeth. Plasticity (liquid
When moist, a shiny surface and plastic
is imparted by stroking with limits)
knife blade. Dry strength
Structure
Natural moisture
content
 1-7] CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM 27

Table 1-2 (Continued)

Sub
Information
Major division
Field identification for complete
division and
description
Symbol
ORGANIC SOILS Partly Depending on proportion of Color
organic organic material, these soils Consistency
Organic terrain usually have some of the undisturbed
usually near characteristics of their inor remolded
lakes, rivers, ganic counterparts. Usually Plasticity (liquid
marshes ; highly compressible (spongy) and plastic
includes peat and possess characteristic limits)
and peaty odor. Dry strength
soils, muskeg. Structure
1 Natural moisture
content
Content of
organic material
Organic Fibrous structure usually Texture of
1 brown or black when moist.
material organic material
0 Spongy with usually charac
1
teristic odor.

Note: In the Unified Soil Classification System,

the symbols after the soil name
are combined to describe mixtures of soils, the first symbol indicating the pre
dominant soil present, e.g., clayey sand, SC. In addition to the name symbols,
the following descriptive terms are used in symbolic form:

Granular soils well graded, 11'; poorly graded, P; fine grains present, F.
Cohesive soils low plasticity, L; high plasticity, //.

No more than two symbols are used to describe a soil. Thus a silty clay of low
plasticity is CL; an organic, highly plastic clay is OH.
A more detailed table will be found in reference 19. By means of this classifica
tion system, soils may be graded according to their desirability as foundation or
base course materials. Thus, in the group of granular soils, a well-graded material
makes a good to excellent foundation, while a poorly graded soil is only fair. Coarser
material generally performs better in use. More detailed information on the soil's
properties includes the results of tests on the degree of cementation between, and
durability of, the grains, and on compaction, loading, California bearing ratio (a
i test of the soil's bearing capacity), and shearing strength capabilities.
Cohesive soils have only poor-to-fair base course properties, while organic ma
terials are extremely poor. Laboratory tests on such criteria as compaction, con
solidation and shearing strength give information of value in the assessement of a
particular soil.
28 IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS [CHAP. 1

+ Montmorillonite
Clay O Illite
minerals* X Kaolinite
-i Halloysite
> Nontronitc

Sandy clays, fine

silty sands,
Inorganic clayey sands
soils Medium
plastic clays
Highly
plastic clays

Silts and
Organic Js silt clays 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
soils Highly elastic silts Liquid limit
and silt clays

Liquid limit

'Data from Kami*1, Soil Technology Summer Session M.I.T., June 1954.

Fig. 1-7. Casagrande plasticity chart.

Any classification system is open to general objections, perhaps primarily on

the basis of terminology, since different words may be used by different people
to describe the same type of material.
So far, all systems of soil identification have been based on the external
characteristics of the soil from the point of view of grain size, grain-size
distribution, and the soil's behavior in simple tests. No attention has been
given to the chemical characteristics of the soil, and the question may well
be asked : How do the mineral constituents of a particular soil affect its engi
neering behavior?
For bulky grains (granular soil), observation has shown that from one soil
to another, differences in the constituent minerals have little or no effect on
the behavior of the soil as far as shear strength or compressibility is con
cerned, and this is due to the fact that these characteristics result from the
surface-to-surface contact of the bulky grains. When the stresses are low
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 29

enough so that the grains do not fracture, the shear strength of such a soil is
a result of the surface friction and interaction of many small grains in direct
contact with one another, while the compressibility of the soil is brought
about by the rearrangement of the individual particles under applied stress
or depends on the elastic compression of these grains. The surface friction
properties and compressibilities of most common granular soil-forming
minerals or mineral aggregates are so similar, that, to the small extent to
which they enter into the deformational characteristics of a cohesionless
soil, the soil's behavior is independent of the particular mineral or minerals
present.
However, clay particles are so small that their specific surface is very high,
and in the extremely small distances between particles various large forces
operate. Since these forces vary from soil to soil, depending on the constituent
mineral or minerals, it is found that different minerals give rise to different
characteristic engineering behaviors. The following chapter will be devoted
to a discussion of surface and colloidal chemistry insofar as it applies to clay
soils and to the effects of mineral variation on engineering soil properties.

BibliograpHy

1. American Society of Testing Materials, Standards, Part 4, 1958. Test

('136-46, p. 536.
2. American Society of Testing Materials, Standards, Part 4, 1958. Test
D422-64T, p. 1119.
3. American Society of Testing Materials, Standards, Part 4, 1958. Test
EU-58T, p. 1256.
4. J.
Bodziony, "On a Certain Hypothesis Concerning the Process of Screening
of Granular Bodies," Bull. Polish Acad. Sci. Ser. des Sci. Tech. 8, 99, 1960.
5. A. Casaqrande, "Notes on the Design of the Liquid Limit Device," Gco-
technique 8, 84, June, 1958.
6. H. J. Gibbs and W. G. Holtz, "Research on Determining the Density of
Sands by Spoon Penetration Testing," Proc. 4th Inter. Conf. Soil Mcch. and Found.
Eng. 1, 35, 1957.
7. A. Jobling and J. E. Roberts, "Goniometry of Flow and Rupture," in
Rheology. New York: Academic Press, 1958, vol. 2, Chapter 13, 503-535.
8. T. Kallstenius and W. Bergau, "Research on the Texture of Granular
Masses," Proc. 5th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. and Found. Eng. 1, 165, 1961.
9. T. W. Lambe, Soil Testing for Engineers. New York: Wiley, 1951.
10. T. W. Lambe, "The Structure of Inorganic Soil," Proc. ASCE, Sep. No. 315,
Oct. 1953.
11. R. B. Langston and J. A. Pask, "Analysis of Consistencies of Kaolin-Water
Systems Below the Plastic Range," Clays and Clay Minerals 4, NAS-NRC Pub.
566, Washington, D.C., 1958.
12. J. S. McNown and P. N. Lin, "Sediment Concentration and Fall Velocity,"
Proc. 2nd Midwest Conf. on Fluid Mech., Ohio State University, 401, 1952.
13. J. K. MitcHell, "The Fabric of Natural Clays and its Relation to Engi
neering Properties," Proc. of Highway Research Board 35, 693, 1956.
30 IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS [CHAP. 1

14. L. E. J. Norman, "The One-Point Method of Determining the Value of the

Liquid Limit of a Soil," Geotechnique 9, 1, March, 1959.
15. J. E. Roberts and J. M. de Souza, "The Compressibility of Sands," paper
presented at 6 1st Annual Meeting, American Society for Testing and Materials,
Boston, 1958.
10. L. Squires and W. Squires, "The Sedimentation of Thin Discs," Trans.
A.I. Chem. E. 33, 1, 1937.
17. K. TkrzagHi and R. E. Peck, Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice.
New York: Wiley, 194S, p. 423.
18. H. C. Van de Hulst, Light Scattering by Small Particles. New York: Wiley,
1957.
19. Waterways Experiment Station, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, "The
Unified Soil Classification System," Tech. Memorandum 3-357, March, 1953.
20. C. E. Weaver, "A Discussion on the Origin of Clay Minerals in Sedimentary
Rocks," Clays and Clay Minerals 159, NAS-NRC, Pub. 566, Washington, D.C.,
1958.
21. A. Weissberger, ed., Physical Methods of Organic Chemistry, Part I. New
York: Interscience Publications, 1959.
22. U. G. WHitkHou.sk and R. S.McCarter, "Diagenetic Modification of Clay
Mineral Types in Artificial Sea Water," Clays and Clay Minerals 81, NAS-NRC,
Pub. 560, Washington, D.C., 1958.
 32 IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS [CHAP. 1

the start of the test, 10 cc of suspension are withdrawn with a pipette at a level of
10 cm below the surface. What dry weight of soil is in the pipette sample? Describe
the soil. Answer: 0.205 gm.
1-10. Derive equations (1-13).
1-11. Define relative density and explain how its value can be obtained in the field.
1-12. A completely saturated sample of clay has a volume of 31.25 cc and
weighs 58.66 gm. The same sample after drying has a volume of 23.92 cc and a
weight of 42.81 gm. Compute the porosity of the initial sample, the specific gravity
of the soil grains, and the shrinkage limit of the sample. Answer: 0.51 ; 2.78; 19.9%.
1-13. Why is the determination of the range of water contents over which a
clay is plastic important in soil mechanics?
1-14. Construct a diagram showing qualitatively the total volume of a clay
sample as a function of water content, in the range of water contents from above
the liquid limit to zero. Mark the points corresponding to the various limits.
1-15. An experiment may be performed in which a quantity of a dry powdered
clay mineral is introduced into a child's rubber balloon from which the air is sub-
v. sequently evacuated. It is then found that the clay-filled balloon will retain any
plastic mass. It has been
it,

shape impressed upon and in fact, behaves like

a
argued, as consequence, that the presence of water not necessary for the clay

is
a

mass to exhibit plasticity. Comment on this.