Training and Research Methods in Ethnomusicology

Author(s): Mantle Hood

Source: Ethnomusicology, Vol. 1, No. 11 (Sep., 1957), pp. 2-8
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of Society for Ethnomusicology
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 TRAININGAND RESEARCH
METHODS
IN ETHNOMUSICOLOGY*
Mantle Hood
In recent years scholars have objected to the term "vergleichende
Musikwissenschaft," on the grounds that comparative method is the
common property of all sciences, and have suggested in its stead the
term which has won general acceptance: "ethnomusicology." It is
not my intention to belabor terminology, but on the occassion of this
first Annual Meeting of the Society for Ethnomusicology it may be
appropriate to examine briefly the basic tenets of our discipline. The
following general definition might serve as a beginning: " [Ethno]
musicology is a field of knowledge, having as its object the inves-
tigation of the art of music as a physical, psychological, aesthetic,
and cultural phenomenon. The [ethno-] musicologist is a research
scholar, and he aims primarily at knowledge about music." Except
for my rhetorical license in twice inserting the prefix "ethno" you
may recognize these two sentences as the beginning of the "Report
of the Committee on Graduate Studies" which appeared in a recent
issue of the Journal of the American Musicological Society (Davison,
1955).
The broad scope and the high standards set forth in sections I and
II of this "Report of the Committee..." represent an ideal toward
which any institution offering studies in musicology must aspire.
Its broad concepts are in no wise at odds with the aims of ethno-
musicology--in fact, as a colleague of mine suggested, the term
"musicology" may be applied to research in Japanese Gagaku as
readily as to a study of the preclassical symphony. However, in sec-
tions III and IV of the "Report..." the definitive spelling-out of train-
ing at the graduate level can only be described as disappointingly
"Western" or "Europe-centric" (see also Kunst, 1955:5). It is at
this graduate level (we have been told in section II) that the study of
musicology actually begins. Until sections III and IV are rewritten
in the same spirit which apparently guided the definition and explana-
tion of the field of knowledge referred to as musicology, the train-
ing of a student intending to conduct research in some aspect of
musicology other than "Western" art music will proceed under a con-
siderable handicap.
Most of the skills and disciplines recommended for undergraduate
preparation in the "Report..." are indispensable to the student of
ethnomusicology; some of the graduate studies can also be justified
as desirable complements to the well rounded M.A. or Ph.D. in music,

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whether or not they seem to have practical application in a given
area of research. Equally indispensable and/or desirable, however,
are studies in cultural and physical anthropology, in linguistics and
comparative literature, in primitive and oriental art, etc. The normal
period of training in graduate studies varies somewhat from one in-
stitution to another, but this can be expected to fall within certain
reasonable limits. In my opinion, therefore, one of our first respon-
sibilities as a Society is to seek an ideal balance in graduate
studies, so that the student of ethnomusicology will not be penalized
by the delimitations of traditionally narrow requirements.
At the University of California at Los Angeles we have taken pre-
liminary steps in this direction. The Folklore Group, headed by
Professor Wayland Hand of the Department of Germanic Languages,
is made up of representatives from eight different departments which
offer studies in some branch of folklore. Through the members of
this Group an interdepartmental rapport has been established as a
basis for inter-disciplinary programs. The Folklore Group also
serves the community-at-large by sponsoring individual lectures in
the various departments as well as such integrated courses as the
one offered this past summer by seventeen specialists under the
title "Folk Arts of the Pan-Pacific. "
In response to the growing interest of students at the graduate
level the Department of Music has recently increased its offerings
in ethnomusicology; two of my colleagues who have an active in-
terest in the program are Professor Laurence Petran, an expert on
bibliography who more than ten years ago started our first course in
folk music, and Professor Boris Kremenliev, a specialist in Slavic
musics well known for his book Bulgarian-Macedonian Folk Music.
Currently the Graduate Committee of the Department is studying our
graduate placement examinations and our Ph.D. qualifying examina-
tions in an effort to obtain a reasonable balance in these require-
ments. In this connection it is hoped that a liberal exchange of
ideas between institutions and individuals will result in the general
adoption of uniformly high but realistic standards in the training of
graduate students in ethnomusicology.
I hasten to add that I am aware of the fact that an ethnomusicologist
may take his academic degrees in a department of anthropology. One
might be tempted to ask whether the term "musico-ethnology" is not
just as appropriate as "ethnomusicology." Be that as it may, the
basic needs in the preparation and training of the scholar who will
conduct research in the various musical cultures of the world remain
the same, regardless of the departmental curriculum he has elected.

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Different approaches to a subject resulting from different curricular
exposures are necessary to the dynamic process in science. Whether
my colleague in anthropology appreciates the finesse of Bach's con-
struction of a fugue subject in relation to a given fugue seems to me
not so important as whether he understands the significance of a tone-
language like Chinese in relation to the art of melodic composition in
Chinese music.
In the belief that the exchange of ideas and the discussion of prob-
lems is of primary importance to the growth and surety of ethnomusi-
cology I should like to present some notion of our work in the Seminar
at UCLA. This presentation should be regarded as a kind of prelimi-
nary "progress report," a term which itself will merit some attention
presently.
Perhaps paramount in our endeavor is the creation of a particular
attitude on the part of the student. Successful graduate study is
predicated on a thorough undergraduate training in musical skills and
disciplines; and yet, in my opinion, this background of Western musi-
cal training must serve precisely as a background, a referent which is
available when needed but which as easily can be sublimated under
the temporary impact of unfamiliar musical phenomena. It is imperative
that the prejudice which accrues naturally from intensive training be
shaken off if the work of the ethnomusicologist is to have real signifi-
cance. Therefore, attendant problems in the matter of written communi-
cation and an exact expression of the results of research continually
occupy our attention. An adequate system of notation, a standard of
comparison for voice quality, the evaluation of primary and secondary
aspects of ethnological influences, and other fundamental problems
urgently require concerted efforts in basic research.
Another aspect of the attitude necessary to graduate study is in-
dependent thinking and working. Although the importance of this
principle is self-evident, independence is peculiarly vital to our field
of inquiry. Sourcematerials are scattered in diverse fields of know-
ledge, and the solution of a particular problem may require highly
resourceful and imaginative research. To encourage such working
methods the Seminar tries to maintain an impartial but critical atti-
tude toward all reference materials. Significant quotations are
checked in their original context, particularly if translation is in-
volved; conflicting references are accepted as a challenge; and the
quest for a "negative premise" becomes a part of good reading habits.
The term "negative premise" has a special meaning in the Seminar.
In acquiring a background in a given subject the student begins, of
course, with an extensive and intensive examination of all the

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available materials. During his reading he accumulates a separate
body of notes devoted to questions and comments prompted, firstly, by
conflicting statements and, secondly, by the author who indulges in
oblique, noncommittal statements or who, at the other extreme, is too
free with undocumented assertions containing such phrases as "with-
out question" or "beyond doubt" or "obviously." This accumulation
of notes may yield a negative premise--a concise statement of what is
not true or, more accurately stated, what is not known to be true--
which can open up a new area of original research. It is an old pro-
cess but one to which the graduate student should be exposed early in
his studies.
Theories and methodology are also open to constant question. Some
of the subjects which pique intensive discussion and practical ex-
plorations are: the arguments for and against the Hornbostel theory of
the cycle of blown fifths (Kunst, 1948: passim), Charles Seeger's pro-
vocative treatise on systematic musicology (1951), the A. J. Ellis
cent system of intervalic measurement (1884), the Mahillon-Sachs-
Hornbostel classification of instruments (Kunst, 1955:54-62). To cite
one example: Mr. Richard Jones has been developing a theory for the
precise expression of relative consonance-dissonance. In his own
words he tells us:

The numerical system enables us to fix, define and

compare exactly pitch relationships in the musical
space-continuum in precise terms, and consequently
to establish an exact arrangement of the intervals
possible in any musical system in order of increasing
dissonance.
This system is derived from the acknowledged repre-
sentative numerical phenomenon of the small whole-
number ratio expression of intervals and depends in
its application on simple basic mathematical proce-
dures. It is applicable to the analysis of isolated
interval relationships and their comparison; to the
extended sequential complex, as in melodic struc-
tures; to the aggregate sequential complex, as in
generating scale or mode structures; and probably
to the simultaneous complex, as in chord or vertical
structures (by permission of the author).

Properly implemented this theory could become a valuable tool for

comparative method.

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 This brings me back to the term mentioned earlier, the "progress
report." It is not uncommon among the physical and natural sciences
for a specialist to circulate among his colleagues a series of reports
on experiments or theories in progress. This is an open invitation for
criticism and comment with the sensible objective of meeting them be-
fore and not after the fact. I wonder whether a similar custom in the
field of ethnomusicology might not profit us a much greater profes-
sional surety than some less concerted modus operandi.
Another aspect of the attitude we are trying to cultivate involves a
certain amount of enthusiasm on the part of the student. The very idea
of graduate study in ethnomusicology contains a newness, perhaps a
freshness, which in itself, I suspect, will attract an increasing
number of students. Some may come with only a healthy kind of curi-
osity and little or no specialized interest. This may prove to be an
advantage in achieving an open-minded and unbiased attitude toward
all musical cultures. But when the time comes that the individual
seeks a specific area of concentration, genuine enthusiasm for his
subject is essential. There are unmistakable signs of real enthusi-
asm: a certain zeal in collecting records, ferreting out local authentic
performers, locating an authentic instrument and a qualified teacher,
attending rehearsals, first as an auditor and then as a performer.
Performance on so-called exotic instruments has aroused a general
interest at UCLA. A little less than two years ago an extra-curricu-
lar study group in Javanese music, known as Gamelan Udan Mas, was
formed. The group has had among its members: music majors, a politi-
cal science major, an art major, a modern dancer, an architectural
draftsman, a librarian, etc., as well as four staff members of the
Music Department. There is not time to discuss the training and pro-
gressive development of Gamelan Udan Masnor the reactions of a
dozen different audiences (from members of the American Musicologi-
cal Society to President Surkarno himself), but at leastI should like
to stress the importance of this approach to the music of other cul-
tures. It has been gratifying to watch the growth of a genuine feeling
and appreciation for Javanese music and the development of a truly
remarkable esprit de corps. The individual benefits of this exposure
are manifold, not only in relation to the music of Java but also in the
increased sensitivity to other musical cultures--including our own
music.
This Fall, with the assistance of local Japanese musicians, we in-
tend to begin a study group in Gagaku and Bugaku; and our long-range
plans include performance groups in other musical cultures of the
world.

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 Although the complexion of the Seminar changes somewhat from se-
mester to semester, depending on the individuals and particular
interests represented, we find that there are five pieces of laboratory
equipment and related techniques in constant usage: the monochord,
the polychord, the Stroboconn, a high-fidelity record player with a
variable-speed turntable, and a professional-quality tape recorder.
The important task of liberalizing Western ears involves all of these
to some extent. Group exercises in musical dictation and problems
in essential transcription (Kunst, 1955:38-41) are supplemented by
individual projects transcribed independently and submitted to the
Seminar for criticism. Early training in field work includes the usage
of the monochord and an understanding of its limitations (Kunst, 1955:
18-19). The polychord, built by the harpsichord builder Richard T.
Jones, has become an indispensable tool for the aural realization and
comparison of various scale structures. The construction of this
dodecachord might be explained as twelve monochords mounted on a
common sounding board which produces a surprisingly large sound.
The moveable bridge of each string is set at the appropriate vibration
number on a scale calibrated in cycles per second, and the strings are
plucked with a quill (Kunst, 1955:63, 132). In this way the indi-
viduality of different Javanese slendro tunings or the distinctive
character of various Indian ragas can be readily appreciated; the same
melody can be played on two different slendro tunings for comparison.
The Stroboconn has innumerable uses, such as checking measure-
ments made with the monochord, tuning instruments, establishing the
fine line between theory and practice, etc. The record player with a
variable-speed turntable is essential for transcription so that either
78 or 33 1/3 r.p.m. records can be slowed down for notating difficult
rhythmic or melodic figures. The tape recorder as a laboratory in-
strument is also versatile. To mention one example a single tone
may be isolated by making a "loop" of continuous sound which can
then be analyzed with the Stroboconn for precise pitch or with a har-
monic analyzer (borrowed from the Department of Physics) for deter-
mining the prominent partials.
The principal usage of the tape recorder, of course, is in field work.
Like most large cities (and some small ones) the metropolitan area
of Los Angeles contains enclaves of a variety of cultures. It is our
plan to begin the systematic collection of these materials and de-
posit them in our archives for future study.
In closing I should like to repeat that this presentation of some of
our activities at UCLA is offered as a kind of preliminary progress
report, which I hope will encourage an exchange of ideas. If some of

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the foregoing remarks have seemed rather obvious in their time-worn
applicability, my justification for their inclusion is based on the
conviction that only by the constant examination and re-appraisal of
fundamental attitudes and procedures can we expect to assume the
responsibility inherent in ethnomusicological inquiry. The dignity
and nobility of a people is founded on the traditional interrelation of
their religious, social andartistic expression. Today, as never be-
fore, governmental agencies of the nations of the world are recognizing
the fact that international understanding and goodwill is possible only
when the cultural expressions of the peoples involved are compre-
hended. To this end the ethnomusicologist must set for himself ex-
acting standards worthy of his responsibility.

NOTES
* A paper read at the First Annual Meeting of the Society for Ethnomusicol-
ogy at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, September 5-6, 1956.

REFERENCES
CITED
Davison, Archibald T., et al
1955 Report of the committee on graduate studies. Journal of the
American Musicological Society, 8: 153-54.
Ellis, A.J.
1884 Tonometrical observations on some existing nonharmonic musi-
cal scales. Proceedings of the Royal Society, London.
Kunst, Jaap
1948 Around von Hornbostel's theory of the cycle of blown fifths.
Amsterdam, Koninklijke Vereeniging Indisch Instituut,
Mededeling No. LXXVI, Afd. Volkenkunde No. 27.
1955 Ethno-musicology. The Hague.
Seeger, Charles
1951 Systematic musicology: viewpoints, orientations, and methods.
Journal of the American Musicological Society, 4:240-48.

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