Maurya Empire

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The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age

historical power founded by Chandragupta Maurya which Maurya Empire
dominated ancient India between c.322 and 187 BCE.
Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic 326 BCE180 BCE
Plain in the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent, the empire
had its capital city at Pataliputra (modern Patna).[2][3] The
empire was the largest to have ever existed in the Indian
subcontinent, spanning over 5 million square kilometres
(1.9 million square miles) at its zenith under Ashoka.

Chandragupta Maurya raised an army and with the assistance of

Chanakya (also known as Kauilya),[4] overthrew the Nanda
Empire in c.322 BCE and rapidly expanded his power
westwards across central and western India, taking advantage of
the disruptions caused by the withdrawal westward of
Alexander the Great's armies. By 316 BCE the empire had fully
occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the
Maurya Empire at its maximum extent
satraps left by Alexander.[5] Chandragupta then defeated the
invasion led by Seleucus I, a Macedonian general from Capital Pataliputra
Alexander's army, gaining additional territory west of the Indus (Present-day Patna, Bihar)
River.[6]
Languages Old Indic Languages (e.g.
The Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the world Sanskrit, Magadhi Prakrit,
Other Prakrits)
in its time. At its greatest extent, the empire stretched to the
north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, to the east Religion Hinduism
into Assam, to the west into Balochistan (southwest Pakistan Buddhism
and southeast Iran) and the Hindu Kush mountains of what is Jainism
now Afghanistan.[7] The Empire was expanded into India's jvika
central and southern regions[8][9] by the emperors Chandragupta Government Absolute monarchy as
and Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored described in Chanakya's
tribal and forested regions near Kalinga (modern Odisha), until Arthashastra
it was conquered by Ashoka.[10] It declined for about 50 years Emperor
after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BCE with the 322298 BCE Chandragupta
foundation of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. 298272 BCE Bindusara
268232 BCE Ashoka
Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and 232224 BCE Dasharatha
external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived 224215 BCE Samprati
and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and 215202 BCE Shalishuka
efficient system of finance, administration, and security. After 202195 BCE Devavarman
the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century 195187 BCE Shatadhanvan
of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also 187180 BCE Brihadratha
enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and
expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Historical era Antiquity
Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious Established 326 BCE
renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace Disestablished 180 BCE
of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the Area
reign of social and political peace and non-violence across all of 250 BCE[1] 5,000,000 km2
India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into (1,900,000 sq mi)
Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia[11] and Mediterranean Currency Panas
Europe.[5]
Preceded by Succeeded by
The population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50
60 million, making the Mauryan Empire one of the most Nanda Empire Shunga Empire
populous empires of Antiquity.[12][13] Archaeologically, the Mahajanapada Satavahana
period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Magadha dynasty
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra[14] Mahameghavahana
dynasty
and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written
Indo-Scythians
records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at
Sarnath has been made the national emblem of India.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya
1.2 Conquest of Magadha
1.3 Chandragupta Maurya
1.4 Bindusara
1.5 Ashoka
1.6 Decline
1.6.1 Shunga coup (185 BCE)
1.6.2 Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)
2 Administration
3 Economy
4 Religion
4.1 Hinduism
4.2 Buddhism
4.3 Jainism
5 Architectural remains
6 Natural history
7 Contacts with the Hellenistic world
7.1 Foundation of the Empire
7.2 Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 317316 BCE)
7.3 Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)
7.3.1 Marital alliance
7.3.2 Exchange of presents
7.4 Greek population in India
7.5 Buddhist missions to the West (c. 250 BCE)
7.6 Subhagasena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)
8 Timeline
9 In literature
10 See also
11 Notes
11.1 Sources
12 External links

History
Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya

The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with help from Chanakya, at Takshashila. According
to several legends, Chanakya travelled to Magadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily powerful and feared by
its neighbors, but was insulted by its king Dhana Nanda, of the Nanda dynasty. Chanakya swore revenge and
vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire.[15] Meanwhile, the conquering armies of Alexander the Great refused to cross
the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to
Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus River. Soon after Alexander died in Babylon in
323 BCE, his empire fragmented,[16] and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited
satraps.

The Greek generals Eudemus and Peithon ruled until around 317 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help
of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) utterly defeated the Macedonians and consolidated the region under the
control of his new seat of power in Magadha.[5]

Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On one hand, a number of ancient
Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa (Poem of Rakshasa Rakshasa was the prime minister of
Magadha) by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan
known as the Maurya's are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any
conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as
"Sandrokottos". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander.[17] He is also said to have met the Nanda king,
angered him, and made a narrow escape.[18] Chanakya's original intentions were to train a guerilla army under
Chandragupta's command. The Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta as well as the Jaina work Parishishtaparvan talk of
Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus [19][20][21][22]

Conquest of Magadha

Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. Using his
intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha and other provinces, men
upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana Nanda, plus the resources necessary for his army to fight
a long series of battles. These men included the former general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the
representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the rulers of small states. The Macedonians
(described as Yona or Yavana in Indian sources) may then have participated, together with other groups, in the
armed uprising of Chandragupta Maurya against the Nanda dynasty. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well
as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, often
identified with Porus.[23] This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite and powerful army made up of
Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Nepalese), Parasikas (Persians) and Bahlikas
(Bactrians) who took Pataliputra (also called Kusumapura, "The City of Flowers"):[24][25]

"Kusumapura was besieged from every direction by the forces of Parvata and Chandragupta: Shakas,
Yavanas, Kiratas, Kambojas, Parasikas, Bahlikas and others, assembled on the advice of Chanakya" in
Mudrarakshasa 2 [26][24]

With the help of these elements from Central Asia, Chandragupta was apparently able to defeat the Nanda/Nandin
rulers of Magadha so as to found the powerful Maurya Empire in northern India.

Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya came up with a strategy. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army
was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage with Maurya's forces. Maurya's general and spies
meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to create an atmosphere of civil war in the
kingdom, which culminated in the death of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular
sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of
again. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to
Magadha, not to the Nanda dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also reiterated that choosing to
resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's
reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became
Chandragupta's chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman.

The approximate extent The Maurya Empire Chandragupta extended Bindusara extended the
of the Magadha state in when it was first the borders of the borders of the empire
the 5th century BCE. founded by Maurya Empire towards southward into the
Chandragupta Maurya Seleucid Persia after Deccan Plateau c.
c. 320 BCE, after defeating Seleucus c. 300 BCE.[28]
conquering the Nanda 305 BCE.[27]
Empire when he was
only about 20 years old.

Ashoka extended into

Kalinga during the
Kalinga War c.
265 BCE, and
established superiority
over the southern
kingdoms.

Chandragupta Maurya

Chandragupta campaigned against the Macedonians when Seleucus I Nicator, in the process of creating the
Seleucid Empire out of the eastern conquests of Alexander the Great, tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of
India in 305 BCE. Seleucus failed (SeleucidMauryan war), the two rulers finally concluded a peace treaty: a
marital treaty (Epigamia) was concluded, in which the Greeks offered their Princess for alliance and help from
him. Chandragupta snatched the satrapies of Paropamisade (Kamboja and Gandhara), Arachosia (Kandhahar) and
Gedrosia (Balochistan), and Seleucus I Nicator received 500 war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his
victory against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established
and several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court.
Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with an administration
at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a
wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers". Aelian, although not
expressly quoting Megasthenes nor mentionning Pataliputra, described
Indian palaces as superior in splendor to Persia's Susa or Ectabana.[29]. The
architecture of the city seems to have had many similarities with Persian
cities of the period.[30]

Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire

towards southern India. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam
literature described how the Deccan Plateau was invaded by the Maurya
army.[31] He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named
Megasthenes.[32]

Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who

live simply, honestly, and do not know writing:

"The Indians all live frugally, especially when in camp. They dislike
a great undisciplined multitude, and consequently they observe good
order. Theft is of very rare occurrence. Megasthenes says that those
who were in the camp of Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men,
found that the thefts reported on any one day did not exceed the The Pataliputra capital, showing Greek
value of two hundred drachmae, and this among a people who have and Persian influence, early Maurya
no written laws, but are ignorant of writing, and must therefore in all Empire period, 4th-3rd century BC.
the business of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, happily
enough, being simple in their manners and frugal. They never drink
wine except at sacrifices. Their beverage is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley, and their food is
principally a rice-pottage." Strabo XV. i. 5356, quoting Megasthenes.

Bindusara

Bindusara was the son of the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya and his queen Durdhara. During his
reign, the empire expanded southwards. According to the Rajavalikatha, a Jain work, the original name of this
emperor was Simhasena. According to a legend mentioned in the Jain texts, Chandragupta's Guru and advisor
Chanakya used to feed the emperor small doses of poison with his food to build his immunity against possible
assassination attempts by his enemies.[33] One day, Chandragupta, not knowing about the poison, shared his food
with his pregnant wife, who was 7 days away from delivery. The queen collapsed and died within few minutes.
Chanakya entered the room at the very moment she collapsed, and, in order to save the child in the womb, he
immediately cut open the dead queen's belly and took the baby out. By that time a drop of poison had already
reached the baby and touched its head, due to which the child got a permanent blueish spot (a "bindu") on his
forehead. Thus, the newborn was named "Bindusara".[34]

Bindusara, just 22 years old, inherited a large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern
parts of India along with parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Bindusara extended this empire to the southern part
of India, as far as what is now known as Karnataka. He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus
conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the 'land between the two seas' the
peninsular region between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea). Bindusara didn't conquer the friendly Tamil
kingdoms of the Cholas, ruled by King Ilamcetcenni, the Pandyas, and Cheras. Apart from these southern states,
Kalinga (modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that didn't form the part of Bindusara's empire. It was
later conquered by his son Ashoka, who served as the viceroy of Ujjaini during his father's reign.
Bindusara's life has not been documented as well as that of his father Chandragupta or of his son Ashoka.
Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his reign. According to the medieval Tibetan scholar
Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara "to destroy the nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms
and thus to become absolute master of the territory between the eastern and western oceans."[35] During his rule,
the citizens of Taxila revolted twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministration of Susima, his eldest
son. The reason for the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara could not suppress it in his lifetime. It was
crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's death.

Ambassadors from the Seleucid Empire (such as Deimachus) and Egypt visited his courts. He maintained good
relations with the Hellenic World.

Unlike his father Chandragupta (who at a later stage converted to Jainism), Bindusara believed in the Ajivika sect.
Bindusara's guru Pingalavatsa (Janasana) was a Brahmin[36] of the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's wife, Queen
Subhadrangi (Queen Aggamahesi) was a Brahmin[37] also of the Ajivika sect from Champa (present Bhagalpur
district). Bindusara is credited with giving several grants to Brahmin monasteries (Brahmana-bhatto).[38]

Bindusara died in 272 BCE (some records say 268 BCE) and was succeeded by his son Ashoka.

Ashoka

As a young prince, Ashoka (r.272 232 BCE) was a brilliant commander

who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Takshashila. As monarch he was
ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in southern
and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga (262261 BCE)
which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashoka's army
succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian
units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious
warfare, including over 10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of
thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout
of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began
feeling remorse. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed,
Ashoka embraced the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced war and
violence. He sent out missionaries to travel around Asia and spread
Buddhism to other countries.

Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent

sports activity and ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of Aoka pillar at Sarnath. ca. 250 BCE.
people in war-ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labour and
servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the
peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with
states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He
undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country.
Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the
most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an
idealized figure of inspiration in modern India.

The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent.
Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra
(Nellore District), Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments.
Ashoka pillar at Vaishali.
Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written in
Greek, and one in both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the
Greeks, Kambojas, and Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of
his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek
rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name
each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time such as Amtiyoko
(Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas)
and Alikasudaro (Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. The
Edicts also accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas
being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edict of
India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).[39] Ashoka (238 BCE), in Brahmi,
sandstone, British Museum.
Decline

Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. Brihadratha, the last ruler of the Mauryan
dynasty, held territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperor Ashoka. Brihadratha was
assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade by the Brahmin general Pushyamitra Shunga, commander-in-
chief of his guard, who then took over the throne and established the Shunga dynasty.[40]

Shunga coup (185 BCE)

Buddhist records such as the Ashokavadana write that the assassination of Brihadratha and the rise of the Shunga
empire led to a wave of religious persecution for Buddhists,[41] and a resurgence of Hinduism. According to Sir
John Marshall,[42] Pushyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Shunga kings
seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as Etienne Lamotte[43] and Romila
Thapar,[44] among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favour of the allegations of persecution of
Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated.

Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)

The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. The Greco-
Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized on the break-up, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of
northwestern India around 180 BCE, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings
on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism
flourished, and one of their kings, Menander, became a famous figure of Buddhism; he was to establish a new
capital of Sagala, the modern city of Sialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are
subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to
the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the Shungas,
Satavahanas, and Kalingas are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed Indo-Scythians, brought about
the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region of Mathura,
and Gujarat.

Administration
The Empire was divided into four provinces, with the imperial capital at
Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals
are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and
Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the
Kumara (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king's
representative. The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of Statuettes of the Mauryan era
ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level
with the Emperor and his Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers).
Historians theorise that the organisation of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by
Kautilya in the Arthashastra: a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to
international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been one
of the largest armies in the world during the Iron Age.[45] According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military
of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants besides followers and attendants.[46] A
vast espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced
offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the
Empire and instil stability and peace across West and South Asia.

Economy
For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a
common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased
agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms,
many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave
way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop
collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally administered
and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in the
Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and
a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided
justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped
out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who
sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in
revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to
enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to new-
found political unity and internal peace.

Maurya statuette, 2nd century Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and
BCE. during Ashoka's reign, an international
network of trade expanded. The Khyber
Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan
and Afghanistan, became a strategically important port of trade and
intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in
West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya
through the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included empire, with symbols of wheel and
silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The external world came elephant. 3rd century BCE.
across new scientific knowledge and technology with expanding trade with
the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands
of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works.
The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those
regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and
economic activity across the Empire.

In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous

to the Roman Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade
Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol
connections and both had organizations similar to corporations. While
on reverse.
Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-
driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities.
These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the
Mauryan Empire itself.[47] (See also Economic history of India.)
Religion
Hinduism

Hinduism was the major religion at the time of inception of the empire,[48]
Hindu priests and ministers such as Chanakya used to be an important part
of the emperor's court. James Hastings writes that they are devotees of
Mauryan Empire coin. Circa late 4th-
Narayana (Vishnu), although Shilanka, speaking of the Ekandandins in
2nd century BCE.
another connection, identifies them as Shaivas (devotees of Shiva).[49]
Scholar James Hastings identifies the name "Mankhaliputta" or "Mankhali"
with the bamboo staff.[49] Scholar Jitendra N. Banerjea compares them to
the Pasupatas Shaivas.[50] Another scholar, Charpentier, believes that the Ajivikas worshiped Shiva before
Makkhali Goshala.[51] As Chanakya wrote in his text Chanakya Niti, "Humbly bowing down before the almighty
Lord Sri Vishnu, the Lord of the three worlds, I recite maxims of the science of political ethics (niti) selected from
the various satras (scriptures)".[52]

Even after embracing Buddhism, Ashoka retained the membership of Hindu Brahmana priests and ministers in his
court. Mauryan society began embracing the philosophy of ahimsa, and given the increased prosperity and
improved law enforcement, crime and internal conflicts reduced dramatically. Also greatly discouraged was the
caste system and orthodox discrimination, as Mauryans began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist
teachings.

Buddhism

Magadha, the centre of the empire, was also the birthplace of Buddhism.
Ashoka initially practised Hinduism but later embraced Buddhism;
following the Kalinga War, he renounced expansionism and aggression,
and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on the use of force,
intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against
rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and daughter
Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist
ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion.
Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East
The stupa, which contained the relics of
Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries and schools, as Buddha, at the center of the Sanchi
well as the publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is complex was originally built by the
believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India, such as Maurya Empire, but the balustrade
Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of around it is Sunga, and the decorative
Buddhism in Afghanistan, Thailand and North Asia including Siberia. gateways are from the later Satavahana
Ashoka helped convene the Third Buddhist Council of India's and South period.
Asia's Buddhist orders near his capital, a council that undertook much work
of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. Indian merchants
embraced Buddhism and played a large role in spreading the religion across the Mauryan Empire.[53]

Jainism

Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism after retiring, when he renounced his throne and material possessions to
join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple of the Jain monk Bhadrabahu. It is said that in
his last days, he observed the rigorous but self-purifying Jain ritual of santhara (fast unto death), at Shravana
Belgola in Karnataka.[54][55][56][57] However, his successor, Bindusara, was a follower of another ascetic
movement, jvika,[58] and distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, the grandson of
Ashoka, also embraced Jainism. Samprati was influenced by the teachings
of Jain monks and he is known to have built 125,000 derasars across India.
Some of them are still found in the towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam,
Ujjain, and Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent
messengers and preachers to Greece, Persia and the Middle East for the
spread of Jainism, but, to date, no research has been done in this
area.[59][60]

Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta
The Dharmarajika stupa in Taxila,
and Samprati are credited for the spread of Jainism in South India. Lakhs of
modern Pakistan, is also thought to have
temples and stupas were erected during their reign. However, due to lack of
been established by Emperor Asoka.
royal patronage, its own strict principles, and the rise of Shankaracharya
and Ramanuja, Jainism, once a major religion of southern India, began to
decline.

Architectural remains
The greatest monument of this period, executed in the reign of
Chandragupta Maurya, was the old palace at the site of Kumhrar.
Excavations at the site of Kumhrar nearby have unearthed the remains of
the palace. The palace is thought to have been an aggregate of buildings,
the most important of which was an immense pillared hall supported on a
high substratum of timbers. The pillars were set in regular rows, thus Bhadrabahu Cave, Shravanabelagola
dividing the hall into a number of smaller square bays. The number of where Chandragupta is said to have
columns is 80, each about 7 meters high. According to the eyewitness died
account of Megasthenes, the palace was chiefly constructed of timber, and
was considered to exceed in splendour and magnificence the palaces of
Susa and Ecbatana, its gilded pillars being adorned with golden vines and
silver birds. The buildings stood in an extensive park studded with fish ponds
and furnished with a great variety of ornamental trees and shrubs.[61]
Kauilya's Arthashastra also gives the method of palace construction from this
period. Later fragments of stone pillars, including one nearly complete, with
their round tapering shafts and smooth polish, indicate that Ashoka was
responsible for the construction of the stone columns which replaced the
earlier wooden ones.
Mauryan architecture in the Barabar
During the Ashokan period, stonework Mounts. Grotto of Lomas Rishi. 3rd
was of a highly diversified order and century BCE.
comprised lofty free-standing pillars,
railings of stupas, lion thrones and
other colossal figures. The use of stone had reached such great perfection
during this time that even small fragments of stone art were given a high
lustrous polish resembling fine enamel. This period marked the beginning
An early stupa, 6 meters in diameter, of the Buddhist school of architecture. Ashoka was responsible for the
with fallen umbrella on side. Chakpat, construction of several stupas, which were large halls, capped with domes
near Chakdara. Probably Maurya and bearing symbols of Buddha. The most important ones are located at
empire, 3rd century BCE. Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati, Bodhgaya and Nagarjunakonda. The most
widespread examples of Mauryan architecture are the pillars and edicts of
Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout
the Indian subcontinent.[62]
The peacock was a dynastic symbol of Mauryans, as depicted by Ashoka's pillars at Nandangarh and Sanchi
Stupa.[63]

Natural history
The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of
the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political
entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, their denizens,
and fauna in general is of interest.

The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as resources. For them, the most
important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times
depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these
played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, one of Alexander's former generals.
The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper
and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise
them. Kautilya's Arthashastra contains not only maxims on ancient
statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials
such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests.[64]

On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for

elephants guarded by foresters. The Office of the Chief
Elephant Forester should with the help of guards protect the The two Yakshas, possibly 3rd century
elephants in any terrain. The slaying of an elephant is BCE, found in Pataliputra.
punishable by death.

Arthashastra

The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers for skins.
Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the
woods safe for grazing cattle.

The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures
over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation.
They employed some of them, the food-gatherers or aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes
tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.[65]

When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style
of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first
ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The
edicts proclaim that many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly
states:[65]

Our king killed very few animals.

Edict on Fifth Pillar

However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas'
(coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions
conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in
forests.[65]
forests.[65]

Contacts with the Hellenistic world

Foundation of the Empire

Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very
beginning of the Maurya Empire. Plutarch reports that Chandragupta
Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably around Taxila in the
northwest:

"Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and

we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly Mauryan ringstone, with standing
missed making himself master of the country, since its king was goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd
hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth". Century BCE
Plutarch 62-4[66]

Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 317316 BCE)

Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he
fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom
may have been Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor,
ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE.

"India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The
author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since,
after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign domination"
Justin XV.4.1213[67]

"Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to him and took
him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal
power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory." Justin XV.4.19[68]

Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)

Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of

Alexander's former empire, conquered and put under his own authority
eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome,
The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered into a confrontation with
Emperor Chandragupta:

A map showing the north western "Always lying in wait for the neighbouring nations, strong in arms and
border of Maurya Empire, including its persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia,
various neighboring states. 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia,
Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by
Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire
were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was
subject to Seleucus". Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55[69]

Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he
failed to conquer any territory, and in fact was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus
and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to
Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including large parts of what is now Afghanistan and parts
of Balochistan.

Marital alliance

It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter, or a Greek Macedonian princess, a gift from
Seleucus to formalise an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants,[27][70][71][72][73] a
military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.[74] In addition to this treaty,
Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at
the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Later, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of
Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador
named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[75]

Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu
Kush, modern-day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.[76][77] Archaeologically, concrete
indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandahar in
southern Afghanistan.

"He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians,
who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and
contracted a marriage relationship."
"After having made a treaty with him (Sandrakotos) and put in order the Orient situation, Seleucos
went to war against Antigonus."
Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum, libri XLIV, XV.4.15 (http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/trad15.html)

The treaty on "Epigamia" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level,
although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both..

Exchange of presents

Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents,
such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:[78]

"And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people
more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the
king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of
affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love." Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists"
Book I, chapter 32[79]

His son Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged
presents with Antiochus I:[78]

"But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as Aristophanes says, "There's really
nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to Antiochus,
entreating him (it is Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried
figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send
you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in Greece." Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67[80]

Greek population in India

The Greek population apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule. In his
Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka relates that the Greek population within his
realm was absorbed, integrated, and converted to Buddhism:

"Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas,
the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods'
instructions in Dharma". Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika).

Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written
in both Greek and Aramaic, has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to
be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical
terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety") as the Greek
translation for the ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts written in
Prakrit:

"Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses

(Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (, Eusebeia) to
men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and
everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains
from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are)
huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And
if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their The Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a
intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by
mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul
by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more Museum. (Click image for translation).
happily". (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli [4] (https://web.archive.org/web/2

0051103235517/http://www.afghanan.net/afghanistan/mauryans.htm))

Buddhist missions to the West (c. 250 BCE)

Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the
period as recipients of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western
historical record of this event remains:

"The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and
even six hundred yojanas (5,4009,600 km) away, where the Greek
king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named
Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south
among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri
Lanka)." (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).

Ashoka also encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and
animals, in their territories:

"Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's

[Ashoka's] domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the
The distribution of the Edicts of
Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as
Ashoka.[81]
Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among
the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-
of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical
treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs
suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical
 roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown.
Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of
humans and animals". 2nd Rock Edict

The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the
propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as
Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek ("Yona")
Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII[82]).
Buddhist proselytism at the time of king
Subhagasena and Antiochos III (206 BCE) Ashoka (260218 BCE).

Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan ruler of the 3rd century BCE,

described in ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagasena or Subhashasena in Prakrit. His name is mentioned in
the list of Mauryan princes, and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have
been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly in
Gandhara. Antiochos III, the Seleucid king, after having made peace with Euthydemus in Bactria, went to India in
206 BCE and is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there:

"He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the
king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more
provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking
home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him". Polybius 11.39 (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/c
gi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.39)

Timeline
1. 322 BCE : Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire by overthrowing the Nanda Dynasty.
2. 317316 BCE : Chandragupta Maurya conquers the Northwest of the Indian subcontinent.
3. 305303 BCE : Chandragupta Maurya gains territory from the Seleucid Empire.
4. 298269 BCE : Reign of Bindusara, Chandragupta's son. He conquers parts of Deccan, southern India.
5. 269232 BCE : The Mauryan Empire reaches its height under Ashoka, Chandragupta's grandson.
6. 261 BCE : Ashoka conquers the kingdom of Kalinga.
7. 250 BCE : Ashoka builds Buddhist stupas and erects pillars bearing inscriptions.
8. 184 BCE : The empire collapses when Brihadnatha, the last emperor, is killed by Pushyamitra Shunga, a
Mauryan general and the founder of the Shunga Empire.

In literature
According to Vicarasreni of Merutunga, Mauryans rose to power in 312 BC.[83]

See also
Pradyota dynasty
Gupta Empire
History of India
List of largest empires that existed in India

Notes
1. Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical
 Empires" (http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381). Journal of world-systems research.
12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X). Retrieved 16 September 2016.
2. Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A History of India. 4th edition. Routledge, Pp. xii, 448.
pp. xii, 448. ISBN 0-415-32920-5.
3. Thapar, Romila (1990). A History of India, Volume 1. Penguin Books. p. 384. ISBN 0-14-013835-8.
4. Keay, John (2000). India: A History. Grove Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-8021-3797-5.
5. Rajadhyaksha, Abhijit (2009-08-02). "The Mauryas: Chandragupta" (http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/Features
FarEast/India_IronAge_Mauryas01.htm). Historyfiles.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-03-01.
6. Seleucus I ceded the territories of Arachosia (modern Kandahar), Gedrosia (modern Balochistan), and
Paropamisadae (or Gandhara). Aria (modern Herat) "has been wrongly included in the list of ceded satrapies
by some scholars [...] on the basis of wrong assessments of the passage of Strabo [...] and a statement by
Pliny." (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, p. 594). Seleucus "must [...] have held Aria", and furthermore, his
"son Antiochos was active there fifteen years later." (Grainger 2014, p. 109).
7. The account of Strabo indicates that the western-most territory of the empire extended from the southeastern
Hindu Kush, through the region of Kandahar, to coastal Balochistan to the south of that (Raychaudhuri &
Mukherjee 1996, p. 594).
8. Sri Lanka and the southernmost parts of India (modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala) remained independent,
despite the diplomacy and cultural influence of their larger neighbor to the north (Schwartzberg 1992, p. 18;
Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 68).
9. The empire was once thought to have directly controlled most of the Indian subcontinent excepting the far
south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large tribal regions (especially in the
Deccan peninsula) that were relatively autonomous. (Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 68-71, as well as Stein
1998, p. 74). "The major part of the Deccan was ruled by [Mauryan administration]. But in the belt of land
on either side of the Nerbudda, the Godavari and the upper Mahanadi there were, in all probability, certain
areas that were technically outside the limits of the empire proper. Ashoka evidently draws a distinction
between the forests and the inhabiting tribes which are in the dominions (vijita) and peoples on the border
(anta avijita) for whose benefit some of the special edicts were issued. Certain vassal tribes are specifically
mentioned." (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee pp. 2756)
10. Kalinga had been conquered by the preceding Nanda Dynasty but subsequently broke free until it was re-
conquered by Ashoka, c. 260 BCE. (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee, pp. 204209, pp. 270271)
11. "Buddhism in Iran, Mehrak Golestan" (http://www.iranian.com/History/2004/December/Buddhism/index.ht
ml). iranian.com. 2004-12-15. Retrieved 2014-07-25.
12. Boesche, Roger (2003-03-01). The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=K85NA7Rg67wC). p. 11. ISBN 9780739106075.
13. Demeny, Paul George; McNicoll, Geoffrey (May 2003). Encyclopedia of population (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=4jQOAQAAMAAJ). ISBN 9780028656793.
14. "It is doubtful if, in its present shape, [the Arthashastra] is as old as the time of the first Maurya," as it
probably contains layers of text ranging from Maurya times till as late as the 2nd century CE. Nonetheless,
"though a comparatively late work, it may be used [...] to confirm and supplement the information gleaned
from earlier sources." (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, pp.2467)
15. Sugandhi, Namita Sanjay (2008). Between the Patterns of History: Rethinking Mauryan Imperial Interaction
in the Southern Deccan (https://books.google.com/books?id=8bdULPF4gNYC&pg=PA88). pp. 8889.
ISBN 9780549744412.
16. Kosmin 2014, p. 31.
17. :"Androcottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later
times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and
despised on account of his baseness and low birth." Plutarch 62-3 Plutarch 62-3 (http://www.perseus.tufts.ed
u/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243&layout=&loc=62.1)
18. :"He was of humble Indian to a change of rule." Justin XV.4.15 "Fuit hic humili quidem genere natus, sed ad
regni potestatem maiestate numinis inpulsus. Quippe cum procacitate sua Nandrum regem offendisset,
interfici a rege iussus salutem pedum ceieritate quaesierat. (Ex qua fatigatione cum somno captus iaceret, leo
ingentis formae ad dormientem accessit sudoremque profluentem lingua ei detersit expergefactumque blande
reliquit. Hoc prodigio primum ad spem regni inpulsus) contractis latronibus Indos ad nouitatem regni
sollicitauit." Justin XV.4.15 (http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/texte15.html)
19. Sir John Marshall, "Taxila", p. 18 et passim
20. "asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih
Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara
balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama"
(Sanskrit original, Mudrarakshasa 2).

21. The Hunas mentioned in Mudrarakshasa play (II) of Vishakhadatta are same people as the Harahunas of
the Mahabharata (II.32.12). They were located in Herat/Aria according to Dr Moti Chandra and were an
earlier branch of the Hunas (See: Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahbhrata: Upyana Parva,
1945, p 66, Dr Moti Chandra; Also: Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India, 1971, p 33, Dr
D. C. Sircar.)
22. For Harahunas being a group of the Hunas, see also: Early History of Iranians and Atharvaveda, Persica-9,
1980, p 118, Dr Michael Witzel, Harvard University.
23. Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p.26-27 [1]
(https://books.google.fr/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA27)
24. Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p.27 [2] (htt
ps://books.google.fr/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA27)
25. History Of The Chamar Dynasty, Raj Kumar, Gyan Publishing House, 2008, p.51 [3] (https://books.google.f
r/books?id=eEJ-sXBmBIkC&pg=PA51)
26. Sanskrit original: "asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih
Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad
uprudham Kusumpurama". From the French translation, in "Le Ministre et la marque de l'anneau", ISBN 2-
7475-5135-0
27. Majumdar 2003, p. 105.
28. Mookerji 1988, p. 39.
29. "In the royal residences in India where the greatest of the kings of that country live, there are so many
objects for admiration that neither Memnon's city of Susa with all its extravagance, nor the magnificence of
Ectabana is to be compared with them. (...) In the parks, tame peacocks and pheasants are kept." Aelian,
"Characteristics of animals" Aelian, Characteristics of animals, book XIII, Chapter 18 (https://archive.org/de
tails/L449AelianCharacteristicsOfAnimalsIII1217), also quoted in The Cambridge History of India, Volume
1, p411
30. "The architectural closeness of certain buildings in Achaemenid Iran and Mauryan India have raised much
comment. The royal palace at Pataliputra is the most striking example and has been compared with the
palaces at Susa, Ecbatana, and Persepolis" Aoka and the decline of the Mauryas, Volume 5, p.129, Romila
Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1961
31. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th century by Upinder Singh
p.331
32. Kosmin 2014, p. 32.
33. Wilhelm Geiger (1908). The Dpavasa and Mahvasa and their historical development in Ceylon. Ethel
M. Coomaraswamy. H. C. Cottle, Government Printer, Ceylon. p. 40. OCLC 559688590 (https://www.world
cat.org/oclc/559688590).
34. M. Srinivasachariar (1989). History of classical Sanskrit literature (3 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. p. 550.
ISBN 978-81-208-0284-1.
35. P.109 A brief history of India by Alain Danilou, Kenneth Hurry
36. P. 138 and P. 146 History and doctrines of the jvikas: a vanished Indian religion by Arthur Llewellyn
Basham
37. P. 24 Buddhism in comparative light by Anukul Chandra Banerjee
38. P. 171 Ashoka and his inscriptions, Volume 1 by Beni Madhab Barua, Ishwar Nath Topa
39. Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, translation S. Dhammika.
40. Army and Power in the Ancient World by Angelos Chaniotis/Pierre Ducrey(Eds.), Franz Steiner Verlag
Stuttgart, P35
41. According to the Ashokavadana
42. Sir John Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi", Eastern Book House, 1990, ISBN 81-85204-32-2, pg.38
43. E. Lamotte: History of Indian Buddhism, Institut Orientaliste, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988 (1958)
44. Aoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 P200
45. Gabriel A, Richard (30 November 2006), The Ancient World :Volume 1 of Soldiers' lives through history (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=HscIwvtkq2UC&pg=PA301), Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 28
46. Majumdar 2003, p. 107.
47. The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abst
ract_id=796464) University of Michigan.
48. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130319070226/http://www.sfabx.com/yahoo_site_admin/as
sets/docs/Mauryan_Empire.6185944.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.sfabx.com/yahoo_s
ite_admin/assets/docs/Mauryan_Empire.6185944.pdf) (PDF) on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 9 February
2016..
49. P. 266 Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 1 By James Hastings
50. P. 92 Paurnic and Tntric Religion: Early Phase By Jitendra Nath Banerjea
51. P. 212 Age of the Nandas and Mauryas By K. A. Nilakanta Sastri
52. Chanakya at Hinduism.co.za (http://www.hinduism.co.za/chanakya.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20140716182652/http://www.hinduism.co.za/chanakya.htm) 16 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
53. Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford
University Press), 46
54. Mookerji 1988, pp. 39-41.
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External links
Livius.org: Maurya dynasty (http://www.livius.org/man-md/mauryas/mauryas.html)
Extent of the Empire (http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/ancient/maurya.htm)
Ashoka's Edicts (https://web.archive.org/web/20140328144411/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashok
a.html)

Preceded by Magadha dynasties Succeeded by

Nanda dynasty Maurya Empire Shunga dynasty
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maurya_Empire&oldid=795715961"

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