AP Biology Lab Manual 2015

AP Biology
Laboratory Manual
Name: __________________________________________________________
1
AP Biology Laboratory Manual 2015
Table of Contents
Safety in the Laboratory 4
Lab Safety Symbols 5
Lab Safety Contract 6
Lab 1 Lab Safety 7
Lab 2 Living Things in Pond Water 10
Lab 3 Human Inheritance 14
Lab 4 Making Karyotypes 16
Lab 5 Studying Genetic Mutations 21
Lab 6 Using and Constructing a Classification Key 26
Lab 7 Classifying Leaves 32
Lab 8 Anatomy of Earthworm 36
Lab 9 Anatomy of Grasshopper 42
Lab 10 Anatomy of Starfish 52
Lab 11 Anatomy of the Frog 57
Lab 12 Anatomy of the Fetal Pig 71
Lab 13 Nutrition and a Balanced Diet 88
Lab 14 Observing Nervous Responses 92
Lab 15 Investigating Senses 95
Lab 16 Examining Bone, Muscle and Cartilage 98
Lab 17 Climate and Biomes 103
Virtual Lab Worksheets
Lab 18 Dependent and Independent Variables 111

Lab 19 Mealworm Behavior 116
Lab 20 Enzyme Controlled Reactions 119
Lab 21 The Cell Cycle and Cancer 123
Lab 22 DNA & Genes 126
Lab 23 Punnett Squares 129
Lab 24 Sex-Linked Traits 132
Lab 25 Knocking Out Genes 137
Lab 26 Gene Splicing 141
Lab 27 Tracking Grizzlies 145
Lab 28 Dinosaur Dig 149
Lab 29 Classifying Using Biotechnology 153
Lab 30 Blood Pressure 156
Lab 31 Plant Transpiration 162
Lab 32 Population Biology 166
Lab 33 Model Ecosystems 170
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LabBench Activities
LabBench Activity 1 Diffusion & Osmosis 175

LabBench Activity 2 Enzyme Catalysis 177
LabBench Activity 3 Mitosis & Meiosis 179
LabBench Activity 4 Plant Pigments & Photosynthesis 183
LabBench Activity 5 Cell Respiration 186
LabBench Activity 6 Molecular Biology 188
LabBench Activity 7 Genetics of Organisms 194
LabBench Activity 8 Population Genetics 196
LabBench Activity 9 Transpiration 198
LabBench Activity 10 Circulatory Physiology 201
LabBench Activity 11 Animal Behavior 204
LabBench Activity 12 Dissolved Oxygen 207
Math Skills Practice
Practice Set 1 Osmosis and Water Potential 210

Practice Set 2 Population Genetics and the Hardy Weinberg Law 211
Practice Set 3 Chi Square Problems 217
Practice Set 4 Population Growth 220
Appendix for AP Biology Equations and Formulas 222
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Safety in the Laboratory
Laboratory work is a mandatory part of AP Biology class. All lab work is to be completed in this
manual or on additional sheets that your teacher distributes. Always be sure to complete each lab
report assigned. For many of the labs you will be working with a partner and for others you will be
working alone. Be sure to follow your teachers directions.
General Safety Rules
1. Know the location of emergency and safety equipment in the lab, such as the first-aid kit or fire
extinguisher.
2. Be familiar with how to leave the lab in an emergency or during a fire drill.
3. Be prepared for your lab activity when you arrive. Always read the directions before
proceeding with any lab exercise.
4. Do not bring any food or drink into the lab. Do not drink out of any lab equipment.
Personal Safety Rules
1. Inform your teacher of any medical problems that may affect your safety in doing lab work.
Report allergies, asthma, sensitivity to certain chemicals, epilepsy or heart conditions.
2. Make sure articles of clothing will not interfere with lab work or be a fire hazard. Secure or
take off a loose tie or jacket. Roll up long sleeves and remove dangling jewelry.
3. Notify your teacher if you wear contact lenses and wear safety goggles when using chemicals
to prevent the loss of contact lenses.
Lab Safety Procedures
1. Understand the correct lab procedure to be used and be aware of possible hazards. Perform
only those lab activities assigned and explained by your teacher. Listen carefully to your
teachers instructions and follow them exactly.
2. Keep the work area clean and neat at all times. Only textbooks, lab manuals or notebooks
should be in the work area. Allow yourself time to clean and dry the work area before leaving
the lab. Wash your hands after the lab is completed and your work area is clean.
3. Report all accidents, spills, or unusual occurrences to your teacher immediately.
Safety Symbols
All the investigations in this lab manual have been designed with safety in mind. If you follow the
instructions, you should have a safe and interesting year in the laboratory. Before beginning any
investigation, make sure you read the safety rules and safety symbols.
The safety symbols shown on page 5 are used throughout the lab manual. They appear in the
safety section of investigations where specific safety procedures are required. The description of each
symbol indicates the precaution(s) you should take whenever you see the symbol in an investigation.
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Laboratory Safety Contract
I, _________________________________, have read

(please print full name)
Safety in the Laboratory, understand its contents completely,

and agree to demonstrate compliance with all safety rules and
guidelines that have been established in each of the following
categories:
(please check)
General Safety
Personal Safety
Lab Safety
Safety Symbols
____________________________________________________ _______________
Signature Date
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 1 Recognizing Laboratory Safety

Introduction
An essential part of biology is working in the lab. You will be learning biology by actively conducting
and observing experiments. Most of the lab work you will be doing is safe, however, some of the
equipment, chemicals and specimens can be dangerous. Accidents do not just happen in the lab
they are caused by carelessness, improper handling of equipment or inappropriate behavior.
In this investigation you will learn how to prevent accidents and work safely in the lab. You
will review some safety guidelines and become familiar with the location of safety equipment.
Problem
What are the proper practices for working safely in the lab?
Pre-Lab Discussion
Read the entire investigation. Then work alone or with a partner to answer the following questions.
1. Why might eating or drinking in the lab be dangerous?

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2. How can reading through the entire investigation before beginning the Procedure help prevent
accidents?
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3. Look around the room. What safety equipment do you recognize?
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4. What safety procedure should you follow when cleaning up at the end of an investigation?
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5. Can minor safety procedures be skipped in order to finish the investigation before the bell rings?
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Materials
Lab manual
Lab safety equipment (for demonstration)
Procedure
1. Carefully read the list of lab safety rules.
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2. Safety symbols will be used throughout this manual. Review the symbols to describe what
each symbol means.
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1.
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2. ___________________________________________________
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3.
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4. ___________________________________________________
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5.
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6.
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7.
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8.
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Analysis and Conclusions
Look at each of the drawings and explain why the lab activities pictured are unsafe.
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 2 Living Things in Pond Water

Introduction
A pond is a small freshwater lake less than 8 meters deep. In the shallow, quiet water, light penetrates
all the way to the bottom. Rooted plants cover most of the bottom. Some live completely submerged
and others send leaves and flowers upward to float on the water surface. Plants and tiny plantlike
organisms float about, on or near the surface, thriving on the sunlight they receive. The abundant plant
life furnishes food to millions of small animals that live on, in or near the plants. Many animals graze
on them and others eat the grazers.
As you study the organisms in the pond water, try to find out the source of their food. Notice
how their bodies are organized. Observe how they use energy and how they respond to changes in
their environment.
Problem
What living things can be found in pond water?
Pre-Lab Discussion
1. What types of organisms can be found in pond water?

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2. What kinds of algae are usually found in ponds?
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3. What nonliving things are essential for the survival of the various organisms in a pond?
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Materials (per group)
Pond culture 1 and 2 Slides Pipettes

Compound light microscope Coverslips Tissues or paper towels
Hand lens Culture dishes Dissecting probe
Safety
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Procedure
Part A. Preparation and Preliminary Observations

1. Pond cultures 1 and 2 will be at the teachers lab table. Observe the materials in pond culture 1 and 2
and try to distinguish nonliving materials from organisms or materials that were once living in each
culture.
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2. Using a pipette, draw up water from pond culture 1 and place it in one of the culture dishes. Bring it
back to the lab table and place it on a piece of paper labeled Culture 1. Using a new pipette, draw
up water from pond culture 2, place it in the other culture dish, bring it back to the lab table and place
it on a piece of paper labeled Culture 2.
3. You will be making many wet mounts so keep the pipettes separate one should be used for culture 1
and the other for culture 2. Use only one or two drops of culture on each slide, otherwise it will drip
onto the microscope stage. Put a coverslip on each wet mount you prepare, avoiding air bubbles.
4. Use a pencil to make sketches of what you see. Under each drawing, write the magnification used. If
an organism is too large, draw it under low power; if it is too small, draw it under high power.
Sketches of some of the organisms you might see are shown in Figure 1.
5. After drawing what you observe, wipe the slide and coverslip with a tissue and make another wet
mount to see if you can find anything else in the culture.
Part B. Pond Surface

1. The surface of a pond is like a very thin skin that small plants and animals use by either resting on it
or hanging from its underside. Tiny plantlike organisms, known as algae, float or swim near the
surface, carried about by water currents. Algae in ponds are usually colored green or yellow-green.
Other algae, the diatoms, are encased in glass shells and are usually golden-brown in color.
2. Examine culture 1 (pond surface water). Make wet mounts and observe them under low and high
power. Use the space provided to draw several of the organisms that you see as you view each wet
mount from culture 1.
3. Culture 1 might contain snails, various eggs, wormlike animals with breathing tubes, and animals
carrying bubbles. It should also have algae floating freely. These might be green or yellow-green,
threadlike or netlike. Diatoms on surfaces appear as tiny, geometric figures, alone or in groups.
Look for animals feeding on algae. Look for organisms that seem to be swimming about and try to
see how they move themselves.
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Part C. Pond Bottom
1. Examine culture 2 (pond bottom). Search for organisms and materials in culture 2. Some will be too
large to place on a slide so use the hand lens to examine them and draw them in the space below.
2. Make wet mounts and observe them under low and high power. Use the space provided to draw
several of the organisms that you see as you view each wet mount from culture 2.
3. Culture 2 might contain insect larvae with bodies in sections and jointed legs, animals carrying
bubbles, wormlike organisms, and snails. Try to find euglena, which are slow-moving, bright green,
narrow cells with a red eyespot visible under high power. Search for small dead animals and plants,
or their parts.
1. Why did you keep the samples of the different pond regions separate? Why not mix them?
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2. Describe any breathing adaptations that you saw in animal forms.
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3. Why might you expect to find animals carrying bubbles both at the surface and at the bottom of a pond?
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 3 Human Inheritance

Introduction
With an understanding of heredity and probability, biologists have learned about the genetics of many human
traits. In many of these traits, several pairs of genes are involved and the pattern of inheritance is complex.
For this activity we will assume that the traits we are studying are regulated by the alleles of only one gene,
with one allele from the father and one from the mother.
Problem
How do you determine phenotype and genotype?
Procedure
Phenotypes and Genotypes of Common Traits

You will determine your phenotype and try to determine your genotype for the traits listed in Table 1.
Remember, if you show a dominant trait, you may be homozygous or heterozygous for that trait. Suppose,
however, that one of your parents shows the recessive trait that would make you heterozygous. If neither
of your parents shows the recessive trait, you may not know if you are heterozygous or homozygous. In
those cases, put a question mark as the second allele. If you show the recessive trait, record it as the
phenotype and genotype, with two recessive alleles.
1. Have your partner check your earlobes. Free earlobes, L, are dominant. People whose earlobes are
attached directly to the side of the head have the recessive genotype ll. Record your phenotype and
genotype in Table 1.
2. Check your eye color. Inheritance of eye color is controlled by multiple genes, but people having
homozygous recessive genotype, bb, have blue eyes. People who have dominant allele, B, may have
different shades of brown, hazel or green. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table 1.
3. Have your partner check your hairline. A widows peak is a hairline that forms a downward point in
the middle of the forehead. This is caused by a dominant allele, W. A smooth hairline is caused by
the recessive genotype ww. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table 1.
4. Check to see if you can roll your tongue. A dominant allele, R, gives some people the ability to roll
their tongues into a U shape when it is extended. People with recessive alleles, rr, cannot roll their
tongues. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table 1.
5. Place your hands on a flat surface and relax. See if the first joints of your little fingers are bent or
straight. A dominant allele, F, results in the end joint of the little finger of each hand bending inward.
Straight little fingers are the recessive genotype ff. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table 1.
6. Check to see if you have hair on the middle joints of your fingers. Individuals who have hair on the
middle joints of their fingers have at least one dominant allele H. Those with recessive alleles, hh, do
not have hair on that joint. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table 1.
7. Check your hair color. Individuals with red hair have the recessive genotype nn. Those with any
other color have at least one dominant allele N. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table 1.
8. Check your hair type. Individuals with curly hair have at least one dominant allele C and people with
straight hair have the genotype cc. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table 1.
9. Have your partner check your eyelashes. Long eyelashes are the result of the dominant allele S and
short eyelashes are the recessive ss. Record your phenotype and genotype in Table 1.
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Table 1
Trait and Symbols for Genes Phenotype Genotype
Shape of ear lobe (L, l)
Eye color (B, b)
Shape of hairline (W, w)
Ability to roll tongue (R, r)
Shape of little finger (F, f)
Hair on middle joint (H, h)
Hair color (N, n)
Hair curliness (C, c)
Eyelash length (S, s)
1. Do you think that anyone in the class has all the same traits that you have? Explain your answer?
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2. What are the possible genotypes of the parents of an offspring who has brown (Bb) eyes?
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3. Can you accurately determine an organisms genotype by observing its phenotype? Explain.
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 4 Making Karyotypes

Introduction
Several human genetic disorders are caused by extra, missing, or damaged chromosomes. In order to study
these disorders, cells from a person are grown with a chemical that stops cell division at the metaphase stage.
During metaphase, a chromosome exists as two chromatids attached at the centromere.
The cells are stained to reveal banding patterns and placed on glass slides. The chromosomes are
observed under the microscope, where they are counted, checked for abnormalities, and photographed. The
photograph is then enlarged, and the images of the chromosomes are individually cut out. The chromosomes
are identified and arranged in homologous pairs. The arrangement of homologous pairs is called a
karyotype. In this investigation, you will use a sketch of chromosomes to make a karyotype. You will also
examine the karyotype to determine the presence of any chromosomal abnormalities.
Problem
How can chromosomes be observed?
Pre-Lab Discussion
1. What clues to the presence of certain genetic disorders can be seen in a karyotype?
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2. Why might a laboratory worker attempting to diagnose a genetic disorder prefer to work with photographs
of chromosomes rather than the chromosomes themselves?
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3. Why would it be much more difficult to construct a karyotype of unstained chromosomes?
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4. Which pair of chromosomes can contain two very different chromosomes and still be considered normal?
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5. How do autosomes differ from sex chromosomes?
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Scissors
Glue or transparent tape
Chromosome handout
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Safety
Be careful when handling sharp instruments.
Procedure
Part A. Analyzing a Karyotype

1. Observe the normal human karyotype in Figure 1. Notice that the two sex chromosomes, pair 23, do
not look alike. They are different because this karyotype is of a male, and a male has an X and a Y
chromosome.
2. Identify the centromere in each pair of chromosomes. The centromere is the area where each
chromosome narrows.
Figure 1
Part B. Using a Karyotype to Identify a Genetic Disorder

1. Study the human chromosomes from the handout. 23 chromosomes are numbered 1 through 23.
2. To match homologous chromosomes, look carefully at the unnumbered chromosomes. Note their
overall size, the position of the centromere, and the pattern of the light and dark bands. Next to the
unnumbered chromosome that is most similar to chromosome number 1, write 1.
3. Repeat step 2 for chromosomes 2 through 23.
4. Use scissors to cut out all the chromosomes from the handout. Tape them to their appropriate places
in Figure 2. Note any chromosomal abnormalities.
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Figure 2
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5. Observe the karyotypes in Figures 3 and 4. Note the presence of any abnormalities.
6. Complete Table 1 by recording your observations of the karyotypes shown in Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Record any evidence of chromosomal abnormalities present in each karyotype. Record the genetic
defect, if you know it, associated with each type of chromosomal abnormality present.
Figure 3
Figure 4
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Table 1
1. Of the four karyotypes that you observed, which was normal? Which showed evidence of an extra
chromosome? Which showed evidence of an absent chromosome?
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2. What chromosomal abnormality appears in the karyotype in Figure 3? Can you tell from which parent this
abnormality originated? Explain your answer.
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3. Are chromosomal abnormalities such as the ones shown confined only to certain parts of the body?
Explain.
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4. Are genetic defects associated with abnormalities of autosomes or of sex chromosomes? Explain.
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5. Formulate a question that could be answered by observing chromosomes of different species of animals.
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: _____
Lab 5 Studying Genetic Mutations

Introduction
DNA carries information for the synthesis of all the proteins of an organism. Protein molecules are large and
complex, composed of hundreds of amino acids. In each kind of protein, the amino acids are linked in a
definite sequence. The sequence of amino acids is determined by the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of
he organism. All the different proteins that occur in organisms are composed of only twenty kinds of amino
acids.
In the first step leading to protein synthesis, DNA is transcribed into a long single-stranded molecule
of RNA called messenger RNA (mRNA). Ribosomes attach to the mRNA and sequences of nucleotides
called codons form a pattern or code that specifies the order in which the amino acids are to be linked. As
the ribosomes move along the mRNA from codon to codon, the appropriate amino acids are brought into
place and linked together in a process called translation.
Problem
How are proteins made from DNA sequences?
Procedure
Part A. Protein Synthesis

During transcription, the DNA double helix unwinds and unzips. The two strands separate as the
hydrogen bonds binding the nitrogen bases break. Then, nucleotides present in the cell line up along one
strand of the DNA. As mRNA forms, uracil (U) matches with adenine (A); cytosine (C) matches with
guanine (G). Note: RNA has uracil where DNA has thymine (T).
The nucleotides of the newly formed mRNA are complementary to the nucleotides of the DNA
segment on which it was formed.
1. One strand of DNA has the base sequence: C G A T T G G C A G T C A T. Write the sequence of
bases in the complementary strand of mRNA that would form next to this DNA strand.
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The information carried on the mRNA is in a code the genetic code. A group of three nucleotides on a
molecule of mRNA is called a codon; each codon specifies one of the 20 amino acids, except for three
codons which are stop signals. There are 64 codons in the genetic code, as shown in Table 1.
2. Use Table 1 to read the codons below. Find the name of the amino acid and write it in the space
provided. If the letters code for more than one amino acid, separate the names by dashes.
U U A: ___________________
G A G: ___________________
U A U C U A: ______________________________________
A U C U U G: ______________________________________
A A A U U U G G G: _____________________________________________
C C A G C U A G A G G G U G G C U G U C A:
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Table 1
Molecules of transfer RNA (tRNA) form in the nucleus. There are twenty types of tRNA, one for each
amino acid. The tRNA has two ends one carries the amino acid molecule and the other end has a three
base segment called the anticodon, which is complementary to a codon on mRNA.
3. Determine the anticodon for each codon below.
G G U: ___________________
C G C: ___________________
A U G: ___________________
U C G: ___________________
A A A: ___________________
C U G: ___________________
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Questions
1. Write the order of nucleotides in mRNA that would be transcribed from the following strand of DNA.
Then list the amino acids coded by that sequence:
GTATACCAGTCATTTGTC
mRNA ____________________________________________________________
amino acids _________________________________________________________

2. Sometimes a mistake occurs in the translation of an mRNA strand. Suppose that the reading of the mRNA
strand in question 1 began, by mistake, at the second nucleotide instead of the first. The first codon would be
AUA. Write the sequence of amino acids that would be formed from this mistake.
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3. Suppose the bases of the DNA strand in question 1 were not transcribed correctly and the mRNA read:
CACAUGGUUAGUAAGCAG
How many mistakes were made in the transcription? Write the abbreviation for the amino acids that would
be formed by translation of this mRNA.
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Part B. Mutations
There are two types of mutations, small-scale gene mutations and large-scale chromosomal mutations.
You will do gene (point) mutations in this part of the lab. Since mRNA is read in threes (codons), an addition
or deletion of a base changes the reading frame of the sequence. An insertion shifts the reading frame to the
right and a deletion shifts the reading frame to the left.
For the insertion, insert a letter C after the first G.
For the deletion, delete the first G.
Original DNA: TAC GGA CGA TCT CAG GAG CCT ATA ATC
Insertion DNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Mutated mRNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Mutated Amino Acids: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Original Amino Acids: Met Pro Ala Arg Val Leu Gly Tyr STOP
Original DNA: TAC GGA CGA TCT CAG GAG CCT ATA ATC
Deletion DNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Mutated mRNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Original Amino Acids: Met Pro Ala Arg Val Leu Gly Tyr STOP
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Usually a frame shift mutation results in the synthesis of a nonfunctional protein. Why do you think your
mutated proteins might not be functional?
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A different type of gene mutation is called base substitution. It is the simplest type of mutation where a
nucleotide pair is replaced with a different nucleotide pair.
Base substitution GAC GGC
One type of base substitution is called transverse mutation. Transversion mutation happens when one purine
(A, G) is swapped with a pyrimidine (C, T).
Purine Pyrimidine GAC TAC
Pyrimidine Purine GAC GAG
Use the DNA code below to demonstrate a purine pyrimidine transversion mutation. Change only one
purine (A or G) into a pyrimidine (C or T) and circle the mutated mRNA and mutated amino acid.
Original DNA: TAC CAT GCA GAT CTG GCC CAG TTC ATC
Transversion DNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Mutated mRNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Original Amino Acids: Met Val Arg Leu Asp Arg Val Lys STOP
The opposite of transversion mutations is transition mutations. A transition mutation happens when one
purine is swapped with the other purine or when one pyrimidine is swapped with the other pyrimidine.
Purine Purine GAC AAC
Pyrimidine Pyrimidine GAC GAT
Use the DNA code below to demonstrate a purine purine transition mutation. Change only one purine (A)
into the other (G) and circle the mutated mRNA and mutated amino acid.
Original DNA: TAC GTC GCT CAA CGG GAC CTG ACC ACT
Transition DNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Mutated mRNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Original Amino Acids: Met Gln Arg Val Ala Leu Asp Trp STOP
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A third type of base substitution is called silent mutation. Silent mutation happens when one base in a codon
is changed but both code for the same amino acid.
DNA CTT CTG
Amino Acid Leu Leu
Use the DNA code below to demonstrate a silent mutation. All you have to do is change one DNA base but
the amino acid stays the same. Write each codon per line and circle the mutated DNA base.
Original DNA: TAC CAT TCT CGG TGT AAA AGG GCG ATT
Transition DNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Mutated mRNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Original Amino Acids: Met Val Arg Ala Thr Phe Ser Arg STOP
A base mutation that creates a new stop codon in place of an amino acid is called a nonsense mutation.
Silent mutation happens when one base in a codon is changed but both code for the same amino acid.
DNA TGT TGA
Amino Acid Cys STOP
Use the DNA code below to demonstrate a nonsense mutation. All you have to do is change one DNA base
to create a new stop codon (somewhere before the existing STOP codon). Write each codon per line and
circle the mutated amino acid.
Original DNA: TAC GGT AAT CAA ATA GAA CCT GAG ACT
Transition DNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Mutated mRNA: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Original Amino Acids: Met Pro Leu Val Tyr Leu Gly Leu STOP
Explain the difference between a frame shift mutation and a base substitution mutation.
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: _____
Lab 6 Using and Constructing a Classification Key

Introduction
All cultures have developed names for the living things found in their environments. When various everyday
names are used for the same organism, confusion is possible. So, scientists have developed an international
system for naming and classifying all organisms. Identification guides, called keys, have been developed to
help people recognize and identify organisms according to their scientific names.
Classification keys are usually dichotomous in arrangement. The word dichotomous comes from the
word dichotomy, meaning two opposite parts or categories. A dichotomous key gives the reader a series
of opposing descriptions of basic features of an organism. The reader studies the specimen and selects the
descriptions that apply to it until reaching a statement that characterizes only one species and names it. In
this investigation you will use a typical dichotomous key to identify the genus and species of several
different salamanders. Then you will create your own dichotomous key to categorize a diverse group of
wildflowers.
Problem
How is a dichotomous key used to distinguish among similar organisms?
Pre-Lab Discussion
1. How many choices does a dichotomous key provide at each step?

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2. What are some of the apparent differences among the salamanders illustrated?
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3. Based on Figure 2, what is a distinguishing characteristic of the members of the genus Ambystoma?
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4. What might be a good strategy for beginning to create a classification key for the six types of wildflowers
shown in the diagram?
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5. If you were to use live flowers instead of diagrams, what other characteristic could you use to identify the
flowers?
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Procedure
Part A. Using a Classification Key

1. Examine the drawings of the salamanders in Figure 1. Choose one to identify by using the key.
Figure 1
2. Use the dichotomous key (Figure 2) to determine the genus and species of that salamander. Begin by
reading statements 1a and 1b. One of the statements describes the salamander you chose, the other
does not. Follow the directions for the statement that applies to that salamander and continue
following the correct statements until you have identified it. Record the scientific and common name
of the salamander in Table 1.
3. Repeat step 2 for each of the other salamanders in Figure 1.
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1 a) Hind limbs absent Siren intermedia, siren
b) Hind limbs present Go to 2
2 a) External gills present in adults Necturus maculosus, mud puppy
b) External gills absent in adults Go to 3
3 a) Large size (over 7 cm long in Go to 4
Figure 1)
b) Small size (under 7 cm long in Go to 5
Figure 1)
4 a) Body background black, large Ambystoma tigrinum, tiger salamander
white spots variable in size completely
covering body and tail
b) Body background black, small Ambystoma maculatum, spotted salamander
round white spots in a row along each
side from eye to tip of tail
5 a) Body background black with white Go to 6
spots
b) Body background light color with Go to 7
dark spots and/or lines on body
6 a) Small white spots on black Ambystoma jeffersonianum, Jefferson
background in a row along each side salamander
from head to tip of tail
b) Small white spots scattered Plethodon glutinosus, slimy salamander
throughout a black background
extending from head to tip of tail
7 a) Large irregular white spots on a Ambystoma opacum, marbled salamander
black background extending from
head to tip of tail
b) No large irregular black spots on a Go to 8
light background
8 a) Round spots scattered along back Triturus viridescens, newt
and sides of body, tail flattened like a
tadpole
b) Without round spots and tail not Go to 9
flattened like a tadpole
9 a) Two dark lines bordering a broad Eurycea bislineata, two-lined salamander
light middorsal stripe with a narrow
median dark line extending from the
head onto the tail
b) Without two dark lines running the Go to 10
length of the body
10 a) A light stripe running the length of Plethodon cinereus, red-backed salamander
the body and bordered by dark
pigment extending downward on the
sides
b) A light stripe extending the length Hemidactylium scutatum, four-toed
of the body without dark pigment on salamander
the sides
Figure 2
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Table 1
Number Genus and species Common name
1
10
11
Part B. Constructing a Classification Key

1. Examine Figure 3, which shows some common North American wildflowers.
Note different characteristics in flower shape, number of petals, and leaf number
and shape.
Figure 3
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2. Use the space below to construct a dichotomous classification key for the wildflowers in Figure 3.
Be sure to use enough pairs of statements to have a final positive statement for each to identify each
of the six flowers shown. Use the key for salamanders as a model for developing your wildflowers
key.
3. Check the usefulness of your wildflower key by letting another student see if he can use it to identify
each pictured flower.
Wildflower Classification Key

1 a)
b)
2 a)
b)
3 a)
b)
4 a)
b)
5 a)
b)
1. What are some examples of basic differences among the salamanders pictured?
___________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Do the classification keys you have just worked with have any limitations in distinguishing between
species?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. Do any of the wildflowers shown in Figure 3 appear to be similar enough to be in the same genus?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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4. What characteristics should be very similar in order to support an inference that two plants are closely
related?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5. Could the three salamanders from the genus Ambystoma be more closely related that Necturus, the mud
puppy, and Triturus, the newt?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: _____
Lab 7 Classifying Leaves

Background
Over the centuries, people who study the natural world have tried to sort, or classify, organisms into groups
whose members show a logical relationship to each other. The science of classification is called taxonomy.
One of the products of taxonomy is the development of classification keys. A classification key is an
organized list of characteristics that can be used to identify organisms. Such keys have been made for almost
every group of organisms in the world.
Objectives
Identify structural characteristics of leaves and find differences between leaves. Construct a classification
key based on the characteristics of leaves.
Procedure
Part A. Studying Leaf Structure

1. Look at Figure 1, which shows a leaf from a willow tree and a leaf from a chestnut oak tree.
Compare the shapes of these leaves. Notice that the willow leaf is long and pointed, while the
chestnut oak leaf is oval.
2. Compare the edges of the two leaves shown in Figure 1. Notice that the edges of the willow leaf are
notched, while the edges of the chestnut oak leaf are wavy. Some other kinds of leaves have edges
that are lobed, or deeply indented and others have smooth edges.
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3. Compare the patterns of the veins of the two leaves shown in Figure 1. As you can see, they are
similar: both leaves have a network of small veins that branch off a single, main vein. Compare this
pattern of veins, called pinnate-netted, to the two other vein patterns shown in Figure 2. Notice that
the veins in a palmate pattern start at the base of the leaf and extend outward, as fingers extend
outward from the palm of the hand. The terms palmate and pinnate also refer to other leaf
characteristics. Leaves that are lobed show one of two patterns, palmate or pinnate.
4. Compare the leaves of the sweet gum and the post oak, shown in Figure 3. Notice that the sweet gum
leaf is palmately lobed, and the post oak is pinnately lobed. So far you have observed simple leaves
(in one piece). Sometimes leaves are divided into smaller segments, called leaflets. A leaf that is
divided in this way is called a compound leaf. Compound leaves show one of two patterns, palmate
or pinnate.
5. Look at the leaflets of the clover and tick trefoil, shown in Figure 4. Notice that the clover leaf is
palmately compound and the tick trefoil is pinnately compound.
Part B. Constructing a Key

1. In order to construct a key of leaves, you will need to differentiate between the leaves. The key that
you write should make it possible for someone to identify the seven leaves shown in Figure 5.
2. Remember that all steps will contain two contrasting statements. Use the leaf characteristics you
learned from Part A to write the statements for each step. If a statement in any step leads you to more
than one leaf, you will need further steps to separate those leaves. For these cases, indicate the
number of the next step. If a statement in any step leads you to only one leaf, you have identified that
leaf. Write the genus name of the plant. When you have identified and written in the names of all
seven plants, you have finished your key.
3. Complete your key. The first step has been filled in already. You may not need to use all the lines
provided. If you need more lines, use a separate sheet of paper to write them.
33
34
1 a) leaves simple Go to step 2
b) leaves compound Go to step 3
2 a)
b)
3 a)
b)
4 a)
b)
5 a)
b)
6 a)
b)
7 a)
b)
8 a)
b)
9 a)
b)
10 a)
b)
4. To check your key, select one of the leaves and see if the key leads you to the correct identity.
For Further Investigation
Collect a few leaves from trees and other plants you see every day. Before you start collecting, make sure you
can identify poison ivy and poison oak to avoid touching them! After collecting at least 8 different leaves, try to
identify them. Take pictures of the leaves or glue them to sheets of paper. Write the common name as well as
genus and species name for each of the leaves you have collected. Try to create a classification key for the leaves
you have collected.
35
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: _____
Lab 8 Anatomy of Earthworm
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40
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: _____
Lab 9 Anatomy of Grasshopper and Crayfish
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45
46
47
48
49
50
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: _____
Lab 10 Anatomy of Starfish
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53
54
55
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: _____
Lab 11 Anatomy of the Frog
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60
61
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63
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65
66
67
68
69
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: _____
Lab 12 Anatomy of the Fetal Pig
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 13 Nutrition and a Balanced Diet

Introduction
High fat intake, especially saturated fats which are found in animal products such as meat and butter, is
linked to obesity and cardiovascular disease. Although cholesterol in an essential compound, it also can
contribute to the buildup of deposits that harden and narrow the arteries (atherosclerosis) and this condition
can lead to other conditions including heart attack and stroke.
How does one know exactly how much fat is considered to be high fat intake? The answer to that
question is not an easy one to find, especially since every individual has a unique metabolism. The best way
to maintain a balanced diet would be to follow the Food Guide Pyramid (Figure 1) that nutritionists have
created. The Food Guide Pyramid classifies foods into six groups and expresses a simple idea you should
eat a variety of foods each day and limit your intake of fatty, sugary foods.
Problem
How do you calculate calorie intake and body mass index?
Figure 1
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Procedure
Part A. Calculate calories

1. Recommended guidelines of nutritionists: limiting daily fat intake to no more than 30% of total
calories and no more than 10% of total calories should be from saturated fats. Use the table below to
answer the following questions.
2. To find total calories, add the total calories (from the table) for each item listed.
3. To convert grams of fat to calories, multiply the number of grams by 9.
4. To convert grams of carbohydrates to calories, multiply the number of grams by 4.
5. To find percentage of calories from fat (or saturated fat), first convert the grams of fat to calories.
Then divide that number by the total number of calories and multiply the result by 100. For example:
peanut butter has 95 calories per tbsp. Since there are 8 grams of fat, calories from fat = 8 x 9 = 72.
The percentage of calories from fat would be (72/95) x 100 = 75.8% of the calories are from fat.
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Questions
1. Suppose you ate a 3 oz. cheeseburger on a roll, 20 french fries, a 12 oz. soda, a piece of cake, and 3 oz. of
ice cream. Calculate the following:
Total calories Percentage from fat Percentage from saturated fat
Is this meal within the recommended guidelines?

_____________________________________
2. Suppose your lunch was a 3 oz. tuna sandwich on 2 slices of white bread with one tablespoon of
mayonnaise, one cup of tomato soup, a mixed salad (no dressing), 8 oz. of skim milk, and an apple. Calculate
the following:
Total calories Percentage from fat Percentage from saturated fat
Is this meal within the recommended guidelines?

_____________________________________
Which item contributed most to the percentage of fat in this meal?
____________________________________
Part B. Calculate Your Body Mass Index

1. Fifty-five percent of adults in America are considered to be overweight. Your BMI will tell you
whether or not you fall into this category. Use the following formula: (weight in pounds / height2 in
inches) x 704.5 = BMI.
2. The federal guidelines are as follows: 25 or below is normal weight, from 25 to 29 is overweight and
30 or higher is obese.
Questions
1. Compute your BMI: _____________________________________________________________
2. How might a person with a BMI of 27 reduce his or her BMI? Consider both nutritional intake and
physical activity.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. If someone has a BMI of 22, how do you suppose his/her calorie intake compares with calorie
expenditure?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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4. Since 1960, the population of obese individuals in the U.S. has risen dramatically. Formulate a hypothesis
that might explain this.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Part C. Reading Food Labels

Carefully examine the nutritional information on the food label shown below. Based on the
information on the label, answer the following questions.
Questions
1. Calculate the daily value in grams for total carbohydrate and dietary fiber.
____________________________________________________________
2. If you ate 2 servings of this, how many grams of fat would you be eating? ___________________
3. If you ate 2 servings of this, how many grams of protein would you be eating? ________________
4. If you ate 2 servings of this, how many calories from fat would you get? ___________________
5. If you ate 2 servings of this, how many calories from carbohydrates would you get? ________________
6. Based on the data, which food do you think has more calories: one with 8 grams of fat or 8 grams of
carbohydrates? Explain your answer.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 14 Observing Nervous Responses

Introduction
The nervous system is a series of conducting tissues that carries impulses to all parts of the body. Your
nervous system initiates many types of reflex actions. When you touch a hot object, you immediately pull
your hand away, but you are unable to stop or control it.
How do reflex actions occur? When your hand touches a hot object, for example, heat receptors in
the skin send an impulse to the muscles of the arm to contract. The impulse travels along the sensory
neurons, to the spinal cord, across a synapse, and stimulates a motor neuron. The impulse leaves the spinal
cord, passes back to the same nerve and back to the arm muscles, causing them to contract and pull your
hand away. This pathway is called a reflex arc. Because the reflex arc involves only the spinal cord and not
the brain, a reflex action occurs in a matter of a fraction of a second. You are not able to control a reflex it
happens automatically.
In a nonreflex response, an impulse must travel to the brain. The brain interprets the stimulus and
initiates an appropriate response. In this case, the time it takes to respond is measurably longer than the time
required for a reflex arc. A persons reaction time can be measured by how quickly he or she can perceive a
stimulus and then react to it. Driving a car and playing tennis are examples of activities in which reaction
times is very important.
In this investigation, you will observe two reflex actions and measure your reaction time.
Problem
Can you control reflex actions? How can you measure reaction time?
Pre-Lab Discussion
1. What data will you record in Table 2?

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. What is another name for an involuntary or automatic response to a stimulus?
____________________________________________________________
3. Why do you put your elbow on the table when you are catching the meter stick?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Meter stick
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Safety
This experiment involves physical contact. Avoid this experiment if a problem with the knee or hand exists.
Procedure
Part A. Reflexes
1. Sit on the lab stool
2. Cross your left leg over your right.
3. Have a member of your group tap your knee firmly, slightly below the knee cap, with the side of his
hand, as shown in Figure 1. CAUTION: be sure the knee is not hit hard. A firm, quick tap is
sufficient. Record your observations.
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3. This time, try to stop your knee from jerking. Record your observations.
5. Reverse roles and repeat steps 1 to 4.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Table 1
Stimulus Observations
Knee tapped
Knee tapped, trying to stop

it from jerking
Part B. Reaction Time

1. Rest your elbow on a table and extend your arm over its side as shown in Figure 2
2. Have a group member hold a meter stick in the air, with the 0-cm line between the thumb and index
finger of your extended hand.
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3. Have the group member drop the meter stick without advance notice. Try to catch it between your
thumb and index finger as quickly as possible.
4. In Data Table 2, record in centimeters the position of your thumb and index finger. This is the
distance the meter stick fell before you caught it.
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 three more times.
Table 2
Trial Distance (in centimeters)
1
2
3
4
1. What happened to your knee when it was tapped?

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Could you prevent the knee jerk? Explain you answer.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. Is catching the meter stick a voluntary reaction or a reflex? Explain your answer.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4. What was the average distance the meter stick fell in your four trials?
____________________________________________________________
5. In catching the meter stick, were your reactions faster or slower than those of your classmates? How do
you know?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
6. Suggest some possible ways that reflex arcs could be advantageous to a species.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 15 Investigating Senses

Introduction
Your senses provide your brain with information about what is happening both inside and outside your body.
When a sense receptor is stimulated, it sends nerve impulses to the brain for interpretation. Various kinds of
sense receptors are located throughout the body. They range from tiny nerve endings in the skin to highly
specialized organs, such as the eyes and ears. Each type of sense receptor responds only to a certain type of
stimulus. Human senses include sight, touch, smell, taste and hearing.
Problem
How do sense receptors work?
Toothpicks Cups for water Bitter solution

Meter stick Salt solution Sour solution
Cotton swabs Sugar solution
Procedure
Every person has a dominant eye. The dominant eye takes over when focusing on something. In most
people, the right eye is dominant.
1. Make a circle with your right thumb and forefinger. With both eyes open, look at the object across
the room through the circle. Have your arm extended fully. First close your left eye and look at the
object.
Does the object appear in the center of the circle? ____________________________
2. Next close your right eye and look at the object.
Does the object appear in the center of the circle? ____________________________
The dominant eye will be the one for which the object remains in the center of the circle. Which
eye is your dominant eye? ____________________________
The blind spot is the place on the retina where the optic nerve enters the eye. There are no rods or cones in
this area, so no vision occurs at the blind spot. Both right and left eyes have blind spots.
3. Cover your left eye. Then hold your book about 15 cm away and focus on the star in Figure 1.
Figure 1
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4. Continue to look at the star, and slowly move your book away from you.
What happens to the dot to the right of the star as you move your book away?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
At about what distance from your eye does this occur?
___________________________
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4, but cover your right eye and stare at the dot with your left.
What happens to the star as you move your book away? At about what distance?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Touch receptors are not evenly distributed throughout the skin. They are more heavily concentrated in some
areas than in others.
6. Tell your lab partner to close his eyes. Use two toothpicks to gently touch your partners skin in the
areas shown in Table 1. Start with the toothpicks about 1 mm apart. Gradually increase the distance
between the toothpicks. Note the distance at which your partner can tell that there are two toothpicks.
Record the distance at which the subject feels two toothpick points in each area in Table 1.
Table 1
Area Distance Apart (in mm)
Back of hand
Palm of hand
Fingertip
Lip
Back of neck
7. Switch roles and repeat step 6.

In which areas listed in Table 1 are touch receptors most concentrated?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Figure 2
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The taste receptors on your tongue can detect four different tastes: salty, bitter, sweet and sour. The
receptors for each taste are located on certain parts of the tongue.
8. Dip a clean cotton swab into the salt solution. Dab all of the areas of your tongue indicated in Figure
2 but do not close your mouth. In Table 2, record a plus (+) sign if taste is perceived in that area and
a minus (-) sign if it is not.
Table 2
Taste Edge Back Front center Tip
center
Salty
Sweet
Bitter
Sour
The flavor of food that is perceived by the brain is a combination of taste and smell. Some foods cannot be
distinguished by taste alone.
9. Blindfold your partner and have him hold his nose. Feed your partner either a piece of apple or
onion. Make sure he does not let go of his nose!
Can your partner identify the food?
____________________________________________________
10. Switch roles and repeat step 9.
1. Why do you not notice the blind spot in the course of normal vision?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Explain why there are differences in the results in Table 1.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. Can you think of a reason why some body parts should be more sensitive to touch than others?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4. Explain why food is often tasteless to a person with a cold?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 16 Examining Muscle, Bone and Cartilage

Introduction
The tissues involved in the movement and support of vertebrates are muscle, bone and cartilage. The
contraction of muscle cells produces motion. Humans and other vertebrates have three types of muscle:
skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Each is composed of a distinct type of cell specialized
for the type of motion it provides. Contraction of skeletal muscle produces body movements. Smooth
muscles are located in the walls of the digestive tract, blood vessels, and other internal organs. They are
specialized for slow, prolonged contractions. The heart is made up of cardiac muscle and is specialized to
beat rhythmically and continuously.
Bone and cartilage are the hardest tissues in the body. Humans and most other vertebrates have
internal skeletons composed mainly of bone. The bone supports the body, gives it shape, and protects
internal organs. Most skeletons also contain cartilage. In fact, human skeleton is initially formed of
cartilage which is gradually replaced by bone. Cartilage is found in adult humans between the vertebrae of
the spinal column, at the tips of the ribs and other bones, and in the nose, ears and larynx. Some lower
vertebrates, such as the shark and the lamprey eel, have skeletons composed entirely of cartilage.
Problem
What does muscle, bone and cartilage look like?
Compound light microscope

Prepared slides of skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, bone and cartilage
Procedure
Part A. Muscle Tissue

Most muscle cells are long and thin. Skeletal muscle tissue consists of bundles of fused cells called
fibers. Fibers display a definite pattern of banding. Because of banding, or striations, skeletal muscle is
also known as striated muscle. The light and dark bands result from an overlapping arrangement of the
tiny filaments that make up muscle tissue. Movement of filaments causes the muscle to contract.
1. Observe a prepared slide of skeletal muscle under low power. Make a drawing in the space below.
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2. Switch to high power. Examine the skeletal muscle fibers. Draw skeletal muscle fibers as seen under
high power, including striations.
Smooth muscle tissue does not have the striped appearance of skeletal muscle.
3. Observe a prepared slide of smooth muscle tissue under low power. Draw what you see.
4. Switch to high power. Examine the smooth muscle cells and make a drawing of several smooth
muscle cells under high power.
Cardiac muscle tissue appears striated like skeletal muscle, but the cells have connecting branches. The
nuclei are located in the center of the cells. Intercalated discs appear between cells.
5. Observe a prepared slide of cardiac muscle tissue under low power. Make a drawing of what you see
under low power.
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6. Switch to high power. Then examine the cardiac muscle cells. Draw cardiac muscle as seen under
high power.
Part B. Bone and Cartilage Tissue

The matrix, or intercellular material, of bone is very hard and composed mainly of calcium
compounds. Bone cells, called osteocytes, are embedded in the matrix in spaces called lacunae. A
system of canals, the Haversian canals, forms passageways through the bone for blood vessels and
nerves. Lacunae containing osteocytes are arranged in concentric rings around each Haversian canal.
The cells are connected to the Haversian canal and to each other by smaller canals called canaliculi.
1. Observe a prepared slide of bone under low power. Try to identify the lacunae and the Haversian
canals. Make a drawing of bone as seen under low power.
2. Switch to high power. Observe the Haversian canal systems. Note the smaller canals connecting the
lacunae and the Haversian canals. Draw a Haversian canal system.
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Cartilage is more flexible than bone. It can take a great deal of stress. Cartilage cells are called
chondrocytes. They are found in cavities called lacunae within the flexible, elastic matrix. Unlike bone,
cartilage has no blood vessels. The cells get needed materials by diffusion from adjacent blood vessels.
3. Observe a prepared slide of cartilage under low power. Make a drawing of what you see.
4. Switch to high power. Then examine the cartilage structure. Draw a section of cartilage. Label the
structures you see.
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1. Describe the shape and general arrangement of the fibers in skeletal muscle tissue.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the general appearance of a smooth muscle cell.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe the general appearance of a cardiac muscle cell.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe a Haversian canal system in bone.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 17 Climate and Biomes

Background
A biome is defined as a large geographic region that has a particular type of climax community.
Biomes are identified by the characteristic plants that dominate the landscape (such as grasslands) or by
physical features and climate (such as deserts or tundra). While you are probably familiar with many of the
biomes of the world, you may not know what causes biomes to exist. The kinds of plants and animals that
coexist and survive in a particular area are determined by the soil, topography, and climate in that area.
Biomes take many years to establish. Keep in mind that their boundaries are not as distinct as we would like
to think of them, and actually blend into each other.
Objectives
In this lab you will:

1. Investigate some of the physical processes that determine climate.
2. Graph climate data from different places.
3. Classify climate graphs into general biome categories.
4. Use your graphs to compare various biomes.
Procedures and Observations
Part I. Latitude and Radiant Energy

Because the earth is shaped like a sphere, the suns rays strike the earth at different angles. Look at
Figure 1. Although the amount of energy striking points A, B, and C is equal, the amount that is absorbed
depends on the angle of the suns rays.
Consider the effect that latitude has on radiant energy (heat) absorption.
a. Why is more radiant energy absorbed at A than at B or C?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
b. What immediate effect would the amount of radiant energy striking a part of the earth have on that
place?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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c. In general, what happens to temperature as one moves north or south of the equator?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Part II. Effect of Large Bodies of Water

Land warms and cools quickly. Places near the middle of a continent will experience temperature
extremes hot summers and cold winters. Water, however, warms and cools more slowly than land. In fact,
ocean temperatures in a given region do not vary much during the year. This causes the temperatures in
coastal areas (where the wind blows off the water) and on islands to be consistent throughout the year.
Large lakes and oceans also add humidity to the air and increase precipitation. Lake effect snow
results from cold air blowing across a large lake, gathering moisture and then, upon further cooling, dropping
moisture in the form of snow on the shoreline and slightly inland.
a. In which of the cities shown in Figure 2 would the most consistent temperatures be found?
_________________________________________________________________________________
b. Where would extremes in temperature be expected? ________________________________
c. Where would the most precipitation be expected? ________________________________
d. Where would precipitation likely fall as Lake Effect snow? ________________________________
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Part III. Mountain Effects
The most obvious mountain effect on climate is the elevation effect. As elevation increases, average
temperature decreases.
a. Would you expect Seattle or Snoqualmi Pass to have a higher annual average temperature?
________________________________
b. How is altitude on a mountain similar to the effect of latitude in Part I?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
When moist air from over the ocean is blown inland toward a mountainous area, the air is pushed up by the
mountain and cooled. Cooling causes condensation and so rain or snow falls on the mountainside close to
the ocean. By the time the air moves over the top of the mountain, it has lost its moisture. Moving down the
other side of the mountain, the air is warmed. It becomes a warm, dry wind.
c. Which place shown in Figure 3 would have the greatest annual precipitation?
_________________________________________________________________________________
d. Which place would have the lowest annual precipitation? ________________________________
e. Which place would have the most snowfall? ________________________________
Part IV. Graphing Climate Data

Scientists often put data into graphic form for analysis. This makes the information easier to interpret
and understand. Study the data in Table 1, which was collected from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA).
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Table 1
Temperature (C) (boldface top number)
Month Rainfall/Precipitation (cm) (bottom number)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Portland, OR 3.3 6.1 7.8 10.5 13.9 16.7 19.4 19.4 16.7 12.2 7.2 5
15 10.4 9.1 5.6 5.3 4 1.3 2 4 9.1 14.2 15.2
Pt. Barrow, AK 27 28 26 18 7.5 0.6 3.9 3.3 0.8 8.5 18 24
0.48 0.44 0.28 0.28 0.3 0.9 2 2.3 1.6 1.3 0.58 0.43
Santa Monica, CA 12.1 12.3 12.9 14.5 15.8 17.1 19.1 19 19 16.5 14.5 12.7
8.1 8.6 5.3 3.2 0.28 0.15 0.02 0.05 0.43 0.99 2.9 7.2
Des Moines, IA 5.2 3.2 2.2 10.4 17 23 25.2 24 19.2 13 3.8 2.4
3.1 2.8 3.1 6.3 10.2 12.3 7.6 9.7 7.6 5.7 4.3 2.8
Minneapolis, MN 10.9 9 2.4 6.8 14 19.2 22.4 21.1 15.7 9.4 0.4 7.7
1.8 2 3.8 4.7 8.1 10.2 8.3 8.1 6.1 4 3.6 2.2
Wichita, KS 0 3 7.5 13.5 18.2 24 27.1 26.7 22 15.6 7.3 1.9
2.5 2.5 4.3 8.9 9.7 12.5 8.6 7.3 8.1 5.4 4.3 2.8
Phoenix, AZ 10.5 12.8 15.5 20 24.5 29.4 32.8 31.7 28.9 22.2 15.5 11.6
1.8 1.5 2 0.76 0.25 0.25 2 3 1.8 1.3 1.3 2
Nashville, TN 3.3 5 9.4 15.5 20.5 25 26.7 26.1 22.2 16.1 8.8 4.4
12.2 11.2 12.7 10.4 10.4 8.6 9.7 8.1 7.9 5.6 8.9 11.4
Winnipeg, Manitoba 19 16 8 3 11 17 20 18 12 6 5 14
2.1 1.8 2.3 3.9 6.6 8 7.6 7.5 5.3 3.1 2.5 1.9
Fairbanks, AK 24 19 13 1.4 8.4 14.6 15.3 12.4 6.3 3.2 15.6 22
2.3 1.3 1 0.3 1.8 3.6 4.7 5.6 2.8 2.2 1.5 1.4
New Orleans, LA 11.6 13.3 16.1 20.5 23.9 26.7 27.7 27.7 25.5 21.1 15.5 12.8
11.4 12.2 13.9 10.7 10.7 12 17 13.5 14.2 5.8 9.9 13
Pittsburgh, PA 0 0.5 4.5 11.2 16.9 21.8 23.8 22.8 18.9 12.3 5.9 0.6
7.1 5.8 8.8 8.6 9.6 10.1 9.1 8.8 6.8 6.4 5.9 6.3
a. Use the data in Table 1 to make graphs of average temperature and average precipitation versus
month of the year for each city. A sample graph for Portland, Oregon, is shown below. On the next
pages, label each graph with the city whose weather data is plotted.
106
Graph of Climate Data for ________________________ Graph of Climate Data for ________________________
107
Graph of Climate Data for ________________________
108
Use your graphs to classify each city in a biome. Consider the range of temperatures and the total amount of
precipitation.
b. Complete Table 2 by filling in the column marked Examples with the name of the cities which fit
in each biome.
Table 2
Yearly Average Yearly Temperature
Name Rainfall/ Range (winter lows and Examples
Precipitation summer highs)
Tundra 112 cm/yr. Very cold winters (28C)
Summers (312C)
Taiga Far north (8 cm) Cold winters (25C)
West (40 cm) Short summers (20C)
Central (50 cm)
Temperate 60150 cm/yr. Cold winters (10C)
Deciduous Forest Warm summers (26C)
Temperature 2575 cm/yr. Cold winters (5C)
Grassland Prairie Warm summers (28C)
Mid-Latitude 90200 cm/yr. Small year-round variance
Rain Forest Winters (2C)
Summers (20C)
Chaparral Dry summers (0.3 cm) Cool winters (12C)
Wet winters (3.5 cm) Warm summers (20C)
Desert Less than 25 cm/yr. Winters (8C)
Summers (39C)
Analysis and Interpretations
1. Look at the graphs of Pt. Barrow, Fairbanks, Winnipeg, and Minneapolis. Locate them on a map.
Explain how the temperature and precipitation change with latitude.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Graph the data given on the next page for Walla Walla, Washington. Then compare this graph
carefully with the Portland graph. Locate these two cities on a map. Explain the differences in
yearly temperature range and precipitation.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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3. Which of the locations was difficult to place into a biome? Why?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. What seems to be the difference between the graphs of Des Moines and Nashville? Is this enough to
separate the two places into separate biomes?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Graph the data given below for Chicago, IL. In what biomes might Chicago be classified?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 18 Virtual Lab: Dependent and Independent Variables

1. ECB refers to:
a. A genetically engineered plant that is resistant to insect pests
b. Edible corn byproducts
c. An insect pest that reduces corn yield
d. European corn borer
e. c and d
2. How many days are required for a corn seed to become a mature plant with maximum weight kernels
ready to be harvested?
a. about 23
b. about 65
c. about 140
d. about 180
3. BT Corn refers to corn that:

a. Has been infested with insect pests
b. Has been infected with bacteria
c. Is resistant to ECB
d. Is not affected by pesticides
4. BT is:
a. A stomach poison produced by bacteria
b. A genetically engineered corn product
c. A bacterium carried by the European corn borer
d. A bacterium that has a gene for producing Cry proteins
5. Creation of BT corn requires genetic material from all of the following except:
a. European corn borer
b. Bacillus thuringiensis
c. a corn plant
d. all of the above contribute genetic material to the production of BT corn
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Table 1: Average Yield for each seed variety at no, low, and high infestation levels
Seed Variety Level of Pot 1 Pot 2 Pot 3 Average

ECB Yield Yield Yield Yield
Infestation
BT 123 None
Low
High
BT 456 None
Low
High
Golden None
Low
High
Super Harvest None
Low
High
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Table 2: % Reduction in yield for each seed variety at high levels of infestation
(transfer data on average yield with no infestation and high infestation from Table 1 to Table 2)
Seed Variety Avg. Yield with Avg. Yield with % Reduction

No Infestation High Infestation In Yield
BT 123
BT 456
Golden
Super Harvest
6. For each seed variety, why did you need to collect data from 3 pots for each infestation level to
obtain reliable data?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
7. Which seed variety has the highest yield under conditions of no infestation?
_________________________________________________________________________________
8. Which transgenic seed variety was most resistant to the ECB at high infestation levels?
_________________________________________________________________________________
9. Which non-transgenic seed variety was most resistant to the ECB at high infestation levels?
_________________________________________________________________________________
10. Compare the yield of Super Harvest seeds and BT 123 seeds under conditions of no infestation. Is
there any difference in the avg. yield?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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11. If you compared one pot of Super Harvest and one pot of BT 123 with no infestation, would you
expect the yield of each pot to be within 0.5g? Explain your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
12. A farmer decides to plant 90% of one field with BT 123 seeds and the remaining 10% of the field
with a different seed variety. He hopes this will slow the evolutionary development of BT resistant
insects. Which seed variety should he use the 10% of his field that is not planted with BT 123 seeds?
Explain your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Journal Questions:
1. Describe the effects of the ECB infestations you used. Were all corn varieties equally effective at
controlling the ECB? How do you know?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. If there was no ECB infestation in a certain year, would a farmer gain or lose financially by planting
Bt corn? Explain why.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. What might happen if Bt corn affects non-target organisms such as beneficial insects or harmless
insects?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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4. What might happen if ECB became resistant to Bt?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Discuss possible benefits and drawbacks of a transgenic organism such as Bt corn?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. A farmer planted a field of Bt 123 corn and wants to estimate the yield in terms of bushels per acre.
He counts 22 ears in 1/1000 of an acre. He determines that each ear has about 700 kernels on average.
He also knows that a bushel contains about 90,000 kernels on average. What is the farmer's estimate
of yield in bushels/acre?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 19 Virtual Lab: Mealworm Behavior

1. What are the two types of innate behaviors? _____________________________________________
2. What is the simplest type of innate behavior?

a. Learned behaviors
b. Automatic responses to stimuli
c. Responses to stimuli that bypass the brain
d. Automatic responses that do not bypass the brain
e. b and c
f. b and d
3. List one instinctive human behavior and one reflexive human behavior. ________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Table 1: Record your data for each stimulus applied to the mealworm.
Stimulus Predicted Behavior Actual Behavior Type of Behavior

Petri dish with light
and dark colored sides
Piece of cooked
macaroni
Touched by a
Feather
Beam of light shines
on mealworms head
Drops of ammonia
placed near mealworm
A piece of uncooked
macaroni
Touched by a metal
paper clip
Drops of apple juice
placed near mealworm
Air blown on
mealworms head
Slice of apple
introduced
Alarm beeps near the
mealworm
Cool water dropped on
the mealworm
Bran flakes are
introduced
A piece of banana is
introduced
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4. Review your recorded stimuli responses. What do you notice the instinctive behaviors have in
common? What do you notice the reflexive behaviors have in common?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Select a two new stimuli you would like to test, one you think will results from reflexive behavior,
and one you think results from instinctive behavior:
a. What is the stimulus you think results from reflexive behavior? ________________________
b. Why? ______________________________________________________________________
c. What is the stimulus you think results from instinctive behavior? _______________________
d. Why? ______________________________________________________________________
6. Read the following hypothesis, and then answer the questions:
After observing that mealworms move toward cooked macaroni, but away from uncooked macaroni,
you form the following hypothesis: Mealworms only move toward food that is moist
You decide to test your hypothesis with dry bran flakes. You use a mealworm exposed to cooked
macaroni as your control group, and a mealworm exposed to bran flakes as your experimental group.
a. What is your independent variable? _________________________________________________
b. What is your dependent variable? _________________________________________________
c. Write out your prediction (a prediction is an if..then. statement based on your hypothesis)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
d. Return to the lab simulation, and reset the stimuli until Bran Flakes are introduced comes up as
a stimulus. Make your prediction and watch the video associated with the bran flakes stimulus.
e. Was your hypothesis supported? ____________________________________________________
f. Write one question that this raises in your mind. Write a new hypothesis based on this question
and describe a new independent variable you could test to answer this question.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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Journal Questions:
1. What is the difference between a reflex behavior and instinctive behavior? Describe reflex behaviors
and instinctive behaviors that humans possess.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Which mealworm behaviors were reflexes? Why?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Which mealworm behaviors were instinctive? Why?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. How did the mealworm respond to food as a stimulus? What type of behavior is displayed in the
mealworm's response to food? Why is this behavior important?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. How did the mealworm respond to cold water as a stimulus? Was the response behavioral or
metabolic?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 20 Virtual Lab: Enzyme Controlled Reactions

1. Which of the following does NOT apply to an enzyme:
a. Catalyst
b. Inorganic
c. Protein
d. All of the above apply to an enzyme
2. When an enzyme catalyzes a reaction:

a. Substrate(s) bind in the active site
b. Products bind in the active site
c. The shape of the enzyme remains unchanged
d. The enzyme is consumed by the reaction
3. Which of the following would interfere most with the ability of an enzyme to catalyze a reaction?
a. Reduced concentration of substrate available
b. Reduced concentration of product available
c. Increased concentration of substrate available
d. A change in the pH
4. Feedback mechanisms regulate the rate of enzyme activity, effectively turning off an enzyme in a
reversible way until more product is needed. Which of the following would be most effective as a
feedback mechanism?
a. Reduced concentration of product
b. Increased concentration of substrate
c. A change in pH
d. Temporary binding of a non-substrate molecule in the active site
5. Which of the following statements is accurate in describing the activity of the lactase enzyme?
a. Lactase can function equally effectively at many different pH levels
b. The shape of lactase does not change during the reaction
c. Lactase is converted to glucose and galactose by the reaction
d. One lactase enzyme can catalyze many reactions
6. Look up and write in the following definitions as they apply to chemical reactions:
a. Catabolic: __________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b. Anabolic: __________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
c. Endergonic: _________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
119
d. Exergonic: __________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Is the action of the enzyme illustrated in the video:

a. Anabolic or catabolic?
b. Endergonic or exergonic?
8. Is the action of lactase:

a. Anabolic or catabolic?
b. Endergonic or exergonic?
9. Why is enzyme activity similar to, but not exactly like, a Lock and Key?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Table 1: Record your data on the number of product molecules formed per minute obtained from the
virtual lab.
# Product Molecules/minute at:

Amount of pH 3 pH 5 pH 7 pH 9 pH 11
Substrate
(Lactose)
0.5 g
1.0 g
2.0 g
4.0 g
8.0 g
10. What substrate amount was required to achieve the maximum reaction rate?
______________________________________________________________________________
11. At what pH level did the maximum reaction rate occur?
______________________________________________________________________________
120
12. Why was there no increase in the reaction rate with 8.0 g. of substrate as compared to 4.0 g. of
substrate? What would you need to add to see an increase in the reaction rate with 8.0 g. of
substrate?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
13. In the graph you created in the lab simulation with your data:
a. What is represented by the green line?
______________________________________________________________________________
b. What is the optimal pH for lactase enzyme activity?
______________________________________________________________________________
14. Consider only the experiment you conducted with 0.5 g. of lactose.
a. What is the independent variable? _______________________________________________
b. What is the dependent variable? _______________________________________________
14. The maximum rate of this reaction is 350 molecules product/minute. List two changes you could
make in the experimental conditions or variables that would increase this reaction rate. Explain why each
change you listed will increase the reaction rate.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
121
Journal Questions:
1. Describe the relationship between substrate concentration and the initial reaction rate of an enzyme-
catalyzed reaction. Is this a linear relationship? What happens to the initial reaction rate as substrate
concentration increases?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the maximum initial reaction rate for the lactase enzyme at pH 7? ______________________
3. Explain why the maximum initial reaction rate cannot be reached at low lactose concentrations.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What does your data indicate about the optimum pH level for this lactase-catalyzed reaction?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Enzymes function most efficiently at the temperature of a typical cell, which is 37 degrees Celsius.
Increases or decreases in temperature can significantly lower the reaction rate. What does this suggest
about the importance of temperature-regulating mechanisms in organisms? Explain.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. People with a lactose intolerance are able to take products such as Lactaid that contain the lactase
enzyme with their meals. These products can be taken in pill form. Considering the fact that the pill
form of the enzyme would have to travel through the person's stomach, what special consideration
would the producer of this product need to be concerned about?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
122
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 21 Virtual Lab: The Cell Cycle and Cancer

1. In which phase of mitosis do each of the following occur:
a. Centromeres split and chromosomes move toward opposite sides of the cell: ______________
b. Chromatin coils to form visible chromosomes: ______________
c. The nuclear membrane disappears: ______________
d. Sister chromatids line up in the center of the cell: ______________
2. In which phases of mitosis are sister chromatids visible, and attached to each other at the centromere?
______________________________________________________________________
Table 1: Record your data observed in normal tissues.
Tissue Type # Cells in # Cells in # Cells in # Cells in # Cells in

Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
Lung Tissue
Sample 1
Lung Tissue
Sample 2
Stomach Tissue
Sample 1
Stomach Tissue
Sample 2
Ovarian Tissue
Sample 1
Ovarian Tissue
Sample 2
Table 2: Record your data observed in cancerous tissues.
Tissue Type # Cells in # Cells in # Cells in # Cells in # Cells in

Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
Lung Tissue
Sample 1
Lung Tissue
Sample 2
Stomach Tissue
Sample 1
Stomach Tissue
Sample 2
Ovarian Tissue
Sample 1
Ovarian Tissue
Sample 2
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Table 3: Use the data in Table 1 to calculate the Mitotic Index (average % cells dividing) for each
normal tissue type.
Tissue Type Avg. % cells at rest Mitotic Index

Lung - normal
Stomach - normal
Ovary - normal
Table 4: Use the data in Table 2 to calculate the average % cells dividing and average % cells at rest
in each cancerous tissue type.
Tissue Type Avg. % cells at rest Mitotic Index

Lung - cancerous
Stomach - cancerous
Ovary - cancerous
Questions:
3. What does your data indicate about the rate of cell division in cancerous tissue compared to the rate
of cell division in normal tissue? What data did you use to answer this question?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Which type of cancer is the fastest growing? Explain your answer, using your relevant data.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. With what you have observed in this lab, if you were to compare tissue sample from normal breast
tissue and cancerous breast tissue:
a. Would you expect to see a difference in the rate of cell division in the cancerous breast tissue
compared to the normal breast tissue? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
124
b. Could you make a prediction about the average % dividing cells in the cancerous breast
tissue? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Consider the % dividing cells in normal lung, normal stomach, and normal ovarian tissue. Why do
you think there are more cells dividing in the stomach and ovary tissue than in the lung tissue?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. This lab explores three common cancers. An additional form of cancer Skin Cancer used to be
seen only in older individuals but is now seen in younger individuals, many in their early 20s. Skin
cancer results from accumulated mutations to the DNA of skin cells, caused primarily by sun exposure.
What factors do you think may be contributing to the increase in skin cancer among young adults?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Journal Questions:
1. Based on your data and observations, what are some of the differences between normal cells and
cancer cells?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. When studying cell division in tissue samples, scientists often calculate a mitotic index, which is the
ratio of dividing cells to the total number of cells in the sample. Which type of tissue would have a
higher mitotic index, normal tissue or cancerous tissue? Explain.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
125
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 22 Virtual Lab: DNA and Genes

1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Questions and Mutation
Guide. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook for
further explanation.
2. When you are ready, close out the Mutation Guide and click the Mutate button that appears
on the new page to begin the activity.
3. You will see the following:
an Original sequence of mRNA that has been translated properly into its corresponding
amino acid sequence
a Mutated sequence that is blank
a Mutation Rules block of information
4. Your task is to read the information in the Mutation Rules area and then apply the information
to completing the Mutated sequence of mRNA and protein. To do this, you must:
read the Mutation Rule
look at the Original sequence of mRNA given
determine the Mutated sequence of mRNA bases after applying the information
presented in the Mutation Rule
determine the Mutated sequence of protein (amino acids) translated from the mRNA
sequence you just created using the Genetic Code Chart
5. Please complete this information in the area below BEFORE actually completing the virtual
activity; you can then refer to it to help make the correct selections at each step. Remember to
use the Genetic Code Chart to determine the protein sequence:
Mutation Rule states: ___________________________________________
Original Sequence:
mRNA
Protein
Mutated Sequence:
mRNA
Protein
126
6. Once you have filled in the information above, drag the correct nucleotides to their position in the
Mutated sequence of mRNA. Then drag the corresponding amino acids into place in the
Mutated sequence of protein. When you are finished, click Check. A message will appear in
the open box at the bottom of the page indicating whether your answer needs to be corrected.
You may repeat this entire activity by clicking Mutate.
7. Please finish this exercise answering the Journal Questions at the end of this lab.
Post-laboratory Questions:
1. A mutation:
a. Results in a change in DNA sequence
b. Can result in abnormal encoding of protein sequences
c. Is always detrimental
d. A and B
e. All of the above
2. During the process of transcription:

a. DNA is turned into protein
b. mRNA is turned into protein
c. DNA is turned into mRNA
3. The building blocks of proteins are:

a. Amino acids
b. Nucleic acids
c. Polysaccharides
d. Fatty acids
4. Mutations:
a. Occur roughly 1 in 100 nucleotides
b. Occur roughly 1 in 1,000 nucleotides
c. Occur roughly 1 in 10,000 nucleotides
d. Never occur
e. None of the above
5. In a protein:
a. A single nucleotide change can alter the encoded protein and cause disease
b. 2 or more amino acids are linked together
c. Mutations always alter the encoded protein structure and function
d. A and B
e. All of the above
6. Silent mutations:
a. Are a type of point mutation
b. Code for the same amino acid as intended by the original sequence
c. Always affect protein structure and function
d. A and B
e. All of the above
127
7. A frameshift mutation:
a. Involves the addition or deletion of one or more nucleotides
b. Results in a new codon sequence
c. Results in a new amino acid sequence
d. All of the above
8. A stop codon is:

a. AUG
b. UAC
c. UAG
d. UGG
9. The codon CUG specifies which amino acid?

a. Serine (Ser)
b. Tyr (Tyrosine)
c. Leu (Leucine)
d. Glu (Glutamic Acid)
10. If the DNA sequence AUGGGACCUCCU was changed to AUGGGAAACCUCCU this would
result in:
a. A point mutation
b. A silent mutation
c. A frameshift mutation
Journal Questions:
1. Explain why all mutations are not necessarily harmful.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Does changing the sequence of nucleotides always result in a different amino acid sequence? Explain.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain the differences between a point mutation and a frameshift mutation.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
128
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 23 Virtual Lab: Punnett Squares

Part I: Answer the following questions:
1. Which of the following is most inclusive?

a. allele
b. genotype
2. Dominant alleles are represented by:

a. an upper case letter
b. a lower case letter
c. it does not matter what type of letter is used
3. In fruit flies, gray body color is dominant over black body color. Using the letter G to represent
body color, what is the genotype of a heterozygous gray bodied fly?
a. GG
b. gg
c. Gg
d. GGgg
4. All of the offspring of two gray bodied flys are also gray. What can you conclude about the
genotypes of the parent flies?
a. They are both heterozygous
b. They are both homozygous dominant
c. They are both homozygous recessive
d. You cannot conclude anything definitively about the parental genotypes
5. Some of the offspring of two gray bodied flies are black. What can you conclude about the
genotypes of the parent flies?
a. They are both heterozygous
b. They are both homozygous dominant
c. They are both homozygous recessive
d. You cannot conclude anything definitively about the parental genotypes
Part II: Follow the instructions in the Question column to complete the virtual lab scenarios and record your
data:
Complete all ten scenarios and record your results in Table 1.
When you record a ratio, whether it is genotypic or phenotypic ratio, always record the most dominant
characteristic first, followed by the recessive. For example, when recording genotypic ratios:
1) If your offspring genotypes include 1 GG, 2 Gg, and 1 gg, the ratio would be: 1 GG : 2 Gg : 1 gg
2) If your offspring genotypes include 2 GG and 2 Gg, the ratio would be: 2 GG : 2 gg (or 1:1
in the reduced form)
3) If your offspring genotypes are 4 gg, then the ratio would be written as:: 4 gg
129
When you record phenotypic ratios for a monohybrid cross, there are only two possible phenotypes - either
the dominant phenotype or the recessive phenotype. So you do not need to indicate the phenotype, simply
put the dominant # first, followed by the recessive #:
4) If your offspring phenotypes are 3 dominant and 1 recessive, the ratio is: 3:1
Table 1:
Genotype of Genotype of Genotypic Ratio Phenotypic Ratio
Scenario #
Parent I Parent II of Offspring of Offspring
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Journal Questions:
1. For one of the monohybrid crosses you performed in this Investigation, describe how to use the
phenotype ratios to determine the percentage of offspring displaying each trait.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Can the genotype for a gray-bodied fly be determined? Why or why not? Describe all of the possible
genotypes for a fly with that phenotype.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
130
3. Explain why an organism with a homozygous dominant genotype has the same phenotype as an
organism with a heterozygous genotype.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What genetic infomation can be obtained from a Punnett square? What genetic infomation cannot be
determined from a Punnett square?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
131
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 24 Virtual Lab: Sex-Linked Traits
1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Questions and
Information areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your
textbook for further explanation.
2. Next, complete the Punnett square activity by clicking on the laboratory notebook. Please be sure
to note the possible genotypes of the various flies:
Female, red eyes Female, red eyes Female, white eyes Male, red eyes Male, white eyes
When you have completed the Punnett square activity, return to the laboratory scene to begin the
actual laboratory activity.
3. In this exercise, you will perform a Drosophila mating in order to observe sex-linked trait
transmission. Please click on the shelf in the laboratory. Here you will find vials of fruit flies.
On the TOP shelf, please click on one of the female vials (on the left side) and then drag it to the
empty vial on the shelf below. Please repeat this step using one of the male vials (on the right
side). These flies will be used as the parental (P) generation. You may switch your parent choices
at any time by dragging out old selections and dragging in new flies. Use the Punnett square
below to predict the genotypes/phenotypes of the offspring (Note: refer to the genotype table you
created above if needed):
Genotype: Genotype:
Phenotype: Phenotype:
Genotype: Genotype:
___% Female, red eye ___% Female, white eye ___% Male, red eye ___% Male, white eye
When you are finished, click Mate and Sort.
4. You will now see information appear in the vials sitting on the next shelf below. These are the
offspring of the parent flies you selected above, and they represent the first filial (F1) generation.
In Table I, please input the numbers of each sex and phenotype combination for the F1
generation. These numbers will be placed into the first row marked P generation Cross.
132
5. You will next need to select one of the F1 female flies and one of the F1 male flies to create the
second filial (F2) generation. Drag your selections down to the empty vial on the next shelf
below and fill in the Punnett square below to predict the offspring:
Genotype: Genotype:
Genotype: Genotype:
___% Female, red eye ___% Female, white eye ___% Male, red eye ___% Male, white eye
After clicking Mate and Sort, you will now have information on their offspring (the F2
generation) to input into your Data Table or Worksheet below. This information will be placed
into the second row marked F1 generation Cross.
NOTE: there are additional lines remaining to use if your instructor requires the analysis of
additional crosses.
6. Please finish this exercise by answering the Journal questions found at the end of this lab.
Table I:
Cross Phenotype Phenotype Number Number Number Number

Type of Male of Female of Red of White of Red of White
Parent Parent eye, Male eye, Male eye, eye,
Offspring Offspring Female Female
Offspring Offspring
P
Generation
Cross
F1
Generation
Cross
P
Generation
Cross
F1
Generation
Cross
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1. Through fruit fly studies, geneticists have discovered a segment of DNA called the homeobox which
appears to control:
a. Sex development in the flies
b. Life span in the flies
c. Final body plan development in the flies
2. The genotype of a red-eyed male fruit fly would be:

a. XRXR
b. XRXr
c. XrXr
d. A or B
3. Sex-linked traits:
a. Can be carried on the Y chromosome
b. Affect males and females equally
c. Can be carried on chromosome 20
d. A and B
4. A monohybrid cross analyzes:

a. One trait, such as eye color
b. Two traits, such as eye color and wing shape
c. The offspring of one parent
5. A female with the genotype XRXr:

a. Is homozygous for the eye color gene
b. Is heterozygous for the eye color gene
c. Is considered a carrier for the eye color gene
d. A and B
e. B and C
6. In T.H. Morgans experiments:

a. He concluded that the gene for fruit fly eye color is carried on the X chromosome
b. He found that his F1 generation results always mirrored those predicted by Mendelian Laws of
Inheritance
c. He found that his F2 generation results always mirrored those predicted by Mendelian Laws of
Inheritance
d. A and B
e. All of the above
7. In this laboratory exercise:

a. The Punnett square will allow you to predict the traits of the offspring created in your crosses
b. XR will represent the recessive allele for eye color, which is white
c. Xr will represent the dominant allele for eye color, which is red
d. All of the above
8. In a cross between a homozygous red-eyed female fruit fly and a white-eyed male, what percentage
of the female offspring is expected to be carriers?
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a. 0%
b. 25%
c. 50%
d. 75%
e. 100%
9. In a cross between a white-eyed female and a red-eyed male:

a. All males will have red eyes
b. 50% of males will have white eyes
c. All females will have red eyes
d. 50% of females will have white eyes
10. In human diseases that are X-linked dominant, one dominant allele causes the disease. If an
affected father has a child with an unaffected mother:
a. All males are unaffected

b. Some but not all males are affected
c. All females are unaffected
d. Some but not all females are affected
Journal Questions:
1. In a mating between a red-eyed male fruit fly and a red-eyed heterozygous female, what percentage
of the female offspring is expected to be carriers? How did you determine the percentage?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. In a mating between a red-eyed male fruit fly and a white-eyed female fruit fly, what percentage of
the male offspring will have white eyes? Describe how you determined the percentage.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Hemophilia, a blood disorder in humans, results from a sex-linked recessive allele. Suppose that a
daughter of a mother without the allele and a father with the allele marries a man with hemophilia.
What is the probability that the daughter's children will develop the disease? Describe how you
determined the probability.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Colorblindness results from a sex-linked recessive allele. Determine the genotypes of the offspring
that result from a cross between a color-blind male and a homozygous female who has normal vision.
Describe how you determined the genotypes of the offspring.
135
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Explain why sex-linked traits appear more often in males than in females.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. In humans, hemophilia is a sex-linked recessive trait. It is located on the X chromosome. Remember

that the human female genotype is XX and the male genotype is XY. Suppose that a daughter of a
mother without the allele and a father with the allele marries a man with hemophilia. What is the
probability that the daughter's children will develop the disease? Describe how you determined the
probability.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Colorblindness also results from a sex-linked recessive allele on the X chromosome in humans.
Determine the genotypes of the offspring that result from a cross between a color-blind male and a
homozygous female who has normal vision. Describe how you determined the genotypes of the
offspring.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. Based on the traits explained in questions 6 and 7, explain why sex-linked traits in humans appear
more often in males than in females.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 25 Virtual Lab: Knocking Out Genes
1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Questions and
Arabidopsis Lab Manual areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer
to your textbook for further explanation.
2. In this exercise, you will perform a set of experiments using knockout strains of the plant
Arabidopsis to determine gene function. To begin, drag the seed packets to their correct growth
chamber. Using the pulldown tab, select from one of 4 growth conditions in the Environment
area. When you are through, click on Grow to germinate the seeds.
3. Click the magnifying glass icon for a closer look at the plant growth in each condition,
remembering to use the arrow to observe all 3 plants from each seed type. Note your
observations in Table I AND within the Data Table located at the bottom of the page. When
you are through, close out the window using the X.
4. Click the Clean Pots button to reset the growing pots. Then repeat the steps above to test each
of the 3 remaining environmental growth conditions.
Table I:
Plant Optimum UV Exposure High Salinity Drought

Growth in Soil Conditions
Conditions
Wild-type
Mutant 1
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1. In Arabidopsis, the leaves at the base of the plant are which type?
a. Rosette
b. Cauline
c. Trichrome
d. Silique
2. Arabidopsis:
a. Has a small genome that has been completely sequenced
b. Displays roughly 200 visible phenotypic markers
c. Is self-pollinating
d. All of the above
3. A gene:
a. Is made up of DNA
b. Encodes a protein
c. Can be knocked out in order to determine protein function
d. All of the above
4. The knockout mutants of Arabidopsis used in this exercise each:

a. Have one gene and one protein missing
b. Have one gene added and one protein missing
c. Have one gene missing and one protein added
d. Have gene and one protein added
5. In order to identify the protein encoded for by a specific gene, one must:
a. Have a knocked out gene
b. Have the DNA sequence of the knocked out gene
c. Have the chromosomal location of the knocked out gene
d. Have observations comparing its growth to a wild-type organism
e. All of the above
6. UV radiation may retard plant growth by:

a. Restricting water coming into the plant
b. Restricting nutrients coming into the plant
c. Damaging DNA
d. All of the above
7. When making your experimental observations in this exercise, you are observing which structures?
a. Rosette leaves
b. Cauline leaves
c. Trichromes
d. Siliques
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8. High salinity and drought conditions may both cause Arabidopsis plants to become:
a. Dehydrated
b. Mutated
c. Malnourished due to lack of nutrients
d. A and C
e. All of the above
9. In your experiments, you expect to see normal growth in both the wild-type and mutant plants under
which condition?
a. UV Exposure
b. High Salinity in Soil
c. Optimum Growth Conditions
d. Drought Conditions
10. In your experiments, you can determine the role of the knockout gene by seeing which condition
produces wild-type and mutant plants:
a. With the same phenotype
b. With different phenotypes
Journal Questions:
1. Did any of the mutant plants show a variance in phenotypes from the wild-type plants under one of
the experimental conditions? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. According to your observations of one of the mutant plants, what function is controlled by the
knocked out gene? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Why can the Arabidopsis plant serve as a model for all flowering plants? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
139
4. Is it possible to have a knockout mutant plant that shows no visible phenotype that is different from
the wild-type plant? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Why do you think the mouse was selected as a model organism for mammals? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 26 Virtual Lab: Gene Splicing
1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Questions and Diagrams
areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook for further
explanation.
2. In this exercise, you will perform a simulated experiment involving the creation of a transgenic
organism using genetic engineering technology. To begin, select a Genetic Trait that you
would like to use in this experiment by clicking the corresponding toggle button. You can click
on the underlined text to read current information on this genetic trait. Next, please select a Host
Organism into which the genetic trait will be introduced. Input this information into Table I.
Click Continue to move on with the activity.
3. On the next page, you will begin the procedure for generating a transgenic organism. Please note
the following text/diagram boxes:
diagram box showing the DNA sequence of the gene encoding the selected Genetic
Trait (input this information into Table I)
a dialogue box explaining what is shown in the diagram box
a dialogue box explaining types of restriction enzymes
a box to input the restriction enzyme chosen to perform the action at this step
Once you have completed this step, click Continue. A new dialogue box will appear if your
enzyme choice is incorrect. Make a new selection after rereading the information and click
Continue to advance to the next step. Input this information into Table I when you are through.
4. In the next step, you need to place the isolated DNA fragment into a bacterial plasmid. To do
this, look at the DNA sequence given (this is what you just cut out in the previous step) and
choose the same enzyme in two separate selections that will create these base overhangs in the
plasmid (hint: should it be the same enzyme used in the previous step?). Click Continue when
you are done; a dialogue box will appear if you chose the incorrect enzyme. Reread the
information and make a new selection to advance to the next step. Input this information into
Table I when you are through.
5. In the last page, you will learn if the transgenic organism you created was viable or not. Input
this information into Table I when you are through. You can redo the experiment with a different
combination of Genetic Traits and Host Organisms if you wish by clicking the button at the
bottom of this page.
141
Table I:
Genetic Trait Host Organism DNA sequence Restriction Viable

of Genetic Trait Enzyme used Transgenic
(gene) Organism Made
(Y/N)
1. The glow-in-the-dark trait gene:

a. Comes from a firefly
b. Comes from E. coli
c. Could be used in anti-HIV drug development
d. A and C
2. Antifreeze plasma proteins:

a. Have been isolated in species of flounder
b. Allow some species of fish to grow at very hot temperatures
c. Allow some species of fish to grow at very cold temperatures
d. A and C
e. All of the above
3. Insulin:
a. Can be produced in genetically engineered bacteria
b. Can be produced in cloned cows
c. Can be produced more cheaply in cows milk
d. B and C
e. All of the above
4. The rot-resistant trait:

a. Was introduced into the Flavr Savr tomato
b. Is due to antisense suppression of polygalacturonase
c. Increased the cost of processed tomato products such as tomato paste
d. A and B
142
5. Genes have NOT been successfully introduced (spliced) into:
a. Prokaryotes
b. Plants
c. Animals
d. None of the above
6. Restriction enzymes:
a. Were originally isolated from bacteria
b. Only cut DNA at random sequences
c. Can cut DNA at specific sequences
d. Always leave blunt ends
e. A and C
7. A proper Watson-Crick DNA base pair is:

a. A-G
b. C-T
c. A-T
8. Sticky ends allow DNA fragments to be spliced into vectors by what type of bonding?
a. Ionic
b. Covalent
c. Hydrogen
9. The enzyme ligase:

a. Cuts DNA and creates blunt ends
b. Cuts DNA and creates sticky ends
c. Completes the splicing of DNA fragments and plasmid vectors
10. You cut a vector with the following DNA base overhang (sticky end):
ACCTGGACTTA
CCTGAAT
You will need to cut out the DNA fragment containing your gene of interest so that which sticky end
is created?
a. XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXTGGA
b. XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXACCT
c. XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXTCCA
d. XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXATTC
143
Journal Questions:
1. What does the term sticky ends refer to in gene splicing?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is a plasmid? How is a plasmid used in gene splicing?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What types of vectors are used to carry DNA from one species into the DNA of another species?
Give examples.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What is a transgenic organism? Give examples.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Why is it essential that the same restriction enzyme be used to cleave (cut) the DNA of both
organisms used to create a transgenic organism?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
144
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 27 Virtual Lab: Tracking Grizzlies
1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Question and DNA Lab
Handbook areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your
2. In this exercise, you will learn how to estimate the population size of a given organism using
DNA technology. To begin, read the information in the DNA Lab Handbook in order to gain
an understanding of how scientists estimate population sizes as well as the basics of bear hair
DNA fingerprinting technology.
3. You are now ready to begin the activity. Start by clicking on Trapping Trip 1; this will reveal
hair collection sites on the map. Click and drag each hair sample from the map into a separate
test tube in the rack below in the laboratory area. When you are through, click and drag the
pipette to the first test tube in the rack on the far left side. Then click and drag the pipette
containing an aliquot of this sample to the electrophoretic gel. Click to release the sample into
the far left well of the gel. Repeat these steps to load the remaining samples into the wells of the
gel. When you are finished, click the Add Dye button in order to add migration dye to each
sample and then click the On/Off button to run the samples on the gel.
4. When the samples have completely separated on the gel, you can then click and drag each sample
lane to the appropriate viewing box on the left of the laboratory page. At this point, you will need
to input the total number of samples obtained in Table I.
5. When you are finished, click the Trapping Trip 2 button and follow the same procedure stated
above to analyze the new hair samples. Remember that when comparing electrophoretic gel
patterns, if the DNA banding patterns of two fingerprints align perfectly they most likely are from
the same animal. After inputting your data into Table I, repeat these steps again for Trapping
Trip 3 and Trapping Trip 4.
6. Using your collected data and the equations presented in the Question area, you then need to
complete Table I to estimate the population size of the grizzly bears living within the area that has
been observed.
145
Table I:
Trip Number Hair Samples Total Number Repeat (ST) Estimated Total
(S) of Identified Number of
Bears (T) Bears (N)
1 (Initial)
1. The grizzly bear hair adhered to the traps by sticking to:

a. Glue
b. Velcro
c. Two-sided tape
d. Metal barbs
2. Which of the following is a proper base pair in DNA?

a. A-G
b. C-A
c. G-G
d. T-G
3. DNA fingerprinting can be used on:

a. Plants
b. Bacteria
c. Igneous Rocks
d. A and B
e. All of the above
4. Which of the following represents the correct order of steps in DNA fingerprinting?
a. DNA isolationrestriction enzyme digestiongel electrophoresis
b. Restriction enzyme digestiongel electrophoresisDNA isolation
c. DNA isolationgel electrophoresisrestriction enzyme digestion
5. During gel electrophoresis, a positive charge is applied to:

a. The top of the gel
b. The bottom of the gel
c. It does not matter
146
6. In an electrophoretic gel:
a. DNA bands near the top of the gel are the smallest DNA fragments
b. DNA bands near the top of the gel are the largest DNA fragments
c. You cannot tell the size of a DNA fragment based upon looking at the DNA bands
7. Grizzly bear populations in North America:

a. Have greatly risen in past years
b. Have been affected by habitat destruction
c. Have been affected by hunting practices
d. B and C
e. All of the above
8. Until recently, grizzly bear populations were estimated by using:

a. Analysis of scat
b. Analysis of skeletal remains
c. Analysis of tracks
9. The DNA fingerprints obtained from the grizzly bears:

a. Identify weight of the bears
b. Identify sex of the bears
c. Identify age of the bears
d. B and C
e. All of the above
10. In this simplified DNA fingerprint diagram, which cub(s) could be excluded from being the offspring
of the adult female presented?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. B and C
147
Journal Questions:
1. DNA fingerprinting identifies individual bears and also allows for determining the gender of a bear.
What information does it not provide that might be useful for deciding on conservation efforts?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Bear hair may also be collected from trees that the bears rub themselves against. In a study using
DNA fingerprinting of hair collected from rub trees, it was found that the population in the area
contained more male bears than female bears. Give one potential explanation for this situation.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What other problems might DNA fingerprinting of bear hair solve?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. The police arrested three suspects and obtained DNA fingerprints from each individual. What does
the investigator need to establish in order to determine which of the three might be the culprit in the
crime? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. How could DNA fingerprinting technology be used to establish that a highway cutting through
grizzly bear habitat stops the bears from moving from one side to the other? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Monarch butterfly populations are found east and west of the Rocky Mountains. How could DNA
fingerprinting technology be used to establish that they constitute one breeding population or two
separate breeding populations? Explain you answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
148
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 28 Virtual Lab: Dinosaur Dig

1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Questions, Geologic
Time Scale and Dinosaur Guide areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you,
please refer to your textbook for further explanation.
2. In this exercise, you will use observations and simulated chemical analysis of dinosaur fossils to
determine their age and species identification. To begin, observe the fossil presented in the
Unknown Fossil area at the bottom left-hand side of the page. In Table I, please note the
fossils shape, size and structure.
3. Next, drag the rock sample found in the rock layer below the fossil site into the mass
spectrometer. Click the Start button and interpret the data that is presented on the computer
monitor. Place this information in Table I below. Remember to use the information in the
Questions area for reference. Here is an example as well:
Absolute Dating Results

Isotope A: Half-life 220 Million Years
Parent Isotope Remaining: 50%
Daughter Isotope Remaining: 50%
In this case, of the parent atoms have decayed so this represents 1 half-life. Thus, the age
of the rock is roughly 220 million years old.
4. Repeat step number 3 for the rock sample found in the rock layer above the fossil site.
5. Next, open the Geologic Time Scale and use the absolute dating results to determine the period
in which this dinosaur existed. Input this information into Table I.
6. To complete your analysis of the fossil, compare the data you have obtained with the reference
information listed in the Dinosaur Guide to determine the species identification of the fossil.
Place this information in Table I.
Note: There are extra rows in your table to identify additional fossils if necessary. Click the
reset button to call up a new fossil specimen to identify.
149
Table I:
Fossil Absolute Absolute Geologic Dinosaur

Information Dating of Dating of Time Period Species
Rock Layer Rock Layer
Below Above
1. Based upon evidence, it appears that a mass extinction of reptile species occurred during which era?
a. Precambrian
b. Paleozoic
c. Cenozoic
d. All of the above
2. One of the earliest known dinosaurs was:

a. Stegosaurus
b. Tyrannosaurus rex
c. Coelophysis
d. Diplodocus
3. The fossil of which species brought forth the idea of modern day birds potentially being descended
from dinosaurs?
a. Stegosaurus
b. Diplodocus
c. Tyrannosaurus rex
d. Archaeopteryx
4. The fossils of Archaeopteryx appear so well-preserved due to the fact that they were found in what
was once:
a. a dry desert
b. cold arctic ice
c. a lagoon
d. a low oxygen environment
e. c and d
150
5. Based on fossil evidence, peg-like blunt teeth in the front of the jaw appeared best suited for which
type of lifestyle?
a. Scavenger
b. Carnivore
c. Predator
d. Herbivore
6. Based on fossil evidence, which species appeared to have hollow bones?

a. Diplodocus
b. Coelophysis
c. Archaeopteryx
d. Tyrannosaurus rex
e. C and D
f. None of the above
7. Dinosaurs:
a. Appear to have evolved from archosaurs
b. Were predominant in the Paleozoic era
c. Became extinct in the Cenozoic era
d. All of the above
8. Mammals:
a. Coexisted for a time with dinosaurs
b. Became predominant in the Tertiary period
c. Were first seen in the Cambrian period
d. A and B
9. Archaeologists tend to find fossils most often embedded in which type of rock?
a. Sedimentary
b. Igneous
c. Metamorphic
10. Absolute dating is best performed on rocks formed:

a. in a cold region
b. near a hydrothermal vent below the oceans surface
c. near a volcano
d. B and C
e. all of the above
Journal Questions:
1. Describe the steps you took to estimate the age of one of the fossils.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
151
2. Describe the steps you took to identify one of the dinosaurs from the fossil.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. How could you determine that two species of dinosaurs lived in the same time period?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What evidence supports the hypothesis that birds evolved from dinosaurs?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Describe some features that dinosaurs share with modern living reptiles.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. How could a paleontologist determine that a dinosaur was a plant eater or a carnivore?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. What other evidence besides fossil bones might be useful in describing the behavior of a dinosaur?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
152
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 29 Virtual Lab: Classifying Using Biotechnology
NOTE: As you read the information in the Microbiology Handbook, there may be some terms you are not familiar
with such as 16s ribosomal RNA and Polymerase Chain Reaction. Refer to your text to read background material
explaining any terms or processes with which you are not familiar.
Record the results of your investigations of each unknown in Table 1 by completing the following
steps:
1) Apply the stain to your first unknown slide and examine it under the microscope.
2) Record the shape of the bacteria, the arrangement of the bacteria, and the gram staining characteristics.
3) Analyze and record the G+C content of the sample by dragging the DNA tube that corresponds to the bacterial
sample to the GC Content Measuring Apparatus. (Note: the identification of the DNA tubes may be confusing; the
red tube belongs to sample #1, the blue tube belongs to sample #2, and the green tube belongs to sample #3)
4) Compare the slide to the pictures in the Microbiology Handbook, and record the name of the species you believe
it to be.
5) Repeat these steps for sample #2 and sample #3.
6) Click reset to obtain 3 new bacterial samples to test, and repeat steps 1-5.
7) Continue to reset the slides and continue testing until you have identified each bacterial species described in the
Microbiology handbook, as well as one unknown species.
Table 1:
Shape Arrangement Gram + or GC Content Species

Gram -
153
Answer the following questions:
1. Which of the species you identified will have DNA with the lowest melting temperature?
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. You test a new unknown bacterial sample and find it gram + and has a G+C content of 55%. Which of
the following statements is accurate regarding this sample:
a. It is a different species than any of the other species you have identified
b. it is most closely related to Staphylococcus aureus
c. the bacterial cells will probably be rod-shaped
d. the bacterial cells are prokaryotic
e. c and d
f. a and d
3. You test another new unknown bacterial sample, and find the G+C content is identical to one of the
samples you have already identified, but the rRNA gene sequence contains one base that is different. What
can you conclude:
a. the two samples are from unrelated species
b. the two samples are from closely related, but not identical, species
c. the two samples are probably from the same species
d. there is not enough data to form a conclusion
5. According to your data, which two species that you identified diverged the longest time ago?
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. Your lab partner hands you a slide with a new sample of a bacterium called Staphylococcus mutans.
What can you deduce about this bacterium?
a. it is closely related to streptococcus mutans
b. it is closely related to staphylococcus aureus
c. it is closely related to both streptococcus mutans and staphylococcus aureus
d. it is closely related to either streptococcus mutan or staphylococcus aureus
e. there is not enough information to establish an evolutionary relationship
7. List one of your identified bacterium that has a thick cell wall:
_________________________________________________________________________________
8. You view an unknown bacterial sample that has a spherical shape, requires oxygen for metabolism, and
stains purple with gram staining. Which of the following correctly describes the species you are viewing?
a. gram positive, spirilli, aerobic
b. gram negative, bacilli, facultatively anaerobic
c. gram negative, cocci, anaerobic
d. gram positive, cocci, aerobic
9. 30s and 16s ribosomal RNA molecules are components of:

a. transfer RNA
b. the nucleolus
c. a ribosome
d. RNA polymerase
154
10. G+C nucleotide base pairs are held together by three hydrogen bonds, while A+T base pairs are held
together by two hydrogen bonds. Which of the following characteristics are found in a molecule with a high
GC content as compared to a molecule with a higher AT content?
a. increased UV absorption
b. increased melting temperature
c. higher rate of mutation
d. a and b
e. b and c
Journal Questions:
1. Describe the characteristics of the organism and the process you used to determine the identity of one
of the organisms in this lab.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Is it possible that two prokaryotic organisms show phenotypic similarities, but do not share close
evolutionary relatedness? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Various Streptococci and Lactobacilli were traditionally grouped together as lactic acid bacteria
because of their characteristic fermentation. Most of them were found to have a DNA guanine plus
cystosine (G + C) content of approximately 40%, but one of them had a G + C content of 58%.
Should this organism remain in the same genus as the rest of the bacterial species? Explain your
answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the definition of the concept of a species in Bacteria based on? Explain your answer, taking
into consideration that these organisms do not reproduce sexually.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
155
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 30 Virtual Lab: Blood Pressure

1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Question and
2. In this exercise, you will learn a common method for determining blood pressure and investigate
factors that may contribute to high blood pressure (hypertension). To begin, click on the gender
pull down menu and select Male or Female; then select an age group from the Age Range
button. Once you have this information selected, click Measure Blood Pressure to obtain the
blood pressure readings from all 10 subjects (patients).
3. Please place the blood pressure for each patients individual reading in Table I only. Then, using
the Calculator tool on the bottom of the laboratory page or your own calculator, please
determine the AVERAGE systolic and diastolic pressure readings for your subjects. To do this,
add up all of the systolic readings you obtained from your group and divide by 10; round your
answer up to the nearest WHOLE number. Repeat this process using the diastolic readings.
Place these values in the correct areas of Table I and in the Data Table at the bottom of the
laboratory page as well.
4. By clicking on each patient in the group, you may also read their medical history chart. Please
make important notes on this information, especially on individuals whose blood pressure is
higher than the group average (written in RED text), in Table I and Table II.
5. When you are through, click reset, select a new group of individuals to test and follow the
instructions above. There will be 8 subject groups to be tested in all.
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Table I:
Male 11-17 Female 11-17 Male 18-24 Female 18-24
Patient 1 S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
Patient S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D=
10
I= I= I= I=
Avg.
Systolic
Avg.
Diastolic
S= systolic pressure reading D= diastolic pressure reading I= health information

157
Table II:
Male 25-44 Female 25-44 Male 45-54 Female 45-54
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
I= I= I= I=
Patient S= D= S= D= S= D= S= D=
10
I= I= I= I=
Avg.
Systolic
Avg.
Diastolic
S= systolic pressure reading D= diastolic pressure reading I= health information

158
1. Hypertension means:
a. High blood sugar levels
b. High blood cholesterol levels
c. High blood pressure levels
2. A sphygmomanometer:
a. Measures blood pressure
b. When inflated cuts off blood flow to the brachial vein
c. Must be used in conjunction with a stethoscope
d. A and C
e. All of the above
3. In measuring blood pressure:

a. Diastolic pressure is measured as blood first reenters the artery
b. Systolic pressure is measured when blood flow just returns to normal in the artery
c. Blood pressure readings are noted as systolic over diastolic pressure
d. All of the above
4. Based on the laboratory activity, evidence shows that as a group:

a. Males experience an increased systolic and diastolic pressure with age
b. Males experience a decreased systolic and diastolic pressure with age
c. Males experience an increased systolic and decreased diastolic pressure with age
d. Males experience a decreased systolic and increased diastolic pressure with age
e. Males have relatively constant blood pressure with age
5. Based on the laboratory activity, evidence shows that as a group:

a. Females experience a decreased systolic and diastolic pressure with age
b. Females experience an increased systolic and diastolic pressure with age
c. Females experience an increased systolic and decreased diastolic pressure with age
d. Females experience a decreased systolic and increased diastolic pressure with age
e. Females have relatively constant blood pressure with age
6. On average for both sexes, normal blood pressure is typically defined as:
a. 140/60
b. 130/95
c. 120/80
d. 145/80
7. Based on the results of this exercise, which of the following blood pressure readings are significantly
above normal, indicating hypertension?
a. 122/78
b. 130/84
c. 129/81
159
8. Which of the following information from the medical charts appears to play the least role in
determining blood pressure?
a. Sex
b. Height
c. Weight
d. Age
9. Which of the following appear to be lifestyle related risk factors for hypertension?
a. Smoking
b. Lack of exercise
c. Family history
d. A and B
e. All of the above
10. A patient comes in to have their blood pressure taken. They are a non-smoker, they exercise daily
and consume a healthy diet low in sodium. Based upon this information:
a. Their blood pressure will be normal
b. Their blood pressure will indicate hypertension
c. You cannot estimate their reading due to the effect of genetics on blood pressure
Journal Questions:
1. What factors are known to cause increases in blood pressure?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the
average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender
of the group members.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What sorts of problems might a person develop who has chronic hypertension?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
160
5. Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your
experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood
pressure averages?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of
the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these
individuals that might explain their high reading?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do
you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for
high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk
for high blood pressure?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 31 Virtual Lab: Plant Transpiration

Information areas.
2. In this exercise, you will test the effects of various environmental conditions on the rate of plant
transpiration. To begin, click on one of the plant specimens and drag it to the potometer; the
name of the plant will then appear. Clicking on the clock icon will begin the experiment, and
after the simulated hour has passed you will be shown the temperature at which the experiment
took place and the volume of fluid transpired by the plant (in mL). Place all of this information in
the Table and/or in Table I below.
3. Now that you have assessed the transpiration rate of this plant under normal conditions, click and
drag one of the three appliances to the laboratory bench next to the potometer. Click the clock
and begin the second experiment. After collecting your data as above, repeat these procedures on
your plant specimen using the remaining two appliances.
4. When you are completely finished testing your specimen under all four conditions, click on a new
plant specimen and drag it to the potometer. Following all of the procedures above, collect your
data on the transpiration rates of this plant and place them in Table I. When you have completely
analyzed all four visible plant specimens, you can click the Reset button to obtain new plant
specimens. There are 9 total plants in all that need to be tested under all four environmental
conditions.
162
Table I: Total Amount of Water (in mL) Transpired in One Hour
Plant Type Normal Conditions With Heater With Fan With Lamp
(21oC) (27oC) (21oC) (21oC)
Arrowhead
Coleus
Devils Ivy
Dieffenbachia
English Ivy
Geranium
Rubber Plant
Weeping Plant
Zebra Plant
1. Transpiration in plants is driven by:

a. Gravity
b. Capillary action
c. Static electricity
d. All of the above
2. Stomata:
a. Are found on plant roots
b. permit the intake of carbon dioxide
c. permit the intake of oxygen
d. All of the above
3. Water can be lost by a plant through which process(es)?

a. Evaporation
b. Transpiration
c. Condensation
d. A and B
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4. Which environmental condition in your experiments served as the control?
a. heat
b. wind
c. light
5. In your experiments, transpiration was observed by:

a. Directly measuring the amount of water leaving the leaves through transpiration
b. Directly measuring the amount of water leaving the leaves through evaporation
c. Directly measuring the amount of water absorbed through the plant sprigs stem
d. All of the above
6. Which environmental condition(s) always led to an increase in transpiration rate in each plant tested?
a. Heat
b. Wind
c. Light
d. A and B
e. All of the above
7. Wind did not have the greatest effect on transpiration rate in which plant type?
a. Arrowhead
b. Geranium
c. Rubber Plant
d. Weeping Plant
e. None of the Above
8. Colder temperatures cause stomata to remain closed. Based on this information, if a plant were
grown below 21oC would you expect transpiration rates to:
a. Increase
b. Decrease
c. Remain the same
9. Wind appeared to increase the rate of transpiration in most plants tested. This is most likely due to
the fact that:
a. Humidity was increased
b. Evaporation was increased
c. Stomata were forced to close
d. All of the above
10. Cacti grow in arid regions such as deserts. Compared to other plants, transpiration in cacti would
most likely be:
a. Lower
b. Higher
c. The same
164
Journal Questions:
1. Describe the process of transpiration in vascular plants.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe any experimental controls used in the Investigation.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What environmental factors that you tested increased the rate of transpiration? Was the rate of
transpiration increased for all plants tested?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Did any of the environmental factors (heat, light, or wind) increase the transpiration rate more than
the others? Why?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Which species of plants that you tested had the highest transpiration rates? Why do you think
different species of plants transpire at different rates?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Suppose you coated the leaves of a plant with petroleum jelly. How would the plant's rate of
transpiration be affected?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Of what value to a plant is the ability to lose water through transpiration?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 32 Virtual Lab: Population Biology

2. In this exercise, you will examine the characteristics of population growth and the effects of
competition using two model organisms. To begin, read the text that appears in the Information
window that initially opens in order to learn about the aquatic protist Paramecium, growth of
populations and the facets of competition. You can close this window by clicking the X;
remember you can reopen the file by clicking the Information button at the bottom of the
laboratory page.
3. You are now ready to begin the activity. Start by clicking on the purple pipette bulb on the far
left. Once filled, click and drag the pipette to the test tube on the far left of the test tube rack in
order to fill it with the first protist culture. Then click on the bulb on the right and repeat the steps
to fill the second test tube with the next culture. To fill the last test tube, click and drag a sample
of EACH protist culture to the test tube on the far right of the test tube rack.
4. You will next need to click on the microscope icon in the laboratory area. This will open up your
workspace for observing the cultures. To make your wetmount preparations, click the box of
clean slides and then the rack of cultures. You can then click each individual slide and drag it to
the microscope in order to count the organisms in each culture. Remember to click the Grid On
icon on the microscope to aid you in your counting. When you are through counting the cultures,
place your data in the Data Table and Table I. Remember to multiply your counts by 2 to
indicate the number of organisms present in 1mL of culture. When you are finished, click Clear
Slides and then click the calendar to advance 2 days of growth.
NOTE: there is a Diagram button here to show you detailed structures of Paramecium sp.
5. You are now ready to repeat the actions in step 4. Continue to do so until you have counted your
cultures for 16 days and the Data Table and Table I are complete. When you are finished with
the Data Table, click the Graph button to obtain a graph of your data over the 16 days.
166
Table I:
Day P. caudatum P. aurelia P. caudatum P. aurelia

alone, cells/mL alone, mixed, mixed,
cells/mL cells/mL cells/mL
0
10
12
14
16
1. Paramecia possess:
a. A nucleus
b. Flagella
c. A contractile vacuole
d. A and C
e. All of the above
2. The organisms used in this experiment belong to which domain of life?

a. Bacteria
b. Archaea
c. Eukarya
3. What served as the food for the paramecia in this experiment?

a. Rice
b. Oats
c. Bacteria
d. Nothing, they are photosynthetic
4. Which of the following can influence the carrying capacity of a population?

a. Availability of food
b. Availability of water
c. Competition
d. Build up of toxins
e. All of the above
167
5. Which type of competition would be observed between organisms within the P. caudatum culture?
a. Interspecific
b. Intraspecific
c. There would be no competition, they are of the same species
6. Which culture reached its carrying capacity the fastest in this experiment?
a. P. caudatum, alone
b. P. aurelia, alone
c. P. aurelia, mixed
7. You have counted 30 organisms in your culture on Day 4. The concentration of organisms in this
culture is:
a. 15 cells/mL
b. 30 cells/mL
c. 60 cells/mL
d. 90 cells/mL
8. Based upon your data, which culture experienced the greatest rate of exponential growth?
a. P. caudatum, alone
b. P. aurelia, alone
c. P. caudatum, mixed
d. P. aurelia, alone
9. Based upon the data, which organism appeared more efficient at using its resources?
a. P. caudatum
b. P. aurelia
10. In a repeat of this experiment, you found that on Days 10-16 the number of individuals in the P.
caudatum, mixed culture began to gradually rise. A possible explanation for this is:
a. There was insufficient food in the culture
b. The temperature warmed enough to allow for more growth
c. A genetic variant of the original population began to experience growth due to its use of a different
food (bacterium) source
d. None of the above could lead to this scenario
Journal Questions:
1. Make a hypothesis about how you think the two species of Paramecium will grow alone and how
they will grow when they are grown together.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
168
2. Explain how you tested your hypothesis.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. On what day did the Paramecium caudatum population reach the carrying capacity of the
environment when it was grown alone? How do you know?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. On what day did the Paramecium aurelia population reach the carrying capacity of the environment?
How do you know?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Explain the differences in the population growth patterns of the two Paramecium species. What does
this tell you about how Paramecium aurelia uses available resources?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Describe what happened when the Paramecium populations were mixed in the same test tube. Do the
results support the principle of competitive exclusion?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Explain how this experiment demonstrates that no two species can occupy the same niche.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
169
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Lab 33 Virtual Lab: Model Ecosystems
1. Please make sure you have read through all of the information in the Question and Field
Guide areas. If you come upon terms that are unfamiliar to you, please refer to your textbook
for further explanation.
2. In this exercise, you will examine several model ecosystems and their characteristic plant and
animal species. To begin, read the information in the Field Guide to learn more about the
organization of five selected ecosystems.
3. You are now ready to begin the activity. Start by selecting the ecosystem type that you would
like to model from the pull down menu in the laboratory area. Then click and drag the various
organisms to their correct locations within the different trophic levels of the pyramid. Once you
have moved all of the organisms click the Check button and fix any incorrect choices if
necessary.
Clicking on the Pyramid of Energy will reveal how much energy is available at each trophic
level. Clicking on the Pyramid of Numbers will show the number of organisms at each trophic
level within this type of ecosystem. Fill in all of the information from this pyramid on Table I
below.
4. You must take one last step in the investigation of this ecosystem. It is important to determine the
amount of energy that is transferred from one trophic level to the next. This is called the energy
conversion efficiency (E.C.E.), and this ratio is determined by taking the energy value from a
higher trophic level and dividing it by the energy value of the level below it. Please do these
calculations as directed and input the data in your Data Table and Table I.
5. When you are completely finished analyzing the ecosystem, you can then click the Reset button
and select another type of ecosystem from the pull down menu. Follow the directions above to
investigate this ecosystem and the three that remain.
170
Table I:
Ecosystem Producers First Order Second Order Third Order

Type Heterotrophs Heterotrophs Heterotrophs
Deciduous Organisms Organisms Organisms Organisms
Forest present: present: present: present:
Energy: Energy: Energy: Energy:

Numbers: Numbers: Numbers: Numbers:
E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*:
Hot Desert Organisms Organisms Organisms Organisms

present: present: present: present:

E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*:
Grassland Organisms Organisms Organisms Organisms

present: present: present: present:

E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*:
171
Antarctic Organisms Organisms Organisms Organisms
Ocean Shore present: present: present: present:

E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*:
Freshwater Organisms Organisms Organisms Organisms

Lake present: present: present: present:

E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*: E.C.E.*:
*E.C.E.= energy conversion efficiency ratio
1. The ultimate source of energy for most ecosystems is:

a. Carbon
b. Oxygen
c. Sunlight
d. Water
2. Organisms that directly use energy from the sun to make their own food are called:
a. Autotrophs
b. Hetertrophs
c. Carnivores
d. Decomposers
172
3. Which of the following illustrates the correct ordering of trophic levels?
a. Decomposerscarnivoresautotrophsherbivores
b. Herbivoresautotrophscarnivoresdecomposers
c. Autotrophsherbivorescarnivoresdecomposers
4. Within an ecosystem:
a. Energy flows in one direction only and nutrients are recycled
b. Energy is recycled and nutrients flow in one direction only
c. Energy and nutrients flow in one direction only
d. Energy and nutrients are both recycled
5. The efficiency of energy transfer from a lower trophic level to the next highest level is roughly:
a. 1%
b. 5%
c. 10%
d. 50%
e. 80%
6. In aquatic ecosystems, biomass is least at which trophic level?

a. Autotrophs
b. Herbivores
c. Carnivores
7. You are in an area where there are squid, seals and penguins. You are most likely in which
ecosystem?
a. Deciduous forest
b. Hot Desert
c. Antarctic Ocean Shore
d. Grassland
8. You find yourself in an area where there are snakes, hawks and coyotes. Based upon these animal
populations, you are most likely in which ecosystem?
a. Deciduous forest
b. Hot Desert
c. Grassland
d. You cannot tell from this information
9. You are in an area where the ground is littered with what appear to be dry, dead leaves. You are
most likely in which ecosystem?
a. Deciduous forest
b. Hot Desert
c. Grassland
d. You cannot tell from this information
10. This zone has the greatest concentration of plankton in a freshwater lake ecosystem:
a. Profundal
b. Littoral
c. Limnetic
173
Journal Questions:
1. Suggest reasons why the information represented in the pyramid of numbers of animals of one of the
ecosystems you studied may not truly represent that ecosystem.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. According to your data, what is the ratio of third-order consumers to producers? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Compare and contrast two of the ecosystems you studied. How is the energy conversion efficiency
similar or different?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Does the population size increase or decrease at higher trophic levels in the pyramid of numbers of an
ecosystem consisting of a tree, insects (that are herbivores) and birds feeding on the insects? Explain
your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. What might happen to an ecological pyramid of numbers in a forest ecosystem if most of the deer
were killed due to hunting by people and disease?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. What would happen to an ecosystem if the decomposers disappeared?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Could there be a food chain without herbivores and carnivores? Explain.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
174
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 1: Diffusion & Osmosis

Analysis of Results
So that you might better understand the procedure for calculating water potential, here is a practice problem.
Once you know the solute concentration, you can calculate solute potential using the following formula:
Solute potential (s) = iCRT
i= The number of particles the molecule will make in water; for NaCl this would be
2; for sucrose or glucose, this number is 1
C = Molar concentration (from your experimental data)
R = Pressure constant = 0.0831 liter bar/mole K
T = Temperature in degrees Kelvin = 273 + C of solution
Sample Problem
The molar concentration of a sugar solution in an open beaker has been determined to be 0.3M. Calculate
the solute potential at 27 degrees. Show your work and round your answer to the nearest hundredth.
Answer: ________________
The pressure potential of a solution open to the air is zero. Since you know the solute potential of the
solution, you can now calculate the water potential. Water potential () = pressure potential (p) + solute
potential (s). What is the water potential for this example? Show your work and round your answer to the
nearest hundredth.
Answer: ________________
Questions
Refer to the following image to answer questions 1 3.
1 2 3 4 5
1. Which beaker(s) contain(s) a solution that is hypertonic to the bag?

a. Beaker 3
b. Beakers 2 and 4
c. Beakers 1, 2, and 5
d. Beaker 4
e. Beakers 3 and 4
175
2. Which bag would you predict to show the least change in mass at the end of the experiment?
a. The bag in Beaker 1
b. The bag in Beaker 2
c. The bag in Beaker 3
d. The bag in Beaker 4
e. The bag in Beaker 5
3. Arrange the beakers in order of the mass of the bags inside them after the experiment has run for 30
minutes. List the bag that loses the most mass first.
a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
b. 1, 5, 2, 3, 4
c. 4, 3, 2, 5, 1
d. 3, 2, 1, 4, 5
e. 2, 1, 5, 3, 4
Refer to the following image to answer questions 4 & 5.
4. In beaker B, what is the water potential of the distilled water in the beaker, and of the beet core?
a. Water potential in the beaker = 0, water potential in the beet core = 0
b. Water potential in the beaker = 0, water potential in the beet core = 0.2
c. Water potential in the beaker = 0, water potential in the beet core = 0.2
d. Water potential in the beaker cannot be calculated, water potential in the beet core = 0.2
e. Water potential in the beaker cannot be calculated, water potential in the beet core = 0.2
5. Which of the following statements is true for the diagrams?

a. The beet core in beaker A is at equilibrium to the surrounding environment.
b. The beet core in beaker B will lose water to the surrounding environment.
c. The beet core in beaker B would be more turgid than the beet core in beaker A.
d. The beet core in beaker A is likely to gain so much water that its cells will rupture.
e. The cells in beet core B are likely to undergo plasmolysis.
176
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 2: Enzyme Catalysis

Analysis of Results
Enzyme Action Over Time
We can calculate the rate of a reaction by measuring, over time, either the disappearance of substrate (as in
our catalase example) or the appearance of poduct (as in the above graph). For example, on the graph above,
what is the rate, in moles/second, over the interval from 0 to 10 seconds?
Rate = so for this example, the rate would be = = 0.7 moles/second
Sample Problem
Calculate the rate in moles/second between 40 and 50 seconds. Show your work below.
Answer: ________________
Questions
Refer to the following graph to answer questions 1 5.
1. During what time interval is the enzyme working at its maximum velocity?
a. 0 30 seconds
b. 60 120 seconds
c. 120 180 seconds
d. Over the entire time course
177
2. In order to keep the rate constant over the entire time course, which of the following should be done?
a. Add more enzyme.
b. Gradually increase the temperature after 60 seconds.
c. Add more substrate.
d. Add H2SO4 after 60 seconds.
3. Which of the following graphs represents the rate of the reaction shown below? Notice that in the
graphs below, the y-axis is number of molecules/sec.
a. b. c. d.
4. What is the role of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in this experiment?

a. It is the substrate on which catalase acts.
b. It binds with the remaining hydrogen peroxide during titration.
c. It accelerates the reaction between enzyme and substrate.
d. It blocks the active site of the enzyme.
e. It denatures the enzyme by altering the active site.
5. A student was performing a titration for this laboratory, and accidentally exceeded the endpoint.
What would be the best step to obtain good data for this point?
a. Estimate the amount of KMnO4 that was in excess, and subtract this from the result.
b. Repeat the titration using the reserved remaining sample.
c. Obtain data for this point from another lab group.
d. Prepare a graph of the data without this point, and then read the estimated value from the
graph.
178
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 3: Mitosis & Meiosis

Analysis of Results I
Identify each phase of mitosis labeled in the diagram. Then, calculate the amount of time spent in each
phase of the cell cycle and complete the data table. Assume that the total time required for a complete cell
cycle for these cells is 24 hours.
Note: The average time for onion root tip cells to complete the cell cycle is 24 hours = 1440 minutes. To
calculate the time for each stage, do the following: % of cells in the stage 1440 minutes = number of
minutes in the stage
Phases:
A = _________________
B = _________________
C = _________________
D = _________________
E = _________________
179
Data Table
Number of Cells % of Total Cells Counted Time in each stage
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Total:
Questions
1. Select the phase of the cell cycle depicted. 2. Select the phase of the cell cycle depicted.
a. Interphase a. Interphase
b. Prophase b. Prophase
c. Metaphase c. Metaphase
d. Anaphase d. Anaphase
e. Telophase e. Telophase
3. Select the phase of the cell cycle depicted. 4. Select the phase of the cell cycle depicted.
a. Interphase a. Interphase
b. Prophase b. Prophase
c. Metaphase c. Metaphase
d. Anaphase d. Anaphase
e. Telophase e. Telophase
180
Analysis of Results II
Study this small section of a slide of Sordaria to determine if

crossing over has occurred in the asci designated by an X.
If the ascospores are arranged 4 dark/4 light, count the ascus as

"No crossing over." If the arrangement of ascospores is in any
other combination, count it as "Crossing over." (Keep track of
your counts with paper and pencil.)
In this exercise, we are interested only in asci that form when

mating occurs between the black-spore strain and the tan-spore
strain, so ignore any asci that have all black spores or all tan spores. Occasionally the asci rupture and spores
escape. You can see them here as individual spores not in one of the possible arrangements, so don't include
them in your count.
1. In the photo, how many asci marked with an X show no evidence of crossing over? ______________
2. In the photo, how many asci marked with an X show evidence of crossing over? ______________
3. In the photo, what is the total number of asci marked with an X? ______________
4. What is the percent of crossovers? Take the number of asci with crossovers divided by total number
of asci multiplied by 100. Show work.
Answer: ______________
5. For the sample shown here, what is the map distance between the gene for spore color and the
centromere? Take the percent of crossovers divided by 2. Show work.
Answer: ______________
Questions
1. Which of the following statements is correct?

a. Crossing over occurs in prophase I of meiosis and metaphase of mitosis.
b. DNA replication occurs once prior to mitosis and twice prior to meiosis.
c. Both mitosis and meiosis result in daughter cells identical to the parent cells.
d. Karyokinesis occurs once in mitosis and twice in meiosis.
e. Synapsis occurs in prophase of mitosis.
2. The cell cycle in a certain cell type has a duration of 16 hours. The nuclei of 660 cells showed 13
cells in anaphase. What is the approximate duration of anaphase in these cells?
a. 2 minutes
b. 13 minutes
c. 19 minutes
d. 32 minutes
e. 647 minutes
181
Base your answers to questions 3 & 4 on the following figure:
3. For an organism with a diploid number of 6, how are the chromosomes arranged during metaphase I
of meiosis?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
4. Which sketch shows the arrangement of chromosomes that you would expect to see in metaphase of
mitosis for a cell with a diploid chromosome number of 6?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
Base your answers to questions 5 & 6 on the following information.

A group of asci formed from crossing light-spored Sordaria with dark-spored produced the following
results:
Number of Asci Counted Spore Arrangement
7 4 light/4 dark spores
8 4 dark/4 light spores
3 2 light/2 dark/2 light/2 dark spores
4 2 dark/2 light/2 dark/2 light spores
1 2 dark/4 light/2 dark spores
2 2 light/4 dark/2 light spores
5. How many of these asci contain a spore arrangement that resulted from crossing over?
a. 3
b. 7
c. 8
d. 10
e. 15
6. From this sample, calculate the map distance between the gene and centromere.
a. 10 map units
b. 20 map units
c. 30 map units
d. 40 map units
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Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 4: Plant Pigments & Photosynthesis

If you did a number of chromatographic separations, each for a different length of time, the pigments would
migrate a different distance on each run. However, the migration of each pigment relative to the migration of
the solvent would not change. This migration of pigment relative to migration of solvent is expressed as a
constant, Rf (Reference front). It can be calculated by using the formula:
Rf =
Look at the black ink chromatogram to the

left. Calculate the Rf value for green. Show
your work.
Answer: ______________
Questions
1. Look again at the chromatogram you completed in the previous exercise. Which of the following is
true for your chromatogram?
a. The Rf for carotene can be determined by dividing the distance the yellow-orange pigment
(carotene) migrated by the distance the solvent front migrated.
b. The Rf value of chlorophyll b will be higher than the Rf value for chlorophyll a.
c. The molecules of xanthophyll are not easily dissolved in this solvent, and thus are probably
larger in mass than the chlorophyll b molecules.
d. If this same chromatogram were set up and run for twice as long, the Rf values would be twice
as great for each pigment.
2. If a different solvent were used for the chlorophyll chromatography described earlier, what results
would you expect?
a. The distances travelled by each pigment will be different, but the Rf values will stay the same.
b. The relative position of the bands will be different.
c. The results will be the same if the time is held constant.
d. The Rf values of some pigments might exceed 1.0.
183
3. What is the Rf value for carotene calculated from the chromatogram below?
a. 1.09
b. 0.17
c. 0.96
d. 0.33
e. 0.50
Based on your understanding of the light reactions of photosynthesis, draw in the approximate shapes of the
curves you predict on the graphs below.
Questions
Refer to the following graphs for questions 1, 2, & 3.
184
1. Which graph would be the most likely result of performing the photosynthesis experiment using fresh
chloroplasts placed in light and DPIP?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
2. What is the best explanation for graph B?

a. The DPIP was too pale at the beginning of the experiment.
b. The chloroplast solution was too concentrated.
c. The experimenter used chloroplasts that were damaged and could not respond to light.
d. The blank was not properly used to calibrate the spectrophotometer.
3. What effect would adding more DPIP to each experimental tube have on these results?
a. Each curve would be shifted downward but would keep the same general shape.
b. The curve in graph C would rise more steeply and level off sooner.
c. The curve in graph A would have the same general shape as the curve in graph C.
d. The chloroplasts would absorb more light energy, so there would be no change.
4. What is the role of DPIP in this experiment?

a. It mimics the action of chlorophyll by absorbing light energy.
b. It serves as an electron donor and blocks the formation of NADPH.
c. It is an electron acceptor and is reduced by electrons from chlorophyll.
d. It is bleached in the presence of light, and can be used to measure light levels.
5. Some students were not able to get many data points in this experiment because the solution went
from blue to colorless in only 5 minutes for the unboiled chloroplasts exposed to light. What
modification to the experiment do you think would be most likely to provide better results?
a. Increase the number of drops of chloroplasts used from 3 to 5.
b. Double the volume of DPIP so that the solution has a lower initial transmittance.
c. Modify the blank so that the initial transmittance is higher.
d. Use fresher spinach and prepare the chloroplast solution during the laboratory procedure.
e. Change the wavelength at which readings are taken.
185
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 5: Cell Respiration

Analysis of Results
After you have collected data for the amount of oxygen consumed over time by germinating and
nongerminating peas at two different temperatures, you can compare the rates of respiration. Let's review
how to calculate rate.
Rate = slope of the line, or .
In this case, y is the change in volume, and x is the change in time (10 min).
What would be the rate of oxygen

consumption if the respirometer readings
were as shown here? Show work.
Answer: ________________
Questions
Refer to the following figure for questions 1, 2, & 3.
186
1. Which is the following is a true statement based on the data?
a. The amount of oxygen consumed by germinating corn at 22C is approximately twice the
amount of oxygen consumed by germinating corn at 12C.
b. The rate of oxygen consumption is the same in both germinating and nongerminating corn
during the initial time period from 0 to 5 minutes.
c. The rate of oxygen consumption in the germinating corn at 12C at 10 minutes is 0.4 ml
O2/minute.
d. The rate of oxygen consumption is higher for nongerminating corn at 12C than at 22C.
e. If the experiment were run for 30 minutes, the rate of oxygen consumption would decrease
2. What is the rate of oxygen consumption in germinating corn at 12C?

a. 0.08 mL/min
b. 0.04 mL/min
c. 0.8 mL/min
d. 1.00 mL/min
3. Which of the following conclusions is supported by the data?

a. The rate of respiration is higher in nongerminating seeds than in germinating seeds.
b. Nongerminating peas are not alive, and show no difference in rate of respiration at different
temperatures.
c. The rate of respiration in the germinating seeds would have been higher if the experiment
were conducted in sunlight.
d. The rate of respiration increases as the temperature increases in both germinating and
nongerminating seeds.
e. The amount of oxygen consumed could be increased if pea seeds were substituted for corn
seeds.
4. What is the role of KOH in this experiment?

a. It serves as an electron donor to promote cellular respiration.
b. As KOH breaks down, the oxygen needed for cellular respiration is released.
c. It serves as a temporary energy source for the respiring organism.
d. It binds with carbon dioxide to form a solid, preventing CO2 production from affecting gas
volume.
e. Its attraction for water will cause water to enter the respirometer.
187
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 6: Molecular Biology

If there is no ampicillin in the agar, E. coli will cover the plate with so many cells it is called a "lawn" of
cells. Only transformed cells can grow on agar with ampicillin. Since only some of the cells exposed to the
ampR plasmids will actually take them in, only some cells will be transformed. Thus you will see only
individual colonies on the plate. If none of the sensitive E. coli cells have been transformed, nothing will
grow on the agar with ampicillin.
Label the Results of Your Experiment
Label plates I, II, III, and IV based on the following choices:

a. LB agar without ampicillin, +ampR cells
b. LB agar without ampicillin, ampR cells
c. LB agar with ampicillin, +ampR cells
d. LB agar with ampicillin, ampR cells
Choice: _____ Choice: _____
Choice: _____ Choice: _____
188
Questions
Refer to the following information and images of Plates I, II, III, and IV to answer questions 1 4.
In a molecular biology laboratory, a student obtained competent E. coli cells and used a common
transformation procedure to induce the uptake of plasmid DNA with a gene for resistance to the antibiotic
kanamycin. The results below were obtained.
1. On which petri dish do only transformed cells grow?

a. Plate I
b. Plate II
c. Plate III
d. Plate IV
2. Which of the plates is used as a control to show that nontransformed E. coli will not grow in the
presence of kanamycin?
a. Plate I
b. Plate II
c. Plate III
d. Plate IV
3. If a student wants to verify that transformation has occurred, which of the following procedures
should she use?
a. Spread cells from Plate I onto a plate with LB agar; incubate.
b. Spread cells from Plate II onto a plate with LB agar; incubate.
c. Repeat the initial spread of kanR cells onto plate IV to eliminate possible experimental error.
d. Spread cells from Plate II onto a plate with LB agar with kanamycin; incubate.
e. Spread cells from Plate III onto a plate with LB agar and also onto a plate with LB agar with
kanamycin; incubate
4. During the course of an E. coli transformation laboratory, a student forgot to mark the culture tube
that received the kanamycin-resistant plasmids. The student proceeds with the laboratory because he
thinks that he will be able to determine from his results which culture tube contained cells that may
have undergone transformation. Which plate would be most likely to indicate transformed cells?
a. A plate with a lawn of cells growing on LB agar with kanamycin.
b. A plate with a lawn of cells growing on LB agar without kanamycin.
c. A plate with 100 colonies growing on LB agar with kanamycin.
d. A plate with 100 colonies growing on LB agar without kanamycin.
189
Refer to the following information and images of Plates I, II, III, and IV to answer questions 5 & 6.
A student has forgotten which antibiotic plasmid she used in her E. coli transformation. It could have been
kanamycin, ampicillin, or tetracycline. She decides to make up a special set of plates to determine the type
of antibiotic used. The plates below show the results of the test.
5. Which antibiotic plasmid has been used?

a. Kanamycin
b. Ampicillin
c. Tetracycline
6. What is the explanation for these results?

a. Plates I and II each contain a plasmid that is resistant to that antibiotic.
b. Plate III has antibiotic agar, but E. coli that has been transformed to be resistant to tetracycline
can grow.
c. Plate IV has no antibiotic.
d. There are no tetracycline-resistant cells on Plate II.
Each fragment of DNA is a particular number of nucleotides, or base pairs, long. When researchers want to
determine the size of DNA fragments produced with particular restriction enzymes, they run the unknown
DNA alongside DNA with known fragment sizes. The known DNA acts as a marker. In your laboratory, the
DNA that has been cut with HindIII is the marker; you will use it to help you determine the fragment sizes in
the EcoRI digest. On the next pages we go through the procedure using HindIII and two generalized DNA
samples.
Making a Standard Curve for HindIII DNA Fragments
If you know the fragment sizes in the HindIII digest, how do you determine the fragment sizes in an
unknown sample? You use data from the marker to prepare a standard curve, which will provide a standard
for comparison to the unknown fragment sizes. Using a standard to estimate an unknown is sometimes
called "interpolation"; you will interpolate the size of the unknown fragments.
You begin by making a standard curve for the known sample, DNA plus HindIII. Measure the distance each
HindIII fragment migrated on the gel and then complete the chart. It is very difficult to get exact numbers as
you read this graph. If your response is in a close range, that is acceptable.
190
Actual Base Measured
Pairs (bp) Distance (mm)
23,130
9416
6557
4361
2322
2207
564
Questions
1. Which of the following statements is correct?

a. Longer DNA fragments migrate farther than shorter fragments.
b. Migration distance is inversely proportional to the fragment size.
c. Positively charged DNA migrates more rapidly than negatively charged DNA.
d. Uncut DNA migrates farther than DNA cut with restriction enzymes
2. How many base pairs is the fragment circled in red below?
a. 0.08 mL/min
b. 0.04 mL/min
c. 0.8 mL/min
d. 1.00 mL/min
191
3. An instructor had her students perform this laboratory beginning with setting up their own restriction
enzyme digests. One team of students had results that looked like those at the left. What is the most
likely explanation for these results?
a. The students did not allow enough time for the electrophoresis
separation.
b. The agarose prepartion was faulty.
c. The methylene blue did not stain the DNA evenly.
d. The restriction enzyme EcoRI did not function properly.
e. The voltage was set too low on the apparatus.
Below is a plasmid with restriction sites for BamHI and EcoRI. Several restriction digests were done using
these two enzymes either alone or in combination. Use the figure to answer questions 46.
Hint: Begin by determining the number and size of the fragments produced with each enzyme. "kb" stands
for kilobases, or thousands of base pairs.
4. Which lane shows a digest with BamHI only?

a. I
b. II
c. III
d. IV
5. Which lane shows a digest with EcoRI only?

a. I
b. II
c. III
d. IV
6. Which lane shows the fragments produced when the plasmid was incubated with both EcoRI and
BamH1?
a. I
b. II
c. III
d. IV
192
7. A restriction enzyme acts on the following DNA segment by cutting both strands between adjacent
thymine and cytosine nucleotides
............TCGCGA........... ..........AGCGCT...........
Which of the following pairs of sequences indicates the sticky ends that are formed?
a. ...GCGC CGCG...
b. ...TCGC TCGC...
c. ...T T...
d. ...GA GA...
e. ...GCGC GCGC
8. A segment of DNA has two restriction sitesI and II. When incubated with restriction enzymes I and
II, three fragments will be formeda, b, and c. Which of the following gels produced by
electrophoresis would represent the separation and identity of these fragments?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
193
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 7: Genetics of Organisms

Analysis of Results
In the laboratory you breed your flies and analyze the results of the breeding through the F2 generation. The
exercises below are designed to help you understand the patterns of inheritance in your fly populations.
Reversing the Procedure
One way to discover patterns of inheritance is by working backward. In other words, you determine the
genotype of the original parental generation by careful analysis of the F1 and F2 generations. Let's examine
two sample cases that trace eye color. For each, look at the data chart with the number of male and female
flies exhibiting each eye color. Then answer the questions.
Case 1 Case 2
Based on the data obtained, this cross is Based on the data obtained, this cross is:
a. Monohybrid a. Sex-linked
b. Dihybrid b. Autosomal
This cross is: From the data presented, determine the genotype of
a. Sex-linked the parental generation (before the F1 generation; not
b. Autosomal shown here).
+ = wild type (red eyes) w = white eyes
a. X+X+ X+Y
b. X+Xw X+Y
c. X+X+ XwY
d. XwXw XwY
194
Calculating Chi-Square
The formula for chi-square is: X2 =

o = observed number of individuals
e = expected number of individuals.
Using the data from Case 1, complete this table:
Phenotype Observed number Expected number (o e) (o e)2

(o) (e)
Red eyes
Sepia eyes
X2 = (to the nearest ten-thousandth)
Using the Chi-Square Critical Values Table

The chi-square critical values table provides two values that you need to calculate chi-square:
Degrees of freedom. This number is one less than the total number of classes of offspring in a cross.
In a monohybrid cross, such as our Case 1, there are two classes of offspring (red eyes and sepia
eyes). Therefore, there is just one degree of freedom. In a dihybrid cross, there are four possible
classes of offspring, so there are three degrees of freedom.
Probability. The probability value (p) is the probability that a deviation as great as or greater than
each chi-square value would occur simply by chance. Many biologists agree that deviations having a
chance probability greater than 0.05 (5%) are not statistically significant. Therefore, when you
calculate chi-square you should consult the table for the p value in the 0.05 row.
Use the critical values table here to do the problems below.

Degrees of Freedom (df)
Probability (p) 1 2 3 4 5
0.05 3.84 5.99 7.82 9.49 11.1
0.01 6.64 9.21 11.3 13.2 15.1
0.001 10.8 13.8 16.3 18.5 20.5
1. Determine the degrees of freedom. This is the number of categories (red eyes or sepia eyes) minus
one.
For the data in Case 1, the number of degrees of freedom is: _______________
2. Find the probability (p) value for 1 degree of freedom in the 0.05 row. _______________
195
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 8: Population Genetics

Analysis of Results
A class of 12 AP Biology students gathered the following data:
AA Aa aa
Initial class frequencies 3 6 3
Final class frequencies 2 5 5
1. What are the initial p and q? p = _____________ q = _____________
2. What are the final p and q? p = _____________ q = _____________
3. Is the population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? Explain the reason for your response.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Questions
1. If the frequency of two alleles in a gene pool is 90% A and 10% a, what is the frequency of
individuals in the population with the genotype Aa?
a. 0.81
b. 0.09
c. 0.18
d. 0.01
e. 0.198
2. If a population experiences no migration, is very large, has no mutations, has random mating, and
there is no selection, which of the following would you predict?
a. The population will evolve, but much more slowly than normal.
b. The makeup of the populations gene pool will remain virtually the same as long as these
conditions hold.
c. The composition of the populations gene pool will change slowly in a predictable manner.
d. Dominant alleles in the populations gene pool will slowly increase in frequency while
recessive alleles will decrease.
e. The population probably has an equal frequency of A and a alleles.
3. Which of the following is NOT a condition that must be met for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
a. Large population size
b. No mutations
c. No immigration or emigration
d. Dominant alleles more frequent than recessive alleles
e. No natural selection
196
4. In a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of the homozygous recessive
genotype is 0.09. What is the frequency of individuals that are homozygous for the dominant allele?
a. 0.7
b. 0.21
c. 0.42
d. 0.49
e. 0.91
5. In humans, Rh-positive individuals have the Rh antigen on their red blood cells, while Rh-negative
individuals do not. If the Rh-positive phenotype is produced by a dominant gene (A), and the Rh-
negative phenotype is due to its recessive allele (a), what is the frequency of the Rh-positive allele if
84% of a population is Rh-positive?
a. 0.04
b. 0.16
c. 0.48
d. 0.60
e. 0.84
197
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 9: Transpiration

Calculating Water Loss
The chart below provides some sample data. Use this data to calculate the water loss in ml/m2over the 30-
minute interval and complete the chart. Then check your answer.
Condition Total Water Loss Leaf Surface Area Leaf Surface Area Water Loss
2 2 2
After 30 Minutes in cm in m (divide cm by 10000) in mL/m2/30 min
Room (control) 0.004 mL 10
Bright light 0.006 mL 12
Fan (wind) 0.008 mL 10
Mist 0.002 mL 12
Identify each of the structures in the micrograph of a monocot stem above by answering the following
questions using the appropriate choices from the list. When you are finished, check your answers.
Choices for Tissue Type: xylem, phloem, parenchyma, epidermis
Choices for Function: food transport, water transport, food storage, protection
Name tissue type A and describe its function: __________________________________________________
Name tissue type B and describe its function: __________________________________________________
Name tissue type C and describe its function: __________________________________________________
Name tissue type D and describe its function: __________________________________________________
198
Questions
Base your answers to questions 1 5 on the following image:
1. What tissue is indicated by label line 1?

a. Phloem
b. Mesophyll
c. Epidermis
d. Xylem
2. Which line indicates a guard cell?

a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 5
3. Which type of cells are indicated by label line 2?

a. Parenchyma
b. Xylem
c. Phloem
d. Epidermis
4. Which type of cells are indicated by label line 4?

a. Parenchyma
b. Xylem
c. Phloem
d. Epidermis
5. Which label line identifies the tissue that functions in water transport?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 5
6. Which of the following pairs is correctly matched?

a. Xylem: food-transport cells
b. Parenchyma: thick-walled support cells
c. Phloem: thin-walled food-storage cells
d. Epidermis: protective outer covering of plant body
199
7. If guard cells in a plant were deficient in K+, which of the following would be most likely to occur?
a. Wilting would become more likely.
b. Photosynthesis would decrease.
c. Transpiration would increase.
d. Food transport would decrease.
8. Several factors account for the movement of water up xylem vessels. Which single factor is most
important in pulling water toward the top of a tall tree?
a. Evaporation of water through stomata.
b. Osmosis in the root.
c. Capillary action.
d. Atmospheric pressure.
9. All of the following enhance water transport in terrestrial plants except:

a. Hydrogen bonds linking water molecules.
b. Capillary action due to adhesion of water molecules to the walls of xylem.
c. Evaporation of water from the leaves.
d. K+ being transported out of the guard cells.
10. Under conditions of bright light, in which part of a transpiring plant would water potential be lowest?
a. Xylem vessels in the leaves.
b. Xylem vessels in the roots.
c. Root hairs.
d. Spongy mesophyll of the leaves.
11. What type of environment would result in the greatest rate of transpiration?
a. Cloudy, humid conditions
b. Warm, humid conditions
c. Warm. Light-breezy conditions
d. Cool, humid conditions
200
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 10: Circulatory Physiology

The tests that you do in your laboratory enable you to see how cardiovascular fitness is affected by various
conditions. The following questions will help reinforce your understanding of circulatory system function
and fitness.
1. Why does increased physical activity raise heart rate? ______________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Why is heart rate lower in an individual who does aerobic exercise regularly? ___________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Why do some people feel faint when they go quickly from lying down to standing? ______________
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. How and why does heart rate change with body position? ___________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. From your study of the circulatory system, how would you describe a fit individual? ___________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Questions
1. Which of the following has the least effect on blood pressure in a young adult?
a. Temperature of the room
b. Position of the body
c. Level of conditioning
d. Supplemental vitamins
2. An individuals blood pressure is reported as 110/50. Which of the following is correct?

a. The pressure during the contraction phase of the heart is 50, and the pressure during the
relaxation phase is 110.
b. Systolic pressure is 110 and diastolic pressure is 50.
c. The pulse is 110 during exercise and 50 when at rest.
d. The individual shows possible borderline high blood pressure.
201
Base your answers to questions 3 & 4 on the table and choices below.
Resting Pulse Resting BP Return to Resting Pulse After Vigorous Exercise
A. 72 130/90 2 minutes
B. 48 110/80 30 seconds
C. 66 120/95 60 seconds
D. 84 110/75 90 seconds
3. Which of the test results would be most typical of a well-conditioned athlete?

a. A.
b. B.
c. C.
d. D.
4. Which of the test results indicate a person with the lowest level of fitness?
a. A.
b. B.
c. C.
d. D.
After viewing the animations, record the Daphnia heart rate at each temperature in the data table below.
Multiply by 6 to get beats per minutes.
Temperature Heart Rate (beats/10 seconds) Heart rate (beats/minute)

10C
20C
30C
Next, in order to create a graph of temperature versus heart rate, label the axes in the boxes on the graph
below.
202
Questions
1. Which of the following organisms would show the greatest fluctuation in body temperature by hour?
a. Dolphin
b. Mouse
c. Lake trout
d. Rattlesnake
2. What is the relationship between metabolic rate and body temperature in Daphnia?
a. As the body temperature increases, the metabolic rate decreases.
b. An increase of 10C results in doubling of metabolic rate.
c. Heart rate increases as body temperature decreases.
d. Cellular enzymes are less active at 35C than at 20C, resulting in decreased metabolic rate.
3. If Q10 = 2, then an enzymatic reaction that takes place at a given rate at 5C would take place
approximately how many times faster at 25C?
a. Twenty times
b. Eight times
c. Four times
d. Three times
e. Two times
4. Which of the following experimental conditions would be most life-threatening for an ectothermic
organism?
a. Temperatures that exceed 40C
b. Temperatures that are between 3C and 8C
203
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 11: Animal Behavior

Analysis of Results
After pillbugs have been in the choice chamber for 10 minutes, you might observe one of these situations:
Pillbugs are crustaceans, and they respire through gills. Because of this characteristic, which situation would
you predict to occur A, B, or C?
Prediction: _________
The pillbug exercise is not a controlled experiment. Could there be more light at one end of the choice
chamber? More activity and vibration? A chemical residue on one side? Any of these conditions and more
could possibly influence the organism's behavior. Without a control, it is very risky to state a conclusion.
You must design a controlled experiment.
Design of the Experiment: The Hypothesis
A controlled experiment begins with a hypothesis, a proposed solution for the problem being investigated. A
hypothesis is often written as an IF, THEN statement that predicts the outcome we should expect if the
hypothesis is correct. A hypothesis should not only predict results; it must be testable.
Your hypothesis: _________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
The Controls
In a controlled experiment, you must explicitly keep all variables constant except the one you are
manipulating. For instance, if you want to test response to wet vs. dry conditions, the light, temperature,
chemicals in the filter paper or on the dish surface, and movement of the table must all remain constant. In
addition, all the experimental organisms must be of the same approximate age, size, and state of health.
It is not enough to say you will hold all variables constant; you must explain how you will do this, and do it!
Variable to be manipulated (independent): _____________________________________________________
Dependent variable: ______________________________________________________________________
Variables to be held constant: _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
204
Sample Size, Results, and Replication
To be meaningful, your experiment must include a large enough sample size to be representative of a
general condition
Your results must be measurable! Are you going to count, measure, find the mass? You must devise
some way to quantify the results.
You must also replicate do several repetitions of the experiment. Like a large sample size, this
lets you verify your result.
Sample size: ____________________________________________________________________________
Method of quantifying results: ______________________________________________________________
Number of replications: ___________________________________________________________________
Example of data that would support your hypothesis: ____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Questions
In this activity, you have been guided through the process of experimental design, and you should be able to
apply these principles in other laboratory situations. Consider the following experiments:
1. A student wanted to study the effect of nitrogen fertilizer on plant growth, so she took two similar
plants and set them on a window sill for a two-week observation period. She watered each plant the
same amount, but she gave one a small dose of fertilizer with each watering. She collected data by
counting the total number of new leaves on each plant and also measured the height of each plant in
centimeters.
Which of the following is a significant flaw in this experimental set-up?

a. There is not variable factor.
b. There is no control.
c. There is no repetition.
d. Measurable results cannot be expected.
e. It will require too many days of data collection.
2. Students placed five pillbugs on the dry side of a choice chamber and five pillbugs on the wet side.
They collected data as to the number on each side every 30 seconds for 10 minutes. After 6 minutes,
eight or nine pillbugs were continually on the wet side of the chamber, and several were under the
filter paper. Which of the following is NOT a reasonable conclusion from these results?
a. It takes the pillbugs several minutes to explore their surroundings and select a preferred
habitat.
b. Pillbugs prefer a moist environment.
c. Pillbugs prefer a dark environment.
d. Pillbugs may find chemicals in dry filter paper irritating.
e. Pillbugs demonstrate no significant habitat preference.
205
3. If a student wanted to determine whether pillbugs prefer a moist or a dry environment, what would be
the best way to analyze data from the experiment?
a. Total the number of pillbugs on the dry side throughout the entire experiment and compare
this with the number on the wet side throughout the experiment.
b. After waiting 5 minutes for the pillbugs to acclimate, count the number of pillbugs on the dry
side every 30 seconds for 5 minutes. Total and average the results, and compare this with the
number of pillbugs on the wet side during this same time interval.
c. Compare the number of pillbugs on the dry side at the end of 10 minutes with the number of
pillbugs on the wet side at the end of 10 minutes.
d. Divide the number of pillbugs on the dry side throughout the experiment by the number on
the wet side throughout the experiment.
4. Which of the following hypotheses is stated best?

a. If pillbugs are allowed free movement, then more will be found in a moist environment than
in a dry environment.
b. If pillbugs like a moist environment, then they will move to the wet side of a choice chamber.
c. If an experiment with pillbugs is run for 10 minutes, then more pillbugs will be found in the
most favorable environment.
d. Pillbugs are found in moist habitats, so I predict that more will be found where it is wet.
206
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
LabBench Activity 12: Dissolved Oxygen

Analysis of Results
Look at the illustration below and then do the sample problem.
Sample Problem
A biology student inadvertently removed all the screens and labels from the water-sampling bottles before he
measured the amount of dissolved oxygen. When he tested the unidentified bottles, he obtained the results
shown below.
The initial oxygen reading for this water was 4 mg O2/l. Based on the results predicted by the hypothesis
that light increases productivity, enter the letter of the bottle that corresponds to each light percentage. Then
complete the rest of the table and, using the graph below as a model, graph the gross and net productivity for
these data.
% Light Bottle Gross Productivity Net Productivity

(light bottle minus dark bottle) (light bottle minus initial bottle)
0
10
25
65
100
207
Questions
1. In which aquatic environment would you expect dissolved oxygen to be highest?

a. A mountain lake that is clear and cold.
b. A bog where the water is shallow and warm and there is a mat of aquatic plants.
c. A cold mountain stream dropping over a series of small rock falls.
d. A coral reef in a still lagoon.
2. At what light intensity do you expect there to be no net productivity?
a. Any intensity below 100%

b. Only at intensities of 0% and 2%
c. Any intensity below 10%
d. Any intensity above 25%
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3. What is meant by "net productivity" and how is it calculated in a sample aquatic environment?
a. It is a measure of the organic products of photosynthesis that accumulate after cellular
respiration by those organisms is taken into account, and it is calculated by subtracting the
amount of oxygen in the dark bottle from the amount in the light bottle.
b. It is a measure of the amount of respiration in a test area, and it is calculated by subtracting
the amount of oxygen present in the light bottle from the amount in the dark bottle.
c. It is the total amount of carbon fixed, and it is calculated by measuring the amount of oxygen
present in a bottle kept in the light.
d. It is the amount of oxygen produced during the day, and it is calculated by subtracting the
amount of oxygen in the light bottle from the amount in the dark bottle.
4. A biology class used two aquatic cultures as described below for the experiment with screens that
reduce light. They measured dissolved oxygen initially, and then after 24 hours.
Culture A Culture B
Little phytoplankton Rich in phytoplankton
Rich in zooplankton Rich in zooplankton
Low initial dissolved oxygen High initial dissolved oxygen
What results would you predict for this experiment?

a. The net productivity in culture A will be much higher than in that in culture B.
b. Culture B will have both higher gross productivity and higher net productivity than culture A.
c. The net productivity for culture A will be negative at greater light intensity than that for
culture B.
d. Cultures A and B will show similar results because of the comparable quantities of
zooplankton.
e. Net productivity in culture B will exceed gross productivity in high light intensity.
209
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Practice Set 1 Osmosis and Water Potential

1. A cell is in equilibrium with its surroundings. The molarity of the surrounding solution is 0.5M. To
convert molarity to solute potential in MPa, use the formula: S = ( i CRT ) where
i = ionization constant (assume that is 1)
C = molar concentration (given above)
R = pressure constant (R = 0.00831 liter MPa/mole oK)
T = temperature in oK (room temp is about 293oK)
a) Calculate the solute potential of the surrounding solution.
b) Find the water potential of the surrounding solution.
c) What is the water potential of the cytoplasm of the cell?
2. If a plant cells P = 2 bars and its S = 3.5 bars, what is the resulting ?
3. The plant cell from question # 2 is placed in a beaker of sugar water with S = 4.0 bars. In which
direction will the net flow of water be?
4. The plant cell from question # 2 is placed in a beaker of sugar water with S = 0.15 MPa. We
know that 1 MPa = 10 bars. In which direction will the net flow of water be?
5. The value for in root tissue was found to be 3.3 bars. If you place the root tissue in a 0.1 M
solution of sucrose at 20C in an open beaker, what is the of the solution, and in which direction
will the net flow of water be?
6. NaCl dissociates into 2 particles in water: Na+ and Cl. If the solution in question # 5 contained 0.1M
NaCl instead of 0.1 M sucrose, what it the of the solution, and in which direction will the net flow
of water be?
210
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Practice Set 2 Population Genetics and the Hardy Weinberg Law

The Hardy-Weinberg formulas allow scientists to determine whether evolution has occurred. Any changes in
the gene frequencies in the population over time can be detected. The law essentially states that if no
evolution is occurring, then equilibrium of allele frequencies will remain in effect in each succeeding
generation of sexually reproducing individuals. In order for equilibrium to remain in effect (i.e. that no
evolution is occurring) then the following five conditions must be met:
1. No mutations must occur so that new alleles do not enter the population.
2. No gene flow can occur (i.e. no migration of individuals into, or out of, the population).
3. Random mating must occur (i.e. individuals must pair by chance)
4. The population must be large so that no genetic drift (random chance) can cause the allele
frequencies to change.
5. No selection can occur so that certain alleles are not selected for, or against.
Obviously, the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium cannot exist in real life. Some or all of these types of forces all
act on living populations at various times and evolution at some level occurs in all living organisms. The
Hardy-Weinberg formulas allow us to detect some allele frequencies that change from generation to
generation, thus allowing a simplified method of determining that evolution is occurring. There are two
formulas that must be memorized:
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 and p + q = 1
p = frequency of the dominant allele in the population

q = frequency of the recessive allele in the population
p2 = percentage of homozygous dominant individuals

q2 = percentage of homozygous recessive individuals
2pq = percentage of heterozygous individuals
1. You have sampled a population in which you know that the percentage of the homozygous recessive
genotype (aa) is 36%. Using that 36%, calculate the following:
A. The frequency of the "aa" genotype.
B. The frequency of the "a" allele.
C. The frequency of the "A" allele.
D. The frequencies of the genotypes "AA" and "Aa."
E. The frequencies of the two possible phenotypes if "A" is completely dominant over "a."
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2. Sickle-cell anemia is an interesting genetic disease. Normal homozygous individials (SS) have
normal blood cells that are easily infected with the malarial parasite. Thus, many of these individuals
become very ill from the parasite and many die. Individuals homozygous for the sickle-cell trait (ss)
have red blood cells that readily collapse when deoxygenated. Although malaria cannot grow in these
red blood cells, individuals often die because of the genetic defect. However, individuals with the
heterozygous condition (Ss) have some sickling of red blood cells, but generally not enough to cause
mortality. In addition, malaria cannot survive well within these "partially defective" red blood cells.
Thus, heterozygotes tend to survive better than either of the homozygous conditions. If 9% of an
African population is born with a severe form of sickle-cell anemia (ss), what percentage of the
population will be more resistant to malaria because they are heterozygous (Ss) for the sickle-cell
gene?
3. There are 100 students in a class. Ninety-six did well in the course whereas four blew it totally and
received a grade of F. Sorry. In the highly unlikely event that these traits are genetic rather than
environmental, if these traits involve dominant and recessive alleles, and if the four (4%) represent
the frequency of the homozygous recessive condition, please calculate the following:
A. The frequency of the recessive allele.
B. The frequency of the dominant allele.
C. The frequency of heterozygous individuals.
212
4. Within a population of butterflies, the color brown (B) is dominant over the color white (b). And,
40% of all butterflies are white. Given this simple information, which is something that is very likely
to be on an exam, calculate the following:
A. The percentage of butterflies in the population that are heterozygous.
B. The frequency of homozygous dominant individuals.
5. A rather large population of Biology instructors have 396 red-sided individuals and 557 tan-sided
individuals. Assume that red is totally recessive. Please calculate the following:
A. The allele frequencies of each allele.
B. The expected genotype frequencies.
C. The number of heterozygous individuals that you would predict to be in this population.
D. The expected phenotype frequencies.
E. Conditions happen to be really good this year for breeding and next year there are 1,245
young "potential" Biology instructors. Assuming that all of the Hardy-Weinberg conditions
are met, how many of these would you expect to be red-sided and how many tan-sided?
213
6. A very large population of randomly-mating laboratory mice contains 35% white mice. White
coloring is caused by the double recessive genotype, "aa". Calculate allelic and genotypic frequencies
for this population.
7. After graduation, you and 19 of your closest friends (lets say 10 males and 10 females) charter a
plane to go on a round-the-world tour. Unfortunately, you all crash land (safely) on a deserted island.
No one finds you and you start a new population totally isolated from the rest of the world. Two of
your friends carry (i.e. are heterozygous for) the recessive cystic fibrosis allele (c). Assuming that the
frequency of this allele does not change as the population grows, what will be the incidence of cystic
fibrosis on your island?
8. You sample 1,000 individuals from a large population for the MN blood group, which can easily be
measured since co-dominance is involved (i.e., you can detect the heterozygotes). They are typed
accordingly:
BLOOD NUMBER OF RESULTING

GENOTYPE
TYPE INDIVIDUALS FREQUENCY
M MM 490 0.49
MN MN 420 0.42
N NN 90 0.09
214
Using the data provide above, calculate the following:
A. The frequency of each allele in the population.
B. Supposing the matings are random, the frequencies of the matings.
C. The probability of each genotype resulting from each potential cross.
9. Cystic fibrosis is a recessive condition that affects about 1 in 2,500 babies in the Caucasian
population of the United States. Please calculate the following.
A. The frequency of the recessive allele in the population.
B. The frequency of the dominant allele in the population.
C. The percentage of heterozygous individuals (carriers) in the population.
215
10. In a given population, only the "A" and "B" alleles are present in the ABO system; there are no
individuals with type "O" blood or with O alleles in this particular population. If 200 people have
type A blood, 75 have type AB blood, and 25 have type B blood, what are the alleleic frequencies of
this population (i.e., what are p and q)?
11. The ability to taste PTC is due to a single dominate allele "T". You sampled 215 individuals in
biology, and determined that 150 could detect the bitter taste of PTC and 65 could not. Calculate all
of the potential frequencies.
216
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Practice Set 3 Chi Square Problems
1. A newly identified fruit fly mutant, cyclops eye (large and single in the middle of the head), is
hypothesized to be autosomal dominant. The experimenter started with homozygous wild type
females (yes, virgins) and homozygous cyclops males. The data from the F2 generation was 44 wild
type males, 60 wild type females, 110 cyclops males and 150 cyclops females. Does this data support
or reject the hypothesis? Use chi square to prove your position.
2. Another fictitious mutant, bloodshot eyes, is hypothesized to be autosomal recessive. Again the
experimenter used homozygous wild type virgin females but this time the males had homozygous
blood shot eyes. The F2 data was 75 wild type males, 60 wild type females, 31 bloodshot males and
45 bloodshot females. Does this data support or reject the hypothesis? Use chi square to prove your
position.
217
3. Still another imaginary trait, bristles-with-split-ends, is hypothesized to be X-linked dominant. As
before, the P1 virgin females were homozygous wild type however this time the males had bristles-
with-split-ends. The F1 84 males were all wild type while the 90 females all had split-ends. In
addition, the data for the F2 generation revealed 26 wild type males, 35 wild type females, 29 split-
end males and 40 split-end females. Does this data support or reject the hypothesis? Use chi square to
prove your position.
4. Finally, bow-legs is hypothesized to be X-linked recessive in Drosophila melanogaster. The P1 virgin

females were, once again, homozygous wild type but the males were bow-legged. There were 52 wild
type males and 67 wild type females in the F1 generation. The F2 generation contained 30 wild type
males, 75 wild type females, 40 bow-legged males and no bow-legged females. Does this data
support or reject the hypothesis? Use chi square to prove your position.
218
5. In 1901, Bateson reported the first post-Mendelian study of a cross involving two characters. White
leghorn chickens, having white feathers and large "single" combs, were crossed to Indian Game
Fowl, having dark feathers and small "pea" combs. The F1 were white with pea combs, and the F2
distribution was: 111 white pea, 37 white single, 34 dark pea, and 8 dark single. What phenotypic
ratio would you expect? Test your prediction using chi-square.
6. In rumbunnies large ears (E) is dominant to small ears (e) and tufted ears (T) is dominant to shaven
ears (t). Two heterozygous rumbunnies are crossed, with the following results: 420 large tufteds, 189
small shavens, and 141 large shavens. How well do these results correspond with expectation if large
ears are epistatic over ear hair length? If small ears are epistatic over ear hair length? Use chi-
square.
219
Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________ Period: __________
Practice Set 4 Population Growth
1. Distinguish between exponential and logistic population growth. Give the equations for each.
2. What is carrying capacity? Why do populations fluctuate around some estimated value of K?
3. As of 1995, the human population was expected to double within 50 years. Calculate r for the human
population.
4. If the human population size in 1993 was 5.4 billion, what was the projected population size in the
year 2000 (use info from previous question)?
5. A population of Nicotiana, an annual plant, increases by 12% every year. Calculate the doubling time
for this population.
220
6. In your research on population dynamics of June beetles, you estimate that the population size is
3,000. Over the course of a month, you record 400 births and 150 deaths in the population. Estimate r
and calculate what the population size is predicted to be in 6 months.
7. A population of Spotted Fritillary butterflies exhibits logistic growth. If the carrying capacity is 500
butterflies and r = 0.1 individuals/(individuals x month), what is the maximum population growth rate
for the population? (Hint: maximum population growth rate occurs when N = K/2).
8. What are the effects of environmental and demographic stochasticity on population growth?
9. A sample of single celled marine algae from the Giant Stairs site provided an estimate of 100,000
cells on the initial sampling date. Ten days later, the population size was estimated to be 500,000
cells. Calculate the intrinsic rate of increase (r) for the population.
10. For the algal population described in question 9 above, use the exponential model of population
growth to predict the size of the population after another 10 days.
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223

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AP Biology

Virtual Lab Worksheets

Lab 18 Dependent and Independent Variables 111

LabBench Activity 1 Diffusion & Osmosis 175

Math Skills Practice

Practice Set 1 Osmosis and Water Potential 210

General Safety Rules

Personal Safety Rules

Lab Safety Procedures

I, _________________________________, have read

Safety in the Laboratory, understand its contents completely,

Lab 1 Recognizing Laboratory Safety

1. Why might eating or drinking in the lab be dangerous?

1. Carefully read the list of lab safety rules.

Lab 2 Living Things in Pond Water

What living things can be found in pond water?

1. What types of organisms can be found in pond water?

Pond culture 1 and 2 Slides Pipettes

Part A. Preparation and Preliminary Observations

Part B. Pond Surface

Analysis and Conclusions

Lab 3 Human Inheritance

How do you determine phenotype and genotype?

Phenotypes and Genotypes of Common Traits

Eye color (B, b)

Shape of hairline (W, w)

Ability to roll tongue (R, r)

Shape of little finger (F, f)

Hair on middle joint (H, h)

Hair color (N, n)

Hair curliness (C, c)

Eyelash length (S, s)

Analysis and Conclusions

Lab 4 Making Karyotypes

How can chromosomes be observed?

Be careful when handling sharp instruments.

Part A. Analyzing a Karyotype

Part B. Using a Karyotype to Identify a Genetic Disorder

Analysis and Conclusions

Lab 5 Studying Genetic Mutations

How are proteins made from DNA sequences?

Part A. Protein Synthesis

amino acids _________________________________________________________

Lab 6 Using and Constructing a Classification Key

How is a dichotomous key used to distinguish among similar organisms?

1. How many choices does a dichotomous key provide at each step?

Part A. Using a Classification Key

Part B. Constructing a Classification Key

Wildflower Classification Key

Analysis and Conclusions

Lab 7 Classifying Leaves

Part A. Studying Leaf Structure

Part B. Constructing a Key

b) leaves compound Go to step 3

For Further Investigation

Lab 8 Anatomy of Earthworm

Lab 9 Anatomy of Grasshopper and Crayfish

Lab 10 Anatomy of Starfish

Lab 11 Anatomy of the Frog

Lab 12 Anatomy of the Fetal Pig

Lab 13 Nutrition and a Balanced Diet

How do you calculate calorie intake and body mass index?

Part A. Calculate calories

Total calories Percentage from fat Percentage from saturated fat