Teach a child WHAT to THINK and you make

him a slave of knowledge;

But, teach a child HOW to THINK and you
make knowledge his slave.

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 Module 3b: Immediate
Inference

Prepared by Mr. Roland Lorenzo M. Ruben

Philosophy section, SSD Page 2
De La Salle University - Dasmarias
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 Logical Opposition a repugnance or
relation existing between a pair of
propositions which have the same
subject and predicate but they differ
either in quality, quantity or both in
quantity and in quality.
In this operation, we keep the same subject and
SQUARE OF predicate; we assert a different relationship
OPPOSITIONS between them according to quantity and quality.

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 LOGICAL OPPOSITION OF CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITIONS
A,E,I,O propositions have the same subject and predicate
terms but may differ from each other either in quality, or in
quantity, or both in quality and in quantity.
Due to their different properties, there arises opposition of
propositions. To oppose propositions is to affirm and deny
the same predicate of the same subject.
With regard to these propositions, there are four types of
opposition:
1. Contradiction
2. Contrariety
3. Subcontrariety
4. Subaltern

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 1. CONTRADICTION
A relation existing between a pair of propositions having the
same subject and predicate terms but differs in both quantity
and in quality.
It is clear from such relation that one proposition is a denial
of the other, so that they cannot be both true and cannot be
both false.

RULES:
1. Contradictories can
never be true
together.
2. Contradictories can
never be false
together.
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 2. CONTRARIETY
A relation existing between two universal propositions
having the same subject and predicate but they differ
only in quality.
This implies that contraries cannot be true together =
the truth of one entails the falsity of another; however,
the falsity of one entails the falsity of another.

RULES:
1. Contraries can never
be true together.
2. Contraries can be
false together (if one
is false, the other is
doubtful.) Page 8
 3. SUBCONTRARIETY
A relation between two particular propositions having
the same subject and predicate terms but they differ
only in quality.
Unlike contraries, subcontraries are less extremely
opposed since they are both particular, so that they
cannot be both false though they might be both true.

RULES:
1. They can never be false together.
2. They can be both true (if one is
true, the other is doubtful).

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 4. SUBALTERNATION
A relation between two propositions which have the same
subject and predicate terms and quality, but they differ only
in quantity.
Since subalterns differ only in quantity, they assert the
same truth as their universals, because what is asserted
universally of a class applies also to all members of that
class. On the other hand, a predicate applied only to a part
of a class does not necessarily extend to the rest of the
class.
It is not really an opposition because there is no
disagreement between the propositions.

RULES:
1. If the universal is true, the particular is true.
2. If the universal is false, the particular is doubtful.
3. If the particular is true, the universal is doubtful.
4. If the particular is false, the universal is false.

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 Summary of the rules.
1. If A is true E is false. 5. If A is false O is true.
I is true. E is doubtful.
O is false. I is doubtful.

2. If E is true A is false. 6. If E is false I is true.

I is false. A is doubtful.
O is true. O is doubtful.

3. If I is true E is false. 7. If I is false A is false.

A is doubtful. E is true.
O is doubtful. O is true.

4. If O is true A is false. 8. If O is false A is true.

E is doubtful E is false.
I is doubtful I is true.

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 Summary chart in determining the truth or
falsity of the logical opposition of A,E,I,O

A E I O

T F T F T F T F

A F D D F F T

E F D F T D F

I T D F T D T

O F T T D D T
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2. Equivalence of Propositions
Eduction the formulation of a
new proposition, either by
interchanging the subject and
predicate and/or by the use or
omission of negatives.
In this operation, we transform
certain propositions into new
propositions which are equivalent in
meaning but which may have
EDUCTION different logical forms.

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 TYPES OF EDUCTION

Conversion Obversion Contraposition Inversion

Simple conversion AE PC = O C A
1. E E 1. A E
2. E I
FI =
2. I I OCOC
3. I X
3. A A EA 4. O I
PI =
OCOCO

Partial FC = O C O E
conversion IO 1. A A
PI =
2. E O
1. A I COC
3. I X
FI =
OI 4. O O COCO
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 1. CONVERSION
Conversion the process of changing one
proposition into another simply by re-
arranging the terms.
Convertend the original proposition
Converse the conclusion.

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 1. CONVERSION
Remember that the truth of the converse must
necessarily follow from the truth of the convertend
and must not contain anything which is not
contained in the convertend.
Two (2) types of conversion:
Simple conversion
Partial conversion

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 1.1 SIMPLE CONVERSION
Simple conversion is a change which preserves the
meaning of the proposition.
It takes place only when the quantity of the subject and
predicate terms of the convertend is the same. ( E & I )
The subject and the predicate terms of E are both
universal, while the predicate terms of I are both particular.

E = No S are P. No squares are round objects.

.: E = No P are S. No round objects are squares.
I = Some S are P. Some toys are objects made of plastic.
.: I = Some P are S. Some objects made of plastics are toys.

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 A and O have no simple conversions
In A, the predicate of the convertend which is
particular becomes a universal subject of the
converse.
In O, the particular subject of the convertend
becomes a universal predicate of a negative
proposition.

A & I propositions, both affirmative,

have particular predicate terms.
E & O propositions, both negative,
have universal predicate terms.

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 Except: If the predicate term of an A proposition
is:
1. singular,
2. essential definition, or
3. characteristic property;
then A has a simple conversion:
1. A All men are rational animals.
.: A All rational animals are men.
2. A All men are capable of morality.
.: A All capable of morality are men.
3. A Gloria Arroyo is the president of the
Philippines.
.: A The president of the Philippines is Gloria
Arroyo.

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 1.2 Partial conversion
A process of reformulating the truth of a proposition by
reducing the quantity of the convertend from universal to
particular. A I; E O .
Since E can be simply converted, then its partial
conversion is seldom necessary.

A All s are p. All chicos are fruits.

I Some p are s. Some fruits are chicos.

E No s are p. No men are brute animals.

O Some p are not s. Some brute animals are not men.

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Rules
1. Interchange the S and the P.
2. Retain the quality.
1. Retain the quantity. (simple)
2. Reduce the quantity. (partial)

1. O propositions no conversion
2. A propositions no simple conversion.

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 2. OBVERSION
A process of reformulating the truth of a proposition by
leaving the subject term and quantity unchanged, by
changing the quality of a proposition and by replacing the
predicate term by its contradictory.
The given proposition is called the obvertend, while
the conclusion is called the obverse.

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 2. OBVERSION
A contradictory term is one which denies the
comprehension of the other. The term S is designated by
its contradictory as non-S, and the term non-S is
designated by its contradictory S. Contradictory terms are
so mutually exclusive that there is no middle ground
between them.

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 RULES
1. Change the quality of the proposition, i.e.,
the affirmative becomes negative and vice
versa.
2. Substitute in place of the predicate its
contradictory term.

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 Original Simple Partial Obversion
propositions conversion conversion

A A I E
All S are P. All S are P.* Some P are S. No S are non-P.

E E O A
No S are P. No P are S. Some P are All S are non-P.
not S.**

I I O
Some S are P. Some P are S. Some S are not
non-P.

O I
Some S are not P. *- exception Some S are non-
** - optional P.
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 3. CONTRAPOSITION
Involves the method of obversion and
conversion.
Two (2) types:
3.1 Partial contraposition = O C
3.2 Full contraposition = O C O

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 3.1 Partial Contraposition
Partial Contraposition consists in obverting the original
proposition, then converting its obverse. It is simply the
converse of the obverse of the given proposition.
1. E = No s are p. 3. A = All s are p.
A = All s are non-p. (obverse) E = No s are non-p. (obverse)
I = Some non-p are s. (converse) E = No non-p are s. (converse)
2. I = Some s are p. 4. O = Some s are not p.
O = Some s are not non-p. (obverse) I = Some s are non-p. (obverse)
NO CONVERSION I = Some non-p are s. (converse)

RULES:
1. Obvert the given proposition.
2. Convert the resultant proposition.
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 3.2 Full Contraposition
Full contraposition consists in
obverting the outcome of partial
contraposition. It is simply the
obverse of the converse of the
obverse of the given proposition.
1. E = No s are p.
A = All s are non-p. (obverse)
I = Some non-p are s. (PC)
O = Some non-p are not non-s. (FC)
2. A = All s are p.
E = No s are non-p. (obverse)
E = No non-p are s. (PC)
A = All non-p are non-s (FC)
RULES:
1. Obvert the given
proposition.
2. Convert its
obverse.
3. Obvert its converse.
3. I = Some s are p.
O = Some s are not non-p. (obverse)
NO CONVERSION
4. O = Some s are not p.
I = Some s are non-p. (obverse)
I = Some non-p are s. (PC)
O = Some non-p are not non-s. (FC)
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 Inversion merely introduces negative particles
before the subject and the predicate. There are
two kinds of inversion: PARTIAL and FULL.
The original proposition is called invertend; the
resultant inference is called inverse.

It is important to note that the

inverse of a proposition is valid
only for A and E propositions.

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To get the full inverse of an A-proposition, convert its contraposit. To gain the partial
inverse, obvert the full inverse.

FULL INVERSE (O C O C)
Given: A - All s are p.
E - No s are non-p. (obverse)
E - No non-p are s. (converse)
A - All non-p are non-s. (obverse)
I - Some non-s are non-p. (converse) = FI Checklist:
FI A-I
PARTIAL INVERSE (O C O C O) (contradicto
ry terms: s +

Given: All s are p. p)

PI A-O

E - No s are non-p. (obverse) (contradicto

ry term: s)

E - No non-p are s. (converse)

A - All non-p are non-s. (obverse)
I - Some non-s are non-p. (FI)
O - Some non-s are not p. (obverse) = PI
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To get the partial inverse of E-proposition, convert, obvert and convert again
the original proposition. To obtain the full inverse, obvert the partial inverse.

PARTIAL INVERSE (C O C)
Given: E - No s are p.
E - No p are s. (converse)
A - All p are non-s. (obverse)
I Some non-s are p. (converse) = PI Checklist:
FI E-O

FULL INVERSE (C O C O) (contradict

ory terms:
s + p).
Given: E - No s are p. PI E-I
(contradict

E - No p are s. (converse) ory term:

s).

A - All p are non-s. (obverse)

I Some non-s are p. (PI)
O - Some non-s are not non-p. (obverse) = FI

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Module 3b: IMMEDIATE INFERENCE

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