Experiment No: 1.

Experiment based on levers

Aim: To find out the mass of the given meter scale.

Apparatus required: Meter scale (graduated in centimeter and millimeter), spring balance.

Theory:

The body whose gravitational mass is said to be determined is suspended from the hook of
the spring balance. The body stretches the spring due to its weight and the point moves down. The
weight is proportional to the gravitational mass. The position of the pointer gives the value of the
gravitational mass of the body.

Procedure:

1. Suspend the spring balance of a rigid support.

2. Note the least count of the spring balance and zero error, if any.
3. With the help of a thin thread, suspend the meter scale at 50 cm and note the pointer reading
from the scale of spring balance.
4. Repeat the same at least thrice and take the mean of the observations recorded.

Precautions:

1. The pointers of the spring balance without load, should preferably indicate 0 g. Adjust the
scale up or down to bring the pointer at zero.
2. Changes in calibration: As the gravitational mass, m along with the acceleration due to
gravity, g constitute weight of the body, w i.e, w = mcx g, the gravitational weight can vary
from one place to another. It means that scale calibrated at one place not be accurate at other
places for the determination of w.

Result:

The mass of the given meter scale is -------------------------------------------- g.

Diagram:

Observation:

Lest count of the spring balance = 0.1 N

Error in the spring balance = - g

Correction to be applied = - g

Observed gravitational mass = (i) ---------- g

(ii) ----------- g

(iii) ---------- g

Mean gravitational mass (m) = ---------------- g

Corrected gravitational mass (mc) = ------------ g

 Experiment No: 1.2

Experiment based on levers

Aim: To determine the weight of a given object.

Apparatus required: A meter scale, a wooden wedge, known weights, given objects and thread.

Procedure:

1. Place the meter scale on a wooden wedge and adjust its position till the scale become
horizontal.
2. Mark its position on the scale as centre of gravity.
3. Suspend the known weight w1 (gf) at a point 10 cm away from one end of the meter scale by
a loop in the thread and suspend the given object on the other side by a loop in the thread.
4. Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure.
5. Adjust the object such that the meter scale is horizontal.
6. Measure the distance x which is the distance of the fulcrum from the known weight w1 and
the distance y the distance of the fulcrum from the object weight w.
7. Repeat the experiment for at least 4 or 5 other values of x and obtain the corresponding
values of y.

Value of known weight w1 = -------------

Applying the principle of moments we get

w1 x = w y

w = w1

Precautions:

1. The scale should be of uniform thickness.

2. While the position of known weight is shifted, care should be taken that the position of
fulcrum is not changed.
3. The scale must be properly balanced on the wedge.

Result:

The weight of given object, w = -------------------- gf.

Diagram:

Observation:

S.No Distance of the fulcrum Distance of the fulcrum x/y w = w1 (x/y) gf

from the known weight from the known weight
(w1)x cm (w)y cm

Mean w = ---------------------- gf
 Experiment No: 2

Frictional forces

Aim:

To find downward force along the inclined plane acting on a trolley, roller due to
gravitational pull of earth and study the relationship with the angle of inclination of inclined plane.

Calculate the mechanical advantage, MA = L/E and V.R = 1/sin from the measurements of
inclined plane.

Apparatus required:

An inclined plane fitted with glass top and a pulley, weighing pan, roller or trolley, thread,
meter scale, spring balance and a spirit level plane.

Theory:

Whenever one body tends to move over another body a force comes in to play which opposes
the relative motion. The force acts in a direction opposite to the direction of motion and is called the
force of friction. The magnitude of this force depends upon.

(i) Normal reaction

(ii) Nature of the two surfaces in contact

The magnitude of the maximum force of friction when the body is just on the point of motion
is called limiting force of friction.

Inclined plane apparatus:

This apparatus has a plane wooden surface (often provided with glass top) hinged with
another wooden surface. There is a slit cut through the central position of the base of the apparatus.
A pulley is fixed at the free end of the smooth surface. This slit allows a passage to any thread
coming down vertically through the pulley. There is a locking system to lock the inclined plane
surface in a desired position of its inclination.

When a body is pulled along an inclined plane by a force F

Work done = F x l
Where F = force applied and
l = distance moved along the plane
In this case, the body gains some potential energy.
Potential energy = mgh
Where m = mass of the body
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height gained
Using the law of conservation of energy, we can write :
 mgh = F x l
mg/F = l/h
Taking l = length of inclined plane
h =height of inclined plane
sin = h/l
where, = angle of inclination. Therefore mg/F = 1/sin
F= mgsin
F= Wsin
Where W = mg = weight of the body
Hence, knowing w and , one can calculate F.

Procedure:

(i) Find the weight of the given roller (w) and that of weighing pan (w0) with thy help of a
spring balance.
(ii) Pass a string over the pulley and attach a roller lying on the inclined plane to its one end
and weighing pan to the other end.
(iii) Set the inclined plane at some inclinations . Add weights in the weighing pan, continue
till the roller just begins to move on the inclined plane with a gentle tap. Set the weight in
the pan for upward motion of roller be w1. Now startdecreasing the weights in the weighing
pan and continue till the roller just begins to move down the inclined plane.et the weight
remaining in the pan be w2.
Thus average weight is (w1+w2) which when added to the weight of the pan w0gives
the applied force F.
F = w0 + (w1 + w2)
(iv) To find the value of sin , either measure the angle of inclination of the plane or directly
calculate it with the measurements of h and l.
(v) Set the inclined plane at another inclination and repeat this experiment to obtain at least
six sets of observations.
(vi) Plot a graph between sin and F. Hence find the weight of roller from the graph.
(vii) Compare the calculated weight of roller with the weight observed by using a spring
balance.
Precautions:

(i) The pulley should be frictionless as far as possible.

(ii) The thread should run freely without touching any thing
(iii) The top surface of the inclined plane should be clean, dry and smooth.
The weights loaded in the pan should be increased, decreased by small amounts.v) Observations of
weight in pan should be recorded only when the roller just begins to start move up or down at a slow
and steady pace.

Sources of error:
 (i) The friction in the pulley.
(ii) The roller can slip while moving on the surface of the inclined plane.

Result:

(i) Downward force along the inclined plane on the roller/ trolley due to the gravitational
pull of the earth, F = ----------- gf

= ---------- N

(ii) The graph of F versus sin is a straight line.

(iii) The slope of F versus sin, graph = F / sin = ----------- gf.

Weight of roller found with the help of spring balance = w = -------- gf

Difference w = --------- gf.

From the observations recorded in the observation table, it is seen that mechanical
advantage is slightly less than the velocity ratio (VR). The difference is due to the fact
that the inclined plane is not perfectly smooth. Force of friction is always present.

Diagram:

Calculations:

Zero error of spring balance = + 0.1 g

Zero correction + ----- g

Observed weight of the roller (w) = ----- g

Corrected weight of the roller (w) = -----g

Observed weight of pan (w0) = -------g

Corrected weight of pan (wo) = ----- g

Observation Table:

S.No Weights in the pan when the Gravitational Inclination Sin VR =

roller just starts moving force of the plane 1/Sin
(deg)
up Down F= w0+ M.a
obs corr obs Corr (w1+w2) =
F/w
w1(gf) w1(gf) w2(gf) w2(gf)

Experiment 3
Pulley system
Aim:
To determine the VR and MA of a given pulley system.
Apparatus required:

Pulley block and tackle, scale pan, weights, threads, spring balance.

Theory:

A pulley is a flat circular disc having a groove in its edge and capable of rotation about a
fixed axis passing through its centre called the axle. It may be wooden or metallic. A pulley or a
system of pulleys acts as a machine because it helps in multiplying force.

We may have a fixed pulley or a movable pulley. A single fixed pulley has a MA=1 and
hence does not multiply force. However it helps to change the direction of the applied force to a
convenient one. A single movable pulley actually consists of two pulleys one of which is fixed and
the other is movable and it has MA of 2.

For large MA, we use a Block and Tackle system of pulleys shown in the diagram. It consists
of two blocks carrying the pulleys. The upper block is either equal to or is one more than number of
pulleys in the lower block. A single inextensible and mass less rope passes over all the pulleys. The
load to be lifted is attached to lower movable pulley. The velocity ratio or MA of an ideal pulley
block and tackle is equal to the total number of pulleys in the two blocks or the number of segments
supporting the lower block. Actually however it is less due to (i) friction at the pulley and (ii) weight
of the lower block.

Procedure:

(i) Take a pulley and tackle in which the number of pulley can be adjusted. Make sure
that there is no friction at the pulleys. Oil the pulley, if need be support a weight of
say 500g from the lower block to serve as a load L. Take a string of a suitable length
and attach its one end to a hook in the lower block and pass it around the pulleys so
that free end of the string passes around the pulley in the upper block. The free end is
tied to a scale pan.
(ii) Find the weight of the scale pan with the help of a spring balance.
(iii) Put suitable weights in the scale pan so that the load L supplied from the lower end
block is supported. See that the scale pan does not touch the pulley or the block. Note
the weights in the pan. Repeat the experiment with at least three different loads.

Precautions:

(i) See that there is no friction at the pulleys.oil the pulleys if necessary.
(ii) The scale pan should not touch any part of that apparatus while in equilibrium.
(iii) Take the readings for the same load to reduce error due to friction.
(iv) Correction if any must be applied to the weight measured with the spring balance.

Result:

Efficiency of the pulley block and tackle system of pulleys = MA/VR x 100

Diagram :

Observation Table:

Least count of the spring balance = ---------

Zero error in the spring balance = -----------

Correct weight of the pan as measured with spring balance = w

 S.No Load L Weight in the pan Mean P Weight w Effort MA VR
in the equilibrium E=P+w
position
P1 P2

Mean MA = 1

VR = ---------

Experiment 4
Refraction through a glass slab
Aim:
To trace the course of different rays of light through a rectangular glass prism at different
angles of incidence, measure the angles of incidence, refraction and emergence. Also measure the
lateral displacement.
Apparatus:
Drawing board, sheet of paper pins, board pins, rectangular glass slab.
Theory:
Consider a rectangular glass slab PQRS in the diagram. A ray of light OA is incident at an
angle of incidence i with the normal NAM at the point of incidence A. This ray is refracted along AB
and is bent towards the normal because it is going from air to glass. The refracted ray again suffers
refraction at the surface SR and is bent away from the normal N1BM1 and emerges along BC which
is thus the emergent ray. The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but is displaced. The
distance between the incident ray produced forward and the emergent ray i.e., distance BL gives us
the lateral displacement. The various rays and the angles are as .shown.
NAO = i = angle of incidence
MAB = r = angle of refraction
BL = lateral displacement
Procedure:
(i) Fix a sheet of white paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins at the four
corners of the sheet.
 (ii) Place a glass slab at the centre of the paper and mark its boundary PQRS with a fine
pencil.
(iii) Remove the glass slab. Draw any line AO making an angle of 30 with the normal at the
point A, the middle point of PQ approximately.
(iv) Put the glass slab back in position on the boundary line. Fix two pins P1 and P2 vertically
on the line AO at least 10 cm apart- and one pin close to the slab.
(v) Look for the images of these pins in the slab from the opposite side SR and fix two pins
P3 and P4 so that they are in line with the images of P1 and P2 as seen through the slab
and at least 10 cm apart.
(vi) Join the pricks of P3 and P4 to obtain the emergent ray. Draw a normal to SR at the point
B. Join AB to get the refracted ray.
(vii) Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction and the angle of emergence. Produce
OA forward and draw a perpendicular from B on OA produced to meet it at L. Then
lateral displacement = BL.
(viii) Repeat the experiment with different angles of incidence say 45 and 60.
Precautions:
(i) All the pins must be fixed in a vertical position.
(ii) The pins must be at least 10 cm apart.
(iii) Arrow heads should be marked to show the direction of the light.
(iv) The pins P3 and P4 must be exactly in line with the images of the pins P1 and P2.
Result and Conclusion:
It is clear from the observation table that the displacement depends upon the angle of
incidence and the angle of refraction. Actually, it also depends upon the thickness of the glass slab.

Diagram:

Observation Table:
S.No Angle of Angle of Angle of Displacement
incidence (i) refraction (r) emergence (e) BL
 Experiment 5
Optics
(Refraction of light through lenses)
Aim:
To determine the focal length of a convex lens by the distant object method.
Apparatus required:
A convex lens, a white paper sheet (as screen), a half-meter scale, distant object (light from
building ) etc.
Theory:
A distant object gives a parallel beam of light rays. When these parallel light rays pass
through a convex lens, after refraction, they meet at the principal focus to form a real, inverted and
diminished image of the object on the screen.
The distance between the convex lens and the screen is the focal length, f of the convex lens.
Procedure:
(i) Take a convex lens and point it towards a lighted, distant object like a building.
(ii) Try to focus a sharp image of the object on a sheet of paper or a wall as screen
(iii) Using half-meter scale, measure the distance between the lens and the screen as the image
is formed at focus.
(iv) Take the mean distance to get focal length.
Result:
Focal length of convex lens by distant object method, f = -------- cm

Diagram:

Observation:
Distance between the lens and screen
d1 = -------cm
d2 = ------- cm
d3 = ---------cm
d4 = --------cm
Mean distance = d1 + d2 +d3 + d4
4
Focal length, f = ------- cm.
 Experiment 6
Convex lens - pin method
Aim:
To determine the focal length of a convex lens by using a needle and a plane mirror.
Apparatus Required:
A convex lens, a white paper sheet, a half meter scale, a plane mirror, a needle, optical bench.
Theory:
We know that a divergent beam of light from a point object O at focus F after passing
through a convex lens must emerge as a parallel beam of light parallel to the principal axis. If a plane
mirror is mounted behind the lens as shown in figure, then parallel beam is incident normally on the
mirror. It will retrace its path. The returning beam will converge at the principal focus where the
object is placed. The distance of object OL = focal length of the convex lens.
Procedure:
(i) Find the rough focal length of the lens.
(ii) Place the object needle, the convex lens and the plane mirror uprights on the optical
bench.
(iii) Adjust the position of the plane mirror upright to be just behind the convex lens.
(iv) Move the needle upright close to the lens and adjust its position so that it is
approximately at a distance equal to the rough focal length and the inverted image of
the needle is visible. Adjust the height of the needle of necessary. The needle is now
exactly at the focus of the convex lens.
(v) Note the position of the uprights carrying the object and the lens. The distance
between them gives us the focal length of the lens.
(vi) Repeat three times by changing the position of the lens.
Result:
Focal length of convex lens = ------ cm.

Diagram:

Observation Table:
S. No Position of the object Position of the lens F = OL
upright O upright L

Mean focal length F = ------

 Experiment 7
Convex lens u v method

Aim:

To find the focal length of a convex lens using u v method and the formula f =

Apparatus:
Optical bench, a thin convex lens, white screen and an illuminated object (candle or a
needle).

Theory:
In case of a convex lens, when an object is placed between F and 2F, a real, inverted
and enlarged image of the object is formed beyond 2F. By measuring the image distance v
and the object distance u, the focal length, f is calculated using the formula.

1 1 1 1
== == or focal length =

The proper sign conventions must be used.

Procedure:
i) Arrange the lens, screen and the object on the optical bench such that the lens
in between the screen and the candle.
ii) Adjust the height of the candle, lens and screen in such a way that the candle
flame, Centre of lens and the screen are on the same level.
iii) Focus the illuminated object on the screen. Adjust the position of the screen,
by to and from the movement along the optical bench, such that a clear image
of the object is formed on the screen.
iv) Measure the distance between the screen i.e. image and the lens v and also the
distance between the candle i.e. object and the lens u.
v) Repeat the experiment for different positions of the object and note down the
current values for u (object distance) and v(image distance) and find the focal
length, f of the convex lens using lens formula. In each observation the
position of the screen will also change.
Precautions:

i) Experiment should be performed in a dark room so that the bright image

appears clearly on the screen.
ii) Care should be taken that the candle flame is not disturbed by air currents.
iii) The optical centre of the lens, the candle flame and the centre of the screen
should be at the same height.
iv) Proper sign conventions must be applied.
Result:
The mean focal length, f = cm
 Diagram:

Observation table:

S.No Object distance(u) cm Image distance (v) cm Focal length, f = cm

According to sign convention u is ve and v is +ve

Mean f = cm

Experiment 8
Refraction of light rays through prism
Aim:
To trace the path of a ray of light through a prism and to show that i1 + i2 = A +

Apparatus:
Drawing board, pins, sheet of paper, board pins and a triangular equilateral prism.
Theory:
A ray of light after refraction at the two faces of a prism is deviated. The angle between the
incident and the emergent ray is called the angle of deviation. The value of the angle of
deviation depends on:
i) The angle of incidence, i
 ii) The material of the prism
iii) The colour or wavelength of the light.
iv) The angle of prism, A

For a certain angle of incidence, the angle of deviation, is minimum. This

position is called the position of minimum deviation of the prism with respect to the
incident ray.
For a triangular prism angle of incidence i1 + angle of emergence i2 = angle of
prism A + angle of deviation

i.e. i1 + i2 = A +

Procedure:
i) Fix a sheet of paper on the drawing board with drawing pins.
ii) Place the prism in the middle of the paper and draw its outline ABC. Measure
angles of ABC i.e. angle A,B and C and take their mean. This angle is A, the
angle of prism.
iii) Mark a point N on AB and draw the normal NN
iv) Draw a line NP such that NNP = 40
v) Place the prism again in its original position ABC.
vi) Fix two pins P1 and P2 around 10 cm apart.
vii) Look from side AC and erect two more pins P3 and P4 such that all the four
pins are in a straight line.
viii) Mark the positions of the pins by clearly encircling the points.
ix) Remove the prism.
x) Join P1 and P2 and produce it to meet, AB at N.
xi) Join P3 and P4 and produce it to meet the outline AC at a point N.
xii) Join N and N
xiii) Further, produce P1P2 and P3P4 to meet at D. this angle is the angle of
deviation.
xiv) Also measure e = i2= N2NP3
xv) Repeat the procedure for /_i = 50, 60 and 70 and measure i2 for each.
xvi) For each case, show that i1 + i2 = A +
Angle of the prism, A=
Precautions:
i) The prism should not be disturbed during the course of the experiment.
ii) The pins must be positioned in a perfectly vertical position and should be
around 10 cm apart from each other.
iii) The positions of the pins must be marked clearly by encircling the pin pricks.
iv) Arrow heads should be marked to show the direction of the light rays.
Conclusion:
It is verified that i1 + i2 = A + within experimental errors.

Diagram:
Observation table:
S.No Angle of Angle of Angle of i1+i2 A+
incidence i1 emergence(e)=i2 deviation

Experiment 9
Specific Heat Capacity

Aim:
To determine the specific heat capacity of the material of the given calorimeter.

Apparatus:
A calorimeter with stirrer, a Thermometer, a physical balance, a measuring cylinder
and some water.

Theory:
Heat losed or gained by a body = Mass of the body its specific heat capacity
change in temperature.
When two bodies at different temperatures are brought in contact, the heat lost by the
hot body is equal to the heat gained by the cold body, if there is no heat exchange with the
surroundings.
Thus, the heat lost by hot water = heat gained by calorimeter and its contents.
Procedure:
i) Fix the least count of the thermometer.
ii) Find the mass of the calorimeter with its stirrer by a physical balance.
iii) Put the calorimeter back in the case.
iv) Take some (say 60 cm3) luke warm water in the calorimeter using a measuring
cylinder and note down the initial temperature(T1) of calorimeter and contents.
v) Add the hot water at a temperature T2C( say 40 cm3 of water at 100C) in to
the calorimeter with care.
vi) Stir well the contents of calorimeter and note the final steady temperature as T.
vii) Specific heat capacity of the material of the calorimeter. For calculated, take
specific heat capacity of water as 4.25
Precautions:
i) Maximum cate must be taken so that there is no heat exchange with the
surroundings.
 ii) Cover the wooden box with its lid immediately after adding hot water in to the
calorimeter.
Result:
Specific heat capacity of the material of the calorimeter = .. Jg-1C-1

Diagram:

Observation:

Least count of thermometer = .

Least count of measuring cylinder = .
Heat lost by hot water =

Heat gained by calorimeter & its contents =

Specific heat capacity of the material of calorimeter =

Experiment 10
Specific Latent Heat

Aim:
To determine the specific heat of latent fusion of ice.

Apparatus:
A copper colorimeter with stirrer, a thermometer, a physical balance, a measuring
cylinder, some water and a blotting paper.

Theory:
Heat lost or gained by a body = mass of the body its specific heat capacity change
in temperature
Heat lost or gained by a body during phase change = mass of the body its specific
latent heat capacity
when two bodies at different temperature are bought in contact, the heat lost by hot
body in equal to the heat gained by the told body, if there is no heat exchange with the surroundings.
 Thus, the heat lost by calorimeter and water in the calorimeter = heat gained by ice added.

Procedure:
(i) Find the least count of the thermometer and measuring cylinder.
(ii) Note the room temperature.
(iii) Find the mass (m1) of the calorimeter with its stirrer by a physical balance.
(iv) Put the calorimeter back in the case. Take a fixed volume(v1) of hot water( say, 60
cm3of water at a temperature 10C above the room temperature) in the calorimeter
using a measuring cylinder.
(v) Stir the water well and note down the initial temperature (T1) of calorimeter and the
contents.
(vi) Add the ice pieces (dried with blotting paper) gently in to the water in the calorimeter.
Stir the calorimeter until whole ice melts.
(vii) Note the final steady temperature TC and the volume of water in the calorimeter as
v2 .
Precautions:
(i) Final temperature of the mixture should not fall 5C below the room temperature.
(ii) Cover the wooden box with its lid immediately after adding the ice pieces.
Result:
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice .

Diagram:

Observations:

Least count of thermometer =..

Least count of measuring cylinder = .
Room temperature = .
Mass of calorimeter with stirrer=..
Volume of warm water =
Mass of warm water = .

Specific heat capacity of copper =

Specific heat capacity of water = ..
Heat lost =

Heat gained by ice=

Specific latent heat of fusion of ice(L)=