Project 1: Flow Meter Selection

In partial fulfilment of the requirements

in

CHE 413N

Science and Engineering of Materials

Submitted to

Engr. May V. Tampus

Submitted by

Flores, Dharyl C.

Martin, Alvin Mar V.

Siasar, Christine Anne D.

Tagalog, Shaira Kyle M.

September 15, 2017

I. Introduction

Polypropylene (PP) is one of the fastest growing classes of commodity thermoplastics. The moderate cost

and favorable properties of polypropylene contribute to its growth rate. Higher stiffness at lower density and resistance

to higher temperatures when not subjected to mechanical stress are its key properties. In addition to this, it offers good

fatigue resistance, chemical resistance, environmental stress cracking resistance and good hardness. With this

combination of properties, polypropylene is a versatile plastic. This makes polypropylene one of the most widely used

thermoplastic ranking 3rd in consumption in the world. A good balance of properties, which can be tailored to a wide

range of fabrication methods and applications, and its low cost make it useful in many different industries.

Polypropylene is used in components of automobiles and large and small appliances, packaging films and containers,

medical devices, and textiles.

On the other hand, polypropylene has its own fair share of disadvantages which includes high mould

shrinkage, higher thermal expansion, low impact strength, poor UV resistance and poor oxidative resistance, limited

transparency and warpage. These drawbacks then lead to failures in polypropylene materials.

II. Problem Statement

In the recent times, the use of polypropylene chairs has expanded greatly both in public venues as well as in

private homes. Manufacture of such chairs ensures low cost, so they have been widely adopted for public venues

involving large numbers of people. However, there have been problems with the intrinsic strength of a polypropylene

chair. The critical requirements for a polypropylene chair include good rigidity, good toughness and mouldability in

complex shapes. (insert citation) It is not a surprising fact that products made from polymers like polypropylene have

a limited life in service.

In this case study, the failure of a polypropylene chair is investigated. The failure of chairs that are made from

polymers are not uncommon owing to the its degradation during continuing use. However, the case described here

involves a new chair specifically a plastic chair molded out of polypropylene material. It has been observed that a few
 days after it has been purchased and used, one of its back legs suddenly fractured. One of the legs was completely

detached from the rest of the chair. The person sitting fell to the ground and may have acquired injuries. (insert

descriptions of detached parts)

A problem like this can occur because of several factors which includes the structure and composition of

polypropylene, the way it is molded and the product design. This study aims to determine these factors and propose

process modification in order to improve its behavior under the specified service conditions and minimize the likelihood

of failure.

III. Analysis of Failure

Structure and Composition of Polypropylene

Polypropylene is a hydrocarbon polymer with its repeating unit shown in Figure 1. The presence of the pendant

CH3 group permits the formation of three different types of PP. These three types of molecules are called

stereoisomers, which differ in the way atoms are spatially arranged about the backbone carbons. These three

arrangements are illustrated in Figures 2.

Insert figure 1

The molecular chains in polypropylene are linear so they are able to pack together in an ordered crystal

structure. Since chains may be entangled, the structure is not completely regular. Thus, polypropylene is best described

as a semi-crystalline polymer.

Insert figure 2

The spatial arrangement of the methyl groups attached to every second carbon atom in the chain may vary.

If all the methyl groups are on the same side of the winding spiral chain molecules, the product is referred to as isotactic

PP. A PP structure where pendant methylene groups are attached to the polymer backbone chain in an alternating

manner is known as syndiotactic PP. The structure where pendant groups are located in a random manner on the

polymer backbone is the atactic form. The differences in the properties between the isotactic, syndiotactic and atactic
PP arise from the way in which the polymer molecules can pack together. Only isotactic PP has the requisite properties

required for a useful plastic material due to its arrangements which allow the molecules to pack tightly into crystalline

structures. On the other hand, the methyl (CH3) pendant group in the syndiotactic and atactic arrangements is too large

to allow for tight packing thus crystalline regions are not formed. Hence, the only polypropylene of commercial

importance is the highly crystallized isotactic arrangement.

Overview of the Process

The PP manufacturing process can be divided into three generations, the first generation (deashing and AP removal),

second-generation (non-deashing or non-solvent) and third-generation (non-deashing and non-AP removal) according

to these advances in technology. (Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd. Process & Production Technology Center, 2009)

In addition, polypropylene production can also be classified according to the polymerization method, these methods

are Slurry Polymerization, Bulk Polymerization, and Gas-Phase Polymerization process. Gas phase polymerization

process is placed as a third generation, and the one that will be discussed here. Gas phase polymerization is the most

common process used in modern plants among the several existing processes in polypropylene production (Dr.

Saravanan & Sulaiman , 2014) Figure number below shows the Process Flow diagram of Gas-Phase polymerization

Process.

The PP manufacturing process is mainly made up of a raw material refining process, polymerization process, after

treatment process and granulation process.

*Chicago Bridge & Iron Company.(2017)

The raw material refining process is the furthest upstream process and is a process for eliminating minute amounts of

impurities that affect the process, such as water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbonyl sulfide and the like, from the

propylene and other monomers as well as the solvents and other raw materials and auxiliary materials used. (Chicago

Bridge & Iron Company, 2017)

The polymerization process is a process for polymerization that brings the propylene and other monomers into contact

with a catalyst. Propylene and the co-monomer, typically Ethylene, are fed into the reactors. Hydrogen then is added

to control the molecular weight. Polymerization conditions, that is, temperature, pressure and reactant concentrations

are set by the polymer grade being made. The pressure ranges from 2 to 4 MPa and a temperature of 50 to 80 degrees

Celsius are used as typical operating conditions to fulfill the reaction successfully which is carried out in the gas phase.

This reaction is exothermic and reactor is cooled by flash heat exchange, where liquefied reactor gas (mainly

propylene) is mixed with fresh feed and injected into the reactor. (Chicago Bridge & Iron Company, 2017)

The polymer powder is discharged from the reactor and separated from the unreacted monomer in a discharge vessel

at atmospheric pressure. The monomer is then compressed and recycled into the reactors. The remaining part is

returned to the upstream olefins unit for recovery in order to remove accumulated propane.
In the powder purge silo the polymer is flushed with nitrogen to strip it of residual propylene. The remaining monomers

and nitrogen is then recovered for reuse.

The powder is then fed to an extruder where it is then converted into pellets that incorporate a full range of well-

dispersed additives. The granulation process is the furthest downstream process which involves the process of melting

and kneading additives and fillers into the PP particles that have undergone the after-processing and forming pellets.

In processing thermoplastics such as polypropylene, there are a variety of methods that can be used selection of which

depends on the final product specifications. For example, to produce plastic bottles, containers and other hollow shapes

blow molding is used while if it is desired to create solid products with different sizes and complex accents injection

molding is more applicable. (Askeland, Fulay, & Wright, 2012)

In the production of polypropylene chairs the fastest and cheapest technique to use is injection molding. Injection

molding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting material into a mold.

During the injection phase plastic material, usually in the form of pellets, is loaded into a hopper on top of the injection

unit. The pellets feed into a cylinder where they are heated until they reach molten form. Within the barrel there is a

motorised screw or ram that mixes the molten pellets and forces them to end of the cylinder. Once enough material

has accumulated in front of the screw, the injection process begins. The molten plastic is inserted into the mould
through a sprue (channel), while the pressure and speed are controlled by the screw. Next then is the dwelling phase

which consists of a pause in the injection process. Once the molten plastic has been injected into the mould, the

pressure is applied to make sure all of the mould cavities are filled. The plastic is then allowed to cool to its solid form

within the mould. When the cooling process is finished the clamping unit is opened, which separates the two halves of

the mould. Finally, an ejecting rod and plate eject the finished piece from the mould. (Goodship, 2004)

Polypropylene, being a semi-crystalline material, undergoes a greater volume increase than amorphous material during

melting, hence the compression ratio required for the injection moulding of PP is lower. The various machine and

moulding parameters suggested for injection moulding of PP is shown in Table Number below.

Recommended machine and moulding parameters for PP

Parameter Typical Value

Compression ratio for screw 2.3 - 2.8

L/D ratio for screw 20:1 to 25:1

Injection pressure 120-180 MPa

Hold up pressure 40-80% of injection pressure

Back pressure 10-30 MPa

* Tripathy, D. (2002). Practical Guide to Polypropylene. Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY4 4NR, UK:
Rapra Technology Limited.

It is good to note that the moulding conditions are quite unique to the article being moulded and depend on part

configuration, mould design, material properties, choice of the material and properties required from the finished part.

PP can be injection moulded at a melt temperature of 200-300 and a mould temperature of 20-90 . However, a

melt temperature of 220-260 and mould temperature of 20-40 are quite normal. Lower mould temperatures may

be used for fast cycling of parts with high injection rate. However, high mould temperatures may be required for thick-

walled parts where premature freezing of the walls may lead to the formation of internal voids. Furthermore, the melt

temperature for flame retardant grades of PP should not exceed 220-230 . Higher temperatures can result in
discoloration and thermal degradation. In the long run, higher temperatures can also lead to corrosion of the mould

and the machine. (Tripathy, 2002)

Process Modification

The properties as well as the behavior of a Polypropylene product is highly determined by the polymerization and

moulding process that PP has undergone. For the polymerization process the main factors are the catalyst used, the

copolymer used or if polypropylene would be homopolymerized, the reactor conditions, and the presence of impurities,

addition of fillers and other additives. In the injection mould process the determining factors are the mould and melt

temperatures as well as the pressure conditions and the cooling time.

To start off, it is vital to use a specific grade of polypropylene that fits the desired properties of your final product. Below,

Table number outlines the principal characteristics of the polypropylene forms or grades.

Property Best Choice

Stiffness Homopolymer

Resistance to High Temperature Homopolymer

Chemical Resistance Homopolymer

Surface Hardness Homopolymer

Impact Strength Block Copolymer

Toughness Block Copolymer

Strength at Low Temperatures Block Copolymer

Transparency Random Copolymer

Flexibility Random Copolymer

Sealability Random Copolymer

* Maier, C., & Calafut, T. (1998). Polypropylene The Definitive User's Guide and Databook. New York:
Plastics Design Library
From the properties stated above, a polypropylene chair is desired to have high stiffness, high surface hardness, high

impact strength, high toughness, and high strengths at low temperatures. Based from this, we can conclude that it is

best to use block copolymer in Polypropylene chair production.

In addition, the addition of additives, fillers or reinforcements can increase certain properties of a material. The

primary effect of fillers and reinforcement is to modify the mechanical properties of polypropylene. The effect of fillers

and reinforcements depend to an extent on its physical form which can take the shape of a fiber, a platelet, or a

sphere. The form of the additive has a bearing on the way in which it is incorporated into and interacts with the

polymer chain, this makes possible some broad predictions about the likely effects of fillers and reinforcements on

the polymer properties. (Maier & Calafut, 1998) Table number to ------ shows the Effect of Fillers and reinforcements

on some material properties as well as the normal loading range for fillers and reinforcements in polypropylene.

FIBERS PLATELETS SPHERES

Glass, Carbon Talc, Mica Glass, Calcium Carbonate, Barium Sulfate

Tensile Strength

Stiffness

Impact Strength

Warping

KEY: -increase -decrease -marginal

* Maier, C., & Calafut, T. (1998). Polypropylene The Definitive User's Guide and Databook. New York:
Plastics Design Library

Filler / Reinforcement Percentage Loading by weight

Talc 10-50

Calcium Carbonate 10-60

Barium Sulfate 20-50

 Mica 10-50

Mineral, unclassified 5-45

Glass Fiber 10-50

Glass Fiber, coupled 10-40

Glass bead 10-40

Carbon fiber 10-40

* Maier, C., & Calafut, T. (1998). Polypropylene The Definitive User's Guide and Databook. New York:
Plastics Design Library
From the information provided above the addition of Glass or Carbon fiber during the processing of polypropylene is

highly recommended since it increases properties as tensile strength, stiffness, and impact strength of the material.

Wherein these properties are ideal for polypropylene chair production.

Furthermore, in injection moulding it is important to follow the specified process conditions (temperature and

pressure) for polypropylene materials to avoid unwanted presence of voids within material and to avoid