The Representation of Ship Hulls by Conformal

Mapping Functions
By C. von Kerczek 1 and E. O. Tuck 2

A method is described by which an arbitrary hull surface may be approximated by an

analytic function. The cross sections of the ship are represented by conformal mapping
functions whose coefficients are polynomial functions of the longitudinal coordinate of the
ship. Such a representation is intended to be used primarily for hydrodynamic calcula-
tions. However, the procedure used in generating the mapping function representation
of the hull surface can, with some slight modifications, be used to freely form a hull surface.
This could possibly be the basis of a mathematical hull design procedure.

Introduction
THE MATHEMATICAL representation of a ship hull is
desirable for at least two reasons: firstly, it is conveuient
for calculating the hydrodynamic and hydrostatic proper-
ties of the ship; and secondly, it may be used in the design
and construction process of the ship.
The calculation of the hydrodynamic properties of
ships, in which the detailed geometry of the hull form is
taken into account, m a y be carried out very conveniently
in terms of a hull surface equation, or at least in terms of
equations describing the cross sections of the hull. Re-
cent efforts in representing either the entire or discrete $
sections of the ship hull mathematically and using this
representation in hydrodynamic calculations include Fig. 1 Coordinate system
[1-12].~
I(erwin [1] wrote a computer program which takes
the offsets of the ship as input and fits the entire hull by
semi-orthogonal pobmomials. He fits the complete cation of the conformal mapping functions has been re-
ship by least-squares polynomials such that, in the coor- stricted to fitting only discrete cross sections of ships and
dinate system of Fig. 1, x is a polynomial function of both using the results in hydrodynamic calculations. The
y and s. This representation is primarily itltended for advantage of this method for representing ship hulls
the computation of wavemaking resistance and the hy- stems from the fact that some two-dimensional hydro-
drodynamic properties of an oscillating thin ship, and dynamic problems for arbitrary cross sections may be
was used by Gerritsma, I(erwin and Newman to calculate solved directly in terms of the coetfieients of the mapping
the damping of Series 60 hull forms [9]. The major functions; e.g., [2,3,8]. Three-dimensional results
drawback to this method is that polynomials of very m a y be obtained by summation over cross sections, using
high degree and a large number of input poiuts are re- strip or slender body theory. For instance Vassilopoulos
quired. [4] performs two-dimensional heaving calculations sta-
An alternative approach is to make use of certain con- tion by station in terms of the mapping functions, and
formal mapping functions to represent the hull. Appli- then uses the strip theory of ship motions in waves to
obtain three-dimensional heave and pitch estimates.
Steady longitudinal flow calculations m a y also be made
1Aerospace Engineer, Naval Ship Research and Development [5,6,7] using slender-body theory, l>or the latter ap-
Center, Washington, D. C. plication it is desirable to know the mapping function of
2Naval Ship Research and Development Center, Washington,
D.C. Presently: Reader of Mathematics, University of Adelaide, the cross section as a smooth function of the lengthwise
Adelaide, South Australia. coordinate of the ship.
3Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper. With the advent of "active graphics" [14] facilities on
Manuscript received at SNAME Headquarters January 24,
] 969. Revised manuscript received AugtLst28, 1969. large-scale computers the possibility arises that a

284 JOURNAL OF SHIP RESEARCH

mathematically defined ship hull can be "designed." The ship hull is usually given as drawings of a number
Such a hull would have the dual advantage of exhibiting of stations (cross sections in planes of constant s) along
all the desired form characteristics and being described the length of the ship. The procedure for constructing
exactly by an equation. the surface equations (1) is to fit each individuM station
The computer-aided ship design process requires some by a mapping function of the type
kind of mathematical description of the huU surface. N
This description could be based on a certain class of z = E a,,~ (~-''"~ (2)
surface equations, each member of which is given by n=l

specifying a number of unknown coefficients. The co- where z = x + iy and ~ = e q- i~ = re '~. which maps the
efficients of the surface equation need not be explicitly circle [~[ = 1 in the F-plane onto the contour, consisting
written in terms of various geometric characteristics of of the station and its reflection across the x-axis, in the
the hull. I t is only necessary that there be enough de- z-plane. Then the a~'s, considered as functions of s, are
grees of freedom in the surface equation so that it is fitted by polynomials in s. Thus, with
capable of describing a wide class of hull shapes. I t is M
also desirable that, by restricting the surface equation to a,,(s) = ~ A,,,~s '~-I n = 1,..., N
a few terms, a basic hull form can be generated which is m=l
reasonably shiplike. Such a basic hull form would be
the desired surface equation is
necessary as a starting point in the design process.
This paper describes one class of surface equations and N M
a convenient method by which a ship hull can be repre- x = x(s,) = E E A,~ s~-'cs [ ( 3 - - 2n)~]
n=l m=l
sented by such equations. This type of representatiou
was originally used because of its convenience in hydro- (3)
N M
dynamical calculations and has been used successfully in y = y ( s , ~) = ~ ~_~ A m n s m-1 sin [(3 - - 2n)~o]
such calculations. I t also appears to have some merits n=l m=l

for use in a design procedure such as that described in the where we have made use of the fact that r = 1 gives the
concluding section of this paper. coordinates of points on the desired contour.
The method consists of fitting each cross section of the The task confronting us then is to determine the
ship by a mapping function in a least-squares sense. matrix [A,,~ ].
Then the set of coefficients corresponding to a given term
in the mapping function is fitted with a lengthwise poly- Mapping of Each Station
nomial, also in a least-squares sense. The result is a In general, most shiplike sections can be couform~lly
completely analytical representation of the ship hull. mapped onto the circle I~-I = 1 in the ~-plane by a
mapping such as
Hull Surface Equation N
z = (c~ q- ib~)f q- ~ (c~ q- ib~)~ ~-'~
The x, y, s coordinate system is taken as shown iu n=2
Fig. 1. I t is desired to express the hull surf'me by an
If the curve is symmetric in y then b~ = 0, n = 1. . . . , N,
equation of the form
and if it is also symmetric in x then n is only even. Now
x = f ( y , s) the curves we wish to map have both these axes of sym-
metry, so that
or in the parametric form as
N
x = x(s, ~) Z = E an~ (a-2n) (9_)
n=l
and
(1) where ax = c~ and a~ = c.,~_2,n = 2 , . . . , N.
y = y(s, ~) Also, the nature of the mapping is such that a point in

Nomenclature

a,,(s) = individuM section mapping N = n u m b e r of terms in m a p p i n g (x, y, s) = cartesian coordinates

coefficients
b = h'Mf-beam of ship
E = least-squares error function
H = draft of ship
K = n u m b e r of input staidons
( a j ; ~pi) = linear least-squares equa-
tions for a~'s, given ~o/s
P = n u m b e r of input offsets at, a
given input section
of individual sections (x~,, y~) = i n p u t offsets of each station
%(~i; at) = n o n l i n e a r l e a s t - s q u a r e s e q u a -
lions for ~i's, given a / s z = complex variable, z = x + iy
M -- i = degree of polynomials fit,ted Amn = surface equation coefficient
to an's matrix
(r, ~) = polar coordinates of mapped k = h a l f - b e a m / d r a f t ratio
plane
S = section area at any station of = section-area coefficient
ship ~" = complex variable, ~- = re i~'

DECEMBER 1969 285

 Y %

r_-1

Fig. 2 Mapping of unit circle onto section

a particular q u a d r a n t on the contour in the z-pJaue is bE

mapped into the same quadrant on the circle in the ~-- -0 j= 1,...,N
baj
plane. This plus the aforemeut~oned s y m m e t r y enables
us to consider only a single q u a d r a n t of the curve, as in ~nd (4)
Fig. 2.
Let each station be given by P points approximately bE
- 0 i = 1,...,P
evenly distributed along the contour. Then, for the p ' t h
point,
Equations (4) are the required N + P least-squares equa-
N tions in the N + P unknowns a~, ~ . Expanding (4) we
x~ = ~ an COS [(3 - - 2 n ) ~ p ] have
n=l

N
bE P
- E {xp cos [(3 - 2j)gp] + yp sill [(3 -- 2/)~p]}
y~ -= ~ a,~ sin [(3 -- 2 n ) ~ ] baj p= t
n=l P N
- E a~ cos [2(j - n)p] = 0
This gives us 2P equations to solve for u m a x i m u m of P /J=l n=l
an's and P unknown ~ / s . I t is undesirable to let N = P,
though this would determine a set of a~'s that would map j-- 1,...,N (5)
points on the unit circle exactly into the (x,, yp)'s, be- bE N
cause the mapping function could give ~ section which is - ~ aria -- 21)[x~ sin [(3 -- 2 l ) ~ ]
b~i 1=1
pathological in between the given points. I n order to N N
avoid this and find a,,'s t h a t would produce a section -- y~cos [ ( 3 - - 2l)~,]}-- ~ ~ a~az(3 -- 2/)
which fits the data points smoothly, though not neces- n=l /=1

sarily exactly, N is taken Jess than P (of the order of ~ P Xsin[2(n-- /)~] = 0 i = 1,...P
or 2~ p ) and the a~'s and q~p's are determined in a least-
squares sense. This produces a form t h a t is smooth and I t is almost hopeless to a t t e m p t to solve these equ-~tions
also fits the data points in such a manner as to minimize directly, but note t h a t the first set of (5) is linear in the
the squared distance between the data points and the a / s and can be solved directly if the ~p's are known.
generated form. I n this sense, we have This suggests the following iteration scheme for solving
N
for the a,'s and Cp's: Let
x~ = ~ a,, cos [(3 -- 2 n ) ~ ] + E , ' bE
n=l ~(aj; ~ ) = 0 .i = 1 . . . . , N
N<P baj
N bE
y~ = ~ a~ sin [(3 -- 2n)~] -{- E~ '~ "--~(~; aj) = 0 i = 1,..., P
n=l
a
and letting ~iheu, with a suitable first guess for the a,'s t h a t would
give a form t h a t does not depart too much from the data
1) points, we calculate a set of approximate ~ ' s fl'om the
E = E (E~ ' ~ + E~ "~) equations ~ ( ~ ; a j) = 0. Using this set of ~,'s we go to
p=l
2(aA ~ ) = 0 and solve for a new set of a,'s. Using this
minimization of squared dist~mce between generated new set of a / s we repeat the procedure. This iteration
curve and d~ta points requires t h a t continues until A E ( ~ , a j) is brought to within a specific

286 J O U R N A L OF SHIP RESEARCH

tolerance, providing us with the best N term fit to within which are easily solved for the M X N matrix [A~].
given error limits. The resulting set of N polynomials generates the coef-
A first guess for the a~'s which is suitable (see Appendix ficients of the mapping (2) at any point s along the length
2) is given by the well-known Lewis Forms [11]; i.e. of the ship. Thus, we have the complete hull surface
equation in parametric form
al "= 1/2(b + H ) - aa
hr M
a2 = V,,.(b -- H )
aa = --~/4(b + H) x(s,~,) = ~ E Am,s ('~-1) cos [(3 -- 2n)~o]
n=l m=l

+ 1/4 (b + H ) 2+8 b H -- ; S (7)

N M
a, = 0 n = 4, . . ., N v(s,@ = ~2 ~2 Am.s (~-') sin [(3 - 2r~)~,]
n=lm=l
where
In some instances it may be desirable to constrain the
b = half-be-~m
polynomial to go through a given station with specified
H = draft
slope and curvature (see concluding section). In this
S = area of section
case we can easily derive the least-squares equation for
In practice it was found ~mcessary to compute se- the coefficients A , , , by making use of the method of La-
quentially the best 4-term, 5-term, . . . , N-term fits. grange Multipliers.
Trying to compute the best N-term fit directly from the Suppose we wish to cons{rain the polynomial to take
Lewis Forms allowed too much freedom in the a,'s ~md on exactly the value a~" and have zero slope and curvature
resulted in badly behaved forms. Thus in essence we at. stationr. Then
find a sequence of mappings with increasing number of M
terms, each mapping serving as the first guess for the a," = ~ A , , , , s / ' - ' ) - ~ fl
following mapping in the sequence. m = 1

The equations 9Z(~; a~) = 0 are transcendental equa- M

tions in ~, and thus are not easily solved. One of their 0 = E A , , , ( m -- 1)s/m-2) --~ .f.., (8)
simplifying features, however, is that each equation
M
involves only a single ~ ; thus each may be solved
separately for ~, by some technique such as a Newton- 0 = ~ A,,~(m- 1) ( m - - 2) s,( .... a)~--f~
~n=l
Raphson iteration. A simpler and more reliable tech-
nique used here is that of directly computing E for a are the constraining equations. The error function is
given (xp, y~,) and a set of ~,'s and then picking out the now
~op that minimizes E (see Appendix 1). A Newton-
Ilaphson iteration is used in the rare eases in which this E = a,~i - n m n s i (m-I)
method fails. i = 1
i#r
m= 1

Polynomial Fitting to the Mapping CoefFicients Introducing Lagrange multipliers Xl, X2, Xa, we form the
After representing each given station of the ship by a. function
mapping as described in the previous section, the map- = E - xi(k - a2") - X,k - X~f~
ping coefficients, considered as functions of s, are fitted
by least-squares polynomials in s. then the equations to be solved are given by miniinizing
Defining the square-error function of the poly,nonfials F; i.e.
and the data points (here the coefficients a,) as
bF
K M -0
E = E [a=i - ~ A,~,s~("-I)] ~" ~A j,,
i=1 m=l
j = 1,..., M
where K is the number of given stations, M -- 1 is the
degree of the polynomial, and a~~is the n'th coefficient of which gives us
the mapping of the station located at s~, then K
an~8l (a-l) Amn - -

bE i=1 [m=l i=1 _l

-o .i=l,...,M i#r i#r
hA j,,
--X2(j -- 1)s/~-2) -- Xa(j -- 1 ) ( j - 2)sf1-3)
yields the equations j= 1 , . . . , M.
K M K
E anisi ( j - l ) -= E A m = E s, ('~+~-~) (6) which can easily be solved, in conjunction with the
i=1 m=l i=1 equations of constraint (8), for the M + 3 unknowns
j = 1,...,M,n = I,...,N [A ,,,, ] and/~1,2,3.

DECEMBER 1969 28Y

 Results of. (~omputations and their+Application
The procedure just described was programmed for the
I B M 7090 computer at the Naval Ship Research and
DevelopmeI~:Center. The program was designed to be
very flexible in the tasks it is required to perform and in
its input-output schemes. Primarily the program takes
as input a set of stations, each defined by a number of
offsets, and their locations along the length of the hull.
The program outputs the surface equation matrix [ A ~ ]
punched on cards.
For hydrodynamic applications, only the portion of
the hull from the design waterline on down is represented
by the surface equation. A Series 60 block 0.70 hull was
represented by a seven-term mapping surface equation.
The input consisted of 23 stations, each station being de-
fined by 15 offsets from the design waterline to the tan-
gent and an offset at each tenth of beam on the fiat bot-
tom from the keel to the tangent. This input was ob-
tained from the table of offsets given by Todd [13], and
Lagrange interpolation was used for additional input
points. The quality of this interpolation is only as good
as reading points off a lines plan. In the present applica-
tion, accurate interpolation is not required since small
errors are automatically smoothed out. In this case
( w i t h N = 7, P = 16 to 21, K = 23, M = 11) the neces-
sary I B M 7090 computation time to generate the
matrix [A,,,+] was 17 rain. Fig. 3 shows the inter-
mediate a seven-term mapping fits to the individual sta-
tions of the Series 60 block 0.70 hull, whereas Fig. 4 is
the fit obtained by the complete surface equation. The
difference between these two figures is barely discernable.
The degree of fit to the original data is generally very good
in both cases, considering the paucity of the data points.
Except for small discrepancies '~ at the design waterline
for some stations, it is difficult to say from Fig. 4 whether
the surface equation or the set of input points is a better
representation of the actual ship hull, when one con-
siders that the input points themselves are not really
fair. Figs. 5-7 show the polynomial approximations to
the mapping coefficients a~. Table 1 is the surface equa-
tion matrix [A~=] for the series 60 block 0.70 hul[ up to
the design waterline.
I t is important to note that r-~ther sparse and rough
data were used to generate the hull-surface equations, yet
they exhibit all the essential details of the hull. These
surface equations can now be used directly in several hy-
drodynamic applications [6,7,12], or alternatively one
can recompute the mapping function coefficients a~ for a
section anywhere along the ship, to use in some two-
dimensional hydrodynamic calculations [4,8]. In this
way the designer can study the hydrodynamical effects
of many of the features he desires to incorporate into the
4i.e., before lengthwise polynomial smoothing of the coefficients ships with very large bulbs. In the computer-aided de-
a,, has taken place.
5 These are inevitable, since the mapping has the property that
its tangent is vertical at the waterline, whereas the given data in no "wiggles" in the lines, so once a hull form evolves
general have a nonvertical tangent.
288
hull geometry without having to make up all elaborate
and accurately faired set of lines.
Suggested Design Applications
These surface equations can be used as the basis of a
computer-aided design procedure. The design process
would make use of an "active graphics-computer" sys-
tem, which essentially consists of a screen on which
drawings can be made using a "light pen." These
drawings are automatically digitized and stored in the
machine. Alternatively, digitized data from the com-
puter can be displayed graphically on the screen. Given
only a waterline curve, the keel line, and a section area
curve as initial input, a unique Lewis Form (LF) ship
can easily be generated using the method described in this
paper. The Lewis Forms are fairly good first approxi-
mations to ships except those with very large bulbs (see
Appendix 2). The complete lines of this LF ship are
then displayed on the screen and the designer, using the
light pen, superimposes on these lines whatever changes
are deemed necessary. The computer then fits this
ship with a new mapping function which incorporates as
m a n y coefficients as necessary to yield satisfactory re-
suits, using the LF ship as the initial guess. A new set of
lines is now computed from this new surface equation and
displayed on the screen. Again the designer can make
whatever changes are necessary simply by "drawing"
the new lines on the screen. A new surface equation is
generated using the previous one as the starting guess.
Some of the features in this procedure that make it
look very promising are that LIP ships are good starting
points, the mapping functions used require only a few
coefficients to represent a wide variety of section shapes,
and computations necessary can be performed rapidly
enough by the computer so that a "conversational"
mode of operation between the designer and computer
is possible. To be more specific, since the Lie ship is al-
ready a good representation of the desired ship, the de-
signer would only make gradual changes in the lines.
This would have the dual effect of ensuring more control
and stability of the iteration process, and very fast com-
putation of the surface equation at each step. The
present program can generate an LF ship in approxi-
mately one minute. To go from the LF ship to the final
surface equation takes about four minutes per coefficient
in the mapping function for a Series 60 hull.
The accuracy of the representation of any given cross
section is primarily a function of the number of input
offsets and the number of terms retained in the mapping
function. If a section is given and the designer wants to
incorporate that section almost exactly as given, theft
surely he would have available many input offsets which
would then allow him to retain many terms in the map-
ping function to fit the given form very accurately.
Smith [12] has demonstrated this with cross sections of
sign process though, the onb r requirement is that there be
which has the desired geometric characteristics, then this
JOURNAL OF SHiP RESEARCH
 % i :

Fig. 3 Intermediate s e c t i o n w i s e seven-term fits to Series 6 0 hull up to d e s i g n w a t e r l i n e

t-

Fig. 4 Final surface equation fit to Series 6 0

huh is exactly defined by the surface equation and off-
sets may be iuterpolated to any desired degree of ac-
curacy.
If a huli has a long parallel middlebody, it is unde-
sirable to fit the entire middlebody by a lengthwise poly-
nomial because this might introduce small wobbles in the
waterlines. To eliminate this problem, the hul[ can be
divided into three sections, the forebody, the parallel
middlebody, and the afterbody; the forebody and the
afterbody can then each be fitted by the surface equation
the polynomials of which are constrained (using the con-
straining procedure described in an earlier section,
Polynomial F i t t i n g . . . ) ~,o go through the middlebody
section -rod have zero slope and curw~ture there. One
can then insert any length parallel middlebody desired
and be assured that the entire ship fits together smoothly
at least to the second degree. Moreover, computation
time is reduced by this device since only one middlebody
section need be fitted by the mapping function and this
can be done separately, once and for all, for all ships
which use this p-~rticular section. In our example of the
Series 60 block 0.70 hull, this feature was not utilized,
rod four identical middlebody section,s were fitted.
Each of these consumed about one minute of com-
purer time. Thus a savings of three minutes could have
been affected if the constraining procedure were used.

DECEMBER 1969 289

 I-- $[R|[$ 6Q, 6LO~K 70, L / 8 : T.IS, |/T : |.! |YFI)-I$) --~
ttlU
i i
~--e-----e

O,Q6,

Q Y~

G.e41
/
D.|S
//, !
ti I
, !
r/
ii
t !
!
\
I

0I~,
t
-I,00
I
-0,$0 *0.40
J
*0.40
l
*O.lO 0 O,IO
l
0.40
I
O,eO O.lO S.OO
I_ TRANS. c o ( f t . 1.o [

I I

.OSO

/
.IS
/ i
' ! I \
-.OSO

-.lOG
\
-*150 t I

-,3gO

-,460

-,JO0
-t.O0 *0,10
l
-0,10 -0,40 -0,20 0 O,IO 0.40 O,eO O. eO bOO
I TRAH$. o ( r r . z.o I

Fig. 5 Mapping coefficients a~, a2 for Series 60. Circles denote intermediate values at input stations; solid curves give lOth
degree polynomial fit to these points

I t should be mentioned t h a t in the design procedure t h e is vertical. This is of no consequence in hydrodynamic

waterlines, b u t t o c k lines, a n d the cross sections can all
be d i s p l a y e d on the screen but, due to the n a t u r e of t h e
surface-equation fitting process, only the cross sections
need or should be t a m p e r e d with. T h e m a p p i n g fuuction
has the p r o p e r t y t h a t the t a n g e n t a t the waterline cor-
responding to ~ = 0, i.e., t h e u p p e r m o s t waterline used,
applications because we do not need such extreme
accuracy. For design and construction e~pplication we
get around this by the simple device of extending the ship
to a waterline above the uppermost part of the hull. The
vertical tangent only occurs in the immediate neighbor-
hood of this waterline, l~roper slope of the sections is

290 JOURNAL OF SHIP R E S E A R C H

 ...... r
-'~i i ---- !

.9
J I \
--05011

-.lOO~

-.190
jJ
-.zoc

-.zso

-,5oo

-.$go

-.400

-,4fO

".|DO
-l,OO *0,$0 -0.@0 -0.40 -0.|0 0 O.tO 0.40 0.@0 0.@0 I.1~@

TRANS. COEFK. 3.0 _1

.1~4@ J

.030 I
/

.O~O

O[OI
/
.@
/ /S
-I.00 -O.S~ -0.00 -0.40 "0.|0 @ 0.80 0.40 9.@0 0.60 @.~@
I_ T~ANS. COEKK. 4.0 !

Fig. 6 Mapping coe0ficients aa, a~ for Series 60

very quickly -,ttailmd -~way from the uppermost water-
line. To illustrate this, the complete Series 60 block
0.70 hull (from the keel to an artifiei~l waterline above
the uppermost deck) was fitted with a seven-term map-
ping surface equ-~tion. The input was obt'~ined as be-
fore, using 16 offsets for stations at the bow and stern
and up to 22 offsets for st'~tions at, midships. There ~re
23 stations and the degree of the polynomials is 10. The
surface equation fit to the input data for this ease is
shown in Fig. 8. The fit to the last station can be im-
proved by supplying more and better input data, which
would be provided automatically in our design process.
A filial suggestion for an important design "~pplieation
of these surface equations is in fairing of lines. I t is

DECEMBER 1969 291

 .t)Im

,IDSS
i

i
f
/
.oso

.oos

+,,,.~ ..-+----~
.0

-.oos
-! *00 -O.lO *O.lO -O,4O *0,10 0,10 0.40 0.II0 OoOO l*O0

I TRANS. CO[TF. S.o I

,04Q+

I
.ISSl
!+
.Qll

/, +
.Q,L~

/r
.OlS
1
/
O0.q
/

-.~

-bOO *O.lO *O,lO *0.40 -O.lO O.lO 0.40 O.lO 0.80 hOll
l TRAHS. CO(TIP. I.O I

! I

,olto
]
i i

oO2S~
1
*010

.1201

.II v 0 C 0

[
-.008
I la
1
| II
-J . 0 0 -O.llO *O.O0 -0.40 *0,|0 0,|0 0.40 II.tg

I_ TRANS, c o [ F T , ~.o I

Fig. 7 Mapping coefficients as, as, a7 for Series 60

292 J O U R N A L OF SHIP RESEARCH

 Table 1 Surface Equation Matrix [Am.] for Series 60, Block 0.70
Coefficienisof s "~-~
Mapping coefficient --~
~ = 1 n = 2 n = 3 n = 4 n = 5 n = 6 n = 7

m= l 0.14530 0.01467 --0.01970 --0.00077 0.00031 --0.00006 0.00016

m=2 --0.00015 0.00185 0.00268 0.00010 --0.00127 --0.00050 0.00005
m=3 --0.00335 0.00772 0.01853 0.00685 --0.00508 --0.00283 --0.00000
m=4 --0.06112 --0.05428 0.02023 0.01621 0.01322 0.00533 --0.00407
m=5 --0.27217 --0.16829 0.16569 0.03887 0.01753 0.02798 --0.00530
0.18437 0.22342 0.00471 --0.03720 --0.04248 --0.01447 0.02358
m=7 0.30304 0.12709 --0.38716 --0.12755 --0.01046 --0.06029 0.02935
71l ~ 8 --0.21302 --0.29883 --0.03414 0.05827 0.06050 0.00708 --0.04548
m=9 --0.18395 --0.09676 0.33397 0.15358 --0.00726 0.03772 --0.05501
m= 10 0.08761 0.12576 0.00557 --0.03722 --0.02799 0.00530 0.02740
m = 11 0.06474 0.05860 --0.11160 --0.07121 0.00765 0.00071 0.03243

Fig. 8 Final surface equation fit to complete Series 60 hull up to uppermost deck

ofteIt desired to change--perh'~ps in a m a j o r w a y - - M a s s a n d D a m p i n g Coefficients for Cylinders Oscillating

certain seetions of an ah'eady existing hull. I t is then
necessary to fair in the r e m a i n d e r of the hull s m o o t h l y
to a e e o m m o d a t e these changes. This procedure becomes
v e r y simple using the c o n s t r a i n t procedure deseribed in
an earlier section (PolynomiM F i t t i n g . . . ) , and t h e p o l y -
nomiM fits to each coefficient a~ a u t o m a t i c a l l y p r o v i d e
the required smoothing.
References
1 J . E . I(erwin, " P o l y n o m i a l Surface R e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of A r b i t r a r y Ship F o r m s , " JOm~NAL Ole SHU' RESEAllCH,
vol. 4, no. 2 , J u n e 1960.
2 W. P~. Porter, " P r e s s u r e Distributions, A d d e d -
in a F r e e Surface," I n s t i t u t e of Engineering Rese~rch,
U n i v e r s i t y of California R e p o r t , J u l y 1960.
3 R. T. Bermejo, " A d d e d M a s s a n d D a m p i u g Co-
efficients for Ships H e a v i n g in S m o o t h W a t e r , " M a s s a -
chusetts I n s t i t u t e of T e c h n o l o g y - - N A M E R e p o r t 65-5,
J u n e 1965.
4 L. Vassilipoulos, " T h e AnMytieal P r e d i c t i o n of
Ship P e r f o r m a n c e in R a n d o m Seas," M I T D e p a r t m e n t of
N a v a l A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d M a r i n e Engineering, C a m -
bridge, Mass., F e b r u a r y 1964.
5 E. O. Tuck, " T h e S t e a d y M o t i o n of a Slender
S h i p , " P h . D . Thesis, Cambridge, E n g l a n d , June 1963.
6 E . O . T u e k a n d C. y o n Kerezek, "Streamlines a n d
Pressure D i s t r i b u t i o n on A r b i t r a r y Ship Hulls a t Zero

DECEMBER 1969 293

 Froude N u m b e r , " JOURNAL OF SHIP I"{,ESEARCH, VOI. 4,
no. 3, September 1968.
7 T. Jinnaka, "On Streamlines Around Ship
Hulls," Journal o.f Zosen Kiokai, vol. 112, pp. 102-114,
T R G translation by H. Eda.
8 L. Landweber and M. Maeagno, "Added Mass of
Two-Dimensional Forms by Conformal Mapping,"
JOURNAL OF SHIP RESnA~CH, VO1. 11, no. 2, June 1967.
9 J . E . Kerwin, J. Gerritsm:~, and J. N. Newman,
"Polynomial Representation and D a m p i n g of Series 60
Hull Forms," International Shipbuilding Progress, vol. 9,
no. 95, July 1962.
10 D. Hoffman, "Distribution of Wave-Caused H y -
drodynamic Pressures and Forces on a Ship Hull," Nor-
wegian Ship Model Experiment T a n k Publication N u m -
ber 94, October 1966.
11 L. Landweber and M. :V[acagao, " A d d e d Mass of
Two-Dimensional Forms Oscillating in a Free Surface,"
JOURNAL OF SHIP RESEARCH, VO1. 1, no. 4, N o v e m b e r
1957.
12 W. E. Smith, "Computation of Pitch and Heave
Motions for Arbitrary Ship Forms," International Ship-
building Progress, vol. 14, no. 155, July 1967.
13 P . H . Todd, "Series 60, i\/Iethodical Experiments
with Models of Single Screw M e r c h a n t Ships," D T M B
I~eport 1712, Carderoek, Md., July 1963.
14 D. L. Fl'magan and O. V. Hefner, "Surf,tee Mold-
i n g - N e w Tool for the Engineers," Astronautics and
Aeronautics, vol. 5, no. 4, April 1967.
Appendix 1
Solution of 9 Z ( ~ , a~) = 0 for ~
Given ~ set of N coefficients a~, we wish to solve the
transcendental equation
N N
9~(~; a~) = ~ ~ a,a,(3 -- 2l) sin [2(n -- l)~o~]
n=l l=l
N Fig. 9 it is easy to see t h a t for m a n y input points there
-- ~ -- 2l)[x~ sin (3 -- 21)~]
1=1 a,(3
- - y~ cos [(3 -- 2 l ) ~ ] = 0
for ~ . Recall t h a t the roots of this equation minimize
for a given set of a,'s the square error E~(a~,~) at (x~,y~),
where
E~(a~,~) = {x~ - , = an cos [(3 -- 2n)~o~] ;
-- {y ~ - ,'n~_r1 a, sin [(3 -- 2 n ) ~ ]
We find ~ by using a version of inverse interpolation in
which we carry out the interpolating process directly on
E,(a~,~,) instead of on ~(~,,a~) = 0. To illustrate this,
suppose we wtmt to find ~, correspondi~tg to (x~,y,) and
t h a t ~-1, corresponding to (x,_,,y~_~), is known. ~_~ is
always known if we work sequentially from the top water-
line where ~ = 0 to the keel where ~e = --~r/2. Let
294
A~ = ( ~ - l -- ~,_2)/10 (if i = 2, let A~ arbitrarily be
one tenth of n degree). T h e n calculate the sequence
E,(aj,~;~_I -- z~o), Ei(a~,~Oi_l), . . .,
E~(aj,,-1 d- K A y ) (11)
stopping wheu
for some integer K. Repe'~t the procedure using A~' in
place o f / ~ where
A~' = A~/10
begimfing with E~[aj,~_~ q- (K -- 2)A~] and continuing
until
E,[aj,~,~_~ + (K - 2)A~, + La,,']
> E~[aj,~,o~_~ q-- (K -- 2)A~ + (L -- 1)A~']
for some integer L. Repeat again with
A~" = A~'/10
Supposing t h a t the third repetition of the process ends at
the N ' t h step, we take our estimate for the root ~, as
~,~ ~ ~,~-1 + (K - 2 ) ~ + (L - 2)zx~'
+ (N - 1)zx~,"
A necessary condition for this method to work is that the
terms in the sequence (11) begin to decrease. This will
be the ease as long as the form determined by the a/s is a
reasonably good approximation to the input data. I n
particular, the only ease encountered where an adequate
approximation of the ~ / s was unattainable involved sec-
tions with a bulb so large t h a t the initial Lewis F o r m
guess for the section was of a "tmmeled-bulbous nature"
(see Appendix 2). As an example of this, consider the
section defined by the small circles in Fig. 9. The solid
curve is the Lewis Form corresponding to this section,
having the same beam, draft and area. On examining
are two points on this Lewis F o r m for which E~(a;,~) has
a local minimum. For example, consider points A and B.
(9) If we are proceeding from waterline to keel, then the
angle for A is ~ and that for B is ~b~, while if we were to
proeeed from keel to waterline then A -+ ~,,~ and B ~ ~ .
I n either ease one of the angles may be said to be a
" b a d " approximation, but more importantly a careful
examination of the figure reveals that, if we proceed
from waterline to keel, every point following A will be
assigned an angle ~ which is either ~ , or very close to it.
}2 (10) The result, is a very large gap between ~0~ and ~, onto
which no data points are mapped. This large gap in the
angles ~ will cause a form to be generated which fits all
the data points very well, but which has a loop (the form
is self-intersecting) between two data points near the gap.
I n the ease shown in Fig. 9 a gap in ~ of about 40 deg
occurs between the keel and point C, and the resulting
10-term mapping function has the form shown in Fig. 10.
If the calculations were carried out first from waterline
JOURNAL OF SHIP RESEARCH
 .02 o2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
J i I l ]
-0.2
o
~0~4:
--O

~O -06

A -0 8

-'o J
' )---------- l'-
C ~.al ._~,,a I
-

~,
. . _~b 1-7- Cbl -~c
B 9-r
#

~..
C 00
~ .
~3 I i
I I
X Fig. 10

Cb2
I The Newton-Raphson (N-R) iteration on ~(~,as) = 0
]Fig.9
to keel and then keel to waterline, and the ~ for each
(x~,y0 chosen which gives the smaller E~(aj,~), then the
gap in ~ would only be shifted to a different spot ( be-
tween e,, and eb, in Fig. 9) and the same phenomenon
would still occur. In order to avoid this phenomenon, the
Lewis Form used for the first approximation is restricted
to a form such as in Fig. 11 and described in Appendix
2, having less section area than the given data would in-
dicate, but without the objectionable "tunneled-bulbous"
property.
has been programmed as an alternative method for com-
puting approximations of the ~ ' s ; the corresponding
subroutine is called on automatically if, and only if, the
interpolation method should fail to converge for any
reason. Although the N-R iteration takes only about
one third the iterations to find ~ , it takes about the same
amount of time since there are roughly three times as
m a n y arithmetic operations to perform as in the interpo-
lation. The main reason for not using the N-R iteration
is that d ~ / d ~ might vanish for some ~ in (-7r/2,0),
causing this method to fail. I t is worth noting that the
N-R iteration would not work any better than interpola-
tion in the troublesome case just described, since the
N-R iteration depends on a starting guess which will be
necessarily the same as that used in the interpolation

DECEMBER 1969 295

 3
Z = ~ an~"(3-2n) (12)
n=l

where
al = 1/2(b ~- H ) - a~

O a2 = '/2(b - H) (13)
-----O a~ = --~/4(b + H) + 1/4
O
X [ (b+H)2+8 (
bH-- 2-S
7;"
)F
Dividing (13) by the draft H yields new coefficients
a.~
2 ax' = H,a~.' = H, a n d a a ' -

as functions of two characterizing parameters of the form,

H

the half-beam/draft ratio, X = b / H , and the section-area

coefficient, (r = S / 2 b H . Thus, dispensing with the
primes, we have

:\ al = 1/.~(X + 1) - a3
a2 = 1/2(X -- 1) (14)
a3 = --I/4 ()k -~- 1) -~ 1/4
O
[(x + 1)2 + Sx ( 1 - -4
) 1 ~1 / " 7 r
:
The Lewis Forms may be categorized into the four
shapes shown in Fig. 12, and the ranges of the parameters
X, a which generate each shape are shown in Fig. 13.
The reentrant form is characterized by the property
that x < 0 (shown) and/or y > 0 (not shown) for some
fit the 4th quadrant. From (12)
x = ( a l + a _ ~ ) c o s ~ + a3cos3~
and
y = (al -- a2) sin ~o -- a3 sin 3~o
O
Equation (14) and the requirement that x >_ 0 and y < 0
for - 7r/2 _< ~ _< 0 yields the inequalities

a3 < } for x > 0

Fig. 11
and (15)

a3_< l f o r y < 0
method. With such a starting guess the iteration will
go to the nearest minimum, which results in the same
Thus to avoid reentrant forms we take the first of (15) if
bad approximations for ~ ' s as the iaterpolation.
X < l and the seeond of (15) if X > 1. In terms of the
half-beam/draft ratio and section-area coefficient we
have, for X _< 1
Appendix 2
)X
( > --'/4(X1 ~- 1) ~- -1/4[(X -~- 1)2 -t- 8)~ - - 4* / cr
2)-1
A Nofe on Lewis Forms 4-- ~r
A Lewis Form is defined by the mapping or

296 JOURNAL OF SHIP RESEARCH

 / S
G= --
2bfl
2.0 /
NONSYMMETRIC
I

REENTRANT
r~0,29 ~i~ CONVENTI
0,7 ONAL
1.0

CONVENTIONAL

REENTRANT

=
1
TUNNELED-
BULBOUS
o~ 1.0
BULBOUS 0.0 1.0 2.0
(Z 1.15
b

tf

Fig. 12 T y p e s o f L e w i s Forms; ~ = 0.5 Fig. 13 R a n g e s o f X and ~ for different types o f L e w i s F o r m s

or, using (14),

a~ (2 - x) (la)
~>-U_9 0 < X8 aq-
~a < 1
and for X > 1 -- 12aa --
Simih, rly, y'(~) = 0 for some ~ in (-- ~-/9., O) if
1 >_ - - ( X + 1) + [(X + 1 ) 2 + 8 X ( 1 -- 4' / ~c~-)~] r
1 q- 8aa
0 < - - < 1
12aa
which yields -- --

Thus conventional forms are obtained when

>_ ~ 9. - (17)
< aa < x
8 - _ ~ and X _< 1 (18)
Forms on the borderline between the reentrant and non-
reentrant e~tegories are eusped at the waterline or the or whelz
keel.
i < aa < 1
The next two categories are eonventiomd forms, in 8- _~mdX> 1 (19)
which x ~md y are monotone functions of ~o, and bulbous
forms, with x not nmnot(me. A third category, which We have showll previously theft aa > h/4 for X < 1 and
is nob shown in Fig. 12, is the "ttmneled" form. Tun- aa > 1/4 for X > 1 are the conditions aeeessary for re-
neled forms are not shown since they are similar to bul- elttrant forms. These condition, s occur again here since
bous forms turned clockwise through 90 deg. The reentrant forms also have the property t h a t z a n d / o r y
definition of eoaventiona[ forms requires theft, x'(~) ~ 0 t~re not monotone in ~. Substituting (18) for aa in the
and y'(~o) ~ 0 for every ~oin ( - rr/2, 0),while for bulbous third equation of (14) yields
forms x'(~) = 0 for some ~ in (-- r/2, 0). IF'or tummled
forms y'(~) = 0 for some ~ in (-- rr/9", 0).]
Now :c'(~) = 0 for some ~ in ( - 7r/2, 0) if -< a2 \ + (9.0)

ai H- a.., H- 9aa -- 12aa sin 2 qo = 0 Similarly for (19), and we get

This is satisfiied if
~ <3 +
3~-(
32 1 ) - (21)
0 < a i + a.,+ 9aa < 1
-- 12aa -- The eonventioTml forms then are obtained whetl a and

DECEMBER 1969 297

lie in the region which is the intersection of the half-planes
defined by the inequalities (16), (17), (20) and (21).
~=~ x+~+lo ) (20)
From their definition, we see that the bulbous forms are
obtained when X < 1 mid If

3+ <~<~ 3+ )
The tunneled forms ure obtained when X > 1 und then the radical ill the formula for a3 is negative and a~ is
complex, which violates one of our symmetry condi-
3+ _<~_<~ 3+ tions. Therefore, the upper bound of ~ that still gives
symmetric Lewis Forms is given by (20). I t is interest-
The last category, forms which are both tumteled and ing to note that the formula (13) for a3 comes from the
bulbous, are characterized by x'(~) = 0 and y'(~) = 0 solution of a quadratic equation, and the second root of
for some ~ in ( - 7r/2, 0). Therefore the range of X aud this equation is
for which such forms are obtained is given by
. . . .
~>32 3+ andX_< 1
Such forms are not considered since it can be shown that
and they are looped, i.e., that they intersect themselves at a
point within the 4th quadrant.
> ~2 3 + andX > 1 In the application of the Lewis Forms as the starting
guess in our iteration, only those forms are used that lie
The upper boundary of the region in which the tun- in the region which gives bulbous, conventionM, or
neled-bulbous forms occur defines forms with a cusp at tunneled forms. If ~ should fall outside this region for
some value of ~ in the open interval ( - w / 2 , 0 ) . . , I t can any section, then as the initial guess for this section we
be shown that this occurs when choose the Lewis Form which corresponds to the point
on the boundary of this region nearest to ~ for the given
a~ = -'/4(x + 1) X. This works adequately even for very severe bulbs
that is, when where ~ is well into the region of nonsymmetric forms.

298 JOURNAL OF SHIP RESEARCH