Ignou Disaster Management PDF

CDM-01 Foundation Course in Disaster
Management : [26]
Block-1 Understanding of Disasters : [4]
Unit-1 Disaster Meaning, Factors and significance
Unit-2 Understanding Disasters: Causes and Effects
Unit-3 Disasters: A Global View
Unit-4 Disaster Profile of India- Regional and Seasonal
Block-2 Typology of Disasters-I : [4]
Unit-5 Earthquake
Unit-6 Flood and Drainage
Unit-7 Cyclone
Unit-8 Drought and Famine
Block-3 Typology of Disasters- II : [4]
Unit-9 Land Slide and Snow
Unit-10 Fire and Forest Fire
Unit-11 Industrial and Technology Disaster
Unit-12 Epidemics
Block-4 Essentials of Disaster Preparedness : [4]
Unit-13 Planning
Unit-14 Communication
Unit-15 Leadership and Co-ordination
Unit-16 Warehousing and Stock Pilling
Block-5 Disaster Management and Awareness : [4]
Unit-17 Human Behaviour and Response: Individual, Community, Institutional
Unit-18 Community Participation and Awareness
Unit-19 Public Awareness Programmes
Unit-20 Information Organization and Dissemination
Block-6 Disaster Management: Role of Various Agencies : [6]
Unit-21 District Administration
Unit-22 Military and Para- Military Forces
Unit-23 Ministries and Departments at Centre and State Level
Unit-24 Non-Governmental Organization
Unit-25 International Agencies
Unit-26 Media
CDM-02 Disaster Management: Methods
and Techniques : [33]
Block-1 Increased Understanding of Disasters- I [4]
Unit-1 Earthquake
Unit-2 Flood and Drainage
Unit-3 Cyclone
Unit-4 Drought and Famine
Block-2 Increased Understanding of Disasters- II [4]
Unit-5 Landslides and snow Avalanches
Unit-6 Fire and Forest fire
Unit-7 Industrial and Technological Disaster
Unit-8 Epidemics
Block-3 Preparedness and Mitigation [6]
Unit-9 Disaster Mapping
Unit-10 Predictability, Forecasting and Warning
Unit-11 Disaster Preparedness
Unit-12 Land-Use Zoning for Disaster Management
Unit-13 Preparing Community through IEC
Unit-14 Disaster Mitigation
Block-4 Relief Measures [6]
Unit-15 Search, Rescue and Evacuation
Unit-16 Shelter for Victims
Unit-17 Livestock and Relief Measures
Unit-18 Clearance of Debris and Disposal of Dead
Unit-19 Control of Fires
Unit-20 Damage Assessment
Block-5 Community Health and Casualty Management [5]
Unit-21 Community Health During Disasters
Unit-22 Emergency Health Operations
Unit-23 Drinking Water
Unit-24 Food and Nutrition
Unit-25 Hygiene and Sanitation
Block-6 Reconstruction and Rehabilitation [5]
Unit-26 Rehabilitation: Social and Economic Aspects
Unit-27 Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Development
Unit-28 Agriculture and Irrigation
Unit-29 Housing to Resist Disasters Including Relocation
Unit-30 Retrofitting Repairing and Strengthening of Houses
Block-7 Skill Assessment [3]
Unit-31 Monitoring
Unit-32 Evaluation
Unit-33 Review
CDM - 01 FOUNDATION COURSE IN DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Ilisasters. which are often sudden and intense, result i n destruction, ill-jury and death
disrupting tlie normal life as well as the process of development. This high lights the
i~iipo~-iance of disaster manage~iientand tlie need to learn about it. The Foundation
Course in Disaster Management, among othe, .ilspects, is intended to fan~iliarisethe
learners with the meaning, factors, significance, causes and effects of disasters.
Besides providing the Regional and Seasotlal profile of natural disasters in India, the
Course also presents a global view of disasters. In keeping with the peculiarities of
various disasters, the Course deals with tlie vulnerability, impact and effects, nature of
damage, predictability, forecasting aspects of disasters such as Earthqi~ake,Flood and
Drainage, Cyclone, Drought and Famine, Landslide and Snow Avalanclie, Fire and
Forest Fire, Irid~~strialand Technological disasters, and Epidemics. In order to create
and sustain awareness of disasters the community and to upgrade tlie information,
knowledge and skills of the Goverrimental atid Non-governmental Organisations'
personnel dealing witli disaster mitigation and management, the Course lays emphasis
on disaster preparedness. Here we shall be dealing specifically with tlie essentials of
disaster preparedness viz. Planni'ng, com~nunication,leadership and co-ordination, and
\\arehousing and stock piling. To strengthen the resilience and self-confidelice of local
cv~nmunitiesatid to enable them to develop Co~nmunityAction Plans to deal witli pre
ancl post disaster situations, the Course focuses on human behaviour and response,
tccliniq~~es for effective community participation and beliefs and myths regarding
dis;lstcrs. Further, it aims to present relevant illformation pertaining to disasters and the
cl'lbctive dissemination of tlie same. I t is a known fact that various agencies play .
ililli.~.entand significant roles in dealing with disaster situations. Therefore, we shall
tlcsc~.ibc't11c roles of District Administration, Military and Para-military forces,
hlinis~ries and Depal-iments at tlie Centre and State levels, Non-governmental
( )~.~arlisatiobs.International Agencies atid Media.
--
U N I FD~ISASTER :MEANING, FACTORS

AND SIGNIFlCANCE
Structure
1.0 Objectives
I .1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of Disasters
1.2.1 Definitions
' 1.2.2 Distindion between I-lward and Disastrr
1.2.3 Distinction between Natural and Man-made Disasters
1.3 Nature of Disasters
1.4 Aggravating factors of Disasters
1.5 Significance and Repercussions
l .G Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Key Words
1.8 References and Further Readings
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:,
discuss the meaning, definitions and types of disasters,

e describe the nature of disasters,
highlight the aggravating factors of disasters, and
I explain the significance and repercussions,
1 1 INTRODUCTION
I A disaster is the result of an immediate situation or the rcsult of a long set process
which disrupts nonnal human life in its established social, traditional and
, economic system. This is due to tl~edestruction of environ~nentwhich is caused
by extraordinary natural destructive pl~enomena 01. human-induced hazards
resi~ltingin human llardship and suffering beyond recovery ~~nless extertial aid is
brought in.
1.2 MEANING OF DISASTERS
'The terns 'Disaster' owes its origin to the French word 'Desastre' which is the
combination of the article - 'des' and 'astre' meaning 'star'. In earlier days a
disaster was considered to be due to some u~ifavourablestar. Nowadays, the term
Disaster' is commonly used to denote ally odd event, be natural or man made,
which brings about immense misery to a region. So that it becomes difficult to
cope with the situatioli through local resources.
1.2.1 Definitions
The dictionary meanings of Disaster are as follows:
1 ) Disaster is a sudden or great ~nisfortune,calamity. (Concise Oxford

Dictionary)
2) Disaster is a sudden calamitous evelit producing great material damage, loss
and distress. (Webster's Dictionary)
CDM - 01 FOUNDATION COURSE IN DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
[Iisasters. wliicli are often sudden and intense, result in destruction, ill-jury and death
disrupting the normal life as well as the process of development. This highlights the
impor-tance of disaster management and the need to learn about it. The Foundation
Course in Disaster Management, among othe dspects, is intended to familiarise the
learners with the meaning, factors, significance, causes and effects of disasters.
Besides providing tlie Regional and Seasonal profile of natural disasters in India, the
Course also presents a global view of disasters. In keeping with the peculiarities o r
vario~~s disasters, tlie Course deals with the v~lnerabiiit~,impact and effects, nature of
damage, predictability, forecasting aspects of disasters such as Earthquake, Flood and
Drainage, Cyclone, Drought and Fa~nine,Landslide and Snow Avalanclle, Fire and
Forest Fire, Industrial and Technological disasters, and Epidemics. In order to create
and sustain awareness of disasters the community and to upgrade the information,
I<nowledge and skills of the Governmental and Non-governmental Organisations'
personnel dealing with disaster mitigation and management, the Course lays emphasis
on disasler preparedness. Here we shall be dealing specifically with tlie essentials of
clisaster preparedness viz. Planning, com~nunication,leadership and co-ordination, and
\ \ archousing and stock piling. To strengthen tlie resilie~ice and self-confidence of local
communities a ~ i dto enable them to develop Community Action Plans to deal with pre
t~ncl post disaster situations, the Course focuses on hurnan behaviour and response,
tccl~~iiq~tes for effective co~nmunityparticipatio~~ and beliefs and myths regarding
tli.;,~stc~-s. Further, it aims to present relevant information pertaining to disasters and the
cl'li.cti\~edisseriiination of the same. It is a known fact that various agencies play .
rlil'ii'~.cn~ and significant roles in dealing with disaster situations. Therefore, we shall
~ I C \ C I - I ~ C tlic roles of District Administratio& Military and Para-military forces,
Alinistl-~es and Departments at the Centre and State levels, Non-governmental
( )ryni~:l[ions.International Agencies and Media.
U ~ ~ t l e r s t n ~ ~of
cli~~g Disaster is assessed on the basis of the,followingfeatures:
Disasters . .
1) Disruption to nornial pattern of life. Such disruption is usually severe and may
also 4e sudden, ~~nexpected
and widespread.
2) Human effects such as loss of life, livelihood and property, injury, liardship
and adverse effects on liealtli.
3) Effects on Social Str~lct~11.e
such as destruction of or damage to infrastructure,
buildings, comni~~nicationsand other esse~itialservices.
needs SLICII as shelter, food, clotliing, medical assistance and social
4) Com~iii~nity
care.
Tlie severity of a disaster situation is usually recltoned in ternis of loss of life or

property or both.
A formal definition of disaster may be "an event, co~icentratedi l l time and space,
wliicli threatens a society or a relatively self-sufficient sub-divisio~iof a society
with ~iiajor~111walited consequences as a result of tlie collapse of precautions which
had Iiitlierto bee11c ~ ~ l t ~ ~ accepted
r a l l y as adequate" (Turner, 1997).
1.2.2 Distinction Between Hazard and Disaster
Hazard and disaster are closely related. A liazard is a natural event while tlie
disaster is its colisequence. A liazard is a perceived natural event whicli threatens
both life and property. A disaster is tlie culmination of such liazard.
A liazard is a potential for a disaster. A liazard becomes a disaster when it hits an

area affecting tlie normal life system. If a hazard like a cyclonc hits an
unpopulated area, say an ~rnpop~~lated coast. it need not be considerecl as a disaster.
However, it will be considered a disaster if life and property are serio~~sly
damaged. A hazard ]nay be regarded as pre-disaster situation, in wliicli some I-islc
of disaster exists, because tlie human population has placed itself in a situatio~iof
risk. .
Disasters are extreme events whicli cause great loss of life a~ld/orproperty ancl
create severe disruptions to human activities. They can be created by li~~nian
actions, e.g., transport accidents and industrial explosions or natural processes lilic
eartliqualtes. A liazarcl is wlien extreme events or process occur in an area of
litinian settle~iientand could cause loss of life and cla~iiageto existing constrttctcd
resources or infrastructure.
1.2.3 Distinction Between Natural and Man Made Disasters
Disasters are classified ~ ~ n d various

er groups wlien studied according to origin or
bani fi~nctionalangle. Although both types of disasters (natural or man niade)
res~11tin dalnage to life and property, their distinction can be identified by
classifying into rnajor gronps:
1. Nat~rralDisasters
i) Wind related - Storm, Cyclone, Tornado, Storm surge, Tidal waves,

ii) Water related - Flood, Clo~~dburst,Flash flood, Ewessive rains.
Drought.
iii) Earth related - Earthq~~ake,Tsunamis, Avalanclies. Lanclslides,
Volcilnic en~ptions.
2. Man Made Disasters Disaster: Meaning
Factors and significance
i) Accidents: Road, Rail, Air, Sea, Building collapse.
ii) Industrial Mishaps: Gas leak, Explosion, Sabotage, Safety.
iii) Fire: Building, Coal, Oil.
iv) Forest Fire (In tropical counters, forest fires are often manmade\
v) Contaminationffoisoning:Food, Water, IIIiatliquor, Epidemics.
vi) Terrorist activities.
vii) Ecological: Pollution (Air, Water, Noise), Soil degration, Loss of
Biodiversity, Global Warming, Sea level rise, Toxic Wastes, Nuclear
accidents.
viii)Warfare: Conventional, Chemical, Nuclear.
I
1.3 NATURE OF DISASTERS

As disasters have profound and often long lasting effects on the people and their
safety, if is essential to acquire filllest possible knowledge about their occurrence,
impacts and precautions including remedial measures. However, study of
Disasters has many facets. While their mechanism requires the study of the
scientific aspects of their genesis and life cycle, this impacts on the environ~nent
and society also need a multi-disciplinary approach involvil~gthe social and
medical services. Hence, scholars for studying disasters have adopted the
following six approaches.
1) Geographical Approach
I11 this, social science methods are widely used and emphasis is given to the spatio-
temporal distribution of hazard, impacts and vulnerability. Geographers have also
given particular thought to.the question of 11ow choices are made between different
types of adjustment to natural hazards.
2) Anthropological Approach
This approach has focused on the role of disasters in guiding the socio-economic
evolution of populations in dispersing them and in causing the destruction of
civilizations. A strong concern has led anthropologists to search for the tl~reshold
points beyond which local communities can no longer provide the basic
requirements for survival of their members.
3) Sociological Approach
In this approach, vulnerability and impacts are cotisidered in terms of patterns of

human behaviour and the effects of disasters on community. In addition,
psychologists have studied disaster in relation to factors such as a psychologically
determined defensive reaction pattern.
4) Developmental Studies Approach
It considers problems of providing aid and relief, migration management, health

care and the avoidance of starvation. Over 80 per cent of disasters occur in
developing countries, and it is clear that the prevailing poverty increases human
vulnerability to natural hazards.
5) Disaster Medicine and Epidemiology
It focuses on the management of mass casualties, the treatment of severe physical

trauma and the epidemiological surveillance of co~n~nunicable diseases' whose
incidence rates may increase during the disruption of public health measures
following a disaster. 7
'Ulitlerstantlittg of 6 ) Technical Approach
Disasters
Tlie natural and physical scientists emphasise Lipon this approach. Emphasis is
given to geological, geotiiorpliological and geophysical approaches to clisasters.
Clleclt Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers,

ii) . Check your answers with those given at tlie end of tlie unit.
1) What do you meall by hazard and clisastel-'?
2) Discuss briefly the niajor types of tlie natural disasters.
3) Briefly describe any four approaches regarding nature of disaste~.~.
1.4 AGGRAVATING FACTORS OF DISASTERS
Tlie severity of tlie in~pactsof each disaster is recltoned in terms of deaths,

damage, 01' costs whicli are clependent on tlie existing socio-economic conditions '
of the affected com~nunity. In fact, tlie misery of !.he affected people is iisually '
increased by the fol lowing aggravating factors.
Poverty
All disaster studies show that the wealthy aniong tlie population arc less affected
and arc able to recover quicltly. However, poverty generally makes people ~ n o r c
vulnerable to all the impacts of disasters. It is only due to poverty that poor people Disaster: Merning
Factors and significance
are forced to live in more vulnerable areas such as tlie flood plains of rivers.
Usually droughts claim poor peasant farmers as victinis and rarely the wealthy; and
famines are the result of a lack of purchasing power to buy food rather than an
absence of food. Many people are forced to move from tlieir homes to other parts
of their countries or even across borders to survive. Such crisis induced migration
poses co~isiderablechallenge both in terms of immediate assistance and long term
planning for development.
Population Growth
There is an obvious link between tlie increase in losses from a disaster and increase
in population density. If there are more people and structures where a disaster
strikes, there will be more impact. Increasing number of people will compete for
limited resources (e.g., employ~nentopportunities) which can lead to conflict. This
conflict may result in crisis-induced migration. This type of growth occurs
predominantly.in developi~igcountries, wl~ichmay aggravate the to disasters.
Rapid Urbanisation
Rapid population growth and migration are closely related to tlie major
phenomenon of rapid urbanization. It is characterized by rural poor or people i l l
disadvantaged areas moving to urban and nietropolitan areas in search of economic ..
opportunities and security. These people f i n d Ik\\cr options for availability ofsafe
and desirable places to baild their houses. Ilerc again, competition for scarce
resources can lead to social conflicts.
Many of the landslides or flood disasters are closely linked to rapicl and unclieckecl
urbanisation whicli forces low-income fanlilies to settle on tlie slopes of steep
hillsides or banks of rivers.
Transitions in Cultural Practices
Many of the inevitable changes that occur in all societies lead to :on increase in
their vulnerability to disasters. Obviously, all societies are constantly changing
and are in a continual state of transition. These transitions are often disruptive and
uneven, leaving gaps in social coping mechanisms and available technology.
These transitions include no~nadicpopulation that become sedentary, rural people
who move to urban areas, and both rural and urban people who move from one
econo~niclevel to another. More broadly, these examples are typical of a shift
from non-industrialized to industrialized societies.
Environmental Degradation
1 Many disasters are either caused or aggravated by environmental degradation.

1 Deforestation leads to rapid rain run off, which coptributes to soil erosion and
flooding. The destn~ctionof mangrove swa~npsdecreases tlie resistance of tlie
coastline to withstand strong winds and storm surges.
Drought conditions may be intensified by deforestation, overgrpzing, the stripping

of topsoil, poor conservation techniques, depletion of both tlie surface and
subsurface water supply and to an extent, uncl;ecked population. 9
C
\ Clndel-stancling of Lack of Awareness and Information
Disasters
Lack of awareness and proper infol.rnation usually coriverts a liazard into a

,
Disaster. This ignorance may not necessary be due to poverty, but due to a lack of
awareness of what measures can be talien to builcl safe structures on safe locations.
Perhaps sonie people did not Icnow about safe evacuation routes and procedures.
Other population may not Icnow where to turn for assistance in times of acute
distress. In most disaster prone societies, although tliere is a ,traditional wealth of
iders erst an ding about disaster threats and responses, yet, they lnay not I ~ I I O W what
specific steps they should tale immediately to escape the crisis.
War alirl Civil Strife
War and civil strife are regarded as hazards, that is, extreme cvents that produce
disasters. The causal factors of war and civil strife include competition l i ~ scarce
r
resources, religious to ethnic intolerance and ideological cliflercnces.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE AND REPERCUSSIONS
Disaster has significance and repercussions in global, national and local ter~ns. It
retards the clevelopment process not only in the affected areol~cgionbut extends to
the neiglibouring regions or countries as well.
In global terms, disasters have serious repercussions for the ri~ture. 'I'lie wol.ld is
already facing a range of environmental and subsistence crises. The political,
econo~nicand social stability of tlie world depends on bridging l.he socioeconomic
gap between developing and developed nations.
results in ma-jor setbaclts to thc

In national terms, the impact of disasters t~si~ally
economy and the developlnental process. It produce the direct loss of existing
national assets in various forlns. Also, it diverts national resoilrccs and effort,
away from ongoing subsistence and development activities, in order to achieve
satisfactory recovery.
In local terms, tlie requirements of the communi~yneed realistic assess~nenttaking

into consideratio11the expected occurrence of tlie types of vulnerability. Enabling
I-esourcesto strengthen tlie local coping mechanisms have to be made available.
Checli Your Progress 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at tlie elid of tlie LIII it.
1 ) Discuss briefly tlie aggravating factors of disasters.

7) I-low jP0vel-t~is contributing to increasing Disaster: Meaning
. - . the ,disasler problems? '
Factors arttl significance
3 ) Discuss some irnpol-tant areas of the significance and repcl.cussion of disaster
' I n this Unit, we cliscussed the meaning and types of the disasters and the distinction
betwecn natural aAcl man-made disasters. 7'lie nature of disasters and the
dil'l'erence approa~cliesacloptell to s t ~ ~ dDisasters
y have been esplainccl. 'The Unit '
also highlighted the aggravatini factors of disasters. The sidnificance ancl
repercussions of Disasters at global, national and local levels have been i~ldicaled.
1.7 KEY WORDS
Anthropological: Related to sti~dyof liuman beings with regard to the e+olution of

society, customs ancl rituals.
11~1mtu1
Avalanche: rapid and sudden sliding o r large [mass of'a mixture of snow and ice
with rock material.
Biodiversity: l'hc existence ot'a wide variety of plnrlts and a~~imals.
a ' .I Cyclone: A severe storm originating on the high sea and moving to the coastal
areas, characterizecl by very stro~g winds. torrential rain and Iloods.
1
Damage assessment: post disaster estimation of physical damage.
Disaster assistance: Provision of mensL1res to prevent and reduce'the impact of',
and reverse, the effects of disasters; phase include relief, ~+ehabilitation,
reconstruction and preparedness, and prevention ancl mitigation,
I
Epidemiology: Scierlce of epidemics
I
Landslide: rapid movement of soil and rock clow~i11iII.
,
Trauma: Psychological shock of a disastrous evenl.
i be damaged by a Disaster
..
Vulner,ability: Exteot to which n country, area, c o m p ~ ~ n i01.t ystructure. is likcly to
I
i -
--
1.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Carter, W.Nick, 1991. Di.scrsier Mclnuge/net?l: A Di.scr.stcv M L I I I L . ~ fI~m~/boo/c,

~~Y:Y
Asian Development Banlc, Manila.
Mishra, Girisli K, and G.C. Malli~~r (Eds.), 1993. NLIILI~LII
Di.s~~.stevR ~ L I U C I ~ O Y I ,
Rel ianEe Publishing House, New Del hi.
Pralcasli, Indu, 1994. Dzsuster Mcn~trge~iic~rr,
Raslitra Praliari Prakaslian,
Gliaziabad.
Tlio~iias,Babu, 1993. Dis~isicrRe,spon.se :A fIut~dhoo/r,forEn~ergerrcir,~,
Church's
Auxilia'ry for SocialAction, New Delhi.
Turner, Bar~yA, and Nick, F. Pidgeon, 1997. Mrrn n~acleDDis~~ster,
Bzri~crtvorth-
I ~ ~ ~ I I ~ I Oxford.
IILINII:
1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
1) Y O L answer
I~ S ~ O L I I C I include tlie following points:
A liazal-d is a natural event while tile clisaster is its consequence.
A hazard becornes a disaster when it hits an area affectiiig tlie normal life
system and the comm~~nity needs external assistance to cope with t h e
situation. I
2) Y O Lanswer
I~ should include tlie following points:
Wind relaled disasters.
Water related disasters.
Earth related clisasters.
3) YOLII.
answer sho~~lcl
include tlie following points:
The Geographical approach
The Anthropological approach
'The Sociological approach
The Developmental approach
Checl<Your Progress 2
1 ) Your answer should include tlie following points:

Povel-ty
Population growth
Rapid ~lrbanisation
Transition in CLII~LI~-ZII practices
Environnlental degl-adation
b c l c of awareness and information
War ancl civil strife
2) Your answer should include tlle following points:,
0 Wealthy populatio~~
is able to recover quickly f?om a disaster situation.
I
Due to poverty people are forced to live in areas that are prone to disasters.
1
Fa~~lines
are the resillt of a lack of purchasing power to buy food.
e Migration.
j) YOLII*
answer should inclucle the following pofnts:
1
0 In global terms, disasters lead to the wideni~lgof the socioeconomic gap
between developed and developing nations.
o On the national level, disasters result in m+jor setbacks to Ihc national
I .
economy and the developmental process.
On the local level, the requireme~~ts of the c o n ~ m ~ ~ ~need
i i t y tealistic
assessment and provision on the basis of the expecl.ed disasters a11cl the
local v~~lnerability.
UNIT 3 DISASTERS: A GLOBAL VIEW
Structure
Objectives
Introdyction
Disasters : Global and Regional Context
3.2.1 Global Context
3.2.2 Regional Contest
Efforts to Mitigate Disasters Worldwide
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
References and Further Readings
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you sliould be able to: ,
e discuss disasters i n the global context

a briefly describe the disasters in a regional context
e identify tlie efforts world over to mitigate disasters.
3.1 INTRODUCTION '

Disasters have always been ~nankind'sconstant companion. Gen'erations of
people have had to withstand disaster. They suffered from the consequences and
recovered from them, and life continued. But somehow, over tlie ages, Ilie
scenario has changed quite a bit. Of course, there lias not been much reduction
in tlie traditional disaster threat. Natural disasters lilte earthquakes, cyclones, .
volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, wildfires, floods, landslides and droughts continue .
to strike. So do their basic man-made counterparts, such as major accidents.
While we have learned to cope'witl~these problems to a certain extent, we liave
'
neither eliminated nor contained them. So, whilst their effects may liave been
modified, they continue to inflict unacceptable pressure 011 a world population
which is already finding it difficult to make ends meet. 'The largest sufferers are
the least developed nations and economically weaker sections of the society. 1
Increasing population Ilas forced people to live in disaster-prone areas whicl
previously, would not have been regarded as habitable. This fact tends to apply
1
particularly in developing countries. For example, human settlement lias been
allowed to develop in the flood-prone areas of major river systems, also on
low-atoll islands which are subject to inundation from the sea.
disaster
N ~ W threats have also developed in the modern world. Increased socidl
violence has drastically affected many nations and communities. Instances df
hijacking, terrorism, civil wirest and conflict with conventional arms lia\le
1 .
become co~nmonplace. Instances of cross-border terrorism in parts of Incl~a
co~lti~iuing for many years and the organized simultaneous multi-target terrorist
attacks in USA on Septenber 1 l"', 2001 are the most despicable instances p f ,
willful rnanmade disasters. These inflict heavy burdens on gov~nlmentsand!
societies, Inore so in developing countries whose existence is already precarioi~s
because s f poor economic and social conditions. I
New threats have also come from what are general ly termed as liazarclous
materials or substances. The gas leak tragedy of Bhopal in 1984 rcznlts
parainount in this category, with its estimated to1 l of 2,500 killed and 1.00,000
seriously affected in health. Hazardous materials are shifted aro~~lld the transpol-t r
systems of the world in increasing quantities and sometimes they are dumped in .
areas which are vital to tlie world's future. These materials constitute a disaster Disrsters: A Global View
threat which is potentially worse than to those posed by many of tlie natural
phenomena.
I Tlie threat from atomic and nuclear sources poses another modern problem for
disaster management. Tlie explosion in 1986 at the Clie~.ri&yl nuclear power
plant in in the then Soviet Union highlighted the extent and severity of tliis
problem. Apart horn those liilled and affected by radiation sickness, somc
1,35,000 people had to be evacuated from tlie area.
Wli'ilst tlie tlireat from nuclear accidents is disturbing enough, tlie disaster
~iianagement proble~nsarising fi-o~iipossible nuclear war are almost beyond
comprehension, Tlie possibility is high tliat even if a country is not directly
involved in n ~ ~ c l e aconflicts,
r it could well suffer from the radioactive
side-effects.
Tliel'efore, it can be said that tlie new disaster threats contain some unwelco~iie
and unacceptable chasacteri.stics, in that tliey may liave extremely far-I-anging
effects and, at tlie same time, be difficult to countet-.
3.2 DISASTERS: GLOBAL AND REGIONAL

CONTEXT
1 It has often been pointed out that most of the world's worst disastel-s tend to
occur betwcen tlie TI-opic of Cancer and the Tropic OF Capricorn i.e., in the
tropical areas. Coincidentally, Iliis is tlie area which contains tlie poorer
countries of tlie world. A inajor significance of this is, of course, that such
countries find themselves facing repeated setbaclis to progress. Indeed, some
countries seem clestined to remain in tlie category of developing nations
primarily because of the severity a~iclrnagnitude of their disaste~.~.Seen in this
light, Cherel'ore, disaster can be a strong aggravating factor in Ilic cliffe~.enccs
between wealthy nations and poor nations.
On tlie other hand, tlie simple fact is tliat the more nations clevelop and tlie niore
asscts tliey build up, tlie more they stand to lose. It follows tliat any action Illat
can be taken to reduce disaster-related loss must be seen as logical and desirable
r i n cost-benefit teniis. This applies to all countries, ricli or poor, and it underlines
tlie need for all countries to try to develop and maintain an effective disaster
riiaintenance capability appropriate to their needs. It also underlines the
necessity for cooperative and coordinated international actioti in order to
t strengthen all aspects of disaster niaiiage~iient,wlicrever tliis is possible.
Unless disaster can be mitigated and ~ilanagedto tlie optimum extent possible, it
will continue to liave a debilitating effect in tlie fi~ture. Tlie wol.ld is alreacly
facing a range of environ~nentaland subsistence crises. Disaster mitigation
should be regarded as all impo~tanttool in succcssf~llycoping with these crises.
Also, the political, economic and social stability of the worlcl de~)e~ids
significantly on bridging the gap between developing atid developed nations.
Tlie mitigation and containment of disaster effects on tlie cleveloping nations,
IIOW and in the future, is an important step towards bridging tliis gap.
In the global context, it is significant to note tliat among the major disasters, tlie
tloods account for the largest number of deaths, persons affected ancl cla~nage
inilicted. 111fact, nearly 30% of all deatlis, daniage a~iclaffected population call
be traced to flood disasters. On tlie other .hand, drougllts do not result in too
Inany deaths and most of the persons also escape tlie serious eFhcts by migrating
but tlie damage is nevertheless significant, tliat is, arou~id20% of all tlie disaster.
relared dariiaees.
I .. r..
Untlerstanding o f Tile st~tdyof the global statistics of disasters over the last few decades reveals.
Disasters that there is a significant and steady rise in the impacts of disasters (deaths,
damage, persons affected). This appears for two reasons, viz., ( i ) increased
incidence of man-made disasters' due to industrialisatio~i and ecological
degradation; and (ii) increased technological capability to detect and monitor
'natural disasters.
3.2.2 Regional Context

Tile Soutll Asian region faces various Icinds of natural hazards. The countries ill
this region are densely pop~~latedand are low-income economies making
sustainecl efforts for economic gl-owth. Recurrent natural disasters offer setbacks
to their efforts at development and aggravate poverty conditions in the region.
The South Asian countries have diverse agroclimatic regions, each subject to
particular natural disasters. Long coastal regions are prone to cyclones, arid ant1
semi-arid regions to persistent droughts, the Himalayan mountain terrain and
pal-ts of the continental crust to earthqualces and landslicles and the near-perennial
rivers of the region to periodic floods.
The coastal regions of India, Bangladesh, Myammar arlcl Sri Lanlca are severely
affected by cyclones arising in the Bay of Bengal. I n tlie recent past, Bangladesll
and India pa~-ticularlyhave been ravaged by severe cyclones that have ltillcd
laklis of people and damagedldestroyed property worth thousands of crores ol'
nipees. The super cyclone that hit Orissa in 1999 resulted in ~~nprccedentecl
destruction and loss of lives. Earlier in 1970, the then East Palcistan (New
Bangladesh) was hit by a very sever.e cyclone.
Floods are almost an annual feature of the region ancl cause heavy losses. The
major rivers of the region like the Ganga, the Brahmapulra and the Indus are all
prone to flooding either due to heavy rains ol! clue to fast melting of snow in the
Himalayas. Floods occur with unfailing regularity in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanlca.
Bangladesh and Nepal, while there are occassional flash floods in Bhutan. In
India, more than 40 million hectares of land is flood prone.
Seismic disturbances are common all over the region. Nepal alone has
experienced 23 ma.jor earthquakes between I890 ancl 1975. Earthcluakes 01'
lesser magnitude also strike every year. Palcistan too has a long history of
earthqualces. In 1935, an ea~-thqualceat Quetta Icilled 35,000 people. Around
56% of India's total area is susceptible to seismic disturbances. India sufltrcd
from two major earthqualces recently in Ma11arasht1.a (1993) and in G~!jarat
(2001) that have taken a massive toll of Ii~~manlives ancl property. Bangladesh is
also susceptible to occassional seismic disturbances though the magnitl~cleof the
disturbances here is of a considerably lower scale than the rest of the region.
The inherently variable nature of tropical rain such as tlie monsoon is responsible
for the frequent occurrence of drougl~ts.In fact, it is not Llncommon for one part
of a large country like India to be experiencing drougl~tswhile a different part of
the sanie country is reeling under the impact of iloods. Two-t11i1-clsof lnclia
comes ~ ~ n d earid
r and semiarid regions and dry subhumid conditions. Tllesc
areas are all prone to clrougllts. The Western parts of the country sufferecl fmm
major drought in 1987. The Palcistani states of Sincl and Punjab are the country's
drought-prone areas. Sri Lanka's northern and easterll parts also s~rfl'erfrom
droughts occasionally.
Landslides are an increasingly comnlon occurrence in the hilly areas of the

region. Landslides cause extensive damage to roads, briclgcs, hu111an dGcllings,
agriculti~ralla~lds,orchards, forests, resulting in loss of propcrty as well as life.
Economic degradation of hill areas has also been increasing due to grcatcr
frequency of occurrence of landslides. 111 India alone, the cost of restoration
works and associatecl econornic losses due to landslicles has been estimatccl
.conservatively at Rs.200 crores per annum. It shoulcl be notccl that India faccs
the largest number of disasters among the countries of Soutll and Southeast Asia.
Check Your Progress 1 Disasters: A Global View

ii). Checlc your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
I ) Name a few severe disasters that occurred in Lndia or elsewhere in the world.
2) Discuss disasters in tlie GlobaI context.
3) Briefly describe tlie disasters i n the regional context of South Asia.
I 3.3 EFFORTS TO MITIGATE DISASTERS

WORLDWIDE
Natural Disasters are no longer reckoned as the "Wrath of God". Modern science
and technology have helped us to understand the mechanisms that resi~ltin such
catastrophic events and also in devising means to minimise their i l l effects. In
tlie era of advanced satellite and other remote sensing techniques, the magnitucle
' of damages wrecked by natural calamities can be reduced considerably by
, building a "Culture of Preventio~l" tliroi~gl~awareness, knowledge and
'
, appropriate use of such technologies. We lnay not be able to elitninate the
! occurrence of such disasters but certainly, action can be taken to reduce their
' impact. Sych actions are ternled as mitigatory.
T l ~ emost sig~iificantglobal effort made in recent times to mitigate tlie effects of

'
disasters was the launcliing of tlie IDNDR programme by the United Nations.
Understanding of International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)
Disasters
Recognising tlie rapidly rising WOI-ld-widetoll on l i ~ ~ ~ narid
a n economic losses
due to natural disasters, tlie UN General Assembly in. 1989 made a decision to
launch a far reaching global programme to save human. lives and reduce tile
ililpact of natural disasters. With this aim in mind, the decade 1990-2000 was
declared International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).
The objective of IDNDR was to reduce through concerted international action,

especially in the developing countries, the loss of life, property damage and
social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters such as eal-thqual<es,
windstorms, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic erruptions, wildfires, dr.ougllt
and desertification and other calamities of natural origin.
By the year 2000, as per the plan of the IDlVDR, it was intended that all countries
should have:
1, comprehensive national assessnients of risks from natural hazards, and

tliese assessments taken into account in development plans ;
2. mitigation plans at national andtor local levels, involving long tern1
prevelition and preparedness and community awareness, and ;
3. Ready access to the global, regional, national and local warning syste~ns
and broad disseniinatiori of tlie same.
The major conference of the IDNDR programme held in Yokohama (Japan) in

May 1994, evolved a plan of action for disaster reduction called the Yokoha~iia
Strategy. It gave guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and
Mitigation.
The Plan of Action was to be based on points like develop~nentof a global
cult~lreof preveiition as an essential component of an integrated approach to
disaster reduction, adoption of a policy of self-reliance in each vulnerable
cou~itryand comm~lnitycomprising capacity building as well as allocation and
efficient use of resources, co~n~nunity pa~ticipation in the disaster reduction
process, and improved risk assessment, broader nionitoring and timely
communicatio~iof forecasts and warnings. Furtheriiiore, tlig strategy called upon
all countries to express political cornm~itmentto reduce their vulnerability
tlirough appropriate means. It also recommended that donor countries slio~~ld
upgrade the priority on disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness ill their
assistance prograiiilnes and budgets.
International strategy for Disaster Reduction appreciating tlie good worl< done
under the aegis of IDNDR and the need to continue the effort on tlie global level,
the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDK) has been adopted as tlie
successor to IDNDR. The ISDR has beell programmed to take advantage of the
network and experience gained under IDNDR. Wliile the main achievement of
IDVDR was to create awareness among the people and policymakers worldwide,
ISDR is aimed at upgrading this awareness into realistic action plans. For
implementing the ISDR, tlie main focus will be on: I
I
Continuing tile efforts lo increase awareness,

a Obtaining commit~ne~it
from p ~ ~ b la~ltl~orities,
ic
Creating disaster resistant communities, and ,
Reducing socioecono~iiiclosses. '
Monitoring and Hazard Assessment of Seismic Disturbances

I
Though eartliquakes are as yet unpredictable hazards, monito~.ingof seis1n.i~

disturbance helps to delineate hazard zones and also help in pl-eparation of risk
maps. Risk maps are then used to plan construction works atid implement ,
lnitigatio~lmeasures.
-
~ ~ v e l -countries
al including Inclia, which are threatened by eartl~qualcehazard, Disasters: A Global View
'operate national and local networks for earthquake monitoring and surveillance.
'The first global networlc, laiown as World Wide Networlc of Seismic Statio~ls
(wWIVSS) was established in the early sixties. Later on, a few of these were
converted to Seismic Research Observatories (SRO). Now a modern global
~letworlccalled Incorporated Research Institutes for Seismicity (IKIS) has bee11
estnbl ished by USGS t h r o ~ ~ g l l the
o ~ ~world.
t
Checlc Yonr Progress 2
Note: i) 1Jse the space give11 bclow for your answcrs.

ii) Checlc your answcrs wilh those given at thc end orthe Ilnit.
I) Discuss briel'ly the effbrts to mitigate disasters worldwide.
2) Explain the terms IDNDR and ISDR.
3) Briefly describe 1.he importance of monitoring and llnzard assessment of

seismic disturbances.
,
3.4 LET US SUM UP
No country in the world is frec from disasters. They have been occurring since
time ilnme~norialand mankind continues to be at their mercy. With advances in
science and technology, newer man-made threats liave been aclded to the
! traditional natural hazards. In the South Asian Region, however, it is tlie natural
..
Ilnderstanding of disasters tliat continue to be the most dominating factor. The developrne~ltal
Disasters progress of these nations is also hampered by the continuous onslaught of "
disasters. However, never before has there been such awareness about
i~ilportanceof disaster mitigation practices. International prograrnlnes are aiding
the mitigation efforts worldwide in order to help people cope with disasters as
best as possible under the given circ~~mstances.In this Unit, the discussion has
been focused, primarily on tlie global and regional aspects.
3.5 KEY WOKDS
Assessmeat: Survey of a disaster area to make estimates of damages and

recommendations for necessary re1ief action.
Rislc Analysis: Systematic procedure to assess tlie liltelihood of an event
,occurring and its socio-economic impact.
Rislc Mapping: Maps that identify types or severity of hazards, and their likely
impacts in areas that may be affected by disasters.
Seismic Rislc Map: Clia~zthat depicts areas likely to experience an earthquakes
of various magnitudes.
Carter, W. Nick, 1991. Dis~rsterA4unngemenl: A Disaster Manc~ger',~

Hc~ndbook,
Asian Development Bank, Manila.
Mishra, Girish K,and G.C. Mathnr (Eds.), 1993. Naturul Disasler Reduction,
Reliance Publishing House, New Dellii.
Prakash, Indu, 1994. Disuster Munugenient Rashtra Praliari Prakashan, .
Ghaziabad.
Thomas, Babu, 1993. Disaster Respon,se : A Ilandbook for Enzergencies,
Cliurcli's Auxiliary for Social Action, New Delhi.

EXERCISES I
Check Your Progress 1
1) Your answer sliould ~ncludethe following points:

in Gujarat in 200 1.
Ea~~liquake
Super Cyclone in Orissa in 1999.
The tragedy of Bhopal in 1984.
The explosion in 1986 at tlie Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the then
Soviet Union.
The cyclo~lethat hit the then East Pakistan (Now Bangladesh) in 1970.
I
2) Your answer should include tlie following points:
Most of the world's worst disasters tend to occur between the T ~ ~ o pof
ic
Cancer and the Tropic of Cap-iconl.
1
Any action that can be taken to reduce disaster-related loss ~nust:be seen
as logical and desirable in cost benefit terms.
A~nongthe disasters, floods account for the' largest numbel of deaths,
persons affected and damage inflicted.
.
3) yo111answer should include the followirig points: Disasters: A Global View
Coastal 1-egions are prone to cylones, arid and semi-arid regions to

persistent droughts, tlie Himalyan mountain terrain and parts of the
continental crust to est-thqualces and landslides and tlie near perelinial
rive1.s of the region to pesiodic floods.
Checlc Your Progress 2
1) Your answer slio~lldinclude tlie following points:

0 Modern science and technology have helped in designing means to
n~inimisethe efrects o r disaster.
o I'lic most signilicant is the launching of the IDNDR progrnlnme by the
United Nations.
IDNDR lias now betn succeeded by tlie programme called tlie
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR).
2) : Your answer sliould include the following points:
o IDNDK is 1ntel.nation:ll Decade Tor 1Uatural Disaster Reduction
'(1990-2000) which was launched by U1U General Asse~nblyin 1989
reduce tlie impacts of natural disasters.
o ISDR is Inter-national Strategy for Disaster Reduction and it lias been
designed as the successor to IDNDR in order to consolidate the progress
made during IDNDR.
3 ) Your answer slioulcl include the following points:

9 Monito~.ii~g of scismic disturbances helps to delineate lia~arclzones and
also lielp in prepasation of risk maps.
liisl\: maps are often usecl to plan construction worlcs and implement
mitigation Incasurcs.
UNIT 3 DISASTERS: A GLOBAL VIEW
Structure
Objectives
Introdyction
Disasters : Global and Regional Context
3.2.2 Regional Contest
Efforts to Mitigate Disasters Worldwide
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you sliould be able to: ,
e discuss disasters i n the global context

a briefly describe the disasters in a regional context
e identify tlie efforts world over to mitigate disasters.
3.1 INTRODUCTION '

Disasters have always been ~nankind'sconstant companion. Gen'erations of
people have had to withstand disaster. They suffered from the consequences and
recovered from them, and life continued. But somehow, over tlie ages, Ilie
scenario has changed quite a bit. Of course, there lias not been much reduction
in tlie traditional disaster threat. Natural disasters lilte earthquakes, cyclones, .
volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, wildfires, floods, landslides and droughts continue .
to strike. So do their basic man-made counterparts, such as major accidents.
While we have learned to cope'witl~these problems to a certain extent, we liave
'
neither eliminated nor contained them. So, whilst their effects may liave been
modified, they continue to inflict unacceptable pressure 011 a world population
which is already finding it difficult to make ends meet. 'The largest sufferers are
the least developed nations and economically weaker sections of the society. 1
Increasing population Ilas forced people to live in disaster-prone areas whicl
previously, would not have been regarded as habitable. This fact tends to apply
1
particularly in developing countries. For example, human settlement lias been
allowed to develop in the flood-prone areas of major river systems, also on
low-atoll islands which are subject to inundation from the sea.
disaster
N ~ W threats have also developed in the modern world. Increased socidl
violence has drastically affected many nations and communities. Instances df
hijacking, terrorism, civil wirest and conflict with conventional arms lia\le
1 .
become co~nmonplace. Instances of cross-border terrorism in parts of Incl~a
co~lti~iuing for many years and the organized simultaneous multi-target terrorist
attacks in USA on Septenber 1 l"', 2001 are the most despicable instances p f ,
willful rnanmade disasters. These inflict heavy burdens on gov~nlmentsand!
societies, Inore so in developing countries whose existence is already precarioi~s
because s f poor economic and social conditions. I
New threats have also come from what are general ly termed as liazarclous
materials or substances. The gas leak tragedy of Bhopal in 1984 rcznlts
parainount in this category, with its estimated to1 l of 2,500 killed and 1.00,000
seriously affected in health. Hazardous materials are shifted aro~~lld the transpol-t r
systems of the world in increasing quantities and sometimes they are dumped in .
areas which are vital to tlie world's future. These materials constitute a disaster Disrsters: A Global View
threat which is potentially worse than to those posed by many of tlie natural
phenomena.
I Tlie threat from atomic and nuclear sources poses another modern problem for
disaster management. Tlie explosion in 1986 at the Clie~.ri&yl nuclear power
plant in in the then Soviet Union highlighted the extent and severity of tliis
problem. Apart horn those liilled and affected by radiation sickness, somc
1,35,000 people had to be evacuated from tlie area.
Wli'ilst tlie tlireat from nuclear accidents is disturbing enough, tlie disaster
~iianagement proble~nsarising fi-o~iipossible nuclear war are almost beyond
comprehension, Tlie possibility is high tliat even if a country is not directly
involved in n ~ ~ c l e aconflicts,
r it could well suffer from the radioactive
side-effects.
Tliel'efore, it can be said that tlie new disaster threats contain some unwelco~iie
and unacceptable chasacteri.stics, in that tliey may liave extremely far-I-anging
effects and, at tlie same time, be difficult to countet-.
3.2 DISASTERS: GLOBAL AND REGIONAL

CONTEXT
1 It has often been pointed out that most of the world's worst disastel-s tend to
occur betwcen tlie TI-opic of Cancer and the Tropic OF Capricorn i.e., in the
tropical areas. Coincidentally, Iliis is tlie area which contains tlie poorer
countries of tlie world. A inajor significance of this is, of course, that such
countries find themselves facing repeated setbaclis to progress. Indeed, some
countries seem clestined to remain in tlie category of developing nations
primarily because of the severity a~iclrnagnitude of their disaste~.~.Seen in this
light, Cherel'ore, disaster can be a strong aggravating factor in Ilic cliffe~.enccs
between wealthy nations and poor nations.
On tlie other hand, tlie simple fact is tliat the more nations clevelop and tlie niore
asscts tliey build up, tlie more they stand to lose. It follows tliat any action Illat
can be taken to reduce disaster-related loss must be seen as logical and desirable
r i n cost-benefit teniis. This applies to all countries, ricli or poor, and it underlines
tlie need for all countries to try to develop and maintain an effective disaster
riiaintenance capability appropriate to their needs. It also underlines the
necessity for cooperative and coordinated international actioti in order to
t strengthen all aspects of disaster niaiiage~iient,wlicrever tliis is possible.
Unless disaster can be mitigated and ~ilanagedto tlie optimum extent possible, it
will continue to liave a debilitating effect in tlie fi~ture. Tlie wol.ld is alreacly
facing a range of environ~nentaland subsistence crises. Disaster mitigation
should be regarded as all impo~tanttool in succcssf~llycoping with these crises.
Also, the political, economic and social stability of the worlcl de~)e~ids
significantly on bridging the gap between developing atid developed nations.
Tlie mitigation and containment of disaster effects on tlie cleveloping nations,
IIOW and in the future, is an important step towards bridging tliis gap.
In the global context, it is significant to note tliat among the major disasters, tlie
tloods account for the largest number of deaths, persons affected ancl cla~nage
inilicted. 111fact, nearly 30% of all deatlis, daniage a~iclaffected population call
be traced to flood disasters. On tlie other .hand, drougllts do not result in too
Inany deaths and most of the persons also escape tlie serious eFhcts by migrating
but tlie damage is nevertheless significant, tliat is, arou~id20% of all tlie disaster.
relared dariiaees.
I .. r..
Untlerstanding o f Tile st~tdyof the global statistics of disasters over the last few decades reveals.
Disasters that there is a significant and steady rise in the impacts of disasters (deaths,
damage, persons affected). This appears for two reasons, viz., ( i ) increased
incidence of man-made disasters' due to industrialisatio~i and ecological
degradation; and (ii) increased technological capability to detect and monitor
'natural disasters.
3.2.2 Regional Context

Tile Soutll Asian region faces various Icinds of natural hazards. The countries ill
this region are densely pop~~latedand are low-income economies making
sustainecl efforts for economic gl-owth. Recurrent natural disasters offer setbacks
to their efforts at development and aggravate poverty conditions in the region.
The South Asian countries have diverse agroclimatic regions, each subject to
particular natural disasters. Long coastal regions are prone to cyclones, arid ant1
semi-arid regions to persistent droughts, the Himalayan mountain terrain and
pal-ts of the continental crust to earthqualces and landslicles and the near-perennial
rivers of the region to periodic floods.
The coastal regions of India, Bangladesh, Myammar arlcl Sri Lanlca are severely
affected by cyclones arising in the Bay of Bengal. I n tlie recent past, Bangladesll
and India pa~-ticularlyhave been ravaged by severe cyclones that have ltillcd
laklis of people and damagedldestroyed property worth thousands of crores ol'
nipees. The super cyclone that hit Orissa in 1999 resulted in ~~nprccedentecl
destruction and loss of lives. Earlier in 1970, the then East Palcistan (New
Bangladesh) was hit by a very sever.e cyclone.
Floods are almost an annual feature of the region ancl cause heavy losses. The
major rivers of the region like the Ganga, the Brahmapulra and the Indus are all
prone to flooding either due to heavy rains ol! clue to fast melting of snow in the
Himalayas. Floods occur with unfailing regularity in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanlca.
Bangladesh and Nepal, while there are occassional flash floods in Bhutan. In
India, more than 40 million hectares of land is flood prone.
Seismic disturbances are common all over the region. Nepal alone has
experienced 23 ma.jor earthquakes between I890 ancl 1975. Earthcluakes 01'
lesser magnitude also strike every year. Palcistan too has a long history of
earthqualces. In 1935, an ea~-thqualceat Quetta Icilled 35,000 people. Around
56% of India's total area is susceptible to seismic disturbances. India sufltrcd
from two major earthqualces recently in Ma11arasht1.a (1993) and in G~!jarat
(2001) that have taken a massive toll of Ii~~manlives ancl property. Bangladesh is
also susceptible to occassional seismic disturbances though the magnitl~cleof the
disturbances here is of a considerably lower scale than the rest of the region.
The inherently variable nature of tropical rain such as tlie monsoon is responsible
for the frequent occurrence of drougl~ts.In fact, it is not Llncommon for one part
of a large country like India to be experiencing drougl~tswhile a different part of
the sanie country is reeling under the impact of iloods. Two-t11i1-clsof lnclia
comes ~ ~ n d earid
r and semiarid regions and dry subhumid conditions. Tllesc
areas are all prone to clrougllts. The Western parts of the country sufferecl fmm
major drought in 1987. The Palcistani states of Sincl and Punjab are the country's
drought-prone areas. Sri Lanka's northern and easterll parts also s~rfl'erfrom
droughts occasionally.
Landslides are an increasingly comnlon occurrence in the hilly areas of the

region. Landslides cause extensive damage to roads, briclgcs, hu111an dGcllings,
agriculti~ralla~lds,orchards, forests, resulting in loss of propcrty as well as life.
Economic degradation of hill areas has also been increasing due to grcatcr
frequency of occurrence of landslides. 111 India alone, the cost of restoration
works and associatecl econornic losses due to landslicles has been estimatccl
.conservatively at Rs.200 crores per annum. It shoulcl be notccl that India faccs
the largest number of disasters among the countries of Soutll and Southeast Asia.
Check Your Progress 1 Disasters: A Global View

ii). Checlc your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
I ) Name a few severe disasters that occurred in Lndia or elsewhere in the world.
2) Discuss disasters in tlie GlobaI context.
3) Briefly describe tlie disasters i n the regional context of South Asia.
I 3.3 EFFORTS TO MITIGATE DISASTERS

WORLDWIDE
Natural Disasters are no longer reckoned as the "Wrath of God". Modern science
and technology have helped us to understand the mechanisms that resi~ltin such
catastrophic events and also in devising means to minimise their i l l effects. In
tlie era of advanced satellite and other remote sensing techniques, the magnitucle
' of damages wrecked by natural calamities can be reduced considerably by
, building a "Culture of Preventio~l" tliroi~gl~awareness, knowledge and
'
, appropriate use of such technologies. We lnay not be able to elitninate the
! occurrence of such disasters but certainly, action can be taken to reduce their
' impact. Sych actions are ternled as mitigatory.
T l ~ emost sig~iificantglobal effort made in recent times to mitigate tlie effects of

'
disasters was the launcliing of tlie IDNDR programme by the United Nations.
Understanding of International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)
Disasters
Recognising tlie rapidly rising WOI-ld-widetoll on l i ~ ~ ~ narid
a n economic losses
due to natural disasters, tlie UN General Assembly in. 1989 made a decision to
launch a far reaching global programme to save human. lives and reduce tile
ililpact of natural disasters. With this aim in mind, the decade 1990-2000 was
declared International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).
The objective of IDNDR was to reduce through concerted international action,

especially in the developing countries, the loss of life, property damage and
social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters such as eal-thqual<es,
windstorms, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic erruptions, wildfires, dr.ougllt
and desertification and other calamities of natural origin.
By the year 2000, as per the plan of the IDlVDR, it was intended that all countries
should have:
1, comprehensive national assessnients of risks from natural hazards, and

tliese assessments taken into account in development plans ;
2. mitigation plans at national andtor local levels, involving long tern1
prevelition and preparedness and community awareness, and ;
3. Ready access to the global, regional, national and local warning syste~ns
and broad disseniinatiori of tlie same.
The major conference of the IDNDR programme held in Yokohama (Japan) in

May 1994, evolved a plan of action for disaster reduction called the Yokoha~iia
Strategy. It gave guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and
Mitigation.
The Plan of Action was to be based on points like develop~nentof a global
cult~lreof preveiition as an essential component of an integrated approach to
disaster reduction, adoption of a policy of self-reliance in each vulnerable
cou~itryand comm~lnitycomprising capacity building as well as allocation and
efficient use of resources, co~n~nunity pa~ticipation in the disaster reduction
process, and improved risk assessment, broader nionitoring and timely
communicatio~iof forecasts and warnings. Furtheriiiore, tlig strategy called upon
all countries to express political cornm~itmentto reduce their vulnerability
tlirough appropriate means. It also recommended that donor countries slio~~ld
upgrade the priority on disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness ill their
assistance prograiiilnes and budgets.
International strategy for Disaster Reduction appreciating tlie good worl< done
under the aegis of IDNDR and the need to continue the effort on tlie global level,
the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDK) has been adopted as tlie
successor to IDNDR. The ISDR has beell programmed to take advantage of the
network and experience gained under IDNDR. Wliile the main achievement of
IDVDR was to create awareness among the people and policymakers worldwide,
ISDR is aimed at upgrading this awareness into realistic action plans. For
implementing the ISDR, tlie main focus will be on: I
I
Continuing tile efforts lo increase awareness,

a Obtaining commit~ne~it
from p ~ ~ b la~ltl~orities,
ic
Creating disaster resistant communities, and ,
Reducing socioecono~iiiclosses. '
Monitoring and Hazard Assessment of Seismic Disturbances

I
Though eartliquakes are as yet unpredictable hazards, monito~.ingof seis1n.i~

disturbance helps to delineate hazard zones and also help in pl-eparation of risk
maps. Risk maps are then used to plan construction works atid implement ,
lnitigatio~lmeasures.
-
~ ~ v e l -countries
al including Inclia, which are threatened by eartl~qualcehazard, Disasters: A Global View
'operate national and local networks for earthquake monitoring and surveillance.
'The first global networlc, laiown as World Wide Networlc of Seismic Statio~ls
(wWIVSS) was established in the early sixties. Later on, a few of these were
converted to Seismic Research Observatories (SRO). Now a modern global
~letworlccalled Incorporated Research Institutes for Seismicity (IKIS) has bee11
estnbl ished by USGS t h r o ~ ~ g l l the
o ~ ~world.
t
Checlc Yonr Progress 2
Note: i) 1Jse the space give11 bclow for your answcrs.

ii) Checlc your answcrs wilh those given at thc end orthe Ilnit.
I) Discuss briel'ly the effbrts to mitigate disasters worldwide.
2) Explain the terms IDNDR and ISDR.
3) Briefly describe 1.he importance of monitoring and llnzard assessment of

seismic disturbances.
,
3.4 LET US SUM UP
No country in the world is frec from disasters. They have been occurring since
time ilnme~norialand mankind continues to be at their mercy. With advances in
science and technology, newer man-made threats liave been aclded to the
! traditional natural hazards. In the South Asian Region, however, it is tlie natural
..
Ilnderstanding of disasters tliat continue to be the most dominating factor. The developrne~ltal
Disasters progress of these nations is also hampered by the continuous onslaught of "
disasters. However, never before has there been such awareness about
i~ilportanceof disaster mitigation practices. International prograrnlnes are aiding
the mitigation efforts worldwide in order to help people cope with disasters as
best as possible under the given circ~~mstances.In this Unit, the discussion has
been focused, primarily on tlie global and regional aspects.
3.5 KEY WOKDS
Assessmeat: Survey of a disaster area to make estimates of damages and

recommendations for necessary re1ief action.
Rislc Analysis: Systematic procedure to assess tlie liltelihood of an event
,occurring and its socio-economic impact.
Rislc Mapping: Maps that identify types or severity of hazards, and their likely
impacts in areas that may be affected by disasters.
Seismic Rislc Map: Clia~zthat depicts areas likely to experience an earthquakes
of various magnitudes.
Carter, W. Nick, 1991. Dis~rsterA4unngemenl: A Disaster Manc~ger',~

Hc~ndbook,
Mishra, Girish K,and G.C. Mathnr (Eds.), 1993. Naturul Disasler Reduction,
Reliance Publishing House, New Dellii.
Prakash, Indu, 1994. Disuster Munugenient Rashtra Praliari Prakashan, .
Ghaziabad.
Thomas, Babu, 1993. Disaster Respon,se : A Ilandbook for Enzergencies,
Cliurcli's Auxiliary for Social Action, New Delhi.

EXERCISES I
1) Your answer sliould ~ncludethe following points:

in Gujarat in 200 1.
Ea~~liquake
Super Cyclone in Orissa in 1999.
The tragedy of Bhopal in 1984.
The explosion in 1986 at tlie Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the then
Soviet Union.
The cyclo~lethat hit the then East Pakistan (Now Bangladesh) in 1970.
I
Most of the world's worst disasters tend to occur between the T ~ ~ o pof
ic
Cancer and the Tropic of Cap-iconl.
1
Any action that can be taken to reduce disaster-related loss ~nust:be seen
as logical and desirable in cost benefit terms.
A~nongthe disasters, floods account for the' largest numbel of deaths,
persons affected and damage inflicted.
.
3) yo111answer should include the followirig points: Disasters: A Global View
Coastal 1-egions are prone to cylones, arid and semi-arid regions to

persistent droughts, tlie Himalyan mountain terrain and parts of the
continental crust to est-thqualces and landslides and tlie near perelinial
rive1.s of the region to pesiodic floods.
1) Your answer slio~lldinclude tlie following points:

0 Modern science and technology have helped in designing means to
n~inimisethe efrects o r disaster.
o I'lic most signilicant is the launching of the IDNDR progrnlnme by the
United Nations.
IDNDR lias now betn succeeded by tlie programme called tlie
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR).
2) : Your answer sliould include the following points:
o IDNDK is 1ntel.nation:ll Decade Tor 1Uatural Disaster Reduction
'(1990-2000) which was launched by U1U General Asse~nblyin 1989
reduce tlie impacts of natural disasters.
o ISDR is Inter-national Strategy for Disaster Reduction and it lias been
designed as the successor to IDNDR in order to consolidate the progress
made during IDNDR.
3 ) Your answer slioulcl include the following points:

9 Monito~.ii~g of scismic disturbances helps to delineate lia~arclzones and
also lielp in prepasation of risk maps.
liisl\: maps are often usecl to plan construction worlcs and implement
mitigation Incasurcs.
UNIT 4 DISASTER PROFILE OF INDIA:
REGIONAL AND SEASONAL
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Disasters in India: Regional Profile
4.2.1 Flood
4.2.2 Drought
4.2.3 Cyclorie
4.2.4 Earthquake
4.2.5 Laridslide
Disasters in India : Seasonal Profile
Let Us S u ~ nUp
Key Words
Answers to Cliecl<Your Progress Exercises
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you sliould be able to:
e describe the types of natural disasters occuring in India;

e explain their regional and seasonal distributions; and
e Iiigliliglit tlie more vulnerable areas of tlie country.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A natur'al disaster is an event of riatllre wliicli causes sudden disruption to tlie

normal life of a society and causes darnagc to property and lives, to such an
extent, that norlnal social and econoniic ~necllanisms,available to tlie society are
inadequate to restore normalcy. There is no way of preventi~ig them.
Ear-tliqualtes, cyclonic stor~ns,snow-stortiis, lieavy rains, drouglits, landslides,
etc. have occurred in tlie past and will continue to occur in T~tture. In this Unit,
the discussion will provide an overview of tlie type of disasters occuring in l~iclia.
4.2 DISASTERS IN INDIA : REGIONAL PROFlLE
T1ie Indian subcontinent is Iliglily vulnerable to a number of natural disasters.

Droughts, Floods, Cyclones and Eartliqual<cs are ~no~jor natural clisasters in the
count~y,tliougli Landslides, Avala~iclieand Uusli fire also occu~.in tilost of the-
states of I-Iinialayan region. Out of 35 total States11 '11io11I cr.ritories, al~iiostall, .
are prone to disasters of one type or tlie otlicr. The areas o~aibeti different disaster.,
plienomena in India.are shown in Figure 1
Due to i~niqueand widely varying geographical and geological conclitions of the

country, vit-tually all types of natural disasters take place with various intensities
a~idin different regions.
4.2.1 Flood Disaster Profile of India -
Regional and Seasonal
~ ; l ~ ooccur
d s when large volume of water from heavy rainfall and/or river spill is
not able to drain off quickly through normal channels. As explained in an earlier
Unit, floods are the most frequent and most widespread natural disaster resulting
in death, destruction, degradation and displacement. Whether sudden onset or
slow developnietlt, floods take long to subside and they leave prolonged ill-
effects.
India is the second most flood affected country where flood is a comlnon natiual
disaster especially durillg the later part of the monsoon period. Severe floods
occur allnost every year in one part of the country or the other causing loss of
life, large scale damage to property and untold misery to lnillions of people.
Floods are estimated to affect 6.7 million hectares of land annually. The
statistics of 10 years (1979-89) indicates that on an average in India about 30
lnillion population are affected by flood every year
The effects of flood on the affected population are manifested in the forin of
inundation marooning, drowning, loss of habitat roads, cornmunications,
destruction of crops, industrial shutdown, loss of wages, diarrohea diseases,
respiratory infections etc. and most of the affected population is among the
poorer sections.
In India the most affected states due to floods are Bihar, Assam, Uttar Pradesh,
the states in the northeast, Orrisa & West Bengal. They are also serious in states
like Andlira Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan & Tamil Nadu
Ca~~ses
of Floods
Flooding is mainly caused by :
1 ) Inadequate capacity within the banks orthe river to contain high flows,
2) River banlc erosion and silting of river beds,
3) Land slides leading to obstruction of flow ancl change ill the river course,
4) ~~nclironization
of floods in the main and tributary rivers,
5) Retardation of flow due to tidal and backwater effects,
6) Poor natural drainage,
7) Cyclones and s t o m surge,
8) Cloud burst and flash floods.
Flood Probleni : Regional Distribution
The nature of flood problem varies from one river system to another (Figure 2).
For a proper appreciation of the problem, the country can be.divided into die
following broad regions:
1) Bralimaputra Region;
2) Ganga Region;
3) NOI-th-WestRegion; &
' 4) Central India and Deccan Region
I
Understanding of A brief description of these flood prone river regions is given below:
I Disasters
1 Brahmaputra River Region
Tlie predominant problem in this region is the flooding caused by spilling of
rivers over their banlts, drainage congestion and tendency of some of the rivers to
change their courses. In recent years, the erosiori along the banlts of the
Brahmaputra lias assumed serious proportions.
Considering the individiral states in tlie region, tlie flood problem is acute in
Assatn where inundation is caused by over-bank spillage along tlie Brahmaputra,
the Barrack and their tributaries such as. the rivers Tista, Torsa, Jaldlial<a and
subansiri which are in floods every year and inundate large areas. These rivers
also carry considerable amount of silt and have a tendency to change their
courses. Tlie lakes get filled up during the monsoon and spread over larger
marginal areas. In Tripura, there are proble~nsof spilling and erosion by rivers.
Ganga River Region
The flood problem is ~nostlyconfined to the areas on the northern i.e, the left
bank of the Ganga river. The damage is caused lnostly by the norther11
tributaries of the Ganga which spill over tlieir banks and often change tlieir
courses. Even though tlie main Ganga is a mighty river carrying huge discharges
of 57,000 to 85,000 cusecs, the inundation and erosion problems are confined to
relatively few places in the States of Uttar Pradesli, Biliar and West Bengal.'
In Uttar Pradesli, the flooding is fiequent in tlie eastern districts, mainly due to
spilling of the Rapti, tlie Sharada, tlie Gliagra and tlie Gandak. The erosion is
experienced i l l some places on the left bank of Gangs, on the right bank of the ,
Ghagra and on the right bank of the Gandal<. I
In Bihar, the floods are largely confined to the rivers of North Bihar and are more
or less, an annual feature. The rivers such as the Burlii Gandak, the Baghniati
and the Ka~nlaBalan and other slnaller rivers of tlie Adhwara Group, the Kosi in
the lower reaches and the Mahananda at the eastern end spill ovcr tlieir banlcs
causing considerable damage to crops, housing and roads Icading to dislocation
of traffic.
I11 Soitth and Central West Bengal, the Mahananda, tlie Bliagiratlii, the A-ioy, tlie
Da~nodarcause flooding due to the illadequate capacity of river clianncls. Tlicre
is also the problem of erosion of the banks of some of tlic rivers and o n the left
and right ba111<sof Ganga both upstream and downstream of the Faraltlta barrage.
Northwest Rivers Region
Compared to the Ga~igaand the Brahmaputra river regions, the flood problem is
relatively small in this region. The major problem is that of inadequate surface
drainage which causes inundation and waterlogging over vast areas.
At present, the problem in tlie States of Haryana and Punjab are mostly of
drainage and waterlogging. Floods in parts of Rajastlian were rare in tlie the
past. The Ghaggar river used to disappear in the sand dunes of Rajastlian after
flowing through Punjab and Haryana, In recent years it lias becon~eactive in the
Rajasthan territory also, occasionally submerging large areas.
Tlie floods occur pel-iodically in the Jhelum and .its tributaries in Kashmir Valley
causing a rise in the level of the Wullar lake thereby submerging marginal areas
of the lakq-and banlts. ~ i r n i l a r l the
~ , Chenab and its tributaries like Tawi are
often in spate endangering several densely populated areas like Jammil and
Aklinoor. 1- -
,
Central Inclia and Deccan Region Disaster Profile of India -
Regional and Seasonal
This region covers all the soutliern states namely Andhra Pradesh, Karnatalca,
Tamil Nadu and Icerala and the states of Orissa, Maharaslitra, Gujarat and pads
of Madliya Pradesh. The region does not have very serious flood problein
because the r~la-jorrivers have largely well defined stable courses and are able to
carry flood discharges safely except in the deltaic areas especially in some of the
rivers of Orissa State.
Tlie flood proble~nin Andlira Pradesli is confined to spilling by tlie s~iiallerrivers

and the submergence of marginal areas along tlie Kolleru Lalce. In addition,
there is a drainage problem in the deltaic tracts of the coastal districts.
The Tapi and tlie Narmada are occasionally in high floods affccti~igareas it1 the
lowel. reaches in Gujarat.
In Orissa, damage due to Hoods is caused by Malianadi, Bralimani ancl Baitarni

whicli liave a con1mon delta where tlie flood waters intermingle and wlien in
spate si~nultaneouslycause considerable havoc. The problein is accentuated
when the flood sychsonises with high tides. The silt deposited constantly by
rivers, often results in rivers overflowing their banks or breaking tlirougli new
channels causing heavy damage. Tlie lower reaches along the S t ~ b a r n a r e l hare
affected by floods and drainage congestion. d
Goclaval-i and Krislina rivers on the east coast liave acute drainage problem and
face floods particularly in the wake of heavy rains From cycloiiic storms. Tlie
small rivers of Kerala wlien in spate, cause co~isiderabledamage.
4.2.2 Drought
Drought is widespread in India. 11 is primarily a deficiency in rainfall but over

exploitation of ground water aggravates the situation. Large evaporation
resulting from poor water retention capacity of soil adds to the problem. It is also
the result of poor water management strategy, cleforestation and indiscri~ninate
industrial cxploitation of water resources. Drought is a creeping plienomenon,
whicli makes an accurate prediction of its onset a difficult task. A dl-ought may
take place in a season or in a run of years and its impact on society may linger For
Inany years. Its impact depends largely on society's vulnel-ability to drought at
r
that particular time. Human or social factors often aggravate the ef'fects of
drou.gI1t.
Drought is quite a perennial feature in India especially in Gijarat, Rajasthan, and

parts of Madliya Pradesh, Maliarashtra, Karnataka, Andlisa Pradesh and Tamil
N a d i ~Certain areas in Orissa also suffer Drouglits peren~iially.Due to the highly
variable occurrence of monsoon rains, there are usually areas of deficient rains
even in good monsoon years.
Factors Promoting Drought in India
Tlic Factors promoting drought are the delay 01- less rains due to whicli tlicre is
water scarcity. Depletion of forest, overgrazing soil erosion, extension of
cultivation to ~narginallands and lowering of water level etc. directly contrib~lte
to-ancl aggravate the i l l effects of drought.
I
/ I
I Understanding of When the monsoon rainfall deficit for the country as a whole is 10% delow
Disasters
normal or worse, and 20% or more area of the country, suffers from rail1 deficit,
it is reckoned as a "drought year" for the'country as a whole. In the scientifically
recorded history of India the following are recognized as the drought years on the
national scale:
Among these the two exceptionally bad years were 1977 and 1899. In 1977, the
monsoon rainfall deferency was 29% below normal and 67% area of the country
suffered from rain deferency. In 1899 while the monsooll rains were 26% below
~iormal,as much of 83% ofthe area of the count~ysuffered drought conditions.
4.2.3 Cyclone
111diahas a very lolig coastline of 5700 kms, a major portion of which is exposed
to tropical cyclones arising in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea (Fig. I . C ) .
Once taking birth over the sea areas, the cyclones move either western and or
northwestward.
Cyclones are characterized by very strong winds, tor~.entialrains and associated

floods which cause extensive damage to human lives and property in the coastal
areas. The.damage is ~nuchInore if cyclone strikes the coast at the time of high
. tide resulting in very substantial storm surge inundating the coast. Tlle
combi~~ation of torrential rains and exceptionally strong winds ~naltescyclones
very destructive and the storm singe bringing in saline seawater in huge
quantities compou~~ds llle problem.
The India11 coastal regions are among the six major cyclone-prone regions of the
world. En India cyclones occur usually between April and May, and between
October and December. These are called the Pre-monsoon and post-monsoon
seaso11s.
The eastern coastline is more prone to cyclones as it is hit by about 80% of total
cyclones generated in the region. Sometimes, a cyclone hitting the east coast,
travels over the peninsula with reduced strength and emerges in the Arabian Sea
to become a cyclolle once again.
4.2.4 Earthquake
Earthquakes are considered to be one of the most dangerous and destructjve .

natural hazards. The impact of this phenomenon is sudden with little or no
warning, making it just impossible to predict it. Therefore, the best strategy is to
make preparations against damages and collapses of building and other man-
made structures, About 50-60% of total area of the country is vulnerable to
seismic activity of varying damage potential (Fig.1 .D).
Most of the vulnerable areas are generally located in Himalayan and sub;
Himalayan regions, extending from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh, Kutch and in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Some of the more damaging earthcluakes (India)
are listed below.
Table-2 Disaster Profile of lndia -
Regional and Scasonal
More Damaging Earthquakes in India
( year Region Magnifude on Richter Deaths

Scale
I
1 1905 1 Hirnachal Pradesh

I
1 8.0
1
1 2000
I
I
1930 Meghalaya 7.1 N.A.
1934 North Bihar 8.4 1 1000
1 1935 I Baluchistan (then India) 1 7.5 I 25000

I
I 1941 I Andaman Islands I
I I
8.1 I
I
N.A.
I
1950 Assam 8.6 1500
I 1 I
1956 Gujarat 7.0 N.A.
1 1988 I Assam 1 7.2 I N.A. I
1993 Marathwada 6.4 10000
1999 Uttranchal 6.8 N.A.

1
4.2.5 Landslide
A~nongthe nat~~ral hazards that strike the mountainous areas almost perennially,
landslipes occupy a position of major concern. The Hi~nalayanrange constitutes
a young and therefore, a fragile mountain system. It is not a continuous
landmass but co~nprisesseriez of curvilinear parallel folds extending in length to
about 2400 km. Its width is aroutid 340 km. The Himalayas in general are
fiagile in nature due to tectonically displaced and folded as well as crumpled
I
rock formation and due to periodic earth tremors ill this belt.
The Hi~nalayasabound in seismic 1111-ustsand faults which have profound effect

r on slope stability. In order to save the Himalayas from :he increasing negative
impact of slope instability there is a need to have an integrated approach of
various branches of ^sciences like geology, geomorphology, geotecl~nical
engineering, meteorology, hydrology, remote sensing for finding a viable
sol~itionto mitigate the landslide hazards. This I~asbeconie especially important
for keeping open. The road network in the Himalayan region.
Causes of Landslides
A slope may yield a wide variety of mass movemenls. Slope failures are
nprmally due to sheer stresses which increase with the inclination and height of
:& slope and occur when sheer stress exceeds the sheer strength. When the
forces of equilibrium alter marginally the landslide is slow and if the disturbing
forces undergo significant chai~ge,the movement of Inass is fast. The rock fall
,and debri; flow in Himalayas are caused due to heavy precipitation and
saturation during rainy season and consequent development of hydrostatic
pressure in highly jointed, fractured and weathered rock mass. Extensive erosion
by the meandering rivers also causes progressive failure of the overlying
ntaterials. 87
!
Understanding of Check Your Progress 1
Disasters
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit,
1) Describe briefly the disaster phenomenon in the Indian subcontinellt.
t. ,
I;
j' i: '
, .
i I
I
i.,
I,
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2) Discuss the flood problem in India with special reference to regional

distribution.
.
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/
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I' .
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I !
' 1
I ;
, : ;
3) What do ,you mean by Drought? Discuss briefly the factors promoting

I'? drought in India.
:'I
: I'.
, 1
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4.3 DISASTERS IN INDIA : SEASONAL PROFILE
ii' {
{j! ;
' 4I
i/j' ' ' , Seasonal variation in disasters is observed lnostly in cases of flo,ods and
' ' I
'F : cyclones.
j i
. jl I!
' ,
,
i ;
;I , Floods
lil :
.;/II; ; '1
I
'
According to the lndia Meteorological Department, the south west monsoon I
.is
!' season is considered to be'frok Olst of June to 30th of September. About 80% I
I
:\i
. /
,
'
'
, of the annual rainfall occurs during the southwest monsoon. Floods in India are I
:I '
mainly caused by heavy rainstorms during this season. Consequently, southwest I
I
monsoon season is, generally, regarded as the flood season in India. The average
rainfall of India is 110 cm. Floods can arise from abnormally heavy ,
precipitation, dam failures, rapid,snow melts and river blockages.
v iI
_ . I
~loodsalso occur in coastal areas when a cyclone hits the coast and brings with it Disaster Profile of India - '
very huge quar~titiesof saline sea water. Hence cyclone related stroln surge Regional and Seasonal
floods occilr in the cyclone season.
Cyclones
Cyclones are tlie most destructive kind of storms that strike thecoastal belt of
India with varying degree of fury. Their frequency in tl;e Bay of Bengal is
roughly fourfold higher thanthat in the Arabian Sea. Most of the'cyclor~esoccur
in the months of April, May, October and November, i.e., in the pre-monsoon
alld post-monsoon months.
Droughts
As already mentioned droughts occur when there is delay or shortfall in the

monsoon rains. The situation aggravates if the monsoon season continues to
behave erratically and give insufficient rains. Therefore, the maximum impact of
the drought is fell in the sutnmer and tlie subsequent months.

ii) Check your answers with those given at tlie end of the unit.
I) Which are the prominent seasons for floods?
2) Discuss the occurrences of cyclones in India.
3) What are the causes of droughts?

Understanding of
Disasters 4.4 LET US SUM UP
Because of its large size and the special characteristics of geography and
geology, India has considerable variety and frequency of disasters. It is
particularly vulnerable to floods and cyclones causing maximum damage in
terms of life and property followed by eal-tliquakes,droughts and landslides.
There is a set pattern of regional and seasonal occurrence of these disasters

particularly the floods and cyclones.
4.5 KEY WORDS

Flasii Flood : Sudden and extreme volume of water that comes on rapidly over
a relatively small area causing inundation; can result in very heavy loss of life
and destruction of propel-ty.
Slope Instability: When slopes are having unstable rock structure 01. loose soil,
slope become unstable and cause soil erosion and landslides. It depends on
character of rocks, soil type and vegetation on the slope.
Synchronization: (of flood in main and tributary rivers). The control of flow of
water in the maill river and its tributaries by mechanical Ineans.
4.6 REFERENCES AND FURTHER RBADINGS d
Carter, W.Nick, 199 1 . Disaster Managamenf: A Disasler Mcrncger's ffnr2dbook,

Government of India, 1947. Vulnerability Atlas ofInicl'u.
Mishra, Girish K, and G.C. Matliur (Eds.), 1995. Nutural Disnsfer Reduction,
Reliance Publislii~igHouse, New Delhi.
Prakash, Indu, 1994. Disaster Manugemen/, Raslitra Prahari Prakaslian,
'Ghaziabad.
Tliomas, Babu, 1993. Disaster Response : A Hanclhook for Emergencies,
Church's Auxiliary for Social Action, New Delhi.
-4.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
1) Your answer should include the following points:

Flood
Drought
Cyclone
Earthquake
Landslide
I
2) Your answer should include tlie followillg points:
Floods occur when large volu~neof water fro111 heavy rainfall and/or
river is not able to drain off quickly through normal chan~iels.
Floods take long to subside and they leave prolonged i l l efredts.
For a proper understanding of the problem, the country call be divided
I
into tlie following broad regions:
i) Brahmaputra River Region; Disaster Profile of India -
, ii) Ganga River Region; Regional and Seasonal
iii) North-West Rivers Region;

iv) Central India and Deccan Rivers Region.
3) Your'answer should include the following points:

e Drought is primarily a deficiency in rainfall over a certain period of time.
e It results because of the change in environ~nentalpatterns resulting in
poor water retention capacity of soil. It is also the result of poor wafer
management strategy, deforestation and indiscriminate industrial
exploitation of water resources.
e Factors promoting drought in India are as follows:
- Delay or less rains which causes scarcity of water.
- Depletion of forest, soil erosion, extension of cultivation to marginal
lands, Lowering of water table.
I ) Your answer should include the following points:
e Most floods ocean dul-ingthe monsoon (June to September)
0 Storm Singe, which is cyclone related, occurs in cyclone seasons, i.e.
pre-mollsoon (April to May) or post-monsoon (October to November)
seasons

e Coastal belt of India is affected by cyclones
e Bay of Bellgal and Arabian Sea are the source of cyclones
0 Occurrences are mainly in the months of April, May, October and.
November

Delay/Sliortfall in the monsoon rains.
Erratic or insufficient rains
Over exploitation of ground water sources
1L .
UNIT 5 EARTHQUAKE
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
General Characteristics
Pre-cursors : Instr~~mental
and Non-Instrumental
Vulnerability
llnpact and Effects
Nature of Damage
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
o describe an Earthquake;
o disc~~sstlie general characteristics of earthquakes;
o briefly describe the Instri~mentaland Non-Instrumental precusors;
understand tlie vulnerability of different regions of the country through
seismic zoning;
a~ialysetlie impact and effects of an earthquake; and
discuss tlie nature of damage.
\
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Eartliquakes are co~isideredto be one of the most dangerous and destructive

~iaturalIiazards. The co~nmencementof this phenomenon is usually sudden with
little or no warning. It is not yet possible to predict earthquakes and to make
preparation against dan~agesand collapse of buildings and other man-made
structures. In effect, eartliquake consists of a sudden shaking (vibrations) of
ground caused by disturbances in the earth's crust. An earthquake generates a set
of horizontal and vertical vibrations of the ground which result in destruction of
structures.
Eartliq~~akes may be defined as a natural phenomenon Which tends to create

panic due to tlie trembling vibrations or sudden undulation of a portion of earth's
crust caused by splitting of a mass of rock (Tectonic) or by volcanic or other
disturbances.
This Unit provides a general discussion about earthquakes. We will first explain
tlie general cliaracteristics of earthquakes. Besides this precursors : (instrutnental
and lion-instrume~ital)and v~~l~ierability of the different regions of tlie country
will be discussed to analyse the impacts and effects of earthquake. Lastly nature
of damage caused by earthquakes will be described.
5.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Earthquakes occur sudden by wit11 little'or no warning, However, following a

I major earthquake, the after-shocks may solnetimes indicate the likelihood of a
further earthquake. On some occasions, an earthquake may be preceded by a less 5.
I
- 8
Typology of intense tremors or foreshocks. The basic cliaracteristics of an earthqualce are the
Disasters - 1 following:
It is [lot yet possible to predict magnitude, time and place of occurence ofan
em-tliquake.
e The onset is usually sudden.
e Earthquake prone areas are generally well ident5e.d and well lt~iownon the
basis of geological features and past occurrences of earthqualtes.
6 Major effects arise mainly from ground movement and fracture or slippage
of rocks underground. The obvious effects include damage (usually very
severe) to buildings and infrastructures alongwitll considerable casualties.
o About 200 large magnitude earthqualte (M>G.O) occur ill a decade.
o The world's earthqualte problem seems to be increasing with the increased
population, high rise buildings and crowded cities.
The exact spot underneath tlie surface of the earth at wliicli an earthquake
origillates is known as "focus" wliile thc poilit lying on tlle ground surface
vertically above the focus is defined as "epicenter" o f the earthquake. The
seismic shoclts originating at a depth of about 50 ltm or less below the surface
are termed as sliallow focus eartl~qualtes;otherwise these are ltnown as deep
focus ea~tliquakes.
The energy released at the focus, due to the elastic rebound of rocks, creates the
earthquake and is a measure of the power oftlie earthqualte.
The power (energy) of an earthquake is reeltoned in terms of its "tnagnitude"

which is measured on an open-ended Richter. But it is not a linear scale and not
even a logarithmic scale. Tliis will be clearly ilnderstood from the following
Table 5.1 which gives the equivalelice of eald~quakemagnitude (on Richter
Scale) and the equivalent energy release by tlie explosion of a certain Inass of
TNT whicli is the well ltnown measure of explosive power in any blast. The
Richter scale derives its name from the scientist who proposed it.
Table 5.1
Magnitude of Earthquake Approximate Equivalent TNT

(on Richter Scale) mass in terms of explosivc power
1 .O 170 gin
3 .O 180 kg (180 x 10"m)

6.0 (like Latur, 1993) 5700 tonne (570 x 1o7gm)
8.5 (Like Assam 1897 & 1950) 28700000 tonne (287 x 10" gm)
From the above, it should be clear that tlie energy released by an earthquake
increases enormously as the magnitude on Ricllter Scale rises. Another way to
appreciate the enormous destruction potential of an 8.5 magnitude earthquake is'
to know that the energy released is approximately equal to 10,000 Hiroshimai
type Atom Bombs. It may be noted from Table 5.1 that each infeger increase of
magnitude on Richter Scale represents about 33 times increase in the energy
released.
The primary waves (or P-waves) from the focus are transmitted due to
longitudinal vibrations set up within the earth. These waves have the velocity of
[lie orcler of several Itilometers pel second and cause tlie pl.eliminary trcriiors on Earthquake - '
tile surface of tlie earth. Tliese waves create an effect of horizontal pilll and push
and are also called pull and push waves.
.l'Iie secondary (or S-waves) o n the other hand are transmitted due lo transverse
vibrations. These are known as surface or slow waves. Even though tlie
amplitude and size are small compared to other waves, these are tlie most
destructive since they create vertical LIP and down movements in tlie gr-ound
s~llfaceas against liorizontal oscillation due to longit~~dinal
waves.
While the "magnit~~de" of an ea~fliquakedefines the energy released by tlie even1

(lie "intensity" of the earthquake will depend on the particular place where it is
measured. Obviously tlie intensity will decrease as tlie clistsuice from the
epicenter increases.
1 5.3 INSTRUMENTAL AND NON-INSTRUMENTAL

Wc havc already stated it is not yet possible to predict eal-thquakes. I-Iowever,
sometimes there are some indication tliat would i~iclicate that ~ e r l i a ~ans
eal-thqualte woilld occur. Silcli indications are called "p~.ec~~~.sors".
These could
bc eitlicr instrumental, i.e., those tliat are mcasured by instrume~its or
non-instri~me~ital,i.e., those which can only bc perceived and not n~easurecl.
Needless to say, the non-instrumental precursors are more subjeclivc.
I Some of tlie generally recognized p~.ecursol-sare listed below:
Table 5.2
1 lnrtr,u~nentnlPreeursorr 1 Non-Instrumental P~CIUI-SO~S I

I Fore-shocl<s& after shocks ( Sudden rise or fall of water level in wells and 1 '
lakes.
Statistical pattern of shocks. Mud and sand shows up in surface waters.
Uplift or subsidence of growid. Changes in flows of natural springs,
Changes in gravity. Increase in salinity of wales.
I Faults. displace~nentsin Earth's Crust I Advmce and retreat ol'seas. I

Tilt and strain of underground rock Unusual bellaviour of animals.
formations.
I Changes in electric resistance of I
I Emission of Radon gas from the I

ground.
I U~iusualsounds from inside earth.

Evaluation of Precursors
I
Tlie above Table shows that precursors have been ~ ~ s e f isome

l l time or tlic other,
I
although none by itself is cxpected to help the prediction of earthquakes. The
, . problem is how t o know wliicli precul-sor shoulcl take precedence at a19givcn
i
Typology of ,time and place. More often than not, false or untenable conclusions seem to hold
Disasters - 1 the sway, and the pros and cons do not lead to any agreement regarding the
usefi~lnessof these precursors for prediction of earthquakes.
Solne studies have been riiade to assess which of these precursors are readily
activated before or during v a r i o ~ ~earthqualtes.
s However, it has not yet been
possible to draw operationally sable criteria for predicting earthqual<es on the
basis of precursors (iristr~~rnental and lion-instrumental). More observation and
studies are required.
Note: i) Use tlie space given below for Y O L Ianswers.

~
ii) Cliecl<Y O L I ans'wer
~ with that given at the elid of the Unit.
I ) What do you understand by an Eat-tIiqual<e?
2) Disc~rsstlie general characteristics of an Eartliq~lalte.
3) List some of tlie Instr~~mental

and non-Instrumental Prec~~rsors.
5.4 VULNERABILITY
Disasters res~rltfrom vulnerable societies being exposed to a hazard. There can

be physical vulnerability, social v~~lnerabilityand economic vulnerability
released to an ea~-thqualtedisaster. i
P]iysical vulnerability relates to old and non-engineered buildings, infrastructure. Earthquake
Tile vulnerability of builclings is dependent on their designs, shape, materials used,
construction tecliniques, maintenance and proximity 01buildings. The weightage
attached to each factor will vary according to the characteristics of tlie particular
cal-tliquake.
Ilifrastr~icturemay be considered in three broad groups: transpol-t systems (roads,

railways, bridges, airpol-ts, port facilities); utilities (water, sewerage and
electricity telecomn~~~nications)and flood protection structures such as dams and
embankments
Vulnerability analysis is especially conce~.iiedwitli the vislc faced by critical

facilities (somctin~estermed "life-lines") which are vital to tlie fi~nctioningof
especially sucl~as incase of cartliqualtes. These
societies in disaster sit~~atioris
facilities include hospitals, dispensaries and emergency services. Special
consideration is given also to protect heritage buildings of great cultural and
historical importance.
i Social Vulnerability
I
Records of past earthqualte disasters suggest that the following groups of people
, are particularly at risk and require special attention:
e Single parent families;

0 Women, particularly when pregnant or lactating;
o Melitally and pliysically handicapped people;
0 Children; and
The elderly and the infirm
I
I Poor people are less concerned with infrequent hazards. If' there are ~ ~ O L I I I S
1
I
whose livelihoods are at risk, living or working in densely pop~~lated
areas, wit11
I low perceptions of risk and without institutional support, the cu~iiulativeeffect
i would be high social vulnerability.
Economic Vulnerability
It measures tlie risk of hazards causing losses to economic assets and processes.
It foc~~sscs on evaluating tlie direct loss potential (i.e., damage or destruction ol'
physical and social infrastructure and its repair or replacemc~ltcost, as well as
crop damage and losses to the means of production); indirect loss potential (i.e.,
the impact 011 cost of production, employn~ent,vital services and income-earning
activities); and secondary effects (epidemics, inflation, illcome disparities and
isolation of outlying areas). Witli the insights provided by ecoiio~nic
vulnerability analysis, it is possible to estimate direct and indirect losses and to
design ways and means to ~nitigatethem in relation to the estimated costs of
relieflrecovery actions and itlitigation measures required.
5.5 IMPACT AND EFFECTS

In general tenns, typical impacts and effects of earthquake disasters tend to be :
i Loss of Life.
1
1 0 11ij~1ry
1
3 Damage to and destruction of property including crops. 9

I
1
Typology of o Disruption of production.
Disasters - 1
o Disruption of lifestyle.
a Loss of livelihood.
o Disruption to essential services.
o Damage to national infrastructure and disruption to administrative and
organizational systems.
a Sociological and psychological after-effects.
The following proble~nareas need particular attention in case of Eattliquake

disasters:
a Severe and extensive damage, creating tlie need for urgent counter measures,
especially search and rescue, and ~nedicalassistance.
8 Diffic'~11ty
of access and movement.
o Widespread loss of o r damage to infi'astructure, essential services and life
support systelns.
o Recovery requirements (e.g., restoration and rebuilding) may be very
extensive and costly. '
o Occurrence of ea~-tliqualcesin areas where s u c l ~ ~ e v e nare
t s rathcl- rare may
cause problems due to lack of public awareness.
5.6 NATURE OF DAMAGE
Damage due to eartliqualces depends on various factors listed below:
a) Nature of Earthquakes: It includes various parameters like ~nagnitude,

intensity, duration and grouhd acceleration due .to ex-tliquake. I-liglier tlie
value of these parameters, liiglie~will be tlie resultant clamngc.
b) Geological and Soil Conditions: Geology and Soil conditions play a very
important role in the amount of damage due to any eartliqualte. I n hilly areas
daniages are severe due to various afterefi'ccts of eartliqualtes sucl~as
lanhslides, blockage of connecting rpads, diversion of river flows and
damage to dams. The intensity of eartliquakc is directly relatecl to the type of
supporting soil layers. The s t r ~ ~ c t i ~built
r e s on the solid rock and fir111soil
generally perform better. There are cases ill which tlie intensc vibrations
from the earthqualce "liquifiecl" the soil and b~~ilcli~igs tiltecl on to the ground
because tlie foundation became loose.
c) Quality of Construction: Construction quality is very important for safety
of buildings. Building designs must be such as to ensure tliat the building
has the adequate strength, and will remain as one unit while subjected to
vibrations and significant cleformation, otherwise it will suffel. great dalnage.
The great loss of life and property due to poor construction practices can be
seen in major earthquakes.
d) Sociological Factors: Various sociological factors such as density of
population, time of occurrences, com~nunityprepareclness are very impo,rtallt
for limiting the resultant damage. '
'.
A short list of the more damaging earthquakes tliat occured in India since the
very great earthquake of 1897 in Assall1 has already bee11given ill Unit 4.
Tlie nature of the damage that can occur as a result of any earthquake may well be Earthquake
imagined. Everything based upon tlie stability of tlie earth is rudely disturbed. If
the tilt or displacement of tlie ground disrupts tlie equilibriu~n,,s)ructures fall.
Gravity spares nobody. Therefore, tlie maxi~numdamage is noticed in the case of
tall buildings. If these are not designed to withstand any substantial ground
movenient, they will fall. Tall buildings and roofs are tlie first casualties. In the
wake of their collapse, most damage to life is done to those who are inside tlie
Iiouse. Many will be hit by falling debris or get trapped inside tlie collapsed
building. Persons trapped under tlie debris, shouting pathetically for help,
constitute a tri~lygruesome sight. Sometimes steel beams have to be cut before the
victims can be rescued.
Essential services such as water - mains, drainage systems, and electrical

transmission lines are seriously damaged. Brolten water - mains cause flooding of
the area and leave no watcr for drinlting or for fire-fighting. The sparking of high
tension overliead electric cables cause fires, setting ablaze whatever combustible
material is in the vicinity. Leaks fro111cooking gas cylinders or supply lines also
cause fires.
Disrupted drainage lines spread noxious fluids and give rise to diseases ancl
epidemics.
Geological faults in tlie Eat-tli's crust become activated and accentuate

displacement of tlie ground, producing gaping fissures in'wliicli Iiu~nanbeings and
animals are known to have been engulfed. Telephone and telegraph poles fall
down and tlie services go out of order. Commi~nicatio~is are seriously hampered or
altogetlier stopped. Railway lines are twisted out of shape and rail communication
to and from the affected area is brolte~ioff. In some cases tlie only access to tlie
affected area is by helicopter.
Large dams in tlie vicinity nay be affected, and in somc cases may even burst and
cause severe floods. On the coast, I i ~ ~ gwaves
e called tsunamis lash tlic shore and
bring down houses and other structures and dislocate fishing and navigation.
Creation of new islancls is a rare plienomenon but does occurs due to some
ea~tliqualtes,which originate 'below tlie sea bed. The new islands were co~nposed
of loose s:mcl ancl clay mostly and are eroded due to sen waves aud tides.
Check Yorr r PI-agl-ess2
Note:- i) CJsctlie space given below for your answers.

ii) Checlc Y O L I answer
~ with that give11at llie end of the Unit.
J
I ) Briefly disci~ssthe types of vul~ierabilitydue to earthquakes.

\
?
, -
Typology of 2) What are tlie impacts and effects of a11Earthquake? Discuss

Disasters - 1
3 ) On what factors does the nature of damage depend in an Earthquake?
5.7 LET US SUM UP
This Unit discussed tlie phenomenon of earthquake and defined tlie relevant terms.
It throws light on the general characteristics and precursors. It also highlighted tlie
vulnerability situation, impact and effects of an eartliquake. Lastly, nature of .
damage due to earthquake has been described.
5.8 KEYWORDS
Epicenter : The point on tlie Earth's surface directly above the focus of
an earthqualte.
. Magnitude : A measure of earlhqualte's power that describes the
amount of energy released.
Non-engineered : A structure tliat has been constructed without proper
engineering design ancl supervision.
TNT : Trinitrotoluene (an explosive material).
5.9 REFERENCES AND FUTURE READING
Green, Stephen, 1980. Inter~zationalDisasler Relief : Towurds A Responsive

System; McGraw Hill Book Co~npany,New York.
Ross, Simon, 1987. Hnzurd Geography; Longmans, L1.K. I
Asliutosli Gautam, 1994, Earthqziake - A Natural Disaster; Ashisli Publishing

House, New Delhi.
Vlad im ir Sclienk (Ed .), 1996. Earthqz~ukeHazar,d und Risk; Kluwer Academic
Publishers, London.
12. of India, 1997, Vulndernbility Atlas of Indiu
Govern~~ient
I
5.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGWESS
EXERCISES
I
I
I Check Your Progress 1
I
II 1) Your answer should include tlie following points:
e Earthquakes are considered to be one of the most dangerous and
destructive natural hazards.
e This phenomenon is usually sudden with little or no warning.
I
I
I
e It consists of a shaking of ground caused by disturbances in tlie earth
crust.
1
e It is not possible to predict earthquakes and to make preparation against

! damages and collapse of buildings and other man-made structures.
2) Your answer should include the following points: ,
e It is not yet possible to predict the magnitude, time and place of

occurrence.
I
I e The onset is usually sudden.
I
I
e Earthquake prone areas are generally well identified on the basis of
geological fetures and past occurrences of earthquake.
I
I Major effects arise mainly from ground movement and fracture or slippage
I
I of rocks underground.
The obvious impacts include damage to buildings and infrastructure
alongwith considerable casualties.
3) Yout: answer should include the following points:

Instrume~~tal
Precursors
occurrence of foreshocks and aftershocks
Statistical pattern of shocks.
I
Q Uplift or subsidence of ground.

Changes in gravity.
Non-instrumental Precursors
Sudden rise or fall of water level in wells and lakes.
Mud and sand shows up in surface waters.
Changes in flows of natural springs. .
Unusual behavior of animals.

Physical vulnerability
Social vulnerability
1
1 @ Economic vulnerability
Typology of 2) Your answer sl~ouldinclude the following points:
Disasters - 1
e Loss of life, liveliliood, economic loss and illjury.
0 Damage to and destruction of property.
0 Damage to and destruction of crops.
e Disruption of production, life style and esse~itialservices.
e Sociological and psychological after-effects.
3) Your answer sliould include the following points:

r Magnitude of an Eal-thquake.
~eologicaland soil co~iditions.
0 Quality of construction.
o Sociblogical factors.
1
UNIT 6 FLOOD AND DRAINAGE

Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Causal phenomena and characteristics
6.3 Vulnerability
6.4 Predictability, forecasting and warning
6.5 Preparedness
6.6 Mitigation with special ~~efereiice
to flood plain zoning
6.7 Adverse effects
6.8 Let us sum up
6.9 " Key words
6.10 References
6.1 1 Answers to check your progress exercises
6.0 OBJECTIVES -
~ k e reading
r this unit, you should be able to :
o explain what disasters caused by floods & drainage congestion are like;
discuss causes, predictability and vulnerability
o describe the adverse effects; and
o highlight preparedness measures'and mitigation possibilities.
6 1 INTRODUCTION
Floods liave ravaged portions of India from times immemorial. Though floods
are one of the very few well recorded natural phenomena, the catastrophic
damages caused by them attracted focussed attention in recent decades. With
increasing populatioll pressure and accelerated ecorlomic d e ~ e l o ~ ~ l the
~en~,
adverse effects of floods are being increasingly felt now. Floods cause great
distress whenever they darnage crops and property and endanger lives. The term
Flood is generally defined as a relatively high flow or stage in a river and tile
inundation of low land which might result therefrom. In a broader sense the term
flood is also used to convey all outflow due to jamming or blocking of rivers by
landslides and inadequate drainage to carry away surface water speedily. Coastal
flooding are also covered.
In essential terms, flood denotes imbalance between the inflow and oiitflow of
water. I-Ience, areas are stated to be flooded when water due to rainfall and/or
riverspill is unable to drain off within a quick span of time. Strictly, this type of
situation is a drainage congestion problem. Most often drainage forms a part of
floods and the term flood is often used to describe either type of situations.
In India vast stretches of land are submerged under water and other adverse
effects are caused, such as destruction or damage to houses, property, bridges
roads and other means of communications, lives lost etc. year after year. Dense
population, weak infrastructure and rapid urbanization aggravate the problem.
6.2 CAUSAL PHENOMENA AND CHARACTENSTICS
Flood are natural phenomena characteristic of all rivers. As is known, the

rainfall in,*Indiais largely dependant on the monsoons and cyclonic depressions,
Most of the rainfalf is received during the southwest monsoon season (June to
I'y pology of September) during which heavy spells of rain are often experienced in the
Disasters - 1 catchment of rivers over periods of a few days at a time. It could therefore be
said that high rainfall coupled with inadequate channel capacity leads to
flooding. Choking of river beds by natural causes or artificial obstructions
aggravate the problem.
Flood damages are the combined result of the natural, phenomenon of floods
coupled with the human activity in the flood plains. The fertile river silt has
promoted large-scale settlements and cultivation of lands near the riverbanks and
adjacent areas or even in the river bed region. While these activities are
increasing on one hand, on the other the river continue to experience varying
magnitudes and intensities of floods which cause damages, sometimes in
disastrous proportions. In a way flood damage is the price paid for the human
occupation and exploitation of the flood plain of the river. Even single events
could resi~ltin a heavy toll of death as also property loss.
As mentioned, the basic cause of flooding is the high rainfall. Apart from that,
the size of the catchment also usually governs the character of the flooding. On
large rivers with big catchments basins, such as the Ganga or the Brahmaputra,
the riverflow in the lower reaches is relatively slow to change; in contrast to this,
tlash floods, most commo~llyassociated with small catchments lead to vely high
build LIP very quickly. They leave very little time between the start of the flood
and the peak discharge. Coastal floods are associated with tropical cyclones,
storms surges and tidal conditions.
The general cliaracteristics of floods are as discussed so far but it must be noted
that floodings are the co~nplexresults of interaction of a number of connected
pheno~nenaand that the flooding characteristic of each river is different from the
other. They cannot be easily classified even in types or groups. But in every
case, the people and the activities in the flood plains are adversely affecte3d.
If there would have been no occupation of the riverfront or econo~nicactivities

nearby, high floods might come as also subside without ~nanlcindbeing affected
or bothered m~1c11.We, however, are concerned wit11 flood losses. Flood losses
may be defined as the destruction or impairment, partial or complete, of the value
of goods and services or of health, resulting from the action of flood waters and
the silt and debris they carry.
India is one of the highly floodprone countries of the world. Flood damage
statistics, compiled from reports from the State Governments indicate that on an
average (based on data for 1953-1990) about eight nil lion hectares of land are
affected by floods in India, involving about thirty three million people. In a high
flood year, the figures will be many times more. Our neighbour Bangladesh also
suffers seriously from floods. The floods of 1988 which caused high losses in
India also caused serious flood proble~nsthere, affecting 45 million people and
crop damage on two million hectares of land.
6.3 VULNERABILITY
From the earliest days, mankind has learnt to live with nature. As people settled
in environs with fertile soils and by the side of waterfronts, for raising food or on'
strategic considerations such as trade, commerce, co~nmunicationor defence,
they also realisecl that these regions that sustained them are also disasterprone.
They soon learnt lessons and started taking precautions so as to reduce their
risks. The evidence noted in the form of houses built on stilts on the banks of
major rivers are of this nature. In course of time the population pressures
increased and the vigilance of the people also slackened. Thus mankind's
viilnerability started increasing. ('The concept of vulnerability has been explained
in Unit 5, Section 5.4).
The vulnerability to flooding is influenced by many factors. The principal factors
can be classified to fall under three groups.
1) climatological, i.e. intensity and frequency of rainfall.

2) hydrological and environmental conditions, i.e. how much water can be
absorbed, evaponvhed or drained off.
3) local geomol*phology of the flood plain, i.e. how much would the flood
waters spread sideways.
In addition, coastal flooding also depends on the coastal configuration and tidal
conditions.
In simple terms it can be stated that the factors contributing to vulnel-abilityfrom

floods are : ,
a) nature of settlements on floodplains

b) reduction of water absorbing capacity (or moderating capacity) of land
c) lack of awareness of flood hazard
d) risky infrastructure elements: nonresistant construction
e) livestock, crops and other stocks that are unprotected
f ) boating and fishing activities and infrastructures, and
g) unprepared administration and population
Note: (i) Use the space given below for your answers.
(ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Explain the meaning of flood and drainage.
2. Discuss the factors which influences type and degree of,floods.

Typology of 3. List out tlie factors contributing to vulnerability fi-om.floods.
Disasters - 1
6.4 PREDICTABILITY, FORECASTING AND

WARNING
Experience lias shown that loss of lives and propet-ty can be reduced significantly
by giving reliable advance information about the oncoming floocls. Tlie people
could be moved to safer places in an organised manner as soon as tlic warning is
received. Cattle and valuable property could be transferred to places of safety.
Forlunately advances in science and technology liave macle it possible to predict
floocls. Forecasting tlie lilcely future stages 01: or flow of incoming flood and its
sequence at selected points along tlie river can be very effective in rcducing flood
damages. Reasonably reliable food l'orecasting and warning couplecl with
effective follow up measures constitutes tlie most i~nportantmeasurc of flood
management.
The Central Water Commission is tlie noclal agency of tlie Government of India
for flood forecasting and tliey liave been involvcd in scientific flood forecasting
on niost interstate rivers regularly. 'There are over 150 Flood Forecast Stations all
over tlie country managed by tlie Central Water Commission (C.W.C.). In
addition,, tlie various State Governments liave Llieir own f o o d forecast stations to
meet their respective particular needs.
The flood forecasts are communicated Lo the cancel-necl user authorities, at

administrative and engineering levels, who liave to deal witli floocl management.
On receipt of tlie .forecasts tliese agencies disseminate tlie warning to tlie officials
concerned for taking steps like strengthening the flood protection measures and
to those -concerned witli informing the public at risk and evacuating
them/organising relief measures, if necessary.
Generally tlie State Governments set LIPcontrol rooms at tlic State ancl local
levels which receive tlie forecasts and disseminate tlie warnings to all concerned
as also monitor tlie situation till the eniergency passes off ancl situation becomes
normal.
Tlie State authorities study Llie situation at different locations and inclicate tlie
danger levels in respect of all rive~lswitli which tliey are concel.ned. As some
advance notice is ncccled and to maintain vigilance cven before tlie dangcr level
is ~.cacliedby tlie ~.iverat tliat location, an alert is issued wlicn rhe river level is
one mctrc below the danger level. This is called tlie warning Icvcl. The warning
and clangel. levels arc ~.cquircdto be ~~erioclicnllyreexruiiined and revised as
necessary. 'l'lie district administration liave ~ ~ s u a l l ywell laid rules arid
instructions about the various steps to be taken when thc warning is received.
Different means of communication channels and equipments are l~tilisedto
disseminate the warnings quiclcly.
Tlie management of flood forecasting ancl warning services requires skilled and
responsible personnel. Tlie forecasting procedure irivolves trained liydrological
and meteorological specialists while the warning and its widc dissemination are
handled by tlie district ad mini st ratio^?:,'
I In river systems wl~icliextend beyond the political boundaries of India, there
1 ortell comes the need to receive ~ ~ s e fdata
i ~ l to indicate field conditions there so
1
I
tllat flood forecasts become usefill and reliable. In yet other cases there is a need
to slial-c sucli forecasts as also hydrometlogical data on sliarecl river systems for
m~,tualbenefit and to be cooperative. India has sucli coopcrativc arrangements,
existing or under contemplation, with tlie neiglibouring nations as are mutually
agreeable. Meteorological data exchange on a regional basis is also an existing
practice.
Val-ious approaches to deal with floods are available. As each situation is

clifterent, different a<justments or combinations thereof are chosen. Basically,
liowever. tlicse approaches fall i~ndertile following three groups:-
I) modify the tloods i.e. do11fallow water to accunlulate

2) modify the susccptibility of'the people to flood damages
, 3) modify tlie loss burden inflicted by floods
Modification of floods would involve s ~ ~ cIneasurcs

li as weather modification,
cntchmcnt and landuse modification, physical control worlcs sucli as reservoirs,
, embankments etc: Modification of tlic susceptibility of Ilie people to floods
1 would involve steps like flood forecasting and warning, flood proofing, and
floodplain management. Moclifyillg tlie loss burden would ilivolve steps like
elnergency evacuation, flood fighting, p ~ ~ b l ihealth
c aspects as also flood
insurance, and disaster relief.
Strilctural measures sucli as storage reservoirs ~ilerelyfor flood relief could be

very ~lnecono~nical, for rnany other benefits in
whereas ~i~i~ltipi~rpose'sclieme
addition to flood control are economically viable. However, in sucli cases, there
is tlie lilcely problem of clashing priorities and conflicting requirements.
Si~iiilarlyembankment schemes are not i~n~nixed blessings. Maintenance of these
costly structures also involves difliculties and constraints sucli as inndequatc
provision of fi~nds. Thesc have led to a greater emphasis bejng laid on
non-structural mcasures sucli as flood ibl-ecasting ancl flood plain managcmcnt
which are tlie basic elements of flood preparedness.
6.5 PREPAREDNESS
Disaster preparedness could be defined as the detailed planning for the prompt
and efficient response i~nlnediatelyas soon as the anticipated event materialises.
This effort has to be very comprehensive inclusive of public education and
awareness campaign aheacl, provisions for the issuance of ti~nely-warnings,
development of orderly evacuatioli plans, and preparations for providing the
evacuees with food, clothing and shelter on emergency basis. The moment the
disaster strilces will also mark the start of the emergency response period. The
immediate onsite responses are spo~~taneous aciions of local residents but their
efrectiveness could be irnpl-oved by advance training. Tlic speed and efficiency
of the community reaction to save lives and mitigate suffering and losses is
determined by adequate planning, training and rehearsals.
In the context of floods, it is well known that floods damage human settlelnents,
necessitate evacuation to safer areas, damage crops and disrupt farming, wash
away infinstructure items like irrigation, com~~iunication etc. and malce land
unusable. Disaster preparedness should also deal with all these aspects and other
connected matters.
'l'liesvary basic step in vulnerability reduction will be to identify silch l~ighrisk

,areas, prepare risk maps showing the likely risks at different probability levcls of
floodings and niake this Im'owledge available widely.
Typology of Tlle National Flood Co~n~nission (1980) set LIP by tlie Government of India made
is asters - I a co~nprehensivestudy of the flood management scene in India and made Inally
valuable recommendations or flood management including flood disaster and
cyclone disaster mitigation steps needed. The Government of India and the
various State Govts. are also engaged in identifying and implementing the Inany
steps needed to be taken in different parts of India to take care of local
conditions. These steps i~lcludethose on flood disaster preparedness.
6.6 MITIGATION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

FLOOD PLAIN ZONING
Advance warning and evacuation, shifting away of valuable moveable properties
and such measures cannot do much to prevent property damage or crippling
economic impacts associated with flood disasters. This is a sphere where
mitigation measures can be of great help. All actions taken to reduce the risks to
lives and property and disruption from a natural llazard either by modifying the
llazard or reducing the vulnerability are called mitigation measures.
Modification of tlie hazard in flood related disasters is possible through some

structural measures like construction of storage reservoirs, particularly with
provision of flood reserve. However there are many nonstructural measures
which offer great scope for mitigation. Adoption of a suitable flood plain zoning
and regulation ~nechanis~n is one such effective measure.
The concept of flood plain zoning and regulation is based on the recognition that
the floodplain is an integral part of tlie river system, even tllougl~the river uses it
only occasionally to pass down flood flows. Wlienever the floodplain is free
from water, it is beneficially used as a part of the land system Tor agriculture of
other economic activities. The purpose of the land regulation is to enable a land
use which takes advantage of the benefits offered by the floodplain while
simultaneously reducing the damage potential likely during the inevitable periods
of.flooding thereof. Flood plain management would cover land use regulation,
statutes, zoning ordinance and Government purchase of property ind relocation.
In 1957 the Central Flood Control Board accept, in principle, tile enactment of
legislation for demarcating flood zones and preventing indiscriminate
developme~ltof flood plains, occupation or cultivation of lands of rivers and
drainage channels. As a view was taken that the matter lay witl~in the
competence of the State Govts. a model bill could be circulated by the Central
Govt. Accordingly the union Govt. circulated a draft bill in 1975. The National
Flood Commission pursued tlie issue with the States. Their Report (1980)
recommended that flood plain management measures should be undertaken
wherever the necessary legislation existed and suitable legislation enacted in
other States.
The guidelines circulated by the Central Water Commissio~ion flood plain

zoning envisages the following:-
i) Demarcation of areas liable to floods on large scale maps

ii) demarcation of areas likely to be inundated for different flood frequencies
(say 1 in 25, 1 in 50 and 1 in 100 years)
iii) delineation of the type of use to which tlie different zones as demarcated in
flood plains could be put to.
Different priorities for different types of uses are envisaged. Important buildings
used as.,defence installations, public utilities like hospitals, coln~nercialcentres,
should be located above the level corresponding to 1 in 100 years flood. Next in
order of priority Govt. offices, public libraries, residence etc could be built above
the 1 in 25 year flofd level, witli the stipulation tliat tliey be built on stilts or
IiigIier levels. Parks, playgrounds parking places could be allowed even in areas
liable to frequent floods. There are other types of precautions like stipulating that
buildings in areas liable to flood should be double/multi storeyed.
Tile National Water Policy adopted in 1987 deals with all aspects of water
including flood management. It has recommended that "an extensive networlc of
.flood forecasting station sliould be established for timely warning to tlie
settlements along witli regulation of settlements and economic activity i n flood
zones, to minimise tlie loss of life and property on account of floods. While
physical flood protection works like embankments and dykes will continue to be
necessary, the eniphasis should be on non-structural measures for minimisation
of losses, such as flood plain zoning so as to reduce the recurring expenditure on
flood re lief '.
In short, flood plain regulation or zoning aims at dissemination of information on

the locations, extent of area and tlie'liltely intensity and frequency of flooding at
different probabilities, so as to regulate indiscriminate and unplanned
developnient inthe floodplains to reduce loss.
6.7 ADVERSE EFFECTS OF FLOODS
All over the world, and throughout history, natural disasters have imposed
human suffering and extracted heavy toll of losses. Recent instances have
revealed tliat it is not merely the developing countries tliat have so suffered. The
loss in some of the Iiiglily developed Nations' is mind boggling notwithstanding
the Iiigli standards of construction and extensive protection measures that tliey
had undertaken.
Apart from the casualties, injuries and disablement, many sections of tlie
population get arrected by tlie floods. Croppcd area gets submerged. eroded and
strewn with sand leading to loss of crop production and consequential
disruptions. Many houses are destroyed completely; otl~ers are damaged.
.Da~iiageand loss to public and private ~ltiliticsand industrial disruptions occur.
Breakdown of economic activities occurs with corresponding loss of wealtli.
Apart from these adverse socioeconomic impacts on tlie affccted conimunity,

floods also bring about significant geornorpliological changes in river channels,
flood plains and coastal areas. Ofien, floods change land forms tlio~~gli tlie
processes of erosion shifting arid sedimentation.
Note: (i) Use the space given below for y o ~answers.

~r
(ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1 . Explain lnitigatioii measures.

Typology of 2. Discuss the guidelines circulated by Central Water Com~nission of
Disasters - 1 floodstplains zoning.
3. Briefly discuss adverse effects,of flood.
6.8 LET US SUM UP
Natural disasters have very often exacted a heavy toll of death, destruction and
- human suffering. Among the types of natural disasters, floods occupy a
prominent position. While floods and flooding have always been experienced
from the earliest days, the damage and economic disruption due to floodings
have been on an upswing which trend is alarming. We seem to be paying too
high a price for our unwise and indiscriminate use of land in the flood plains.
This is even more regrettable when we realise that it is possible to reduce the loss
significantly by means of wise regulation and recourse to some mitigative
measures such as flood plain zoning.
India is one of the most flood prone countries of the world. India's own past
experience has shown that our flood losses could be minimised by a set of
desirable disaster mitigation steps. India has been a pioneer in flood forecasting.
There are sourld policy initiatives evolved through much experience and
experimentation. However the progress in executing such desirable measures
needs to be accelerated.
6.9 KEYWORDS
Catchment The area from which a lake or a
.
river
--C-'
receives
a water flow.
Coastal flooding Flooding caused near the sea face or in the delta
region nearby the-ligh winds, tides, waves from
highwindstsurges etc.
Discharge Volume of water poured out.
Drainage congestion : Flooding by impeded flow wl~erethe river bed is
higher than the surrounding land, due to
obstructions to flow or embankments without
adequate drainage provisions etc.
Floodplain The area of land encroached by the flood water
1 in 100 years flood : The type of flood that is likely to occur once in
abo.ut 100 years.
Urbanization , Growth of big cities; shift of population from
I
rural areas to big city areas,
6.10 EPERENCES AND F'LTRTHER READINGS

Sharma, Vinod K., 1995. Disaster Management : Indian Institute of Public
Administration; New Delhi .
Report of the National Com~nissionon Floods, 1980, Ministry of Irrigation and
Power, New Delhi,
Government of India, 1997, Vulnerability Atlas of India.

EXERCISES

1) Your answers should include the following points :
The term flood is generally defined as a relatively high flow in a river and
the inundation of low land which might result there from.
Areas are stated to be flooded when water due to rainfall andlor river spill
is unable to drain off within a quick span of time. This type of situation is
a drainage congestion problem.
In essential terms, floods are due to imbalance between inflow and outflow
of where Drainage is very important for maintaining good outflow.
2) Your answers should include the following points:
The principal factors call be classified under three groups.
climatological,
hydrological and environmental conditions,
local geomorphology of the flood plain.
3) Your answers shoul,d include the following points :

nature of settlement on floodplain,
reduction of water absorbing capacity (or moderating capacity) of land,
lack of awareness of flood hazard
risky infrastructure elements : nonresistant construction,
livestock, crops and other stocks that are unprotected,
boating and fishing activities and infrastructures,
unprepared administration and population.
: 1 ) Your answers should include the following points :
Structural measures such as construction of reservoirs and embankments
but these are very costly.
Non-structural measures such as .flood forecasting, and flood plain zpning
are very effective. 23
Typology of 2) You! answers should include tlie following points :
Disasters - I
e The guidelines circulated by the Central Water Commission of flood plain
zoning envisages the following :-
i) demarcation of areas liable to floods on large scale maps,
ii) demarcation of areas liltely to be inundated for different flood
frequencies (say 1 in 50 and 1 in I00 years), and
iii) delineation of the type of use to which the different land zones as
demarcated in flood plains could be put to.
3) Your answers should include tlie following points :

sr Apart from the casualties, iri.juries and disablement, Inany sections of the
population get affected by tlie floods.
0 Cropped area gets submerged, eroded and or strewn with sand leading to
lose of crop production and consequential disruptions.
o Many houses are destroyed completely, others are damaged
e Damage and loss to public and private utilities and industrial disruptions
occurs.
e Breakdow~i oT economic activities occurs with co~respondingloss of
wealth.
sr Geomorphological changes such as tlie rivers changing course or land
forms changing due to erosion, shifting 01. sedimentation caused by floods.
UNIT 07 CYCLONE
Structure
Objective
Introduction
Charactel-istics
Forecasting and Warning Systems
Preparedness
Risk Reduction Measures
Effects
Let us sum up
Key Words
Answers to check your progress exercises
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After studing this Unit, you should be able to :
discuss the characteristics of cyclone as a natural disaster,

e highlight the effects of cyclone,
e identify the components of cyclone forecasting and warning systein, and
e describe the preparedness and risk reduction measures.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Cyclones are one of the most disastrous natural hazards in the costal areas of the
tropics and are responsible for deaths and destruction more than any other natural
calamities. Cyclones bring witli them extremely violent winds, heavy rain
causing floods and storm surge causing coastal inundation.
Cyclones form over the warm ocean waters (sea surface temperature of the order
of 26'C or 2 7 ' ~ )little away from the equator within tlie belt of 30' N and 30' S.
In our area, cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. As they
move westward or northwestward, those forming in tlie Bay of Bengal come to
the Indian territory while those forming in tlie Arabian Sea generally go away
from India but sometimes they turn around to hit Gujarat.
7.2 CHARACTERISTICS
Tropical cyclones are large, rotating, atmospheric phenomena extending

horizontally from 150-1 000 km and vertically from surface to 12-14 km. These
are intense low-pressure areas witli a spiral sliape. Fierce winds spiraling
anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere blow around the cyclone centre.
Cyclones generally move 300-500 km in 24 hours over the ocean.
Cyclones develop from areas of low atmospheric pressure and go through the
stages of depression and deep depression before attaining the category of
cyclone. They can intensify further to attain categories of severe cyclo~~ic
storm,
very severe cyclonic storm and ultimately super cyclone when the winds in the
storm are of tlie ferocious speed of 220 kmph or more. Each category is
recognised on the basis of wind speed as indicated below:
Typology of
Disasters - 1
Categories Maxirnum Wind Speed in

the Storm
I. Low Pressure Area (L) <30 kmph
2. Depression (D) 30 to 50 kmph

3. Deep Depression (DD) 50 - 60 Icmph
4. Cyclonic Storm (CS) 60 - 90 kmph
5. Severe Cyclonic Storrn (SCS) 90 - 120 Iunph
6. Very Severe Cyclonic Storm (VSCS) 120 - 220 Icmph
7. Super Cyclonic Storm >220 Icmph
--
A well developed cyclone consists of a central region of light winds known as its
"Eye". Thc eye has an average Diameter of about 20 to 30 km, but it can be 40 to
50 km in large cyclones. The eye is an almost cloud-free zone and it is
surrounded by a ring of clouds with very strong winds and heavy rain. This area
is known as zone of maximum wind. Surrounding this region, winds spiral in the
coi~nterclockwisedirection'in the northern hemisphere, extend outwards to large
distances, with speeds gradually decreasing towards the outer boundary of the
cyclone.
On an average, about 5-6 cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
Sea every year, out o r which 2 or 3 may be severe. More cyclones form in the
Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea. The ratio is 4:l. Tropical cyclones in
these seas generally form between 5' N and 20' N. There are two distinct
seasons of cyclones in our area. One is from April to June (Pre-monsoon) and the
other is from October to mid-December (Post-monsoon). May, June, October
and November are known for severe cyclonic storms.
Almost the entire east coast is vulnerable to cyclones with varying frequency and
intensity. In the west coast, the north west coast (coast north of Mumbai) is more
vulnerable as compared to southwcst coast (South of Mumbai).
Check your Progress 1
(ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
I) What is a tropical cyclonc?

2) While developing from an area of low atniosplieric pressure, a cyclone goes Cyclone
through different stages of growtli before attaining the category of super
cyclone. List these stages of development.
3) What are the months in which cyclones occur in India?
7.3 FORECASTING AND WARNING SYSTEMS
Cyclone forecasts are provided through six cyclone warning centres located at
Calcutta, Bhubaneswar, Visakliapatnam, Cliennai, Mumbai and Ahmedabad.
These centres have their distinct area wise responsiblities covering both the east
and west coasts of India and the oceanic areas of tlie Bay of Bengal and tlie
Arabian Sea, including Andanian & Nico bar and Laks hadweep. Cyclone
warnings are issued to tlie All lndia Radio (AIR) and tlie Doordarslian for
broadcast/telecast in different languages. Cyclone warnings are also given to
control room and Crisis Management Group in the Ministry of Agriculture,
Gover~i~nent of India, who are finally responsible for coordinating variolls
activities of Centre and State Governments and other agencies in respect of
cyclone war~iings. Forecasts and warnings are simultaneously commu~iicatedto
tlie States and the Districts likely to be attaclied. Ports, airports and other user
agencies also receive the forecasts and warnings at the same time.
Cyclones are tracked with tlie help of INSAT, powerfill cyclone detection radars
and conventional meteorological observations including weather reports from
ships. At present cyclo~iedelectio~i radars are installed at (i) Calcutta, (ii)
Paradip, (iii) Visakhapatnam, (iv) Macliilipatnam, (v) Cliennai, (vi) Karaikal on
the east coast; and (vii) Goa, (viii) Cocliin, (ix) Mumbai and (x) Bli~!j alolig the
west coast, Present~cyclo~ie surveillance system in lndia is such that no cyclo~ie
in tlie region will go undetected at any time of its life cycle.
.The important co~nponentsof cyclone war~iingsare tlie forecast of future path

;and intensity of a cyctone and the associated hazardous weatlicr. For tlie
'preparation of f ~ ~ t u position,
re (path) of tropical cyclones and for estimation of
storm surges, modern computer based techniques are used in addition to
co~iventio~ial
methods. Intensity forecasts are made by using satellite tecliniques.
Cyclo~iewarnings are provided in four stages. In its first stage, T".e-Cyclone

Watch" is maintained regularly during the cyclone seams and is intended to
Typology of provide an early warning if conditions mature for a cyclonic disturbance to take
-
Disasters 1 birth on the seas. In the second state, a "Cyclone Alert" is issued 48 hoi~rsbefore
the anticipated time of commencement of adverse weather along the coast. In the
3'd stage, a "Cyclone Warning" is issued 24 hours before the cyclone's anticipated
landfall and is updated frequently. Warnings for the ports and fisheries start
much earlier. Ports are warned day and night througli a specially designed port
warning system. Informatory messages on cyclones are issued to All India Radio
and Doordarshan much earlier, as soon as a tropical cyclone is detected in the
Bay of Bengal or in the Arabian Sea. Lastly, the 4"' stage of warning comprises
the "post-landfall scenario" which commences about 12 hours before anticipated
landfall and continues so long as cyclone-force winds (60 kmph or more) are
effected in the affected areas overland.
Cyclone warnings are disseminated through the following means:
0 Telegrams with highest priority,

Telecast through Doordarshan,
Broadcast through AIR,
Bulletins to the press,
a ' Broadcast through Department of Telecomlnunications, Coastal Radio
Stations for ships in the high seas and coastal areas,
a INSAT based Disaster Warning System, and
Point to point direct channels to the Central and State Government
functionaries and other user agencies. ,
In addition to above, cyclone warnings are disseminated through telepriniers,

telex, facsimile and telephones wherever such facilities exist with the recipients.
The warning bulletins are issued normally at hourly intervals, but more
frequently when needed. Likely areas threatened by cyclone, heavy rainfall,
magnitude of destructive winds and probable inundation of coastal areas by
storm surges are some of the elements included in the bulletins. On receipt of
warnings, the Government ofiicials and other authorities take appropriate
measures to safeguard lives if necessary by evacuating people from vulnerable
areas to safer places.
Landline telegram, telex and telephones are often aniong the first casualty during
a cyclone situation because the overhead lines and undergroulid cables are
affected by strong winds and heavy rain during cyclone. To overcolne this
difficulty, a satellite based dependable and unique com~nunicationsystem known
as Disaster Warning System (DWS) has been developed in India. Through this
system, rapid and direct dissemination of cyclone warnings in local languages is
made via INSAT satellite to designated addresses in the vulnerable areas. At
present, Disaster Warning System is working along coastal areas where about
250 DWS sets have been installed in places such as blocks, taluq offices and
police stations. Disaster warning sets are also located in the H. Q. of Coastal
States and Districts. The system has been successfully utilized in cyclone
situations and found to be very usefill. About 100 more DWS sets are to be
installed in the coastal areas.
7.4 PREPAREDNESS
The preparedness means measures which enable government agencies, private
organizations, communities, and individuals to respond rapidly and effectively to
disaster situations. The preparedness measures include the formulation of viable
28 disaster mitigation plans.
The actions liave to be planned ahead of disaster. It would consist Cyclone
of a plan of action to be implemented on the receipt of the Cyclone Alert
message from Cyclone Warning Centre. A cyclone alert is issued generally 48
hours beforc tlie possibility of tlie area being affected by cyclonic weather such
as strong winds, heavy rain and storm surges. The Action Plan would indicate
how evacuation of people would be efkcted and the places where they could be
evacuated to. The identification of strong buildings which would withstand the
f~lryof [lie storni is an important segment of preparedness action plan. The safe
storage of non-perishable food and other essential needs, adequate collection of
stoclts of drinking water and medicines, has to be made. Most of the maritime
states have prepared Cyclone Disaster Preparedness handbooks or manuals,
wliere action plans of various organizations liave been indicated in the case of
cyclone threat. It is desirable that as an essential component of preparedness, the
action points indicated in the manuals are rehearsed at the beginning of each
cyclone season and updated in the light of experience gathered.
I I
To deal with cyclone situation a contingency plan has been evolved by the
Ministry of Agriculture, who is the nodal agency at the Centre to co-ordinate the
1
activities of various Central departments and the affected State/States to cope up
with tlie natural disaster in general.
Training programmes for the disaster management officials and

Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) are arranged by tlie disaster
management faculties of several management and public adniinistration
institutions in India. The Certificate Course in Disaster Management conducted
bi-annually by tlie I~idiraGandhi national Open University (IGNOU) is available
to all in more and abroad in a distance learning mode. IGNOU is also planning
to introduce Post Graduate Diploma Course in Disaster Managelllent.
7.5 RISK REDUCTION MEASURES
Thc prevention of tropical cyclone formation is not witliin the realm of

possibility. I-Iowever, tlie loss of human lives and destructioli of properties can
be niinimised by adopting prescribed short and long term measures for risk
reduction. While cyclone warning system is the most important constituent of
short term risk reduction measures against cyclone disaster, the risk assessment
of tropical cyclone falls under long term measures.
As prevention of formation of tropical cyclone is not in tlie realm of possibility,

definite structural and non-structural preventive measures of long term nature can
be undertaken to mitigate the suffering of cyclone affected people. Structural
measures like construction of cyclone slielters, embanltments, dykes, reservoirs
and coastal afforestation are some of the long-term risk reduction measures for
cyclone disasters. Creation of proper awareness, training and education of
people in the vulnerable communities, introduction of insurance are some of the
useful non-structural measures..
7.6 EFFECTS
Severe tropical cyclones are responsible for large number of causalities and
consideirable damage to property and agricultural crop. The destruction is
confined to the cohstal districts and tlie maximum destruction being witliin 100
km from tlie centre of tlie cyclone and on the right side of the storm track.
Principal dangers from a cyclones are : (i) very strong winds, (ii) torrential rain,
and (iii) high storm tides. Most casualties are caused by coastal inundation by 29
Typology of storm surge. Maximum penetration of storm surges varies from 10 to 20 km
Disasters - 1 inland from the coast. Heavy rainfall and floods come next in order of
devastation. They are often responsible for much loss of life and damage to
property. Death and destruction directly due to winds are relatively less. The
collapse of buildings, falling trees, flying debris, electrocution, aircraft and ship
accidents and disease from contaminated food and water in the post-cyclone
period also contribute to loss of life and destruction of property.
Floods generated by cyclone rainfall are more destructive than winds. Rainfall
of the order of 20 to 30 cm per day is common.
As mentioned, the worst danger emanates from the storm surge. In the storm
centre, the ocean surface is drawn upward by 30 cms or so above normal due to
the reduced atmospheric pressure in the centre. As the storm crosses the
continental shelf and moves coastward, the mean water level increases. This
abnormal rise in sea level caused by cyclone is known as storm surge. The surge
is generated due to interaction of air, sea and land. The cyclone provides the
driving force in the form of very high horizontal atmospheric pressure gradient
and vely strong surface winds. As a result, the sea level rises and continues to
rise as cyclone moves over increasingly shallower water as it approaches coast,
and reaches a maximum on the coast near the point of landfall (Point of crossing
coast). Surge is maximum in the right forward sector of the cyclone and about
50-100 Km from the centre coinciding with the zone of maximum wind. Winds
in this sector is from ocean to land.
Due to improvement in cyclone warning system and adequate and timely steps
taken by the government and other agencies, it appears to be some stabilization
(in spite of large population growth especially in coastal areas) on the loss of
human lives, although loss of properties shows an appreciable increasing trend.
The increase in the loss of properties is due to increased but unplanned human
activities. E-enginee;ed and non-engineered canstructions along the coast also
contribute to the damage.suffered by property. In support of the above statements
we present some data on recent cyclones in the table 7.2 below. It may be seen
that although the May 1979 and May 1990 cyclones,.which occurred in the same
coastal area of Andhra Pradesh and had the peak wind speeds of the same order,
yet the loss of human lives in the case of the 1990 cyclone was of the same order
comparison to that of 1977 cyclone but the economic losses were many times
more in the 1990 cyclone.
Table 7.2
( Cyclone Peak Human Loss of Property Month & Year

Wind Loss (Millions Rupees)
Speed Lives
Chirala
Machilipatnam I210 1700 11700

I. November 1977
. ( May 1979
November I984
Machilipatnam May 1990
260 ,9887 -- October 1999 .

I
Check your progress 2 Cyclone
Note: (i) Use the.space given below for your answers.

(ii) Check your answers with those at the end of the unit.
1) What are the characteristics of the "eye" of a cyclone?
-- - -
2), What are "Cyclone Alert" and "Cyclone Warning"?
3) Write a few lines on Disaster Warning system?
7.7 LET US SUM-UP

7-
111 this Unit, we have discussed the highly disastrous phenomenon of cyclone.
The characteristic features of cyclone and their occurrence in the Indian seas
have been described. The well-developed and operationally-proven forecasting
t and warning system has been discussed. Special mention has been made of the
i
.-,LNSATbased Disaster Warning System for cyclone warning. Preparedness p l a s
, and Risk Reduction measures have been enumerated. Finally, the destructive
I
effects of cyclones have been described.
7.8 KEY WORDS
INSAT : Indian National Satellite (Geostationary)

Inundation : Flooding.
Typology of Landfall : Time of cyclone hitting the coast. Also the place where
DBasters - I cyclone hits 1:lie coast.
Continental Shelf : Generally sloping ground (under sea water) i n a coastal
region; the continental shelf is generally talten to extend
in tlie sea upto a depth of 183 metres (600 feet).
7.9 REFERENCES
Anthes. R. A, (1 982): "Tropical Cj~clones,their cvolzition, structure and eflec/,s".
A~nericanMet. Soc. Met. Monograph, Vol. 19.41.
Government of India (1 997): Jfu/ulnerahilityAtlas ofIndia
Mandal, G. S. (1995) Nutural Disusrers, in "Disaster Management (V.K.
Sharma, Ed.), IIPA, New Delhi
Mandal, G. S. (1 993): "Natziral Disaster. Reduction". Reliance Publ isliing House,
New Delhi.
Pisharoty, P. R., 1993, Tropical Cj)clone,Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan, Munibai.

EXERCISES
Check your Progress 1

e Cyclone is a large, rotating atmospheric phenomenon. It may extend 150
to 1000 k ~ n in
s width and 12- 14 k ~ n sin height.
e It has fierce winds and gives torrential rains.
It occurs over seas and comes to coastal areas where it creates
devastation.
Your answer should include tlie following points:
The stages of development of a cyclo~ieare as follows:
Low Pressure area (L)
Depression (D)
Deep Depression (DD)
Cyclonic Stor~n(CS)
Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS)
Very Severe Cyclonic Storm (VSCS)
Super Cyclone (SC)

ApriI, May and June (Pre-monsoon season)
October, November and December (Post-monsoon season)
Check your Pfogress 2
1 ) Your answer should include the following points:

e Eye is the calm, cloud free, centre of cyclone.
Its size varies from 20 to 50 Itms in dianieter.
. It i s surrounded by a ring of clouds with heavy rain and very strong
I
32 winds.
I
-
t -
2) Y O Lanswer
I~ should include the following points;
0 Cyclone Alert is the advance warning issued 48 IIOLI~S before the
anticipated commencement of adverse weather on coast.
Cyclone Warning is issi~ed24 hours before the anticipated lanclfall of
cyclone and is updated frequently.
3) Your answer shoi~lcli n c l ~ ~ dthe

e following points:
o Disaster Warning System (DWS) is operated via INSAT Satellite.
0 Through it, warnings are sent in local language from Cyclone Warning
Centres to designated recipients in the vi~lnerableregion.
e It is very reliable b e c a ~ ~ s the
e n o r ~ i ~ a commi~~iicatio~i
l cliannels
brealtdown during cyclone but DWS, being a satellite operated service,
w01-I<s.
UNIT 8 DROUGHT AND FAMINE
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Distinction Between Drought and Famine
8.3 characteristics of Droughts
8.4 Predictability, Forecasting and Warning
8;5 Vulnerability
8.6 Mitigation
8.7 Typical Effects
8.8 Let Us Sum Up
8.9 Key Words
8.10 References
8.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
8.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to :
a discuss the ~neani~ig and charactel-istics of drought and famine,

a explain the factors affecting vulnerability to drouglit,
a highlight the drought preparedness and mitigation measures,
a describe the typical effects of drought.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Drought can be defined as lack or shortage of water for an unusually long per.iod.
It can occur at any place causing anything from inconvenience to deaths through
famine.
When the rains fail, the effect can be disastrous; no drinking water, crops die,
people starve. 111 industrial communities, drouglits call cause water scarcity and
closing down of various eco~lomicactivitics. I11 this Unit, the focus of discussion
will be drought, its characteristics, predictability, forecasting and warning
System. An attempt will be made to describe vulnerability, mitigation and
typical effects of drought situation.
8.2 DISTINCTION BETWEEN DROUGHT AND

FAMINE
Drought results in shortfall in agricultural production and hence, may cause food
shortages. However due to reduced purchasing power of the, poorer sections of
the society and if timely help is not available from the co~nlnunity or . -
government, the situation can lead to famine.
Reduced production of food is only one of several problems; secondary effects

i~lcludereduced rural employment; which results in loss of income and reduction
of purchasing power for buying food. Drought causes crop 'failure, but
mismanagement of the drought mitigation measures can cause famines.
Droughts -
There are three different types of droughts namely meteorological, h$drological

.>
34 and agricultural,
-- .
- . I
Meteorological drought, describes a situation where there is a reduction in Drought and Farnir~c
rainfall for a specified period (day, month, season or year) below a specified
. amou11t - ~ ~ s u a l ldefined
y as some proportion of the long term average for
specified time period. Its definition involves only precipitation statistics.
Hydrological d r o u g l ~ tinvolves a reduction in water resources (stream flows,

lake levels, ground water, underground acquifers) below a specified level for a
given period of time. Its definition involves data on water availability and off
take rates in relation to the nor~nal requirements of the system (domestic,
industrial, agricultural) being supplied. In case of rivers fed by snowmelt,
irrigated areas downstream may experience reduced water availability as a result
of reduced snowmelt caused by below normal temperatures during the summer
months. Areas drawing water from i~ndergroundacquifers through wells and
borewells may experience hydrological drought as a result of geological changes
which cut off parts of the acquifer. Overutilization of the acquifer may also
result in its exhaustion.
Agricultural drought is the impact of ~netcorological andlor hydrological

droughts on crop yields. Crops have particular temperature, moisture and
nutrient require~nentsduring their growth cycle in order to achieve optimum
,production. If moisture availability falls below the required amount during the
growth cycle, crop growth will be impaired and yields reduced. Howcvcr,
droughts have different impacts on different crops, e.g., sesame often thrives in
dry (season) years. Bccal~seo r the co~nplexityof the relationships involved,
agricultural drought is difficult to measure. A fall in yields nlay be due to
insufficient moisture but it may also stem from, or have been aggravated by, such
factors as the ilnavailability of fertilizers, lack of weeding, the presence of pests
and crop diseases or the lack of labour at critical periods in the growth cycle.
Also these factors can interact with each other and con~plicatethe conditions.
Famines arc caused by either or both afthe following reasons:
a) decline in the availability of food

b) reduction in people's access to, or their ability to acquire food.
It was generally believed that the only cause of famine is a decline in food
availability due to a reduction in production resulting from adverse weather,
diseaselpest infestation or through a cutting off of sources of supply. I-Iowever,
over the last century there has been a growing realisation that famines can also
occur in areas where overall food availability has hot declined, but as a result of a
reduction in the ability of certain disadvantaged or economically weak groups
within the populatio~lto acquire food, for instance as a result of a loss in their
income or a sudden rise in the price of food.
Decline in food availability may be csli~sed by a range of "natural" and

human-induced-fact ors.
Natural factors are :
+ agricultural drought
, floods
I
+ unseasonal cold spells/frosts

crop disease
1
I pest infestation
Human induced factors are :
* conflict preventing farmers from planting, weeding, harvesting and selling or

possibly, involving the destruction of standing crops.
e external economic shocks, e.g., sudden increases in the price of agricultural
inputs (power, fertilizers, pesticides, good seeds) or appreciable fall in the
sale price of agriculture~produce.
Unchecked hoarding
e Disruption in movement of food grains from one part of the country to the
other either due to natural hazards or dislocation due to'civil strife.
e internal macro economic conditions, e.g., poor agricultural pricing policies
discouraging farmers from growing food crops (as against cash crops).
8.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF DROUGHT
A drought is characterized by scarcity of water. As an agricultural drought

affects most as compared to a meteorological or hyd;ologicnl drought, it is the
agricultural drought which is of colnlnon concern. Infact when the word drought
is used, it commonly connotes agricultural drought.
Main characteristics of drought (agricultural drought) are:
It builds over a period of time (may be even a year or two) with illcreased
scarcity of water "generally due to insufficient or erratic monsoon rains.
e It does not have a well-defined start. It is a creeping phenomenon.
Generally it does not have a sharp ending although sometimes a prolonged
spell of drought can come to a sudden end through a fairly long spell of
specially heavy rainfall as in case of depression or cyclone.
Drought can be localized covering a district or a group of districts. On the
other hand, it can be widespread covering a few states.
Area affected by a drought usually takes an elliptic shape instead of a
circular coverage.
Although drought can occur anywhere if there is prolonged scarcity of water,
the regions most prone to droughts in India are :
- West Rajasthan
- Marathwada
- Telangana
- Rayalseema
- Madhya Pradesh
- Some parts of Orissa (Kalahandi and adjoining districts)
- Some parts of Icarnataka, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Bihar and U.P.
Drought is more troublesome when it occurs over the rainfed areas of the
country.
Drought and Famine
WARNING
Predictability
AS drought is very I I I L I C ~linked with the performance of tlie monsoon, the

predictability of drought is also linked to the monsoon. But monsoon, by its
inherent nature is highly variable in time and space which means that rainfall is
neither uniform nor evenly distributed. For good agriculture, well distributed
and evenly spaced spells of monsoon rain are required. But in actual
circumsta~ices,it is rarely so. However, the good feature is that monsoon rains
arrive towards the end of May or early June even if there is a delay of few days
alid the monsooli never fails the entire country. Thus, widespread drought is not
a very frequent occurrence in India. ~hi"sinherent characteristic of the monsoon
rains (which provide about 80% of the annual rainfall in India) empliasizes that
the predictability of droughts in India - either on local scale of district or a group
of districts or on larger scale of a state or group of states - is achievable 011 a
working basis of monitori~lgthe rainfall - especially the monsoon rainfall - over
the target region and taking into account the antecendant rainfall history of last
one or two monsoon seasons.
Forecasting
We have already referred to the intimate link between the performance of

monsoon and the incidence of drought. Therefore, it should be obvious that
forecasting of drought is almost wholly linked to the ability to forecast monsoon,
i.e., to forecast its timely onset and the season's rainfall.
It is within the capability of science to indicate broadly the date of onset of *
monsoon over Icerala and to give a forecast of the overall rainfall for the country
as a whole during the monsoon season which lasts from June to September. It is
also possible to issue day to day forecasts of the progress of monsson over
different parts of the country. Therefore, tbe occurrence of rain over all parts of
the country is closely monitored and analysed keeping in view the rainfall history
of the previous years. Thus, it is possible to idicate the lilcelihood of drought
over an area and to monitor its subsequent condition.
However, it has to be kept in mind that as already stated, drought does not have a
sharp starting point. It builds over a period of time when apart from the
availability of rains, factors such as water use and availability of additional water
resources (from rivers, tubewells) has to be taken into account.
Warning
Of the main natural disasters, droughts are unique in tern~sof length of time
between the first indications from, for example, rainfall monitoring that a drought
: is developing and the point at which it begins to impact significantly upon tlie
population of the affected area. The requirement of the length of such "warning
time" varies significantly between societies.
Early warning system indicators are :
. Meteorological
Agricultural
1: Remote sensing
However, the Agriculture and R e v e n ~ ~Departments
e o f . the States remain
watchfill during tlie dry weather seasolis and the situation is monitored regularly
especially for those areas which are known to be drought prone due to local
climatic conditions, scarcity of ground water and absence of irrigation facilities.
As drought is forecast and monitored, on the basis of the availability of water

(mainly thro~~ghI ~ O I ~ S O Oand
I ~ from underground soLlrces to some extent),
meteorological forecast and warning systems and satellite monitoring of .
underground water sources and tlie condition of growing crops constit~~te
the basis
of drought monitoring and warning system.
Note: i) Use the space given below for YOLII. aliswers.

ii) Checlc your answer with that given at tlie end of the Unit.
1) Briefly describe the distinction between drought and famine.
2) Discuss the cha~.acteristicfeati~resof a drought.
3) Discuss briefly tlie predictability of dro~~glits

in India.
8.5 VULNERABILITY - - - -- -- --
Factors contributing to vulnerability to dro~~glits

are the following:
monsoon rains are deficient,

lion-irrigated agriculti~rallands,
I e source of water for irrigation dries up, Drought nrid Famine
Q low moisture retention in soil,

0 deficiency of ~noistureat critical stage of crop growth,
I .
Q farmers can't adapt to drought or do not get alternative seeds, and
I _i
lack of alternate sources of income for those rendered jobless due to drought.
Vulnerability, from economic angle reduces the demand within the economy
generally, increases defaults on loans in rural sector and reduce govt. revenues.
Drought affects national budget as it costs heavily to govt. for organizing relief
measures.
Droughts result in reduced income of farmers and agricultural labourers, reduced

spending locally on agricultural inputs and equipment and non-agricultural items
and services like price of livestock as farmers are forced to sell because of
increases in the cost of foclcler and agriculti~ralinputs.
.
1
inability of Inore vulnerable sections within the population to afford increased
food prices results in tlie following:
switch to cheapel: arid sometimes less preferred food.
I e
I e reduction in overall food intake leading to malnutrition and starvation.
I e borrowing to maintain food intake.
1 * Poor hygiene, disease.
l selling assets to raise funds.
I e engaging in alternative income earning activities locally.
l migrating in search of employmelit opportunities.
I * migration to where relief food is being distributed.
1 Drying-up of water sources leads to reduction in water quality, the need to travel
fi~rtlierto collect water and possibly migration to better water sources. Increase
/I] conipetitio~lfor access to dwindling water sources [nay lead to increase in
incidences of local disputes/conflict.
Drought also leads to substantial reductio~iin industrial production especially in

tlie industries requiring considerable amount of water such as plastic, paper,
textile and petroleum industries. Lack of I~ydroelectl-icpower generation and
- poor health of workers also affect industrial production and increase tlie
eco~iomicvulnerability.
Education is another sector vlunerable to drought. It leads to loss of education, due

to fall in school attelldallces by children lacking energy and/or money for fees, plus
tlie need for them to assist other family mernbers in water' collectio~land inco~ne
generating activities. Social costs of migration are also very heavy on account of
break-up of communities and families.
8.6 MITIGATION
The commonly adopted mitigation strategies are as follows:-

'
Check dams to store water.
Watershed management.
,:a Water-rationing.
e Cattle management.
e Proper selection of crop for dro~~glit
affected areas.
Leveling, soil conservation techniques.
..- e Reducing deforestation and firewood cutting in the affected area.

e Checking of migration and providing alternate eniployment for people in
government sponsored relief schemes or village cooperatives and
non-governmental programmes.
* Education and training to the people.
e Participation in com~ni~nityprogrammes, e.g., pani-panchayat in
Makaraslitra, Sukho~najriexperiment in Punjab, and Anna Hazare's work in
Rale gaon Sidhi Village in District Ahmednagar of Maharashtra.
a) Jmproveme~~tin Agriculture through modifying cropping patterns and

introducing drought-resistant varities of crops.
b) Management of Rangeland wit11 improvement of grazing lands, improved
grazing patterns, introduction of feed and protection of shrubs and trees.
c) Development of Water resource system with improved irrigation,
develop~nentof improved storage facilities, protection of surface water from
evaporation, and introd~~ction
of drip irrigation system.
d) Animal Husbandary activities call help in mitigation with the use of
improved and scientific methods, increasing outputs without destroying the
echo-system.
The first step in drought mitigation is to identify areas that are at risk. In this
situation, historical records can be analysed. After the identification of
vulnerable areas, priority zones sliould be established. Then comprehensive and
integrated development programlnes should $e initiated.
8.7 TYPICAL EFFECTS OF DROUGHT
Effects of Drought
PRIMARY SECONDARY
Loss of Crops, Loss of agricultural

I (Short & Long term)
Famine
I
production
Loss of Livestock and other animals Spread of disease and death
a Loss of water for drinking and
hygienic use Loss of Livelihood
Loss of hyproductive power
generation Changes in Settlement patterns and in
a Loss of industrial production social and living pattellis
Major ecological changes including;
- Increased desertification
- Decreased scrub growth, and
- lncreased wind erosion of soils
Primary effects of drouglit mainly result from lack of water. However, the
secondary effects of drought follow and result Irom the primary effects. In such
circumstances, people begin to migrate in searcli of better grazing lands for their
herds or to the cities to seek alternate source of income, If the dwindling supplies
of food are not replaced, famine can occur, further accelerating the migration. The
migration may in itself contribute to the spreading of the scope of the disaster,
specially if grazing animals are moved wit11 their masters. Long-term drougl1t .
results in permanent changes in settlement patterns and in social and living
patterns. Among the ecological changes the desertification cycle is of the most
conccrn. The whole process gradually spreads, bringing more and rnnore land
~lnderdeserl conditions.
I. -
\ Check Your Progress 2
ii) Check your answer with that given at the end of the Unit.
I ) List the situation that create or'aggravate droughts.
2) Briefly discuss the ~nitigationstrategies or actions that can lessen the drought
impacts,.
3) Drougllt impacts can be highly varied and widespread and are potentially one
of the most destructive hazards. Discuss.
-8.8 LET US SUM UP
,This Unit has given an idea about the phenomenon of drought and its
characteristics. The link between drought and famine has been discussed. It
brought out the importance of predictability, forecasting and warning of
droughts. If lligl~lightedthe problems of vulnerability and drew attention to the
need for systematic mitigation strategies. Lastly, it gives clear understanding on
: the typical effects of droughts.
8.9 KEY WORDS
Animal Husbandry : breeding and care of domestic animals.

Desertification '~'eclinically, it occurs whcn thc soil reaches a
certain level o r dryness and tlie land gradually
takes on the c~iaractkristicsof a desert.
Mitigation measures which can minimize the effects of
hazards when they do occur. Mitigation
measures may be of either "structural" or
"non-structural" nature.
Rangelalid grassland maintained for cattle grazing.

Bliatia, B.M., 1967, F~mzi17esin hldia, Asia Publishing Hoirse, New Dellii
Bagclii, K.S., 1991, D ~ o z ~ g Prone
ht India: Problenw and I'e~vpectives,Vol. I &
11, Agricole Publishing Academy, New Dellii.
Joint COLAICARE
Kulshrestlia, S.M., 1997, Drought M~rrrcrgem7ent it1 Z~~dicr,
Tech. Report No. I , Institute of Global Environment and Society, USA.
Tapeshwar Singli, 1995, Drozght Dismter u ~ i dAgriczllturnl Developnzent i~z
Indin, New dellii, People's Publishing House.
8.1 1 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

+ Drought results in sl~ortfallin agricultural production and hence may cause
food shortages.
0 Due to the reduced purchasing power of tlie poorer sections of l.he society
and if tin~elyhelp is not available fiom ihe community or governments,
tlie situation can lead to famines.
+ Drought causes crop failure, but mismanagement of the drought mitigation
can cause farnines.

+ It builds over a period of time with increased scarcity of water generally
due to insufficient or erratic monsoon rains.
0 It is a creeping phenomenon.
Drought can be localized covering a district or a group of districts, or be
widespread cover-up a state or a group of states.
+ Area affected by a drought usually taltes an elliptic shape instead of a
circular coverage.
3) Your answer should include tlie followi~igpoints:

As drought is vely much linked with tlie performance of tlie monsoon, the '
. predictability of dro~~glit
is also linlted to tlie monsoon.
But ~nonsoon,by its inherent nature is highly variable in time and space
wliicli nieans that rainfall is neither ~~niTorm
nor evenly distributed.
For good agriculture, well distributed and evenly spaced spells of
monsoon rain are required. But in actual circumstances, it is rarely so.
The encouraging feature is that even if there is a delay of itw days and tlie
monsoon never fails tlie entire coui~t~y.
a The seasonal forecast of lnalisooli rainfall helps in tlie predictability of
- dro~~glits.

monsoon rains arc deficient.
e lion-irrigated agricultural lands.
source of water for irrigation dries LIP.
. low moisture retention in soil.
deficiet~cyof rnoistiire at critical stage of crop growth.
fanners can't adapt to drought or do not get alter~iativeseed.
lack of alternate soiirces of income for those rendered jobless due to
drought.
2) Your answer s h o ~ ~ include

ld the following points:
The commonly adoptecl initigatio~lstrategies are as follows:
construction of check dams to store water.
watershed management and water rationing.
cattle management and proper selectio~iof crop for droi~ghtaffected
areas.
leveling, soil conservation techniques.
Reducing deforestation and firewood cutting in the affected area.
e Education and training ofthe people.
1 3) Your answer should include the followi~igpoints:
I The effects of drought can be divided into primary and secondary.

prima~yeffects of drought mainly results in loss of crops, livestock and
other animals, water for drinking and hygienic Llse, loss of hydroelectric
power geiieration and loss of moustrial production.
* Secondary effects of drought follow and result from tlie pri~iiaryerrects.
More prominent secondary effects are: poor liealtll, disease a~iclloss of
liveliliood.
In such circumstances, people begin to migrate in searcli of better
grazing lands for their herds or to tlie cities to seek alternate source of
income.
If the dwindling supplies of food are not replaced, famine can occur,
1
furtlier accelerating tlie migration, which coned lead to social conflict.
UNIT 9 LANDSLIDE AND SNOW
AVALANCHE
Structure
9.0 Ob-jectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Landslide and Snow Avalanche : The Phenomena
9.3 Characteristics and Causes
4 V~tlnerability
9.5 Risk Reduction Measures
9.6 Preparechess
9.7 Effects and Impacts
9.8 Let us sum up
9.9 Key worcls
9-10 References and Further Reading
9.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
9.0 OBJECTIVES
'After studying this itnit, yo11 will be able to:
e discuss the phenomena of landslide and snow avalanche,

their characteristics, causes and effects,
explain tlie preparedness and risk reduction measures.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall discuss landslides and snow avalanches which are hazards
peculiar to mountain areas. Occusring i n remote park of difficult mountain terrain
which is not easy to access, these patticular hazarcls affect communities which are
often isolated and without milch outside suppo~t.l'liese communities also have Ilie
handicap of being economically and educationally clisadvantaged. These facts
highlight the importance of studying landslides and snow avalanches and leaving
about the prepareclncss aspects.
9.2 LANDSLIDES AND SNOW AVALANCHES: THE

PHENONIENA
i
I , Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1971) defines these phenomena
II as follows:
Landslide: Rapid downward movement, under tlie influence of gravity, of a

mass of rock, earth, or artificial fill on a slope. Also, tlie tnass that moves or has
I 1110veddownwards.
I
i
SIIOWAvalanche: Large mass of snow, ice, earth, rock, or other ~naterialiu
I swift motion down a mountain side or over a precipice.
The Encyclopaedia Brittanica - Micropaedia (1985) gives fairly cletailed

'.
descriptions of the two phenomena as follows:
i
I
I Lsndslidc: Also called landslip; Dowliward ~nassmovement of eattli or rock on
I
i~nstable slopes including many for~ns resulting from differences in rock
structure, coherence of material involved, degree of slope, amount of included
water, extent of natural or artificial undercutting at the base of the slope. relative
rate of movement and relative quantity of rnatesial involved. Many terms cover
these variations : creep. earthflow, niudflou, solifluction and clebris avalallclle
are related forms in which Inass niove~ncntis by flowage.
If shearing movement occurs on a surface on co~lsoliclatcdrock, the clislocatecl

mass is a debris slide. ClifL nlay become so slcep tl~rough t ~ ~ l d u r c u t t iby
n~
rivers, glaciers or wavcs that masses of rocks will fall ticcly and constitute a
rock-all type of landslide.
Snow Avalanche: Large mass of snob or roc]\ tlcbl is that nloves rapidly dow11a
mountain slope sweeping ancl grindi~lgcvcrything In its path. An avalanche
begrins whell a Inass of material overcomes frictional rcsistancc of' the sloping
surface. ot'ten after its foundat~onis loosencd by rai~ls01.is rapidly mcltcd by a
warm ant1 dry hind. Vibrations caused by loud noises si~chas artillery lire,
tlli~~icler
or blasting can start the mass in motion.
Some snow avalanclies develop during heavy snowstorms and slide wllile snow
is still falling but Iiiore often they occul- al'tcr the snow has accumi~latcclat the
given site.
Tile Wet avalanche is perhaps the no st clangcro~~sbccausc of its I:irgc ~vcigllt,

heavy texti~rcand the te~ldcncyto solidiSy as so011 as it slops moving. The dry
type is also very dangerous because its entraining ol'great amounts o f air mal,es
i t act like a fluid; this kind of avalanchc niay Ilow LIP the opposite side of' a
narrow valley. Avalrulclies carry a considerable amount oi'rocl\ debris along with
snow and therefore are sig~lificantgeological agents; in acldition to transporting
unsorted materials to the bottoms of slopes, they may, if repeatcd, cause an
important amount of erosion. b
From tlie above definitions and descriptions, it will be seen that landslides and
snow avalanches arc phenomena of oiountain regions a n d boi I1 involve thc shift
and sudden ~iiovemcntof large masses of material fiillilig or slippi~lgdown a
hilly slope. While landslide involves rock, soil and mild: s ~ l o wavalanchc
primarily involves snow. While landsliclc [nay occur evcn in smaller hills or ,
rocky terrains, snow avalanches occur in high mountains will1 abundance of
snow. Landslides involve loosened or wakened rocks and mucl whereas snow
avalanche brings down accumulated or overhanging s ~ i o wmass :~ltliougllit may
collect sock and other debris on its way. Both the plielioniena can be triggered by
their own weights or by vibrations and also due to loud noises. Eat-Ihqi~akesor
eve11 minor tremors are I<nownto have triggered landslide5 and sriow avalanches.
Incidence of landslides are colnlnon in the various hilly regions ol' India but these
are more in tlie Himalayas, in the Wcsteln Ghats (includi~lgKerala), and in the
Nilgiris. Tliere are occasional reports of landslides in the Vindliyachals ancl the
Eastern Ghats as well. Landslides are more frequent during or after heavy rains.
In India, snow avalanches occur in the I-limnlayan ranges and more so in the
mountain regions of Kashmir, Himacllal Pradesh and the hills of West U.P. 'This
is because the dense forest and vegetation cover in the eastern and nostheastern
Himalayas act as binding force and inhibit the slippage of snow mass.
9.3 CHARACTERISTICS AND CAUSES
Characteristics
Landslides: These can be classified in two categories according to the type of

movement and the type of material. The movement can be either slow or fast.
Obviously, the more rapidly moving landslides pose grater hazards to life and
property in their path. Fast speeds also leave little time for warning or escape. It
s t 4
1 5 a total disaste~if a fast landslide occurs at night and passes through or hits a L.antlslide and SIIOW
rrltl
Av:danche
vlllagc or hamlet. Apart from tlie speed, tlie ~novenicritof a lalidslide can also be
classified as n ilow or f a l l or topple. A ilow is niostly like a thick viscous
Iriixturc of niud and broken rocks. Water is really not necessary for a landslide
tlow but this type of landslides generally occurs during or after licavy rains. In
lalldlside fall, masses of rock and other material fall down f o m cliffs or collie
do\vn li~~rlling along tlie slopes and bouncing tlirougli tlie air. A topple type
lan(1slide involves an overturning movemen1 which, if not bloclcecl by bigger and
s~ablesocks, results in a landslide.
111a lanclslide, tlie nioving material can be broken LIP fir-lhcr as the landslicle
I
progresses or it may remain intact if it is strong enough. l'he landslide, in which
II tile moving material is strong and remains more or less intact, is callctl a slump.
1 Sllow Avelnncl~e: Thcse ]nay be classitied as "dry snow type" or "wet s~iow
type" and each of these types can be hl-ther subdivided into "direct action" 01-
"delayed action" avalilnches. Thus, we lnay have ~ O L Icategories
~ of snow
) avalanches, viz., (i) Dry snow direct action avalanche, (ii) Dry snow delayed
I
I actioli avalanche, (iii) Wet snow direct action avnla~iche,and (iv) Wet snow
tlclnyed action avalanche.
Dry snow avalanches involvc lies11 (dry) snow sliding over a s ~ ~ r f a oi'oltl
cc snow
wliicli has congealed and become fixed and stable. Wet snow avaliuiches occur
wlien rainfall or warm wcathcr follows inimecliately afier a spell of heavy
suowfhll. In sucli a casc, tlie snow avalanclic consists primarily ol'mclting snow
mixed witti water but lakes along with it any other material cnroute. Wet snow
avalanclies also occur during spri~igseason when licavy accumulations of snow
. become loose with the start o r llic melting proccss with tllc advent ol' warm
spring season.
Avalanches that occur during or just after a snowi'all take the falling snow along
ivitliout giving it a clialice to stabilize itself at tlie location ofthe snowfall. Such
i snow avalanches (whether dry or wet type) are called Direct Action atalanclies.
I
On the other hand, those cases where snow woulcl have accum~~lated over a
period of time before an avillanclie (clsy or wet) starts. arc called Delaycd Action
avalanches.
I
A snow avalanclic comprises three "zones". viz., (i) Stnrtirlg Zone, (ii) Runout
Zone. and (iii) Track. Tlic Starting Zone is also ci~lleilRclcasc Area or Funnation
Zone or Origin Zone or Accum~~lation Zone, or liupturc Z o ~ i eor Fracture Zone
or Catchment Basin. It is tlie area where the snow iivalanche begins. Depending
on the shape o f the slope or cliff iuid Ilie preferred areas of snowfall clepe~iding
/ on tlie osientatioa 01' tlie mountains. there are ercas with likelihood 01. start of
snow avalanches. Tliesc arc callcd snow avalsnclic "sites".
I
'The Runout Zone is also called Deposition Zonc. It is tlre lowest cnd or the
I Destination Area of a snow avalanche where the avalanche will sun out, i.e., the
1.
I
snow niass carried by tlie snow avalanche will ulti~natelycome to a stop. This
I stoppage lnay come about either because the terrain has beconie flat inhibiting
fi~rthermovement or because an obstacle stops tlie moving mass. The middle
past or path between the Starting Zone ancl thc Runout Zone is called the
Avalanche Track. It is also known as Slicle Path or Avalanclic Path.
Each snow avalanche seems to possess uniquc characte~.isticsdepending on

factors such as topography of the mour?tain, climate, and weather conditions such
as snowfall, rainfall, ancl speed and direction of the prevailing wind. Sonletimes,
snow niass can even come down flying froin a cliff through air and fall over an
unsuspecting community resulting in serious disaster.
Tyl~ologyof
Disasters - I1
Landslides: As landslides involve movement of nlass of rock, m ~ etc.,
~ d clown a
slope, factors that promote such movement of mass provide tlie causes for
landslides. Sucli causes can arise from a number of happenings. For example:
(a) Increase in the mass of weak roclts, clay arid other debris likely to slide;
(b) Loosening or breaking of roclis and soil by wetting due to rain, wcatl1el.ing,
erosion. deforestation, earthquake, tremors and similar other events;
(c) Increase in the tilt or slope due 10 seismic disturbances or construction
activities, mining, quarrying etc.
It is evident from tlie above that tlie causes for landslides are both natural and
manniade.
WIiile the above mentioned causes are basically responsible for landslides, it is
quite often that a triggering mechanism starts tllc tlisaster. Conditions favourable
for a landslide continue to build up and a final small cause triggers a landslide.
This s~nallcause or trigger can occur in many ways. It coulcl be tlie seepage of
water inside rock crevices; a vibration from blasting, earthquake, or even
thllnder; erosion from water streams; deforestation; weakening dud to digging
and quarrying. It could even be the continued loading duc to snow accumulation
or collection of large amount of rain water.
Snow Avalanche: These are; generated due to tlie slructural failure of snow heap
lying on mountain slopes. Sucli structural failure may occur due to:
(a) external stresses caused by (i) large accu~iiulation of siiow iYom heavy
snowfall creating excessive loading, (ii) movement of persons, animals and
(iii) sound waves from any loud noise like a sharp whistle, gunfire, thunder;
(b) nietamorpl~icactivities, i.e., physical happenings within the snow mass
which would createweak layers inside it; and
(c) excessive melting of upper layer of the snow mass resulting in seeping of
~iiejtwaterunder tlie snow mass and lubricating the bottom surface oftlie snow
Inass to enable it to slip and crcate a snow avalanche.
In general, snow avalanches occur when extreme winter conditions (sub-zero

temperatures) prevail for long duration and heavy snowfall occurs over smooth,
glaciated slopes which are devoid of vegetation cover. Sometimes, strong winds
blow and drift accunii~latedsnow'from avalanche-free areas to avalanche-prone
slopes thus'd causing a snow avalanche.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) What are the regions and seasons in India prone to landslides and snow
avalanches?
2) What ate the different types of landslides and snow avalanches? Landslide :ind Snow and
Avrtlancl~c
3) List the main causes of landslides and snow avalanches.
9.4 VULNERABILITY
i
I The following are highly vulnerable to larldslides and snow avalanches:
(a) Deforested anountains especially in areas of heavy rainfall or snow fall;
, (b) Settlen~ents(villages or hamlets) that are built on hill tops, steep slopes,
sofier soil;
(c) Settlements built at the base of hills, steep slopes, mountain valleys;
(cl) Buildings with weak foundations; and
(,e) Roads and communication lines in mountain areas.
9.5 RISK REDUCTION MEASURES
In order to consider risk reduction measures, we shoilld first have an idea of

likely risks arising from larldslides and snow avalanches. These are as follows:
I
i) Geograpl~icalrisks:
a) Spread and deposition of debris
I
I
b) Blocking of Streams
ii) Engineering risks:

a) Buildings
Typology of iii) Medical risks:
Disnsters - 11
a) Death
b) Injury
c) Shock
iv) Socio-economic risks:

a) Loss of family
b) Loss of homes
c) Loss of crops
d) Loss of employmen1
The above mentioned risks can bc reducetl by adopting risl~~.educlionmeasures

which can be divided in two categories, viz., (a) Risk Control Measures and (b)
Risk Assistance Measul.es;
Rislc Control Measores
i) Hazards mapping
i i) Preparation of tlazard Zonation Maps
iii) Community education arid awareness
iv) Land-use regulations
v) Advance planning
vi) Relocation of vulnerable setlle~nents
vii) Strengthening of weak structures
viii) Creating adequate clrainage to avoid accum~~lation
oi'water and snow
Rislc Assistance Measl~res

i) Monitoring and Warning
ii) Search and Rescue
iii) Medical assistance
iv) Damage assessment
V) Econolnic assistance for rehabilitation and reconstruction
9.6 PREPAREDNESS
and appreciating the risl< reduction

The key to preparedness lies in ~~nderstanding
measures listed in the previous seclion of this Unit and adopting these lo the
maximum extent that the circumstances l~ermit. Hcre the physical and financial
assistance from government ancl non-government sources is of considerable
importance.
1
'Therefore, the preparedness actions to deal with thc ciisasters of landslides and
snow avala~ichesare as follows:
i) Community Education and Awareness

ii) Preparation of Hazard Zonation Maps
I
I iii) Relocating I~iglily vulnerable settlements i,andslide ilrltl Snow a n d
Av:~l;lncllr
i Strengthening of weak structures

I v) Removal of liltely blocltages
I
1 vi) Creating adequate drainage
1I vii) Monitoring and Warning
,
viii) Community cooperation and vigilance
9.7 EFFECTS AND IMPACTS
I n considering the effects and impacts of landslides and snow avalanches, tlie
f o l l o ~ i n gspecial featl~resof these hazards should be kept in mind.
(a) These clisasters occur in remote mountain areas with difficult terrain and
I adverse weather conditions.
(b) The communities (villages and hamlets) are small entities wit11 wcak
housing, make-shift structures and poor resources.
(c) La~idslidesand snow avalanclics givc almost no notice in niost cases and
enormous amounts of rock, soil or snow come crashing with fantastic speed
on the often ~~nprepared
communities.
I
In thc light of the above three considerations, tlie effects and i~npactsof
I landslicles and snow avalanches lnay be clividecl into:
i) Direct Effects - Physical Damage
Anything on tlie top of a lanclslide or in its path or at its bottom will suffer severe
damage. The salne is the case with a snow avalanche when anything in its put11
l or falling areas will suffer severe damage. In case ol'a snow avalanclic of "Slab
type" where massive slabs of hardened s~lowcomc hurl ling down, tlie hit is very
hard and devastating whereas tlie "loose snow" type of snow avalanche may
I engulf and cover larger area.
I
I Blockages of roads, mountain passes and streams and damage to electric and
communication lin& are among the direct efrects of landslides and snow
I avalanches apart from injuries and fatalities to Iiutnan and cattle lives. Blockage
1
I
4
1
of streams and later release of llie itnpounded water create flash floods witll
disastrous effects. Falling of large volumes of debris from landslicles or snow
avalanches in mountain lakes can generate flash floods. Snow avalanches create
I aclditional suffering due to extremely low temperalures and the associatecl
Fscezing effects. Even if there are survivors among tlie victims, they may suffer
hypotlier~niaand frost-bite before lielp arrives.
ii) Indirect Effects and long-term Impacts
Apart from loss of Iiouses, clestruction of property and shattering of family life
due to death or injury to kith and kin, tlie indirect effects and long-term ilnpacts
of landslides and . snow avalanches lead to further loss of productivity
! (agriculture, poultry, s~nallscale cottage industry, forest procluce) in an already
I marginal productivity scenario.
I
Ty l~ologyof Clreck Your Progress 2
Disasters - I1
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the ini it.
I ) Wliat are the main risk reduction n~easures for landslides and snow
avalanches?
2) Wliat are the essential elements of Preparedness lo meet the hazards posed
by landslides and snow avalanches?
3) What arc tlie direct and indirect effects and impacts o r landslides and snow
avalanches?
9.8 LET US SUM UP

This Unit has dealt with Landslides and Snow Avalanclies. These two hazards
have been defined and their characteristics have been described. The causes that
I
generate landslides and snow avalanclies have been identified. After describing
-- .. the vulnerability, risk reduction measures are discussed for these hazards.
Essential ele~nelitsof preparedness have been enumeratecl and tlie direct and
indirect effects and impacts of landslides arid snow avalanches liave been
described.
9.9 KEYWORDS
Precipice Very steep face of a rock, cliff or
mountain.
12 Coherence of material Sticking together of material.
Distorting or breaking movement;
shifting of different layers (of rocl< or
snow) laterally over each other.
Degree of slope Steepness of slope expressed usually as
angle fsom tlie horizontal.
Soliflrictiol~ Flow of surface deposits of soil, clay,
rock, snow over tlie still forzen slope
beneath made possible by water released
from thawing or melting of snow.
Flowage Flow, flowing
Zonation Identifying zones
Itijuly to any part of body due to
exposure to sub-zero te~nperatures in
extremely cold weather.
Hypothermia Abnormal lowering of body te~nperature
due to external cold.
9.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Webster's, Third N ~ Mlnterrzafionnl

I Dictionary ( 197 1 )
- Encyclopaedia Brittanica - Micropaedia (1985)
D.S. Upadhyay, 1995. Cold Climate Hj~dronreteorolog),,New Age International

(P) Ltcl., New Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, Cliennai.

EXERCISES
I
I

1 :
I 1) Your i~nswerslio~~lcl
include the following points:
1
Landslides occur in various mountain regions of India but are more in
1 the Hinialayas, the Western Ghats and the Nilgiris.
e Landslides are more cotnlnon during rainy season.
I
I
I
1
I
0 Snow Avalanches occur in Mirnalayas only because these are snowfall
there,
* Snow avalanches are more common during winters and springs.
,
I
I 2) Your answer should include the following points:
I e Types of landslides : Flow, Fall or Topple Types

Types of snow avalancl~es: Dry snow direct action type, Dry snow
delayed action type, Wet snow direct action type, and Wet snow delayed
action type. I
3) Your answer should include the following paints:
'
I.
Causes of landslides : 9
i) lncrease in mass of rocks, soil etc.;

ii) Loosening or breaking of rocks, soil;
iii) Increase in ti It or slope.
'r!, pology of r Causes of sliow avalanche :
Disasters - I l
i) Large accumulation of snow;
ii) Vibratio~lsclue to MovemenL of persons or animals, strong ivinds or
Loud noise;
i i i ) Melting of Llpper layers of snow and seeping of thc nlelt water L I I ~ ~ C ~
the snow Inass.
Checlt Uo~lrProgress 2

e Risk Control Measures :
i) Hazard mapping
ii) I-lazard Zonation Maps
iii) Comm~mityEducation & Awareness
iv) Land-nsc regu lntions
V) Relocation ol'vulncsable villages
vi). Strengthening of weak structures
vii) Creating adequate clrai~lnge.
r Risk .4ssistance Measures :
i) Monitoring & Warning
ii) Search & Rescue
iii) Medical Aid
iv) Damage Assessment
v) Rehabilitation R: Reco~lstr~~ction

e Community Education and Awareness.
e Preparation of I-lazard Zonatiqn Maps.
r Relocati~~g
highly vulnerable settlements.
r Strengthening of weal< structures and taking engineering actions s ~ ~ as
ch
re~novalof blockages, and creating adequate drainage.

r Direct Effects - Physical damage,
injuries, deatl~s,loss of homes.
r Indirect effects and Iong-term impacts
Loss of productivity i n a scenario which is already poor.
UNIT 10 FIRE AND FOREST FIRE
Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introcluction
10.2 Fire: Major Kinds
10.2.1 Coal
10.2.2 Oil
10.2.3. Building
1 0.3 Forest Fire
1 0.4 Causes and Vulnerability
1 0.5 I'recautions
10.6 Effects and Impacts
10.7 Let Us Sum Up
10.8 Key Words
10.9 References
10.10 Answers to Clieclc Your Progress Exercises
10.0 OBJECTIVES
After st~~dying'l:liis
Unit, you should be able to:
a discuss the serious nature o r the hazards associated with Fire and Forest
Fire,
Q ~~nderstancl the difrerence between [ires in coal, oil, buildings and forests,
identify tlie causes of Ilres and forest fires and oLlr vulnerability to these,
describe the efrects and impacts of fire and forest fire, and
explain tlie precautions against fires and forest fires.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Fire and Forest Fire constitute typical disaster phenomena the origins of which
can be either natural or manmadc. In their ferocity and destructive,potential,
these are notoriously dangerous. In this Unit, we will discuss about Fire and
Forest Fire which may be caused by natural processes sometimes but most or tlie
time, these occur (and spread) due to human negligence. In either event, fires
spread rapidly and cause excessive dalnage to life and property, if not controlled
in time.
10.2 FIRE;MAJOR KINDS - - -
10.2.1 Coal
Coal is an important source of energy and India has large deposits especially in
Biliar and West Bengal ~ r o hwhere coal is regularly mined in large quantities.
Raniga~ij-.Iliaria-Dhanbadis a prominent coal belt. Coal mining is a hazardous
operation. Although all eriorts are made to observe tlie mining safety rules
prescribed by the Director of Mine Safety of Government of India. fire accidents
do occur.
ore over, soft coal, ul~clerextremely hot conditions as prevail inside deep mines,
so~neti~nesleads to spontaneous self-ignition. Once ignited, coal burns
~lncontrollably. In many cases, tlie gases accu~nulatedin the mines can cause
explosion. If coal miners are trapped in a burning coal. mine and tlie exit gets
bvocked, it beco~iiesa major disaster res~~ltingin the death ofthe trappccl miners.
I Typology of tracts in coal mines where fires have
In the coal fields, tliere are ~~nderground
I Disasters - I1 bee11 burning for many years. Enormous quantities of coal are getting destroyed
i I
I by these fires.
111addition to the clcstruction and llazard of burning, coal lires produce

considerable amolunt of combustion prod~~cts
i n tlle form of gases and soot, all of
which polllite tlie atmosphere.
10.2.2 Oil
Inflam~~iable licll~idssucl~as oil. petrol, spirit, liquor, tar, paints, many chenlicals,
and even gliec, pose serious fire hazard. All sucli fires can be called "oil fires".
Tliese start as soon as an inflammable liqilicl comes in contact with a naltecl l l a 1 1 ~ ~
or smoulclering embcr or a sparlt or a very hot object. Oil fires can also occur ill
the absence of a naltcd flame, sparlt etc. This liappcns because many cIiemica!s
release heat due to the process of oxidation when they come into contact with air
which always contains oxygen. If adequate ventialtion is not maintained by
circulating the air so that heat and fi~mesget dissipated, a stage colnes when the
temperature rises enough to cause fire in the inflammable liquid chemical.
Sometimes there call be an explosion.
,
As tlie fire in a liquid medium such as oil, burns on the surface, it spreads quicltly
,.
as tlie oil spreads or gels sprinltled on other subslances.
10.2.3 Building
Fires in buildings, residential or co~ii~i~ercial, are by far the most co~iinion

occurrences among fire disasters. Once stalled, tlrcs in buildings beco~iie
icontro troll able duc to tlie considerable amount of conibustible and inilammable
material sucli as wood, cloth, paper, plastics, cliemicals, coolting gas, Iterosene
oil, i~secl01.stored in tlie buildings. Fires in multi-storeyed builclings and closely
located liouses turn into niqjor disasters as the fire spreads quickly iuicl leads to
considerable loss of property and even deaths which occur due to burning or
sufibcation.
Electrical equipment in builclings, especially in ~ ~ r b ahouses

n ancl in multi-storeyed
' buildings, are serious fire hazards if riot clieclted and maintained well. In such;
cases, it is not only the fire which causes the disaster but thcre is the added danger
of electrocution also.
10.3 FOREST FIRE
Forest areas are pa~licularlysusceptible to fires which are mostly manmade

altliougli sometimes tllcse could be the result of ligbt~ii~ig strike during severe
tliunderstoniis. Forest fires. lead to heavy destruction of I'orest resources and
disturb tlie wild lifc as well. Forest fires add to the deforestation process as it
taltes many years for tlie forest to grow again. In many cases, tlie forest land gets I
I
spoilt or taken over by vested interests for other activities.
I
'The nature and aliiount of vegetation cover ancl other combustible ~naterialsuch I
as deacl wood, dry leayes, determine the nature and extent 01' rol.est fires. I-Iigh
atmospheric temperatures, dryness (low Iiumidity), the strengtli of the prevailing
wind and tlie slope of the ground arc important factors in die spread of forest fire.
-!
Tlie most comrnon type of forest fire is a "surface fire". It involves lighter Fire and Forest Fire
material s~iclias dry leaves lying on the ground, bushes and sinall liarclwood
trees. Surface tire is generally slow moving and flames can rise allnost one to
two metres high. As the surface fire intensifies by burning more material,
11t.a\!ier bushcs and medium size trees stalt burning ancl the flames may 1.i5e as
liigll as iive metres or more. On fi~rtlierintensification, forest fire flames may
1.eacIi tlie tops of even the tall trees creating "crown fire". These crown fires,
bl~l-ninglipto thc heiglits of tops of tall tl'ees, are the most dangerous forest fires.
Many a times, burning trees explode due to intense heat. This is a sure indication
that I he forcst tire is reacl~ingthe crowning stage wllich involves extreme danger.
1,nrge ancl intense forest fil-cs can create strong air convection currents which
blow hot cli.lbers up in the air and carry them to long distances of even a
ILilometre or two. These embers can ignite new arcns ol'i'orest fires or create fire
ill village areas adjacent to forests.
Note: i) Use the space given below l'or your answers.

ii) Clieclc your :lns\vers with those given at the encl of the unit.
I) What are thc liaza~.dsposecl by fires in coal mines?
2) I-low does an oil fire occur and spreacl'?
3 ) What types of buildings are more prone to fire disaste~.~'?

Typology of 4) What are tlie materials in buildings that cseate fise hazards? clisasters?
Disasters - I1
I
10.4 CAUSES AND VULNEIRABILITU
Fires are caused when a source of fire lilce open fire, naked flame, lighted
cigarette or "beeclee", smouldering ember, electric spark, lightning, or any other
source of ignition comes into contact with combustible or inflammable material.
High atmosplieric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favou~*able
circumstances ior a lire to start. Once started,.fire is sustained by tlie continuous
supply of oxygen from the air.
Therefore, tlie first factor that determines the vulnerability of a material or

builcling or location to tire hazard is its proximity to a source of fire or ignition.
The second, but eq~lallyiniportant, factor is the inflam~vbilityor combustibility
of tlie material or building or location, i.e., liow quickly it will catch fire and start
burning. This depends on the contents as well as the way these are built, stoclced
and arranged. By this very nature, l.he fixtures, fittings and furnisliings in a
building are fire prohe. I-Iousehold goods like clothes; books, paper, kerosene
oil, cooking gas, are either combustible or inflammable. Oils, paints, cliemicals,
add considerably to the vulnerability.
Crowded places, such as large hotels, cinema halls, hospitals, schools, circus,
religious congregations,. large fairs, political rallies, are particularly v~~lnerable
because of very large collection of men, women,. cliildren and babies, loose or
temporary electrical wiring, overloaded electrical equipment, highly conlbustible
material like tents, shamianas, thatched roof, plastic seats, and above all a
shortage of adequate number of exits. People also become vulnerable to fire
hazards on occasions such as Diwali when a very large number of candles or
earthen lamps are lit creating innumerable naked flames and when allnost every
family indulges in fireworks even in crowded localities.
As already mentioned, air plays the sustaining role once a fire gets started. This
is also evident from the pop~~laridiom "To fan the fire". Hence the prevailing
wind conditions influence tlie speeding and spreading of a fire or a forest fire.
The areas, downwind from a raging fire, become highly vulnerable to spread of
fire.
10.5 PRECAUTIONS
The following are the important precautions against fire:
i) To keep the source of fire or source of ignition well separated from

18 combustible and inflammable material.
To keep tlie source of fire or source of ignition under watch and control. Fire r ~ n dForest Fire
ii)
iii) Not to allow combustible or inflammable material to pile up ilnnecessari'ly
a~iclto stoclc tlie same as per procedure recomnicnded for safe storage of
such combustible or inflammable material.
iv) To adopt safe practices in factories, coal mines, in oil stores, in chemical
plants and even in Iiousehold kitchens.
To incorporatc fire reducing and fire fighting techniques and equipment
while planning a house or building or an oil storage facility or a coal
mining operation. Use of fire resistant or tire retardant ~iiaterial in
construction is a good precaution. Even tliatclied roofs can be treated by
siicli material to reduce fire hazards.
v i) Construction should be as per prescribed rules.
vii) To provide enough ventilation for air circulation so that artificial hot spots
are not created.
viii) To provide fire sensors and smoke detectors in multistoriecl buildings or

important buildings such as tlanlc vaults, archives, computer installations,
libraries, ~nuseunis,control rooms, airports, warehouses, shopping malls,
and factories..
is) To provide adequate water storage and other fire-fighting material and
eqil ipment.
x) To train volunteer fire fighting teams to manage till such time that
professional fire fighters arrive on the scene.
xi) In case of forest fires, the volunteer teams are essential not only for fire
fighting but also lo keep watch on the start of forest fires and to sound an
alert.
xii) ~:,arrange fire fighting drills frequently.
xiii) To keep all electrical equipment earthed properly and to ensure its proper
maintenance, including regular and strict inspection.
xiv) To keep industrial activity (especially that which involvcs a fire hazard of
any sort) away fro111residential areas.
The effects o r a fire event, wherever it occurs, are disastrous and its ilnpacts are
long term and truly debilitating. India being a large country, co~npletedata are
not available; but it has been estimated that.loss due to fires in our c0111itryis
more than Rs.1500 crore annually. Apart fro111this enormoils loss of property,
tlie human death, disability and misery is colossal and irreparable. It has tleen
estimated that the deaths due to fire events are i l l tlie neighbourhood of 15000 to
20000 every year for tlie country. These figures appear unbelievable but are
~*easonablycorrect estimates. 111Dellii alone, there are about 400 reported 'fire
events every year involving death and disability of a few hun ed persons and a
loss of around 200 -crores. Forest fires destroy every la? !
ge areas depleting
natural resources and taking a heavy toll of life especially the wild life. Forest
fires.destroy the valuable bio-diversity.
Typology of Check Your Progress 2
I
-
Disasters 11

1) What precautions would you recommend against fire hazards?
2) Can there be any precautions for thatched roofs in villages?
3) What are the impacts of fire disasters?
10.7 LET US SUM UP

Fires and Forest Fires are dreadful disasters which sliould be prevented as much
as possible. Apart from fires in forests, tliose in coal mines, oil storages and
buildings take heavy toll of life and property. While the basic cause of start of
Fire is due to a source of fire coming i n contact with combustible or inllammable
material, the further course of events depends very much on the n a t ~ ~ of r e the
burning material. , Therefore, fires ill coal, oil, buildings and forests liave
characteristic features of their own. The prevailing environmental conditioiis
such as atmospheric teniperatu~.e, humidity and wind influence the speed and
spread of fires. The effects and impacts of fire disasters are extensive and
intensive resulting in loss of pi-ecious lives and property and long term human
misery.
While it might not be possible to eliminate fire hazards totally it is possible to
diminish the probability of occurrence and spread and th~isto reduce the resultant
loss by assessing the vulnerability of a particular situation or location and by
observing adequate precautions which liave been listed in this Unit.
Fire and Forest Fire
10.8 KEY WORDS
Combustible Capable of b u r ~ ~ i neasily.

g
Capable of catching fire cl~~icltly
and
b u r ~ ~ i nintensely.
g
Destruction Potential Hidden capability of destruction.
Self-ignition Catching fire by itself due to
T
sel f-generated heat.
, Wild Life Living creatures in a forest.
Crown (of a tree) Top portions of tall trees
Air Convectio~lC u r r e n t s Air, when it gets hot, rises up and cooler
air from sides taltes its place. Tlii~s,
convection currents develop in case of
forest fire.
Fire sensors Small electronic devices that gct
activated and sound an alarm as soon as
they perceive ~ ~ n i ~ sheat.
i~al
Smoke detectors Small electronic devices that get
activatecl and sound an alarm as soon as
they perceive smolte particles.
Sensitivity or s~~sceptibilityof a
builcling or a co~nrnunityto a risk SLICII
as fire or forest fire.
Large variety of plant and animal life
(especially i l l forests).
10.9 REFERENCES
Encyclopaedia Brittanica - Any edition.

Indu Prakash, 1994. DiLsastei. M~~nngement;Raslitra Prahari Praltashan,
Gliaziabad (U.P.)
f 10.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
t EXERCISES
1) Your answer S I I O L I I ~ include the following points:

Burning fires destroy enonnous amount of coal thus destroying an
important energy source.
Coal fires generate gases and soot wl~ichpollute the atmosphere.
0 If coal miners are trapped in the fire, it becomes a 111ajor disaster
involving loss of lives.
t
2) Your answer should include the followifig points:
Oil fire occurs when inflammable oil c o ~ n e sinto contact with a source of
fire. 21
e Oil fires can also occur by self-ignition under conditions of heat and no
ventilation in case of inflammable oils.
e Oil fires spread qiricltly as tlie burning oil spreads out quickly or gets
sprinltled on other substances.
3) Your answer should include the followirig points:

e Multistoreyed buildings
e Closely located houses

e Highly combustible material such as wood and plastic fittings and
fi~rnisliings.
e Iterosene oil, coolting gas cylinders and any chemicals or paint.
e Electrical equipment.
Checlc Your Progrcss 2
1) Your answer sl~ouldinclude the following points:

At least ten (if not all the fourteen) precautions listed in Section 10.5
(Precautions) of this illlit
2) Your answer should include the rollowing points:

Q Thatched roofs in villages can be sprayed with fire resistant and fire
retardant solutions.
3) Your answer should inclucle the following points:

I~ilpactsare disastrous and long ten11
e Considerable loss of life and property
0 Fire disfigi~resand disables the people
e Forest fires destroy valuable natural resources including trees, plants and
wildlife - t l i ~ destroying
~s the bio-diversity.
UNIT 11 INDUSTRIAL AND
-
TECHNOLOGICAL DISASTER
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Meaning and Concept
Types
Characteristics and Causal Phenomena
Warning
Safety Precautions
Typical Effects
Let Us Sl~niUp
Key Words
References
1 1 . OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you shoi~ldbe able to :
e explain the meaning and concept of Inclustrial and Technological Disasters,

together with their Types,
e appreciate their cl~a~.acteristics
arid causes,
e describe typicill effects,
understand safety precautions.
1 1 1 INTRODUCTION
You have got detailed overview of "Disasters" in general in Bloclc I, Units 1 to 4.
You have realised that there are two broad categories, namely, Nattural disasters
ancl Man Made Disastet-s. The variety ol' Man Made Disasters is very vast indeed.
Accidents on Road, Rail, in Air and over water form a major group. Eqi~ally
large in number are the occurences of firc of all types, Building collapse,
Stampede, and ecological. Yet the most significant range emanates fiom
i~icl~~strial
and Teclinological Disasters. Table 1 1.1 lists natural and manmade
disasters.
Table 11.1
(SOMETIMES PREDICTABLE BUT NOT AVOIDABLEI

I . I IUAVY RAINS. 2. FLOODS, 3. DROUGtITS, 4. EARI'I-[QUAKE, 5 . VO1,CANO
ERRUI'TION. 6. AVA1,ANCI-113,7. LANDSLIKE, 8. EPIDEMIC, 9. CYCLONE,
10. I-IER'I' WAVE. COLD WAVIX. 1 1. FOREST FIRE
MANMADE DISASTERS [ AV O ID A BL E BUT NOT PREDICTABLE ]
A. UN-INTENTIONAL OR INADVERTANT:
(a) POOR MAIN'TENANCE, (b) LOW QUALITY WORK, (c) HUMAN ERROR,
B. WILFUL AND INTENTIONAL:
I. SABOTAGE, 2. MISCI-IIEF, 3. REVENGE, 4. IIIOTS, 5. MOB FURY, 6.
ENEMY ATTACK.
C. INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL -
t
I
(MOSTLY SYSTEM/PROCESS MA1,FUNCTION)
t1 I . NLICI,I:AR RADIXTION, 2. GAS LEAK. 3. EXPLOSION. 4. FIRE.
Typology o f Rapid advancement in t e c l ~ ~ ~ o l ohas
g y given rise to a multitude of small,
Disasters - 11 mediurli and large i~~duslrics.Colnpared to the earlier small scale non-hazardous
industries, today's scenal-io encompasses a vast group of mega-scale chemical
and petrochemical industries i~singi~lfla~li~liable
products e.g., Naptlla as well as
Natural Gas. Thi15. there are clie~nical,pharmaceuticals, petrocllemicals, paint
and such other hazardous intlustr~es~ncludinglarge Fertiliser Complexes. Power
Plants using natural gas and atomic energy form a distinct category with h1g1~
degree of risk.
1 . 2 MEANING & CONCEPT

"On Site" And "Qff'Site".It will be appropriate, at this point, to introduce two
very vital ter~ns,applicable to Industrial Disasters. An On Site accident is,
primarily restricted to o111y the premises at tlie industrial i~nit. It can be
combatted by tlie industry's own resources and it does not attack any area outside
the prelnlses of the nit. An Off Site Scenario, however, is of far greater
concern. I n that there I S invariably a spread tlie originally On Site Disaster,
outside tlie industry's premises and/or its combat neetls resources fro111oi~tside
since industry's ow11 ei~lierclo not exist 01' are inadequate. A Inore detailed
is given in Table 11.2
relationship between On Sitc and OTf Site sit~latio~ls
'
CONCEPT OF "ON SITE" 6r "OFF SITE"
WHAT CONSTITUTES "ON SITE"?
I'l' IS CENCI'SSARILY SMALI. OR hllNOR. \
ITS CONI'ROL, AND COML3A1' IS WI:l,l, WI I'l-IIN 'I'III: CAPACII'Y 01: TIIli
INLlUS1'RIAL. UNIF1'
I ['I' DOES AFFECT Of< COULI) SI'REAII T O ARBAS. OUTSIDE ITS PI<EMISES.
REP O R T I N G 'ro AUI'I-IORITIESOPTIONAL.
I
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF "OFF SITE" EVENT
OCCURRENCE. MAY RE INI'I'IALLY SMALL,, MAY ESCALATE 1'0 LARGE SIZE ("ON
SITE" TO ..OFF sI.rE")
I BEYOND TI-IC C'ON'IIIOL 01: r i l L INDUSTIIIAI.. UNIT, WI-IERI! 1 7 STANDCD.

I
I INFORMA'SION 1'0 A N D GIJIDANCC I:I<OM A1!Tl IOIII~I'ICSREQUIRED.
I
[)E',PIINDING ON WIND DIRCC'TION AND VOL.UME Of' I)ISASTEIZ SOURCE.
AREA OIJ'rSIDl' 'fI-IE PREMISES INVARIIIABLY AFFECTED
Check Your P~.ogress1
(ii) Checlc your answers wit11 those given at the end.
I) Wl~atare the two major categories of disasters of clisasters and what are
their principle distinguishi~lgfeatures?
2) Bring out the difference between "On Site" and Off Site" situations. lntlustrial ar~rl
'Tech~lologicalDisaster
5 1'
1 . 3 TYPES
L,et LIS first distinguish between Industrial and Technological Disasters. In fact,
tliel-e is no demarcation between them. In a broader sense, an accident or a
I
disaster in an industrial illlit call be ternled as Tndustrial, while all others can be
called as Technological, e.g., war, Nuclear accidents, train and an accidenls, and
the like. Such events, when uccurred ellgulf a large surrounding area in its
f
aftermath. The coricept of On Site and Off Site is easily discernible in these two
Range of Chemical Disasters: A very large nunibel. of Ilazardous clien-iicals are

in use i n Clienlical & Petrochemical industries - ill solid, liquid and gaseous
forms. They can cause the Following types of acciclents:
a) Fire
. b) Toxic Gas Lenk
c) BLEV- (Boiling Liquid Expansioli Vapour Explosion) - This is liighly
dangerous, giving no notice to sudden explosion.
d) E,ry losio t z
e ) C(lscclditlg or Dottzitzo l?[rect - Original primary accident at one type of
chemical reacting with ad-jacent chelnicals and Ilii~s,giving rise to
etiormoi~slycomplex catastropl~e.
Table 11.3: list the cllaracteristics of some of the highly Iiaz~rdouscllenlicals
IMFLAMMABLE AND TOXIC CIIEMICALS

INFLAMMABLE RANGE
1 MET1 IY I, AL,COI IOL - I II(;IlLY VO1,ATILE
BENZENE
XYLENE - META. -ORTI10 & - PARA
ACRY 1,0Nl'IXll,E (ACN)
ETHYLENE Dl-CI ILORIDE
ETHYLENE OXIDE
VlNY L CI-ILORIDE
AMMONIA
CI-ILORINE CONTACT WITI-I WATER
TOXIC RANGE
I. XYLENES, 2. BUTADIENNC. 3. ACIZYLONITRILE. 4. ETHYLENEDI-CfILORIDE.
5 VINYL CHLORIDE. 6 . B7'1-IYLENE OXIDE. 7. AMMONIA, 8. CHLORINE.
9. BENZENE, 10. METI-IY1,ALCOHAL.
LPG - BLEVE [BOILING LIQUID EXPANSION VAPOUK EXPLOSION]
SOME PECULIAR FEATURES
AA4h!ONI,,I - EXP1,OSIVE IN CONTACT WITI-I "Ag & Ilg"
ETIII'LLNEOXIDE- EXPLODES EVEN IN ABSENCE OF "AIK Sr. 0 2 "
ETHl'LENE Ill-C'If1,OIXIDE- IIIGI-II,Y CORROSIVE TO METALS EC STI~I'I,.
ACR YCONITRILE- VOIL,EN1'l'OL,YMERISATION WI'll1 AL,KAIdIES.
I
I I
Typology of Conventional Accidents: General technological Acciderits not involving the
Disasters - I1
hazardous clieniicals are no less serious; only their aftermath is, relatively, of a
lower intensity. Colnpressed Air, Superhealed Steain can rupture the pipes
leading to explosioli or fire. Boiler Burst or bursting of any pressure vessel;
electrical short circuits, structure collapse, drowning in tanks, elc, can constitute
tlie accidents in an Engineering or non-chemical industry. They are usually "On
Site" and manageable by the industry, itself.
-
11.4 CHARACTERISTICS AND CAUSAL
PHENOMENON
The discussion so far wo~tld have conveyed tlie concept of industrial ancl
technological disasters. We can say that while most of the industrial disasters are
of technological nature, only those technological disasters that occur witliiii the
premises of an industrial establishment can be termed industrial disasters as well.
Casual Phenomena
Barring remote possibilities of "syslem malr~~nctio~i" and unlcnown causes, most

of the industrial as technological disasters are a result of inadvertent li~~rnan
error
or mischief or sabotage. The probability of human error always prevails,
whatever safety precautions are taken. 111 the recent decade, however, cases of
large-scale disasters througli arson, sabotage or terrorism are on tlie increase.
The terrorist attack on tlie World Trade Centre in New York on the September
1 1 , 2001 is the most devastating inslance of a cruel and willful man-made
disaster with worldwide impact.
Clieck Your Progress 2

ii) Checlc your answers with those given at the end.
1) Enumerate some of the peculiar characteristic of Iiazardous substances.
2) Which are the main categories of manmade accidents?

-
1ndustri:tl i ~ n d
11.5 WARNING 'Technological Disaster
7'he Accidents/Disastcrs ~ ~ n d e present

r discussion occur without any
walninglnotice or pre-intitnation. The only thing that can possibly be done, in the
event of catastroplie is to warn surrounding population - or those who are likely
to be affected in thc own wind directiori to move away to safety. Electricity
operated Sirens or Air Horns are generally used to issi~ewarning to people of
impending threat. Once the number and location of sirens is determined, it is
imperative to test them at frequent intervals with adequate eclucation to the
public. People for whose benefit tlie siren is sounded must be trained to do
exactly what they are supposed to do, on hearing the siren.
Police and authorised officials are major instruments to warn people under
tlireat conditions. In such events police vehicles with loudspealters are
used. I11 the case o f a Toxic Leak to ensure that police personnel themselves
do not fall victiiii, they are given gas masl\s and the messagc is played on a n
Ampliiicl* system in pre-recorded form. Earlier and clearer the Warning,
n ~ a x i ~ n i l1iuniber
n~ oS personnel arc rendered safer. With today's high
technology, all sirens o f a11 area can bc centrally operated.
11.6 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
l'liere is always a set of Laws, Rules, Regulations, "Do's & Don'ts" for every
activity of. Rules i'or road traffic, liandlitig electricity, doniestic coolcing gas, ctc.
exist. Accidents still Iiecp on happening due to negligence or system f at' I itre.
Appropriate safety precautions and preventive measures are necessary to reduce

tlie risk. This beco~iiesall the more essential because with tlie passing of years,
every industry is subjected to tlie following natural Depreciative Factors :
a) Ageing of Machinery & Process,

b) Growing Complancency arising ~nostly out of automation in modern
Industry,
c) Needless Discontent in tlie e~nployeesleading their minds astray,
d) Less Integrity and Sincerity.
Hence, it is necessary to talce appropriate preventive action on these aspects as an

integral part of the programme to ensure adequate safety precautions.
Although it does not seem possible to rille out industrial or teclinological

disasters totally, it is absolulely essclitial for everyone associalcd with liazardous
industry - from within and witl~out- to train one's mind for endeavouring ut~nost
safety tliroi~gl~lectilres, talks, demonstrations, regular drills, civil clefelice
(against enemy air attack), strict enforcement of safely rules without any
compromise and tight security (against Sabotage).
11.7 TYPICAL EFFECTS
The following are tlie typicaLeffects of industrial and technological disasters:
I. Illjuries and death,

2. Destruction of buildings and other property,
3. Stoppage of production,
4. Costly and time-consuming repairs and replacelnent,
Typology of' 5. Loss of income to the illdi~stryallcl loss of wages to worlters,
Disasters - 11
6. Loss to insurance companies,
7. Experlsive compensations,
8. Adverse publicity, ant1
I
9. Loss of morale.
Checl<Yool-Progress 3
Note: i) Use tlie space given below for your answers.

ii) Checl\:your answers with those given at the end.
1) What is tlie neecl of giving "Wnrning"?
2) What are the Maior ways of achieving "Safety"?
8 LET US SLIM UP
Among all tlie disasters which we are exposed to - the industl.ial and
technological ones, are caused largely tlirougli system failure or inadvertent
human error or tlirougli wilf~rlmischief or saboiage. Whatever be the cause, the
aftermath in each case is sudden and clisastrous.
Manmade disasters are not predictable because they Iizppen sudclenly, without
ally notice - but are mostly avoiclable through vigrous ancl strict safetj
precautions, i.e., througl~ preventive measures lilte Training, Supervision.
Security and Vigilance.
Any original low-key accident, if allowecl to go i~nnoticecl- or detection ofwhich

is very late - generally leads to massive disaster, give11 conducive conditions like
adverse wind direction, large volumc of stoclts and ~nefficientfunctioning of
syste~nin general ancl lack of resollrces, i n particular. Inefiicicnt commi~nication
becolnes very damaging.
There are two types of inciustrial ljisnsters - On Site and Off Site. I n thc case of
former, the occurrence is o f low liey and is within tlie capabilities of the source
of disaster and generally does not attack premises outsicle. The Off Site scenario
. -
is liiglily complex wliere tlie origirial On Site accident goes out of control of tlie Industrial and
source, it attacks population and property of the outside premises and is required Tcclinological Disaster
to be handled by outside authorities so designated. Large number of resources
volunteers are required to be called upon for assistance in the areas of Police,
Medical, Fire Fighting, Evacuation, etc.
1 . 9 KEY WORDS
Hazardous Industry: An industry using raw materials or processes which could
lead to clisastrous accidents.
Teci~~~ological Disasters: The accidents which occur in industry sing moclern

technology and generally lead to great lossldaniage to property, deatlili~ijuryto
own employees andlor outside population. l:Iiese disasters also can occur on
Road, Rails, Ships, Pipelilies in situations where modern technological machines
or processes are in use or are being transported.
On Site: These two words apply to any occurrence and action plan to handle it,
within and by tlie source of accidents1 clisaster.
Off Site: A I I occurrence

~ - which may be caused by any On Site incidence -
\vhicli attack population1 premises1 area outside any indiviclual industrylsource of
disaster.
Toxic Lcak: U~ico~itrollecl

leakage and eventi~alspread of a liazarclous gas, which
can be annoying or i~ijuriousor fatal. Some of the gases - like tlie Methyl I i so
Cynate in Bhopal Gas Tragedy can leave far reaching disabilities among
s~~rvivors.
BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expansion Vapour Explosion: A long, LI~-noticecl

lcakage of a boiling liquid or an inflarnmnble gas and its eventl~alspread in
atmosphere leads to "instantaneous" explosion giving no notice for "safety" in the
afi'ected arca.
1 11 0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Discrste.r Reliqf : Toi4v1.d~~

Green, Stephen,' 1977. I~~tcrncllio~iul A Aesl~onsivc
Slystcm; McGraw I-lill Book Company, New York.
Ross, Simon, 1987, Huz~rrdGeogrcply; Longmans, U.IC.
Sliarma, Vinocl K., 1995, Dis~1,ster&lunc~getuent;Indian Institute of Public
Administration, New Delhi.
Sm iih, [Ceiili, 1 996, E~~viroln~le~i/u/ (Seconcl Ed ition), Asscs.si~igRisk
Ifuz~ll.~ls.
c w d R e h ~ c i ~Di,rclster.s;
g Routledge, London.
Turner, Barry A. and Nick, F. Pitlgeon, 1997, &l~m-~nudcDisustws,
B~ltterworth-l-Ieinemann,Oxford.
11.1 1 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS '
EXERCISES
1 ) Y O L Ianswer
~ slioultl include Llie following points:
a There are two broad categories of Disasters namely, ~iaturalDisasters
ancl Man-macle Disaster, Natural disasters are so~netimesPreclictable but
Not voidab able, whereas the Man-made ones are Avoidable but Not
Predictable. 29
I
UNIT 82 EPIDEMICS
Structure
Ob-jectives
Introcluction
Meaning and Types
Characteristics and Causes
Vulner.ability
Sai'ety Measures
Effects
I,ct Us Sum Up
Key Words
lieferenccs
12.0 OBJECTIVES
Alter stuclying tliis Unit, you should be able to:
9 define epidemics
explain an epidemic situation ancl describe the types of epidemics
e list tlie cause and characteristics ol'an epidemic
outline tlic sal'cly measures k ~ control
r and management ol' epidemics
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Epidemics ol' water and food borne diseases me common and occur Srom time to
time. Measles and influenza are other diseases that generally show marltcd
seasonal and anni~alvariations i n incidence. Even lion-commi~nic~ble diseases
like cancer, goitcr, bli~i~i~icss,
heart diseases, ant1 mental siclcncss are also
accli~iringepidemic proportions.
Epidemics often occur in Ilic community. They liappcn in diSf'erent ways but
during disasters tlicre are gseater chances of their occun'ence. It rcquires to
follow a reasonably systematic approach in order to manage them. It is
nccessaly to follow an orderly scqucnce for eSfective man:lgemcnt and control of
an epidemic. I lowevcr, the approach has to be disease specific and proceclures
may vary according to locrll circumstances aboi~ttlie disease, previous levels of
occurrence, ancl population at risk. It becomes essential to find tlie cause of tlie
epidemic and plan to institute measilrcs to control by attacking the sourcc,
interrupting transmission ancl protecting susceptible population. In tliis Unit, you
wou Id learn what constitutes an epidemic, types of epidemics, their causes and
tlie safety measures required during epidemics.
12.2 MEANING & TYPES
Let 11s co~isiderwhat constitutes an epidemic. Epidemic is a derivation ol' two

Greek words epic (i~pon/arnong) and demos (people). It is l.he 'i~nusual'
occurrence in a community or region of a disease specific 11ealtl.1 related events
"clearly in excess" of the "expected occurrence". Thus, any clisease, wl~icli
occurs in numbers more than the expected occurrence, constiti~tesan epidemic.
It includes heart diseases, or eve11 psyclioso~~iatico/isonier,s. I-Iealth afl'ecting
lifestyle like smoking, drug adcliction and Iiealth related events like accitlenls
also fall into tlie category of epidelnics. But during clisasters
. ",
-we y e Inore
concerned about the epicle~nicsof con~mi~nicable diy@ases:.'-
Typology of Having learnt that epidemic is the occtrrrence of a particular disease in
Disi~sters- 11
i~nexpected numbers, you must be thinlting that how to define the 'expected
occurrence'. There is no clesignated standard number for the expected occurrence
of a disease. It varies from place to place, and region to region. A few hundred
cases of a particular disease at one place can be called as the expected occurrence
of the disease in that area, if this disease is common there. On the contrary
where the disease is non-existent. the expected occurrence sl~allbe zero and in
this case even a single case of that disease will be termed as epidemic. So the
basis of defining an epidemic is the definirig of usual prevalence of tlie disease in
that area and this usual prevalence is callcd enc/enliciol.
Let us take the example ofs~nallpox. Twentyfive years ago, small pox was quite
common in our country. It was tlii~san endemic diseasc. Now it has been
eradicated 110tonly from the country but the world for Ihal matter. It is no more
an endemic diseasc. The expected ci.&urrence of small pox is zero. A single
case of smallpox will, therefore, be clearly in excess of the expccted occurrence
and hence would be rlow considered as an epiclemic of smallpox. So a disease,
which was endemic once, may cease to be so and a single case may be talten as
an epiden~ic.
How disease occurs?
In order to understand tlie occurrence of diseases in Inore than the expected

~iumberand why there are greater chances of' spreacl of an epidenlic during a
disaster we need to i~nderstandhow diseases occur.
Diseases occur as a result ol' interaction between an agent, a liost and the
environment. Under normal conditions, there is a stage ol' equil ibriium among
.
these but in i~nfavourableconditions Ihis eq~~ilibrium
gets disturbecl and diseases
occur in human body.
Let us understand the terms liost and environmenl before we learn about causes
and characteristics of an epidemic.
Agent A disease 'agent' is defined as a substance living or

non-living the excessive presence or relative lack of
which may initiate the disease process in man. Example
of living agents are : bacteria, viruses. firngi and
protozoan whereas nonliving agents are nvtrients,
chemical substances and physical forces such as heat,
cold and pressure.
L
'
Host Host is the organism in which diseases occur and for us
man is considered as host for all practical purposcs. A
number of host factors SLICII as age, sex, nutritional
status and socio-economic factors are responsible for
occurrence of diseases. In epidelniological terms, man
is also defined as tlie 'soil' and disease agent as 'seed'.
Environment : Environment is a set of conditions under which human

beings live and can be defined as "all that which is
external to individual human host living 01-non-living
and with which he is in constant interaction". This
includes all of man's external si~rroundingssi~clias, air,
, waler and sanilatiou.
Types of Epitlcmics
As already mcn~io~ied, epidemics generally follow a pattern depeliding on tlie

gcog~.npliicaland environmental conditions. the distl.ibution and characteristics of
11ic host population. ancl tlicit. socio-cultural heliaviour. If there is no intel-venliori
or change in these conditons, those epide~ilics tcnd to repeat tliemsel\~es.
-.
I lierefore, laio\vlcdgc about \iruiclus types of epidemics arid tlie conditions ~ ~ n d e l .
wllicli they occur can be of help in nianagi~igthem.
l'lic various tj,pes of epidemics Ilia1 normall!, occur arc descrihecl give11below:
i) Colriniol~Sourcc Epitlernics
. .
71'liesc cpiclemics orlg~nate a sirigle source of infection or tlie diseasc
procl~~cing agent, l'licrc arc two types of comn~onsource cpidc~iiics:
In tliis type ol'epideniic tlie cliscasc agent respo~isiblefor spread of diseases is

esposeecl to susccptible pop~~lation at one point of time :~ncl only once. A very
good example of this type of epidemic is occurrellce of food poisorii~igdue to
consuriiption ofconl.ariiinated food ill a feast. In lliis type of epideniic tlierc is
a sudden rise oi'cascs wliicli declirie equally fast.
or riiultiple esposore epidemics

b) Col~tirir~oi~s
In this typc of epicleniic, tlie soluce of inl'eclio~i is C O I ~ ~ ~ I ~ L:11idI ~ Ls~lcli

IS
epideniics will not cease to exist ~~lilcss [lie soulrc is removed. A \vet1 with
contaliiinntcd water becollies a ~ . c g u l asource
~ of infectioli to the peoplc using
il ancl tlie cpitlcniic may continue ~11itiltlie water is treated and niatle safe.
Si~iiilnrlya cook who is a cliscnse carrier may hcep on i~if'cclingtlie diners in
tlie restauralit till lie is trcatecl and made no~i-infectious.
i i ) P~.opi~gatetl
Epitlenlics
A propag:itccl cpidcniic is generally ol' infectious origin and results from

persoli tc) person trti~istnissi~llof' disease agents. 'I'lie epide~iiicslio\vs a
gradual rise arid tapers clown slowly ovcr a period of ti~iic. Transmissioti
continues ~lntiltlierc are no s~~sceptible individuals. Such epide~iiicsare
morc liltcly wliere large number of susccptible inclividuals gather as in fairs
and festivals.
iii) Seasonal Epidcnlics
Certain diseases such as influenza ant1 p~ieu~iionia are more comnion during
winter scason where as diarrolioca cliscases are more during sumnier ant1
rainy seasons. The cpidelnics wliicli occur i l l pnrticular season are I~IIO\VII as
sesonal epidemics.
iv) Cyclical Epidemics
Sonic epitlcmics tend to occur in cycles wliicli niay repeat over a periotl o r
time \vIiicI~~iiaybe days, weelo, 1ii0111lisor years. An exa~iil~le of tliis typc
o f epidemic is rneaslcs epideniic wliicli tc~iclsto occur in a cyclc oi.2-3 years.
l'ypology of (v) Epidemic of Non-communicable Diseases
Disasters - Il
With the advances in science and teclinology, the changing life styles havc
led to a living pattern which is sedentary and aflluent with little pliysical
activity. This has resulted in a marlced rise in diseases like hype~-tension,
heart diseases, diabetcs and mental diseases. I h e ~~o~~-co~nrnunicabIe
diseases have acquired epidemic proportions in recent times.
Check Your Progress Exel-cise 1
Note: i) Use the space below for your answer.

ii) Clieclc yoilr answer with those given at the end ofthe Unit.
1) Fill in the blanlcs,

a) Occurrence o r a disease in n ~ ~ m b c rmore
s than expected is called
...............................
b) Usual occurrence of a diseases in a c o r n ~ ~ ~ ~throughout
~nity is called
c) Diseases o c c ~ as
~ sn result o r interaction between .............................and
....................
2) Ticlc the most suitable or cosrect answer.
i) Epidemic is defined as occurrence of a disease.
a) In lalge number
b) In small number
c) JII un~~sually
large 11~11nber
ii) Which of the following diseases car1 cause epidemic
a) Communicable
b) Non-communicable
c) Both of the above
iii) A disease agent which is responsible Tor causing a disease is
a) micro-organis~nsuch as bacteria and viruses
b) c11e111icalsubstance and physical forces
C) all of the above
12.3 CHARACTERISTICS AND CAIJSES
By now you know what is an epidemic and its various types. All epidemics have
the following conilnoli features:
i) An ~~nexpected n ~ ~ m bof
e rcases of particular disease occur at a particular
poi[? of time affecting large segment of population.
ii) Generally confined to a definite populatio~~01- geographical area and
hence geographic patterns provide 11s importa~~tsources of clues about
the causes of diseases.
iii) Usually have a common source of infection. For containmelit of
epidemics, it is important to identify the source of infection so that the
appropfiate measures can be adopted to eliminate the common source of
a infection in order to prevent further spread of epiclemic. -
i\ ) Epiclemics generally tend to follo\v a patter-n and repeat periotlically Epidemics
\vIicn the contlitions are favourable again.
\I) Tlic way an epicle~iiicpresents itself i n tlie co~nmunitydcpends upon tlie
distribution and cliaracter,istics of people living in that area, their social
pattern, their cultural beliaviour and tlie various environmental factors.
Causes:
Earlier you learnt that tlie agent, hoht and cnvironment are in constanl interaction
and tliat a disease is caused by disturbance of equilibrium between agent, liost
ancI cnvironment. Tlie disease assumes cpidcmiological proportions wlien tlie
ellv~ronmentalcond~t~orls arc favourable for tlie clisease agent and i~nfavourable
conditions exist Sol. nian. Yo11 I I I L I Shave
~ observed tlisaslers lil\c wars, fuminc,
floocls and cal-thquakes arc followed by epidemics of infcctioub diseases. Why
does this Iiappeti'? It happens because after ilie disaster, tlie fa\/ourahle
conditions for occurrence of a n epidemic sets in. 'fliere is no specific or a
particular cause \vhicIi is responsible for occurrence or epidemic but various
I'acto15 complemcnling and supplcnienting each otliel- are ~esponsible for
occul.rence of epidemics. Tlic tollowing factors I'avour occurrence of cpidernics
alicr disasters.
lichabilitation operations tliat rollow a disastcr arc i~suallybet up in crowclcd

telnpol-ary camps 01. settlcmc~its.Provision ofsilfe clri~llcingwater, sanitation
ant1 other basic \ervices oftun lack at these places. This results in a rise in
tlic incidence of inScctious diseases like dyse~itery, measles, \vhooping
cough, t~~bc~.culosis.scnbbics ant1 other slcin cliseases.
ii) Pre-existent Diseases in l l ~ ePopulation
The cliseascs alreacly occurring in the arca are most likcly to enicrgc as
ep~demicswlien tlie area is S ~ ~ L I C I Cby ;1 disaster, An epidemic oTnon-csistc~ii
disease in tliat nren is i~nlikelyto be seen after sucl~disasters.
iii) Ecological Cli;~nges
During natural disaster. lilie tloods and cyclones, ecological changes occur. It
causes increase In the breeding sites for mosquitoes. This results in :ui
increase in tlie cases of malaria. Open clefecaiing and decay ancl
decompos~tionof orguiic ~iinterial inc~.easesinsect breeding and tlie~xby
increases tlie transmission of diseascs lilie colijunctivilis, iliarrlioea,
dysentery, enterov~rusinfections, and parasitic diseases.
iv) Resistance Potential of the I-Iost
'The n ~ ~ t r ~ t i o and
n a l irn~iii~~~isation
status of tlie liost population determines to
3 large extent its si~sceptibililyto commi~nical~le clisease. Children with poor
nutrition are more ~ilcelyto get infected with co~nnlunicabledisease and tlie
incidence of measles, whooping cougli, diptheria ancl tuberculosis is lilcely to
be higher ii'tliey are not immi~nisedcarlier.
V) ~ a ~ i i to
a ~Public
e Utility and 1ntel.ruption of Public Health Services
Public i~lilityservices lilir water supply and sewage if damaged may cause
large scale contarnination and subsequent introduction of diseases in the.
pol~ulation. Interri~ptionot' ongoing healtli programmes in the area may also
lcad to resurgence of diseases.
Typology of
Disasters - I 1
Nole: i ) Use the space below l'or your answer.

i i ) Checlc your answer with tliosc given at tlie end of the Unit.
1) Which of the Sollo~iiing is true or Salse:

a) t':pidcmics Iinvc usually common source of infection.
for occurrence uf
b) After tlie natural clisastcrs the conclitions are S~~vourablc
an cpiclemic.
C) 01' L; cliseasc in largc numbel- Ili~~oughout
Occi~rre~ice tlic year i n a
co~n~nunity
is called epidemic.
cl) For every epidcmic 111c1.eis a definite cause.
c) Ecological clla~lgesduring natural disasters can initiate are epidemic of
cornmi~~~icahlecliseascs.
2 ) 1:ill in the blnnl;s
a) Epidemics are usually co~llinedto ;I dcfined .................................
b) Duri~igclisasters. .................. diseases are liliely to present as epidenlics
c) Cliildrcn \\itli pour ~ : u t r ~ t i oare ~ i Inore lilccly to get inl'cctcd with
................... sucll us ............... iftllcy are ~ i o it ~ i i r n i ~ ~ ~carliel-.
ized
12.4 VULNERABILITY
It is a colnrnon experience that some inclivicluals l~avehealth problems 01.
diseases morc frequently than thc oihcrs and that all indivicluals in a co~nmunity
do not have equal chance of acquiring a clisease; some have morc and some have
less. Depencl~ngi~pollthe probability 01' o c c u ~ ~ c n col'c discnscs the population
can be grouped into low risk, rnoderatc 1.isli allcl l~iglirisl, groups. Tllc same is
also applicable during disasters ancl epidel~iics.
The infants, poorly nourished cliilclrcn and elclerly pcoplc are morc vulnerable to
acquire infectious diseases during epideniics and disasters. Similarly. womeii in
the reproductive age group, specially pregnant and lactating wolnen, iue rnore
prone to get diseases. Persons living in 111ralnteas ancl slums ant1 those living in
overcrowded s i t ~ ~ a t i o are
~ i s more vul~lerableas comph~red to those living in
cleaner liouses in i~rbanareas. Poor environmental sanitation, inaccessibility to
safe drinking water and inclustrial pollution also contribute towarcls vulnerability
to diseases. Various socio-ci~lturalIhctors, such as, hygienc, literacy, income,
social habits, customs, and lifestyles cletcrmine thc vulnerability of population to
disease. The susceptible indivicluals wllo are more prone to acquire tlie
infections, constitute vul~ierablegroups ill the comn~irnities.
12.5 SAFETY MEASURES

Epiden~icsarfect large number of persons in a community wlicn favourable
conditions are present for the spreacl of an epiclcmic. If one i~ndcl-standsthe basic
principles of epidemiology, these epidcmics can be prevented by adopting
certain safety measures.
Let us see what those precautions 01.safety measures arc:
By liaving a knowledge about the freyiiency and dist~.ibutionof healtll

of diseases
problems, clues are obtai~ied which promote ~~nde~.stallciing
leading to .timely and appropriate intervention for prevention. Early warning
011 the basis of the available data helps in reducing tlie severity of an
epidemic. By iml~rovingthe sanitary conditions, the spread of disease can be
slowed or even l-ralted. Proper cleanliness measures, proper disposal of solid
waste and liqi~idwaste will help in decreasing the breeding of llies and
~nosquitoes.
ii) Improvenle~ilof Inimunity of Host
By i ~ n p r o v i ~tl-re
~ gnutritional status ancl by mass vaccination programmes, the
resistance of the individuals can be increased i.hereby checking the spreacl o f
an epidemic.
iii) Comnlunity Health Etlucation
Comnlunity I-1caltI-r Education can l-rclp to halt epidemics by alerting

individuals Lo thc signs and symptoms oi' cliseases and stressing Ihe
i~npnrtanceof reporting tl-re cases to medical authorities. It is important to
I
teach the methocls that can be used to stop the spread of communicnble
cl iseases.
iv) Traini~ig
Training at different levels in emergency preparedness ant1 rcsponse to

epidcn-rics can prove to be an effective safety measure. This should bcgin at
the school and community levels. Non-government organization can play a
very ilsefi~lrole in the effort.
12.6 EFFECTS
Direct Effccts of Epidc~~lics
Epiclemics usually affect large number of' inclivitluals and can lcad to
complications incli~dingdisabilities and death.
There is always a possibility of existence of sufficient number of disease carricrs
who may favour the resurgence and spread of disease.
On seeing the sufferings and deaths especial ly with in close relatives

psycl-rological effccts al'e also coo-rmon during epidemics.
Indirect Effects of Etlpitlemics
i) Social and political disruption due to tension and law and order problems.
ii) Economic loss arising from lack of strength of cultivate.
...
111) Scarcity of clean food and water leading to malnutrition ant1 starvation.
iv) Worsening bf alreacly poor sanitary conditions resulting in aggraSldtion of
Epicle~nicsituations also worsen the already ovel-burdened health services, as the

scarce available resources have to be diverted for controlli~~g
and management of
epidemics.
Typology of Check ?dour Progress Exercise 3
Oisi~stevs- 11
Note: i) Use the space below for your answer.

ii) C:lieck your answer wit11 those given at the end o f t h e Unit.
1) List the factors wliich miilie individuals more vulnerable to infectious

diseases.
2) List three safety measures for dealing with epidemics.
12.7 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, you have learnt that a disease is causcd by interaction ofagcnt, host
and environment. You also learnt what is ari cpiclemic and what are tlie various
types of epidemics. Subsequently, causes and cliaracterislics of epiclc~nicswere
described. Factors resl~onsiblefor vulnerability of individuals to diseases and
epideni~icswere explained. Finally you learnt about lhc various safety measures
\vliicli can be adopted to avoid epidemics arid tlie aclvcrse erSccts which an
epidemic will cause.
12.8 KEY.WORDS
Co~nmunicabledisease : A disease capable of passing on fi-om one person

to anol.lier ~ I I L I S spreading fast in tlie al'fected
comni~~nity
Endemicity A condition or illness that is common among tlie
people there.
Epidemiology 'The stirdy of the occurrence of diseases in l i ~ ~ m a n
pop~~lations;tlie science ofepidemics.
Psyclioso~natic Physical disorder or illness caused or inlluenced
by tlie persons emotional conditions.
Text Book of Preventive & Socinl Medicir~e,I<. Park, M/s. Banarsidas Bllanot,
Epidemics
~
Jabalpus.
Epidenziology : Prir?ciples ct; iML.thods, Macmolian B . ancl T.F. Pugh, Little
Brown. Boston.
An I17trod~1ctiori Anderson M . Maclni l Ian, London.
to E~~icl'criiiology,
of Epi~ienziology,for District Hecrlth Mnr7ugemcr7f,WHO, Geneva.
Mc~i~uul

EXERCISES
Check Your ~ ; . o ~ r e1s s
1) Your answers should include the followillg points:

epidemic
endemicity
agent, a host environment
2) i) a
ii) c
iii) c
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1 ) Your answer should include tlie following points

a) true
b) true
C) false
d ) true
e) true
2) a) Population
b) Commi~nicable
c) Communicable, diseases, ti~berculosis
Cfleclc Your Progl-ess Exercise 3
1 ) YOLII-
answer should include the following points
Poorly nourished children, elderly people, women in tlie reproductive
age group, pregnant and lactating women, people living in rural areas
and slums and those living ill overcrowded communities are vulnerable
to epidemics.
Poor environ~i~ental sanitation, inaccessibility to safe drinking water and
industrial poll~itionalso contribute towards vulnerability to infectious
deseases.
2) Yoilr answer shoulcl include following points

e I'redictability
Improve~ne~lt
of i~nmu~lity
o f liost
Community Health Edi~cation
UNIT 13 PLANNING
Structure
I 3.0 Objectives
13.1 Ir~troduction
I
13.2 Planning in the Context of Disaster Preparedness: Meaning and
I
Concept
13.3 Sl~ort-termand Long-term Planning
I 13.4 Role of Planner
I
13.5 Let Us Sum Up
13.6 Key Words
I
13.7 Refererices and Further Readings
\ 13.8 Answers To Check Your Progress Exercises
13.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you sl~ouldbe able to :

I
a describe the ~neaningand concept of planliing in the context of disaster
1
preparedness;
differentiate between short-tern~and long-term planning; and
a discuss the role of a planner in the process of preparing for disasters.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The word 'planning' generally covers two entirely different approaches in

the context of disasters. One is that of land-use or pllysical planning. It
involves the regulation of the developmelit process in urban and rural areas by
means such as i~nposil~g limits on building heights and the use of land, the
amount of land that can be built upon, etc. In urban areas that are declared
to be 'development areas', laws and development regulations are accepted
and are generally recognized as being helpful. However, outside the urban
areas and especially in tlie rural flood plains, zoning and planning law
proves difficult to enforce. If it does exist, it is mostly in the form of positive
\
direction, rather tlian precise law, setting out 'what ought to be'. In such cases,
planni~igis vely careful because it raises awareness and sets certain standards.
I
The other form of planning relates to advocacy planning. It relates to policies
and proposals. In this approach, the pla~iniligteam acts as catalytic agents,
presenting choices to various organizations like local self-goveniment, Non-
Gover~~mentalOrganizations (NGOs), and community based organizations,
while seeking support for that approach which seems to bring most benefits to a
wide range of beneficiaries at a cost that is affordable.
Planning is advantageous because it results in clear allocation of responsibilities

and consequently ilnproves coordination between agencies. Accordingly, the
planning process should never be regarded as one in which some specialist
or team acts in isolation. The planning process essentially needs to be
action-oriented, to involve a wide range of people and organizatior~sand to
produce an end result which has the agreement and support of all those
involved in the colnmon objective of dealing with the disasters in tlieir areas of
responsibility.
Essentials of
Disaster
13.2 PLANNING IN THE CONTEXT OF DISASTER
Preparedriess PREPAREDNESS: NIEANING AND CONCEPT
The purpose of planning is to anticipate future situations and req~~ircments
and to make provision for the same. This will cnsure the application of
effective and co-ordinatcd co~~nter-measures.1'11is is a L I S ~ F L clefi~iition
II of
planning for disaster management officials because it indicates the wide
nature of an requirements for counter-disaster planning. In other worcls,
Planning is not confined merely to preparedness for and response to specific
disaster events. It should cater, as far as possible, for all stages of the disastel
cycle from advance preparation to relief and rehabilitation. Therefore,
requirements for planning involve a considerable rangc ofactivitics dictating
a flexibility of approach.
National Developmelit
Many countries including India gear national development to a series of time-

period plans; for example, Five Ycar Plans. This Itind ol' a system provides
considerable flexibility for adjustment to ~~nschcduled or ~inexpcctcd events,
like disaster situations. 'TIILIS, many nations include disaster planning aspects
in their overall planning cycles. This approach of incorporating disaster
mitigation planning into the developmental planning process has been found to
be cost-effective and result oriented.
'These days, management of the environment satcs high in national

considerations. Since many disaster events are enviorn~ncntallyrelated, tlicre
is a stlong case for linking disaster Lo environment, as far as national
planning is concerned. Conseq~~ently,a key planning point is that wherever
appropriate, disaster planning is linked to the dcvclopmcnt and environmeni
considerations in the national plan.
Preventioii
The possible range of prevenlion measures is quite large because of the nature
of different disasters. At one end of the prevention range, the construction of
flood control structures c o ~ ~ linvolve
d extensive effort and very large a~nounts
of money. At the other encl of the prevention range, controlled burning in
forest areas, prior to a high risk season, in order or prevent big fires fro111starting
comes closer to mitigation, or even preparedness.
Planning for these different contingencics, therefore tends to fail into different
categories. For example, a complcx and costly flood pl.evention system
could reasonably be expectccl to come within the category of national
development, while the case of controlled burning w o ~ ~ l cbe l more liltely to
fall within a specific annual disaster management programlue, which could
also be usefully included in a disaster prepa~~ednesslresponse programme.
Mitigation
If the term mitigation, or preventionlmitigation is taken as mainly including

structural and non-structural measures designed to reducc the effects of
disaster when they occur, it woulcl seem appropriate for such measures to be
applied as a series of programmes or regulations, rather than as plans. For
instance, aspects S L I C as
~ ~ building codes, land use regulations and sarety codes
for transpo~-tsystems would fit more appropriately into a programme or
regulation category. However, as with measures of prcvention, it would also be
reasonable to include appropriate references in disaster preparednesslresponse
plans. For example, the faci that wind-resistant factors had been built inlo
domestic houses would~havesome bearing on disaster response managment
decisions relating lo possible evacuation or temporary movement to safe
havens.
Planning
The combined categories of preparedness and response generally constitute the

]nost widely used basis for counter-disaster plans especially those which might
I
be called Action Plans. This is because so much of the effectiveness of response
depends on good preparedness. In some cases, the preparedness/response plan
may be called a national or state disaster response plan, as distinct from a
separate plan designed to deal with recovery.
Recovery
There are various planning options that can be used for recovery. Sometimes, a
separate plan is utilized, so that two main plans exist, a disaster response plan
and a disaster recovery plan. However, in some cases the agencies prefer to
take a more flexible approach and deal with recovery through arrangements
which, depending on circumstances, are specific to each disaster event.
The planning process usually involves consideration of a wide range of disaster-

related matters in order to decide what is eventually i~icludedin the plan.
However, not all aspects will be related to all levels of plans. Neither will all
aspects assume equal importance in different plans.
Planning guidance cuts across the projects of private developers and the
fi~llctionsof government agencies. Plan~ling related activities comn~and
popular support when they are seen to be implementing a good public
i~iformationpolicy to be directed towards achieving pi~blic good and people's
access to amenities and services. A high level of public consultatio~iand
trarlspare~lcywill ensure public support. This will ensure tl1at.the plans wl~ich
~Aeduce vulnerability to natural disasters co~nmandpublic confidence and
suppol~t.
13.3 SHORT-TE AND LONG-TERM PLANNING

Mitigation is defined as "measures aimed at reducing the impact of a natural
or man-made disaster on a nation or community". The basic assu~nption is
that, wllilst it may be possible to prevent some disaster effects, other effects
will persist. The concept of mitigation recognizes this and maintains that
the application of certain measures call moderate or reduce disaster effects.
%
An effective approach to reducing risks and acl~ievirigdisaster mitigation has
long-term and short-term goals. Long-term goals are either an integral part
4
of the national/regionaI/local disaster management plan or are set after a major
disaster with a view that, should a similar disaster strike again, tlie population
will be well-prepared and able to cope with it. Long-term planning,
therefor< i~rvolvesmeasures for prevention, mitigation and rehabilitation.
Prevention measures are those that are aimed at impeding the occurrence
of a disaster even though it may not be possible to avoid the event that creates
the hazard. Construction of a dam or embankment to control floods arising from
heavy rains is an example of a preventive measure. Another example is the
control led burnilig - off in a bushfire-prone area.
t
'The nature of disaster prevention is such that the measures involved, usually
need to be implemented from sen;or levels of government. For example, the
population of a single community or area is unlikely to be able to institute a
major flood-prevention project. 'Sometimes, Legislation is also resorted to,
to i~nplement measures of prevention, like in case of mandatory building
codes.
Essentials of Many factors whicli apply .to prevention also apply to mitigation. Mitigation
Disaster can be introdi~ced within the three diversc contexts of reconstruc~ion, new
Preparedness investment and the existing environment. Each presents clifferent
opportunities to introduce safety measures. Mitigation lneasllres are complex
and interdependent, and they involve widespread responsibility. 'They are
effective if safety measures are spread through a wide diversity o f
integrated activities.
Simple examples of mitigation measures are :
1) adoption of land-use planning and development controls to restrict the

activities in high risk areas;
2) econon9ic diversification to allow losses in one sector to be offset b i
increased o ~ ~ t pi ni ~other
t sectors;
3) changing crop cycles so that crops mature and are harvested before the onset
of the disaster season; and
4) retrofitting houses to withstand cyclones and eartliqualces
(reconstruction and rehabilitation).
Long-term planning proposals generally face a lot of opposition, at least in the

initial stages. These may be a long-standing acceptance of disaster risks by
governments and communities, who may feel that traditional measul.es,
talten over many years, are adequate. Also, Long-ten11 measures tend to be
ruled out, perhaps without a detailed analysis of cost-benefit and otlier factors.
Higher priorities given to other national programmes sometimes total ly
preclude the consideration of disaster preventive measures. Considerations
affecting disaster prevention and mitigation may be given limited priority in
national develpment plans. So disaster-related measures do not receive adequate
or appropriate attention in national planning.
During its initial period of' impleme~itation, a mitigation or prevention-

related strategy needs recognition and leadership from a high governmental
and city management level, if it is to be sustained through a networlc of
implementing agencies. A long-term programme also includes periodic
reviews and renewals of policy statements, professionals engaged in mitigation
work and public education programnles. In a long-term plan, a major objective
is to involve all sectors of society in sonle degree in contributing to thc
formulation of appropriate mitigation ~neasures,and in the execution of work
wliere possible. Some sectors will be involvecl in policy forniulation at the
national level, others at the level of urban neighbousl~ood and local
com~i~unitiesknown to be at high risk.
Long-term planning, therefore, involves multiple agencies, each agency

doing some specific work ]elated to reclucing risk in tlieil- area of concern.
Such goals are incorporated into the agency's current priority 1ist.Short-term
planning, on the other hand, consists of measures to deal with disaster
situations i~nmediatelyat hand. These measures may be initiated either
i~n~nediatelyafter a disaster strikes (1-eactionary) or precluding a disaster
situation (proactive).
Reactionary measures are tllose taken immediately after a disaster strikes, for-
example, after an earthquake. In this case, the planning process is triggered
off once the occurrence of the tragedy is known. I~n~nediate
measures initiated
in such cases are:
I
I i
1 i) provision of temporary shelters for the affected,
ii) ensuring adequate supply of safe water food and medicines,
i ii) provision of sanitary facilities, and
iv) ~naintenanceof law and order
For this purpose, a single agency is formed, though Iyany other bodies may Planning
also bc involved in tlie relief work. 'The central agency does the worlc of
determining priorities, coordinating tlie relicr and rescue operations,
directing [lie supplies, etc. The agency worlts either according to an existing
government plan 01. through an emergency plan f'orm~~latccl for the
occasion.
'The Short-tcrm post-disaster planning process c o n t i n ~ ~ etill

s such a time as
some seniblal~ce of normalcy is restored i n tlie area - normally till the services
are fi~nctional. After that, the long-term rehabilitation and reconstruction \work
starts.
Proactive short-term planning is initiated when there is a warning issued tliat a

disaster is about to strike. For example, modern technology has made it possible
to track tlie pat11 of cyclones so that warnings can be issued well in advance
to the residents of the area wliere tliey are likely to strilte. Once the warning
has been issued, tlie pro-active planning mechanism swings into action and
cffol-ts are launched to evacuate people out of harm's way. They are
transferred to temporary storm shelters where tliey stay till the danger is
past. Evacuation is also done when there is n danger of floocls. I'erioclic
inspectio11 ancl monitoring, e.g., checking of embanlcments for. breacl~esprior to
1:lie onset of monsoons a~icl drills for officials in simulated emergency
situations are al 1 a part o r tlie short-tet+rnplanning strategy.
Disasters can be met with effectivcly only if a judicious combination of

long-term and short-term planning is adopted. While tlic results of short-term
planning are liiore apparent and raster, tlie ~~ltilnate
reduction in clamapes liom
I disasters is achieved only through long-term planning.
' Checl<Yoirr PI-ogress1
Notc: i) Use the space given below for Y O L I ~~nswers.

~
ii) C'hecli Y O L Ianswers
~ with those given at thc encl of llie unit.
1) Differentiate between short-tertii and long-tern1 planning.
2) Give simple examples of mitigation measures.

Essentials of
Disaster
13.4 ROLE OF PLANNER
Preparedness
It is very important for the plallner, throughout the planliing process to keep
certain critical points in consideratioo. Being a person trained in a wide range
abilities ranging from admiliistrative procednres to developme~italperspectives?
he or she occupies a ~lniqueposition a s being able to perceive, from various
stanclpoints, conflicting issues that might arise from time to time. SuCl1a slcill
comes in most handy to settle the c o n t e ~ ~ t i of
o ~differing
~s professionals ancl for.
varied interest groups..
T l ~ eplanner has to take on the responsibility of keeping the approved a i ~ nof

the plan in clear focus. Needless to say, the plan has to be evolvecl in I.esponsc to
the user needs and sI10i11d have the m a s i r n ~ r ~support
n base in the co~nmunity.
The plan should also have forlnai approval of Government or any a~~thority
designated on its behalf.
The planning process is a co-opel.ative process. There slio~~ld always bc f ~ ~ l l

a
consultation with all concerned, particularly to ensure that ~nutualagrccn~ent is
reached on responsibilities designated within the plan. This col~sultative
process is best carried out, fro111 a practical as well as psychological
viewpoint, by the plan~~ersgoing to see tlie lcey i~ldividuals ancl agencies
concerned, mid not vice-versa.
For best success, the planner has t o ensure transparency at every stagc and
periodic progress reports should be ~iiadepublic inclicali~~g
the physical and
fina~~cial
targets and achievements.
The planning process, arid the plan ilself, should include provision for legal
authorization, ~ I I L I S malting the plan a lawfill instrument of tlie goven~inent.It is
generally reco~nmendecl tllat Illis should happen whether or not disaster
leg.islatio11exists.
Obviously, the respo~isibility carried by disaster Ins11agement planners is an

onerous one. If .the planners get tlie plan wrong, then the repercussions can be
very severe and widespread, possibly involving tlie loss of niany lives. On the
other hand, accurate and ~ i i e t i c ~ ~planning
l o ~ ~ s not only produces an effective
'
plan, it also provides tlie rocus for successC~~l overall disaster management.
13.5 LET US SUM UP
Planning is one of the most efficient tools available to deal with disasters.
Plallning can be applied in the physical aspecls like land-use and infrnstructu~.e
as well as.in its advocacy form, wllicll il1volves policies and proposals. P~*oper
plannipg ensures that da~llagesfrom clisasters are co~lsiderablyreduced in the
long term. It also prepares people and officials to cope better in disaster
situations. In tlie process of t]ie preparatiori of a disaster-preparedness plan,
the planner plays the cl.ucial role of coordi1iating with the administrative
. authorities as welJ as among [lie different interest groups ilivolved. On him I
lies the responsibility of I<eep.ing the ultimate aim and format in mind and
guiding the draFt-plan preparation process accorciingly. A j ~ ~ d i c i ocombination
~ls
of long-term and short-term plaluling measures is tlie best possible manner in
which to achieve the mitigation of disasters. Long-term and sl?ort-term
plaluiing techniques should ideally take into account cost-benefit
10 considerations.
. .
Planning
Advocacy : Promoting the cause (of disaster planning)

Pliysical Plaiining : Making arrangements for real goods and
services required for completion of a
project.
National Development Plan : Planning for ecoliolnic development of tlie
country. It may be short, medium or long-
term.
Retrofitting : To equip or modify a house or a building to
lnalce it safer
I
I
I 13.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Carter, W.N.( 199 1) Disaster Munngenzent : A Disuster hfnnuger's
! Iglrntlbook, Asian Development Bank, Manila.
I 13.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS .

I EXERCISES
Clicck Your Progress 1
1 ) Your answer slioulcl include the followilig points:

* Sliort-term planning consists of measures wliicli deal wit11 the disaster
situatioli immediately at hand. Sucli lneasures liiay be initiated either
immediately after a disaster or earlier to preventlredi~ccits impact.
Long-term planning i~ivolveslneasures that can be impletnented over a
period of a Sew years arid need large expenditure. Therefore these need
periodic reviews and renewals.
2) Your answer sliould iliclude tlie following points:

* Adoption of land-use planning and develop~nerltcontrol to restrict the
activities in liigli risk areas.
Economic diversification to allow losses in one sector to be offset by
increased output in other sectors,
* Changing crop cycles.
I * Retrofitting houses.
UNIT 14 COMMtTNICATION
Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Con~~n~~nication: Meaning and Concept
14.3 Sig~iificanceof Corn~nu~iication
in Disaster Preparedness alld Mitigation
14.4 Techniques of Communication
14.5 Modes of Coniniunication
14.6 Ways of Ensure Effective Comm\~nication
14.7 Let us Snm Up
14.8 I<cy words
14.10 Answers to Checlc Your Progress Exercises.
14.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
a explain the distinction between the Conceptual and Physical Aspects of

communication;
e identie t11e significance and role of commu~zicationin Disaster Preparedness
and Mitigation; and
a describe the principal techniques, ways and means of com~nunicationfor
effective end results.
4 .I INTRODUCTION
Among various aspects of Disaster Management, "communication" is one of the
most critical requireruent. The word cccomm~~nicate" implies co~lveyillg of
thoughts, ideas, warnings, instructions, orders, command, Itnowledge and
information. In the context of disaster management, fail-safe corn~nt~nication is
vital during a wide range of actions, from the significant phase of "preparedness"
to impart knowledge and inforination (mass education and public awareness),
warning of itzipending threat of disaster, calling various resources ancl intimation
to autliorities and conducting disaster management in general.
14.2 COMMUNICATION: MEANING AND CONCEPT

The word "Co~nmunication"holds a very significant place in all walks of human
life, A person is an elenlent of society, nation and the world and cannot live his
or her in isolation. He or she has to interact with liis o r her fellow l ~ u ~ n abeings.
n
There are two distinct facets of comn~~uiication. One is the physical one wliere
we use a variety of means using ever progressing techl~ology. Due to modern
technology and use of Satellites we broadcast television programmes all over the
world. Satellite phones and interllet have added new dimensions to global and
almost instai~taneouscommu11icatioi1, T~ILISthere is no lacking of any type of Hi-
Tech means to communicate. Media (print and electronic) serve as credible and
ilifluential agents of communication.
The other aspect wliich is far more important is the conceptual one. It is
necessaly to ensure that recipjellt of communication understa~ldsthe contents of
the message being conveyed and that responds to it in the desired manner.
This apparently simple requirement carries behind it T-Ierculean efforts of
thorough know ledge, clarity alld cone iselless. The originator must realise the
capacity and capability of the receiver to appreciate the message and to react
correctly. T ~ L I Scontent
, and clarity have to be tlie essential features of the
message being communicated. The content has to be specific, to the point, brief
and couched in simple, ilnderstandable and clear language with 110 ambiguity.
T l i ~ ~ills its modern concept "communication" transcends its traditional meaning
of transmission of message but includes the q ~ ~ a l i tof y the message itself
especially tlie content, conciseness and comprelie~isibility.
14.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN

DISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION
Whenever we tall< of "Disaster" we invariably imply tlie following distinct

phases:
(a) Preventive and preparedness measures fol. ensuring minimum adverse

effects,
(b) Follow LIP actions in tlie event of occurrence of a Disaster, to handle tlie
"Aftermath" arid make all efforts to mitigate - i.e., to ~ninimise/toreduce
eventual losses/damage to Life and Property.
Unless we have "Communicatio~i"at its best in all the required forms we will not
be in a position to deal with the above pliases lo our entire satisfaction. In the
aftermath of a disaster, time counts and efljcient communication at all levels
decides tlie success of all efforts. It is therefore essential to critically examine tlie
role - and need - of communication. Tlie discussion that follows will critically
examinc the same in tlie above mentioned phascs.
Communication during the phase of Preventive Measures: An in-depth study

of all probable causes of disasters likely to occur in tlic area is to be made,
identifying all likely soLlrces of disaster.
Preparedness: This is the lllost ilnporlalit pliase. The state of ~re~aredn'css

is to
be reached to maximum efficiency to be effective. In this phase, all resources -
iheir types and strength - are worlted out, identified and are placed "on call"
whenever situation so warrants. This phase requires high degree of dedicatioli
and cooperation of all resources. Resources imply police, firemen, rneclical
personnel, transporters, volunteers and above all a soulid communication systcm.
Immediately after A Disaster Occurs: Commiinicatio~~, in all its forms, plays a

most vital role in this phase. The prime requirement of tliis phase is to convey
facls without creating any panic. Also, time element is or utmost ili.lpol-tance.
Even a niinor delay caused due to incomplete 01. incorrect comm~~nicalions will
add to the problem. The inti~nationof the occurrence of a disaster is to be given,
in the laid down priority, to govern~nelitofficials, affected population and news
media of all types. This becomes effective only when there are "Check Lists" at
all levels and personnel are trained to act strictly yet timely according to their
respective check lists. In the absence of check lists, chaos will prevail disrupting
tll ~noothresponses at required levels.
eij
Aftermath: Once the laid down actions get under way, the siti~atio~l is b~.ouglitto
normal, i.e., the cause of disaster is "contained" or has passed away. While this is
going on, regular progress of events is intiliiated to people tliroilgli proper
"media". The next action by colicerned authorities, after normal life is reslorecl,
should be to carry rutliless audit of all events, critically analyse Saults,
weaknesses, lapses, and shortcomi~igstogetlier with i~npediments, if any is
experienced, and introduce measures to overco1ne1removethem.
1
Esscrltials of ~t is ilnplicd ib the above that ollly correct and cfficicnt c o m r n ~ ~ n i c acan
t i ~(a)
~~
Disaster prevent occurrence of a disaster or reduce its impact. (b) reduce vilal rlel;lys in
Preparedness afterlllath and (c) in gene!-a]decide the success of dlsaste~managemell1 efforts.
14.4 TECHNIQUES OF COMMUNICATION
Eficient co~n~nunicatio~l needs hardwale and s o h w a ~ esystelus or considerable

,copIlistication. It is obvious, therefore. that their use nceds skills and techniqLles
of high order. In the various ~>hases of Disaster Management, ~ l l l c every
r ~ lllinutc
and every efCort are precious, it is the efficient a ~ i d flawless ~ ~ ~ n m
wliich ensures the success of the operation.
Following are the broad arcas l?fhereskilled communication is req11ired:
(a) Mass Education And Public Awareness.

(b) Training of industrial person~lel
(c) Appraisal of Government Authorities
(d) Information lo Media
(e) Use of Wireless set, and atnateur radio (Ham)
(f) Use ofTelepho~-res,
Cell phones and satellite phones
(g) Use of INTERNET including e-mail
A concerted effort is requit*edto train every originator and each recipient in order
to make the co~nmunicationeffective, so as to achieve the inte11declobjectives.
14.5 MODES OF COMMUNICATION
With pl*ogressiveI-li-Tech means a number of sopllisticated equipment are beiilg

cleveloped. A broacl range of the means o f communication is given at Annexure
A, The point to note in this list is that hardly any existing mode will ever be
obsolete despite iticlusion of more modesn methods.
Media (electronic and print) are very h e l p f ~ ~inl disaster management related
communications. They serve a s very useful conduit between the people ancl the
clisaster rnanagctiient pcrsorinel.
14.6 WAYS TO ENSURE EFFECTIVE

COMMLTNICATION
Plali tlie Total Requireme~1t.s of Today a n d Tomorrow. At the outset,

detel.mine numbers - after cluly identifying tl1e1n - of total "subscribers" including
intlilstries other sources of Disaster, Reso~~rces, Gover~lmentAuthorities arid
~nalteout the pllase wise programme of the reql~ired means from the list at
Annexure 'A'. Also provide for the filti~risticincreased requirements.
Disaster Management Dil-ectory. For day to day interactions, telepllone is

going to be the major means, 1-]lerefore, a group wise Telephone Directory is
also necessary..
Skilled Personnel. Having obtailled costly commi~nicatio~i equipment, skilled

persolinel need to be induct6d to handle it. Every instrumeot has to be kept in
daily use by scheduled "cIlecking". The equipment needs to be maintainsd and
always kept in serviceable condition.
Vigorous and Regular Training. It must be an integral activity so as to
maintain ancl improve the skill level. For example use of wireless set Iias a
specific pattern, not faliiiliar to even educated. This has to bc attended to. Also,
duty personnel must be taught tlie use of telephone in an economical yet clear
manner.
Sub-Control RoomslAlternate Control Centres. In the event of main Control

Roo~nbeing ineffective for .any reason, there must be another one to assume
charge without interruption in the operations.
14.7 LET US SUM UP

, We have seen that "Communication" is the ~iiostvital requirement for effective
and efficient Disaster Management. Since time is of great significance, tlie delays
in intimation and respolises at all levels can only be niinimised by skilled
communication through multitier, sophisticated equipment and trained persons.
Basic requirements of co~nmu~iications

are:
(a) T I ~ O ~ O LKnowledge
I~JI of Situations
(b) Clarity
(c) Conciseness
(d) Thorough Assimilation of Message Received and Correct Response.
Taking into confidence people likely to be affected, in general, and news-~iicdia,

in paltic~~lar, and giving them tlie correct and ti~iielyIcnowledge and information
is vital, in order to obviate panic, chaos, rumours and corif~~sion.
The skill levels of all "Originators" and "Receivers" of messages need to be kept
high by regular traini~igand constant practice.
Clieclc Your Progress 1
Noie: i) Use tlie space give11below for your answers.

'
ii) Check your answers with those given at tlie elid oftlie uriit.
1) +Disting~~isli
clearly between tlie l'liysical and Conceptual aspects of
Comm~~nication.
2) What are the basic requirements for making a11 effective comm~~nication?
k
Essentials of Check Your Progress 2
Disaster
I
1'rep;t l*edness Notc: i) Use tlie space given below for your answers.
I
I
i
i
1) Which are the "electronic" modes of co~nmunication?
2) Wliich are various wings oFLLMedia"?
14.8 KEY WORDS
Comprelle~~sihility : Quality of being i~ndel-stoodclearly by the

recipient of the message
Originator and Receiver : A person/control centre ~vhich originates
of Communication is originator
orders/i~istructio~is/i~ifol.matio~
whereas tlie party at the other end which
"responds" is Receiver.
On Call : In a state of ~.eacliness
Preve~ltiveMeasures : All actions includi11g training, supervisio~~,
exercises talten to prevent or minimize Llie
probability of occurrence of disaster situations.
Transcends : Goes beyoncl
Audit of Events : To analyse what went wrong after normalcy is
restored.
Disaster Management : A usefi~l co~npendium of fill1 details of all
Directory agencies who contribute to the entire sce~iario
of Disaster Management in any waylcapacity in
the specific area
Vardaman, George T. and C. Carroll, MCIMLI~CP~GI/ 'C'onfrol Throz~gh

Comnzunication, New Yorlc Commu~iications,New York, Wiley, 1968.
Berlo, David K., The Process of Communicutioi~,New Yorlc, Holt, 1960. ,
Planning
EXERCISES
Checl<Your Progress 1

Q Physical aspect implies various modes of coriimunication e.g.,
telephones, ,wireless sets, sirens, TV & raclio, newspapers.
a Conceptiial aspect, which is more vital, is to ensure that the intended
~i~essagellcnowledgel is so conveyed
i~ifor~iiation/order/i~ist~~i~ction
t;liat it is i~nderstood clearly by tlie "Receiver" for the
inte~idedlexpectedaction.
2) Your answer slioi~ldi~icl~ide

tlie following points:
Q Clarity, Conciseness, Credibility
a Completeness with due consideration to above.

I ) Your answer should include tlie following points:
i Electronic modes include-Radio, Television, Wireless Set, Amatei~r
Radio (HAM), Cellular phones, Satellite pliones, and IN'TERNE'l'.
2) Yoi~ranswer slio~lldinclude tlie following points:

e The word media includes agencies like newspapers, television and
radio that serve as tlie carriers of information to t:he people at large
and also give pi~blicityto their views and responses.
Q Media are ijsually recognized in two types viz., print media
(newspapers and periodicals) and electronic media (television and
radio).
Essentials of
Disaster
Preparedness
MEANS O F COMMUNICATION (DEPENDING O N SITUATION AND
AVAILABILITY)
I . WIRELESSSETS:
(a) STATIC
(b) MOBILE (VEHICLE-MOUNTED)
(c) AMATEUR RADIO (IHAM)
(d) HAND-SET (WALICIE-TALKIE)
2. I-IOT LINES
"NO DELAY" POINT-TO-POINT COMMUNICATIOIV (BOT1-i WAYS)
3. ONE WAY COMMUNICATION FROM MAIN CONTROL IiOOP\/I '1.0

EACH SUB- CONTROL ROOM FOR SIMULTANEOUS U'AKNING. I
.1
4. TELEPHONES INCLLIDING CELLULAR PtIONES AND SA'I'EL,LITI?,

PHONES: TELEPHONE CONFERENCIlVG FACILITIES
5. INTERNET INCULDING E-MAIL
6 . SIRENS AND BELLS OR GONGS.
7. DESPATCH RIDERS WITI-I MOTORCYC1,ES.
8. MESSENGERS WITH BICYCLES.
9. PAGING SYSTEM - FOR ICEY PEIESONNEL AND TRAINED

DOCTORS.
10. AIR HORNS.
11. LOUDSPEAICERS MOlJNTED ON JEEPSIVANS OIi MOTOR BOATS.
12. DOORDARSHAN.
13. AKASI-IVANI.
14. SLIDES IN CINEMA TI-IEATRE

-
UNIT 15 LEADERSHIP AND COORDHNATHON
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Leadership in Disaster Situations: Concept and Significance
Leadership Styles
Co-ordination: Concept and Significance
Principles ancl Technique of Co-ordination
Role of Leacler and Coordinator
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
15.0 OBJECTIVES
e explain the concept and significance of leadership in disaster situation;

discuss various leadership styles i~nderconditions of crisis;
v explain the concept and significance of coordination;
discuss the principles and techniques of coorclination; and
describe the role of a lcader and coordinator in a crisis situation.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Lcaclership has a prominent and powerfill role in society and influences all
aspects of life in normal as well as crisis situatio~ls.Leaclers can emerge from
within a group and can also bc formally appointed or elected. There are many
qualities that a leader should have such as intelligence, quick comprehension,
decisiveness, courage, strength, confidence, eclucation, kno~vledge,personality,
charisma and above all integrity. There may be a long list of leadership traits but
the following five attsibutes have strong correlation with the leadership. There
are: I. Dominance (Personality) 2. Intelligence 3. Self-conlidence 4. I-Iigli energy
level and 5. Task related Iknowleclge (political or organizational).
15.2 LEADERSHIP IN DISASTER SITUATIONS:

CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE
Leadership is defined as ability to influence or motivate a group or community
towards achievement of certain goals. In normal circumstances, leadership is
entirely different as all clecisions are takeli after.enough tliinlking, after a process
of con side ratio^^ and reconsideration as well as with the thoughtful advice of
experts in the area. Tllerc is a framework of legislation to provide for~nalizecl
support and confir~nation.On the other hand in crisis situatio~lsor under iinstable
and disruptive conditions or in disasters, tasks of leaders usually becomes
difficult. The leadersliip from local level, district level, state level and LIP to
national level is affected by a number offactors such as the following:
Many of the designated local leaders are themselves affected by the disaster.
They could get isolated due to sudden breakdown of con~municationsor become
ineffective under traumatic condii.ion due to the suddenness a11d severity of the
situation. ..
Essentials of During disaster, many of tlie relatives and friends of the leaders could be
Disaster affected. Their attention could get diverted to the111instead of taking decisiol, or
Preparedness action for relief and recovery ofthe community.
Lack of information and disruption of communication become serious f a c t ~ l . ~

ha~nperingdecision making.
Loss or delayed availability of human resources, equipment, transport and other

relief commodities delays action and creates a sense of helplessness.
In the resulting conii~sion,community feels insecure and could lose confidence

in the leadership. There may be Inany other factors depending on tlie type of
disaster and tlie affected people. I n a crisis situation ~.equiring relief arid
rehabilitation of disaster affected people, administration and political leadership
could have different goals.
A) District administration
In a district, tlie district magistrate or district collector is chairman of the disaster

relief committee. l'he officers' main aim is to mounL effective rcscue operations
for the affected people, provide immediate relief in terms of food, medicine,
drinking water, clothes and teniporary shelter. It depends on tlie leaderihip
qualities of an ad~ninistrator,how he or she gets the job done. There could be two
approaches: (i) "Boss-Approach" in which one passes orders and expects that the
subordinates will act according to the orders, (ii) "Team-Approach" in which full
cooperation of all co~icer~ied officers and people is taken. In this case tlie leader
will take all concerned officers into confidence, invol;e thcm in the decision
making, monitor their work and guide them from time to time for effective reliel
operations. 111disaster situation, tlie latter approach will be more effective and
give better results.
B) Local leadership
Local Icaders would like to make their prescncc felt. They may or Inay not be
having any experience of disaster management. 111 many cases, their intervention
may solneti~nehinder the process of relief but may give political advantage to tlie
local leaders. Secondly, they may openly criticize the disaster management
officials with or without justification.
C) State and national level leadership
State and national level leadership will try to provide fi~ndsand mobilize
effective relief within the available resources but this leadership initiative fro111
top will be based on an overall appreciation of the disaster situation. For the state
and national level leadership to be effective, they should have accurate arid up to
date information from tlie disaster area through tlie district leadership and leave
detailed implementation to the local established administrative system.
15.3 LEADERSHIP STYLES
Before dealing with the leadership styles, it is important to know the attributes
and desirable qualities of a leader. Leadership qualities can not be learnt from a
book; for 'example, 'courage' cannot be learnt from anywhere except perhaps
fro111worthy role models. Secondly, no leader can be an allrounder or ideal in all
aspects. There are some good qualities that every person has in some measure,
such as sense of humour, endurance, clieerfulness, dedication, entliusiasm,
courage, quick decision, identification of problem, etc. But conibinations of a
large number of these desirable qiralities in a person can make him or her a better
leader. Some of the more desirable qualities of leadership in disaster Leadership and
lnallage~nentare briel'ly discussed below: Co-ordinatiorl
1 ) Personal qualities and self-confidence
As mentioned above, every person has some leadership qualities. One should
identify them and try to develop and upgrade them to the best capability. Self-
confidence is an important characteristic of a leader which can be developed by
increasing his own professional competence and inter-personal abilities.
2) Professional competence
This competence means knowing what to do and how to do it. This can be
developed by acquiring a high standard of knowledge, skill and ability
appropriate to the task and circumstances. Higher tile professio~lalcompetence,
Inore is the respect and trust that the leader would receive.
3) Sound judgement and appropriate decision making
'I-here are very much related to the professio~lalcompetence and experience of a

person. A leader with these two qualities will emerge successfi~lwith liis team of
co-worlters in ally disaster situation.
4) Ability to cominunicate
Clear and concise commu~~ication with people working with the leader is very
much essential for proper functioning. In fact, this is an essential ingredient,in
developing good interpersonal relations that generate goodwill and loyalty to the
leader leading to a high level of discipline in tlie team.
5) Appropriate style of leadership
Always different tasks require different styles of leadership. It is important for a

successfi~lleader to i~nderstandthe dimensions and requirements of the given
task and adjust the leadership style to achieve the desired results. The leadership
styles appropriate to disaster management work are of four types as follows:
- 1 . m rELLS
- - 2.-
LEADERSHIP -
STYT.ES - -3.
-4.pGi-7
1. Tells-
The leader orders the team and waits for results and action while keeping an eye
on the progress. He does not expect his subordinates to ask qi~estionsor give
suggestions. This style is adopted when the matter is urgent and there is no time
to lose.
2. Sells-
Convinces tlie team about the decision taken by analysing the positive and
I
negative points. It is like selling ideas to the team members. Obviously, this I
exercise takes sonle time.
Esse~~tials
of 3. Consults-
Disaster
Preparedness Leader consults the team and allows them to participate in Llie decision making
with the view to ~nakingsmall adjustments but the main thrust of the decisions of
the leader are more or less final. 'This style is somewhat less time consuming than
the 'Sells" style.
4. Joins-
The leader discusses thoroughly the problem and the likely course of action.
Every member of the team is involved in the discussion and finally the co~isensus
decision prevails. This style consulnes most time but later work is smooth.
Sometimes a multi-style or mixed-style approach is more useful in disaster

situation. There are varioug different taslts sucli as distribution of foocl,
~nedicines,temporary shelter, drrd rescuc work. If each of such tasks is assigned
to a diffeent person instead of all tasks to one, there can be better results. In other
words, delegation of authority and worlc is also an important aspect of leadership
style. Of course, the leader has to continue to monitor and coordinate with his
colleagues.
Another useful factor in the clevelopment of disaster management is the strong

and positive link between leadership and training. A high standard of training can
upgrade the professionalism in the leadership. This is the reason that the
Government of India (through its nodal ministries and departments) and the
various institutes of public administration (through their faculties of disaster
management are giving more emphasis on 'Human Resource Development' in
the area of disaster management. They want to provide training to various levels
of government officers, NGOs and to the corninunity leaders so that they have
more knowledge, skill and confidence to tackle the likely disaster situations.

1) Define Leadership.
2) What are the qualities of a good leader in disaster situation?

I 3) List the difrerent leadership styles for a disaster manager. Leaclersliip and
Co-ordination
15.4 CO-ORDINATION: CONCEPT AND

-
SIGNIFICANCE
Coortlination
. Coordination can be defincd as co~nbinedefforts of various related organisations

and agencies to achieve tlie goalltarget of a task and is therefore very essent~al.In
fact, there is always scope Sor improvement in coordination between various
agencieslorganisations worlting for relief and reliabilitatio~i.There are three main
bociies involved in disastel. management:
1 2 3
Government Agencies
4
1VGOs and CBOs Affected People
+
NC;O= Non-Government Organisation
CBO= Community Based Organisation
At all stages oS disaster management, viz., preparedness, mitigation effolls as

wcll as relief or response, there is need o r proper coordination. TIILIS,tlie role of
coordinatorlleader in disaster situation becomes very signiticant.
I n Government of India, the Ministry of Agriculture was the nodal ministry for
disaster management. The Natirral Disaster Management Division dealing witli
Natural disaster was earlies with the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of
India but now it is under the Ministry of Honle Affairs, Government of India.
Flowevcr, drought as a natural disaster is still being lllclnaged by the Ministry of
Agriculture, Governrneilt of lndia.
Tliere are many othc~.ministries and specialist depal.tments ancl ol.ganisatio~is

involved in the disaster preparedness and response operations.
1 India Meteorological 1 . Ministry oFFoocl
Departn~cnt(IMD) & Civil Supplics
' \
2. I.lome Afl'airs
I lousing and Ilsban
Uevclopriicnt 3. Defence
Corporation Govt. of India
(I-IUDCO) Ministry of Agricullure
Depaflment of 4. Water Resources
lndian Space Agriculture & Cooperation
JEt.scarc11 5. Health
Oreanizalion IISROI
6. Civil Aviation
Ce~itralWater ' .
Co~iimission(CWC)
7. Cabinet
Secretarial
Essentials of Siinilarly, the State governments have their agencies involved in disaster
Disaster management worl<. The Central Governnient is in regular contact wit11 State
Prepa~-edness Governments. In the Central Govelnment, the Central Relief Commissioner is
the focal point and the Finance/Revenue Secretary or the Slate Relief
Commissioner is the focal point in the States. They worl< in close contact with
each other.
The following diagram explains the coo~~dinatioiiarrangements between Central.

State and District Administration for Disaster Management.
Revenue Secretary
Financial Commissio~ier
Ilislrict Magistrate
District Level
D~strictCollector
15.5 PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES OF

COORDINATION
In Disaster Management, all tlie concerned organisations, agencies, and tlie

public have common goals as disci~ssedbelow.
Pre-Disaster Situation- for disaster prevention. mitigation and prepareclness to

ininiinize loss of life and property from natural disasters.
Disaster Situation- to provide effective relief, rehabilitation o r affected people'

and recovery of tlie co~nrnunity.'There are no set principles or rigid techniques
for coordination in disaster situation because each disaster situation is i~niquein
its own way. But, coordination is inore effective if we Collow the basic principles
of coordination given below:
1) Clear Role Allocation
There sliould be clarity in roles of different participant organisations. They

Leadership anti
Co-ordination I
sliould know their authority and limitations. There should not be duplication of
roles.
All concerned organisations sl~ouldhave proper networking. Tliis will provide

them better understanding of strengths and weaknesses of each other and will .
also ensure proper coordination of efforts besides avoidi~igdupli~ation.
A propel. networking of NGOs will give tlie~ithe idea about the capacity and
capabilities of each other. This knowledge is very essential for coordination
anlong NGOs.
3) Practising coordination during exercises.
4) Knowledge of professional competence of individual organisation
5) ICnowleclge of available resources including financial resources
6) Transparency in the action of various organisations i~ivolvecl in

management.
- -- - - - - - - - - - - - -
15.6 ROLE OF LEADER AND CO-ORDINATOR
A good leader or coordinator can make the task simple and Illore effective. He
can serve tlie affected people within limited resources and be cost-effective. Role
of a leader starts from pre-disaster situation. He has a very important role cluring
and after tlie disaster. Roles of leader/coordinator are almost same and are given
below:
Identification of safe places or protected areas, when disaster impact occurs. He

should be able to convince tlie community that they should reach these safer
places at the time of pre-warning. Normally, people do not walit to leave their
houses and belongings even after several warning and even police intervention.
But a good leader can persuade tliern to move to safe places. In cyclones and
floods, such evac~~atioriof people can save a lots of h~~nian
lives and cattles.
Leaders take decision concerning post-impact priorities for rescue, temporary

evacuation, shelter, immediate needs of tlie co~n~nunity
crucial to tlie lines and
livelihood of tlie affected people.
Leaders implement self-help IneasLIres and induce spirit of cooperation.
They take decisions to organize external assistance wliich can significantly defer
or alleviate potential hardsliip for those who have lost their home and means of
livelihood.
Involving people and co~nmunityin tlie decision making, i~i~plementation of

pl?ns and their participation 2 every step of relief or rehabilitation process by
keeping complete tra!isparency.
Esserltials of Checlc Your Frogress.2
Disaster
Preparedness Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the e~iclof the unit.
1) Name the nodal ministry ancl o t h e ~important concerned ministries and

agencies of Governlnents of India involved in disaster nianagenielit.
2) Who is the focal point for disaster nianage~ilent in the Ministry of

Agriculture?
3 ) List the impostant roles of a leader in disaster management.
15.7 LET US SUM UP
Leadership is the abilily to influence or motivate people towards achievement of

goals. There are five important traits of leadel*ship such as personality,
intelligence, self-confide~ice, 1 igll enel-gy level and task relatecl knowledge.
Leadership in normal circumstances and during csisis differs greatly. This unit
has discussed the co~iceptancl sigl~ifica~ice of leadersliip ancl described the
various leadership styles. Tlie importance of coordination has been e~iiphasizecl
and the role of a leader and coordi~iatorIias been explained.
15.8 KEY WORDS
Cliarisma : Ability to attract, i ~ i f l i ~ e ~ancl

l c e inspire people
Integrity : Quality of probity, honesty and high ~noralprinciples
PMO : Prime Ministel.'~Office
-.
' 15.9. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS Leadership and
Co-ordination
sharma, V.K. (ed): (1995) Disaster ~VIunagenient,Indian Institi~tcof Public

Acltninistration, New Delhi.
Misra, G.K. and Mathitr G.C. (1993) Notural Disuster Redzrctio~,Reliance
Public House, New Delhi.
Reed, Sheila B. (1992) Introduction to Hazards, DMPT Mani~al(UNDRO
Publication).
Carter, W.N icli ( I 99 1 ) Disaster Management-A Disaster Manager ,'s Hundbook,

EXERCISES
Cbeclc Youl- Progress 1
1) Your answer should include the following poilits:

e Leadership is defined as the ability to influence or motivate a group or
commi~nity towards achievelnent of certain goals such a s disaster
managelne~lt.Leadership plays a prominent ancl powerfill role in society
and influences alI aspects of life in normal as well as crisis situatiotls.
2) Your answer shoulcl include the fol lowillg points:

Personal qualities and self-confidence;
Professional colnpetence; .
Sound judgement and appropriate decision making;
r Ability to communicate; and
'0 Appropriate style of leadership.

i) Tells;
h
ii) Sells;
iii) Consillts; rind
+ iv) Joins
Check Your Progress 2 .
1 ) Your answer should include the following:

Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Civil Supplies; Home Affairs;
Defence; Water Resources; FIealth; Civil Aviation; Tndia Meteorological
Depa~iri~ent
and Central Water Commission.
I
2) Your answer slloi~ldinclude the following:

I Central Relief Coin~~lissioner,
assisted by the Additional Central Relief
Commissioner.
$ 3 ) Your answer slio~~ld

i~lcli~de
the following points:
A good leader call be very cost-effective by managing the worlc within
limitecl resources through proper coordination. 27
Essentials of a A good leader plays an inipot-tant role in convincing the affected people
Disaster to act according to the warning and advice, for example, where prompt
Preparedness
evacuation has been advised by the concerned authorities.
A good leader induces the spirit of cooperation among the cornrn~~nity
and is thus able to implement self-help projects very well.
LTlVIT 16 WAREHOUSING AND STOCKPILING
0bjectives
Introduction
Importance of Warehousing and Stockpiling
Location of Warehouses
Comn~ocliticsand Tools
Idenlification of Areas and Suffel*ers
Techniques Sor Distribution
Lct Us Sum Up
Key Words
Answcrs To Checlc Your Progress Exercises
16.0 OBJECTIVES
e explain the need for warel~ousingand stoclcpiling ofcsseiitial conimodities as

past of preparedness for disaster;
e clescsibe tllc inventorisation of commodities bnsed on established need; and
e discuss the network and distribution mechanism oSstoclted goods.
6 . 1 INTRODUCTION
At the natio~~al level, the central government, maintains buffer stoclts of
essential itcms to cater to fluctuating demand pattern. I n case of Soocl items, the
inventory is mainlainecl by the Food Corporation of India of the Ministry of Foocl
and Civil Supplies, with their wal-ehouses located all over the country. In
overall worlcil~gand distribution system, the government may vary its own
procurement based on the level of buffer stocks. Esscntial items such as
medicines are also maintained through a system of Medical Stores at national and
regional level. This is maintained by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.
While Meclical Stores cater directly to emergencies, the food stocks service the
C
public distribution system and also take into consideration, the seasonal demand
shifts and internatiol~altrade.
4
At the district level, as part of the conti~igencyaction plan, stores are idcntifiecl
and stocks maintained of essential items in addition to medicines and food for
ilse during emergencies.
'The level of stocks and the various tecl~niquesfor distribution may vary from
item to item and time to time according to exigel~cies.Needless to say, this
dcpends very much on the population of the district and the vulnerability of thc
clistrict to any particular types of disaster.
16.2 IMPORTANCE OF WAREHOUSING AND

STOCKPILING
Disasters occur suddenly, so~netirneswitl~outwarning, and in a very short span

of time. The government through the district administration has to provide
maximum succour to tlie affected comnlu~~ity. 29
I
Essentials of 1Jsually a wliole range of items is required. Besides essential food and
Disaster medicines, other items for search and evacuation, temporary shelter,
I'reparedness
communication systems, energy fuel needs to be mobilized by different
t Government departments.
Mobilization of such large range and quantity of items in times of emergency can
be done only if there are enough stoclts available within a short accessible
distance. A well organized stockpiling system for easy availability and easy
access beco~nesthe basic requirement of a dependable contingency plan. I
16.3 LOCATION OF WAREHOUSES
Locatio~iof wareliouses is very important and is dependent on the degree of

vulnerability of cet~ainareas and on Facility of transportation. The location
should be at a comparatively safer place. Maintaining stoclts of i t e m required
in contingelicy also depends on availability and it may not be viable for tlie State
Government to be able to station sucli warehousing in tlie required quantities at
ideal locations. The problem gets fill-tiler co~nplicateddue to tlie limited life of
certain items sucli as food and medici~ies. They need to be reple~iishedafter a
fixed time failing wiiicli they would become ~ ~ s e l eand
s s harmfill.
Without compromising on the accessibility of stores yet maintaining a balance

1
with the higli cost of mainte~iance,tlie following criteria are adopted:
Vulnerability of the Area
Certain regioiis are ~iii~cli

liiore vulnerable than others. 'TIiis call be assessed
from tlie frequency of disasters that Iiave take11 place in tlie past or from .
regional studies. For example, the coastal districts of the States in soutliem
1
zone are exposed to tlie threat of cyclones every year. It is natural that stores be
located in areas that woulcl [needthem.
Types of Goods
Goods, which liave a limited time span and liiay be rendered i~selessif' left
unutilized, could be stored in fewer places. Si~cliplaces could be strategically
fa1 I under this category.
located at selected points. Food items and ~iiedici~ies
Distributing Agencies
In the event of a disaster, it is the responsibility of various agencies, under whose

care tlie various items are put, to mobilize Iiecessary i ~ ~ f r a s t r i ~ c t for
i~re
distribution. Location of tlie warehouses should serve to rnalce tlie fi~nctionsof
distributing agencies Inore efficient.
011tlie wliole, a well-developed and clearly identified systeni of interlinked

wareliouses withi11 accessible distalices will considerably i~iiprove tlie
effectiveness of the continge~~cy
plans.

ii) Check your answers with those give11at tlie end of tlie unit.
1) Briefly discuss the i~iiportanceof stoclcpiling. W n r e l ~ o ~ ~ s iant1
rig
Stockpiling
-
-
2) Discuss the criteria kept in consideration for selecting location of warehouses.
16.4 COMMODITIES AND TOOLS

A list of the com~noditiesand tools required for different types of disaster
situations forms part of the district contingency plan. Nor~nally,there are two
types of warehousing - at thc district level which stoclcs all rescue and
evacuation eq~~ipmentltools and at regional level (groups of districts) for items
such as food and medicines. Respective departlnents may also be required to
maintain their own stores.
'I'ypically, in a cyclone or flood contingency plan, spccial 'cyclone storc' or

"flood store" is requii.ed to be set up stocking the following items:
I
1) I-loolcs for clearing debris, ladders.
2) Rubber Tires and Tubes for sing as float in water; also boats.
3) Tents, tarpaulin, galvanized corrugated sheets, asbestos sheets, bamboo and
b other material for providing temporary slieltcr.
4) Kerosene, lanterns, candles, matchboxes, lighters and battery operated
b lights along with cells/batteries.
5) Large coolting vessels for use in relief camps; Food serving utensils.
6) Iclentity slips (in plastic pouches) to be issued to thc rerugees in relief camps.
7) Copies of Maps.
8) Ropes, Wires, Chains, Lights fittings with wire, lead wires, spades, and
crowbars.
9) Spare road-marker stores, steel pole, ban~boosand slotted stripes or~lietal(to
I be laid on broken or muddy road surfacc for better traction. Double hantlled
'saws (for cutting fallen trees), concrete culter, sliovels and ]Close Pipes, Few
diesel pumps and generator sets.
10) First-Aid Kits, duty sign boards, jerry cans, empty oil drums, gunny bags a~id
gunny bags and sand bags. Polytlle~iebags For dropping supplies, B~~ckets,
hireless sets and satellite phones.
i
1 1 ) Equipment For fillin6 or boiling water.
i.
i
i Essentials of A scparate store for medicines (attached to district level hospital) would need to
Disaster maintain stock of cssential life saving mcdicine, drugs for preventing infectiolis,
P~.cparedness vaccines and First Aid ccluipments.
Similarly, the Public Health Department would need Lo ~naintailistores in each

district containing the following items:
a) Disinfectants SLICII as phenyl, naphtlialene balls, bleaching powder, ~Iilori~le

liquid, water purifying tablets equipment for checlting qi~alityof water alicl
for checlting quantity of free chlorine ancl supplying safe potable water.
b) Mobile water tankers, canvas water tanks, dru~ns ancl jersy cans for
transpot-ting drinl<ingwates.
c) Vaccines
d) Insecticides
e) Temporary or portable lavatories
Tlle ani~nal h~~sbandry department is requirecl to stocl< essential d r ~ ~ gand

s
vaccines for livestoclc cattle.
Likewise, separate lists of store items are prepared for each type of disaster
situation and stocks maintained by thc respective agency.
16.5 IDENTIFICATION OF AREAS AND SUFFERERS

The amount of stock maintained a1 the stores in the district or at regional level
(groups of districts) is dependent 01-1 the resident population ,and the
requirements duc to different types of lilcely disasters.
The basis of calculating medical supplies is based on the statistics of number of

people affected due to floods each year averaged for a 10-year period. It lras
been estimated that as far as health impact of flood is concerned, approxi~nately '
2% of tlie affected population would need medical attention. Stoclts are ~ I I L I S
kept accordingly.
A similar kind of s t ~ ~ disy carried out for other disaster situations and total
requiremelit worl<ed out. In cases where one district is prone to Inore than one
type of disaster, tlie range (types) of medicines ill the stoclc is increased
proportionately.
16.6 TECHNIQUES FOR DISTRIBUTION
Distribution of Relief Material is well organized and predetermined by rehearsal

through drill, prior to disaster. Many state government departments lnobilize the
items they are responsible for based on the requirement placed by the district
disaster co~nniittees.
Food and Essential items for the affected population are directly distributed
through temporary kitcliens set up in relief camps. Alternatively, they may be air
droppecl to people who are not otherwise accessible.
Teams of doctors Inove in mobile vans to the affected areas if ~novementis still
feasible. They could also form part of the defence team, which has its own
transportation arrangements.
A lot of material from regional stores is moved in by rail. Earlier the practice of
nioving was by wagon loads. This Itind of piecemeal traffic movement resulted
in ordinate delays. Now a days i n cases of emergency, food etc., is nioved by
special relieftrain thus optimizing on total movement and distribution time.
An important factor to be kept i n consideration du;.ing distribution is that tlie Wnrehousing and
same community should be given the relief material over and over again so long Stockpiling
as they need it. At the salne time, one has to be cautious against free riding, j.e.,
[hose that do not deserve the relief but take undue advantage of the occasion.
SLICII incidents happen when either there is no way of identifying the actual
victims or if tlie distributing agencies are not cool-dinatingamongst them.
Such anomalies may be taken care of, by issuing identity slips to the victims and.
making a person or institution incharge of coordinating the overall distl-ibution.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the nit.
1) List our the items to be stocked in a "cyclone store"?
2) Describe technique for distribution.
16.7 LET US SUM UP

k
Warehousing of essential items for distribution as relief material, and

tooIs/eqi~ipnientas means for evacuation and rescue are critical to any disaster
i
lnanagement exercise.
Needless to say, the quantity and range of stock has to be kept on the basis of'
n s anticipated requirement with suITicient margin for
~ I I O I - O L I ~ ~~I ~ ~ I c u l a t i o011
iluctuation. Lastly, tlic stock should be able to reach the victims in the shortest
possible time.
16.8 KEY WORDS
Buffer Stocks Stock of essential iten~s like food and such

colnlnodities required at Lhe time of
I
conti~igencieslike disaster.
Exigencies Urgent need or demand or ~iecessity
I Shelf life Length of time for which food/medicines/otlier

I
I
com~noditiescan be stored before deterioration.
Essentials of 116.9 REFERNECES AND FURTHER READINGS
Disaster
Preparedness
Govt. of India's Report, "The dvoug111 c!f 1987, lie.spo~z.seand Munugenlenl",
Department of Agriculture Xt Coopcralion, Ministry of Agriculture, Government
of India, New Dellii.
q j Cri.ci.~Sil L I L I ~ ~ Oit7I I .I~M ~ ~ Q ;
Heallh ,5'ectov Conlingency Plun .fol* Manc~genzen~
Emergency Medical Rclief, Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of
Health & Family Welfare, Government of Inclia, New Dellii.
C~ycloneContingency PPlan qf' Aclion; Revenue Department, Government of
Andlira Pradesli, Hyderabad.
16.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

e In disaster situations, the affected people need help of various types sucli
as food, medicines, shelter, fi~el,and tools. Thcse can be made available
o~ilyif stocks are stockpiled at easily accessible warel1ouses beforehand
by government agencies and made available for distribi~tion during
2) Your answer should include points like vulnerability of the area; types of
goods and distributing agencics

a) Boats, rubbcr tires and tubes
b) Tents, tarpaulin, bamboo
c) Lanterns, kerosene, torches with cells
d) Cooking and serving i~tensils
e) Candles, match box
f) Maps and identity slips
g) Ropes, wires, spades, crowbars, gunny bags
11) First aid lcits
i) Mobile water tankers
j) Water purifying.kits
I) Disinfectants and insecticides
2) Your answer should include the following:

a) Essential items including food and water are distributed at the relief
camps or are airdropped if the people are marooned o r otherwise
inaccessible.
b) Medicines and healthcare are distributed by teams of doctors in mobile
vans if sucli movement is practicable. Otlierwise doctors join the special
defence teams.
c) Need-based and equitable distribution of essential items is ensured on the
basis of identity slips (packed in plastic covers) issued to the attached
' people.
UNIT 11'7 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND
RESPONSE: INDIVIDUAL,
COMMUNITY, INSTITUTIONAL
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Human Behaviour and Response: The Concept
Factors inhibiting Positive Human Behaviour in Disaster Situations
Measures for Ensuing Positive Human Beliaviour and Response
Psyche of Provider and Sufferer
Interaction between Individual, Community and Institutions.
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
17.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to understand and describe:
e tlie colicept of human beliaviour and response in disaster situations;

a the factors inhibiting positive human bel~aviourduring disasters;
e the measures that should be taken by various organisatio~isfor ensuring
.positive human beliaviour response;
the psyche of providers and sufferers during disasters; and
tlie interaction patterns between individuals, community and institutions in
disaster situations.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
There is all old saying that "No two individuals in this world are alike". It is
interesting to notice how widely a mother differs from her daughter and father
from his son in individual bellaviour. But wliat is the humaii beliaviour which
separates the persoiialities of one person from another. In a laymatis' language,
it is the way different individuals react when facing a situation. One person
might be mild in his reaction; while the other might be very aggressive. One
might find it difficult to separate normal beliaviour from abnormal. In fact, it
may even be difficult to say wliat constitutes a normal behaviour when faced
with an unexpected situation. According to Ullniann and Krasver (1975),
abnormal is simply a label given to' beliaviour that deviates from social
expectations; whereas other psychologists explain it in terms of maladaptive
beliaviour.
We can classify nor~naland abnorrr:al human beliaviour as indicated in Fig. 17.1

It is very important to know about human beliaviaur in detail as we will be
coming across lot of abnormality disorders and psycho-physiological proble~ns
occurring due to excessive stress during disasters. In tl~isUnit, we shall discuss
Disaster Management and how people behave in stress situation (at the time of natural or 1nan-lnade
Awareness
disasters), individually, in groups and as a large affected community.
Under normal cIII

Physical and social environment
Human Behaviour
Under stress due
to a disaster
Abnormal
Individual
Family
Commuility
Fig. 17.1: Normal and Abnorrnal tIuman Behaviour
17.2 HUMAN BERAVIOUR AND RESPONSE : THE

CONCEPT
With a few exceptions people exposed to earthquakes, tornadoes, explosions or

other terrifying experiences show psycllological "shock" reactions .The
symptoms may vary greatly depending on the individual and also on the nature ,
and severity of the terrifying disaster. For instance when two trains collide
leaving many people dead and many more injured, the tragedy also leaves a large ,
number of people with feelings of fear, guilt, anxiety and many of them might
need "talk sessions" by psychiatrists.
A "disaster syndro~ne"appears to characterize the reactions of many victims o r

such disasters.
The disaster syndrome:- A victi~ll'sinitial response following a disaster typically

involves three stages, viz.,
1) Shock stage: in which the victims are stunned, dazcd and apathetic.
2) The suggestible stage: in which the victim tends to be passive, but open to
suggestions and willing to take directions from rescue workers and others.
3) The recovery stage in which the individual liay be tense and apprehensive
and may show generalized anxiety but gradually regains psychological
equilibrium often showing a need to repetitively tell about the catastrophic
event .
It has been seen that in disaster situations the response of an individual varies
from heroism to post-traumatic stress disorder depending on one's personality.
The suffering people should be give11supportive psychological treatment. Proper

6 rest usually can alleviate sytnptoms that lead to Post- traumatic stress disorder.
1
111 general, the more stable and better integrated a personality and the more Humrn Behavioiir and
1 Response: Individual,
favourable an individuals' life situation, the more quickly he or she will recover Communitv. I ~ ~ s t i t ~ ~ t i o n a l
from a severe stress reaction.
I
I A case of Maharashtra Earthquake
In the Latur Earthquake of Mahalaashtra on 3 0 ' ~Sept. 1993, people were

celebrating 'Ganesh Puja', the biggest festival of Maharashtra. The whole
I atmosphere on the previous night was jubilant. People were visiting each others
houses an& celebrating the festival with joy. No body was expecting that the
same night, there will be an earthquake and they will lose some of their dear
ones. The first reaction of the people to the disaster was a big 'shock'. After
!
I solne time, they started thinking of their family members, and got busy in search
and rescue. If the family member died in the disaster, they collected his/hel. dead
I
body and cremated it. This was the time, when anxiety was maximum. After
few days, recovery stage started. They got some help from Government and
NGOs and started making temporary shelters. Some times the recovery takes a
lol~gtime. If there is no proper treatment or therapy, people develop symptoms
. I1 leading to more and more stress and affect mental health. Some of the NGOs in
this region started religious discourses and 'Bhajan' and 'Kirtan' so that people
I
consider the inevitability of the tragedy and resume normal life again. There
i were many cases of post-traumatic stress disorders aniong the affected
II
i individuals.
I~ Check Your Progress 1

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit
1
I
I 1) What are the stages of human behaviour in disaster situation?
I
1 .
I
1 j 2) How can we treat a person having mental stress because of a disaster?
I 17.3 FACTORS INHIBITING POSITIVE HUMAN

1 BEHAVIOUR IN DISASTER SITUATIONS
I
There are various factors which prevent the rescue team workers to relate
' positively with the affected persons. For instance it has been seen that in places
where these disasters occur frequently, the people living in those areas develop a 7
Disaster Management and kind of shock absorbiqg capacity. TO put it in simple words these people are
A warcness mentally prepared for its occurrence and hence they are able to relate to the
rescue workers more positively whereas when there is a totally unexpected
calatnity, it leaves tlie sufferers in a state ofsliocl<.
Furtliermore, the kind of loss suffered also affects the behaviour of the sufferers.
Econo~nicloss and death of close persons are the two losses which have a major
adverse effect on their bel~avioursince the surviving victims are so disturbed and
11nderso much of stress and pain that at that stage they do 1101 care for any kind
of help from people.
Another factor which we can consider lierc is the time period of the disaster. For
instance, there havc been droughts in Orissa, Ra-jasthan and Gujarat and since
the time period of these is long the people react in slightly more practical and
stabilized manner than those who suffer great losses within a matter of few
seconds (the eal-thqualce at Gujarat in January 2001). Thc former is called a
continuing disaster whereas the latter is Icnown as sudden or cataclysmic disaster
with immediale destruction being evident e.g. earthqualce or cyclone.
Moreover the impact of disaster on thc economically wealcer groups is often

pa~ticularlygreat e.g. on Jhuggi dwellers, marginal farmers, s~nallshop-keepers,
fishermen. Their meager capital stock or saving may be completely wiped out
by disaster [hereby pushing them into the poverty or starvation stage. Thus the
econon~icstatus of the sufferer also plays a major role in his or her response to
the disaster situation. The same is true for the physically weak, the sick, the
disabled, the aged, pregnant women, nursing noth hers, children and infants whose
response to disastrous situations is highly traumatic bordering on abnornlally
panicky.
Sometimes, the Disaster situation may be so bad that even the relief worl<ers'
mental state is affected adversely in such situations. They don't expect to see
this much of deaths or loss and damages because of a particular disaster and
develop abnormal symptoms. The ground situation arising rrom the terrorist
attack on the World Trade enter in New Yorlc on the 11"' September 2001 is the '
prime example of this type. The people who have to collect dead and
dismembered bodies in such area sorneti~nesstart behaving abnormally as it was
a completely unexpected situation for them.
-- --- -
17.4 MEASURES FOR ENSURING POSITIVE HUMEN

BENAVIOUR RESPONSE
For any rescue team to worl< in a disaster affected area, it is a ~ u u s t illat the
survivors and other people living there should be co-operative and are able to
communicate with them in an effective manner. Although it tums out to be quite
a tough job for the rescue worlcers as the victims are usually under much stress
and mental depression. Yet there are certain measures which can be adopted to
ensure a positive behaviour response. To s t a ~ with,
t in areas which have a high
probability of occurence of disaster, the residents should be made aware of the
likelihood of a disaster and tlie stops needed to cope. This mentally prepares
them to cope with such a situation for example people of Japan (having a high
frequency of earthquakes) are given live demonstration of how to behave when
an earthquake takes place. As a result, at the time of its occurrence, even a child
knows that it is safe to stand at the corllers of the house. Thus there should be
more and more public awareness of the precaution thl.ough media and classes in
school. People should be taught how to help the rescue team so that they can
help them in turn. Thc advantage of cooperating fully with the rescue workers
should be impressed on people.
Moreover, it is seen that measures like mock exercises, drill, practices of the Humn~tEel~aviourand
rescue workers and giving the people adequate information proves lielpfi~lin Response: Individual,
Communitv. Institutionnl
getting a positive response froni the public. Tlle various organisations sl~ould
work towards liaving appropriate training programmes for tlie rescue worlters,
NG07s,gover~irnentofficials etc. which will benetit tlie people.
Further if post-disaster review can be carried out reasonably so011 after

completion of the emergency phase, the information acquired can be utilized for
recovery progralnme purposes. There sliould be an effort to iiivolve the affected
community in the work such as community kitchen, in rehabilitation and
reconstruction. This will help t11en1 to retun1 to their ~ ~ o r m amental
l status
sooner.
- -
17.5 PSYCHE OF PROVIDER AND SUFFERER
In a Disaster situation, the psyche or tll'e mental thinking of the providers as well
as the sufferers is very impoi-tant. Firstly let us disci~sstlie meaning of provider.
By provider, we mean a person who comes to help out the people affected in
disaster. They can be voluntary organisations, government officials or any one.
During disasters, the psycliology of the provider as well as tlle suffererplays a
very important part in efficient disaster management.
It is seen that during post disaster period the provider or the team Iielping tlie
people should not feel that they arc doing some charity or obligation. On the
contrary, it is a part of their sacred social dilty to the community irrespective of
the fact whether they are getting paid to do this work. Thus they sliould change
their own attitude towards the work and do their required job as cfficielltly and
pron~ptlyas they can and not take it as a burden . Tlie rescue team shoi~ldtry to
concentrate more on helping the people rather than showing off.
. 'The rescue workers, should preferably be trained local people and they should
have a feeling that they are going to help the affected people of the con~munity
who are their own brothers and sisters .
Similarly, the sufferer or tlie victim sliould approach -their problcms Inore
opti~nisticallyinstead of giving up completely. They sliould remain co~nposed
and cooperate with the providers to the fullest in tlle interest of the affected
, ' coin~i~unity.The sufferers should not demand priority on the strength of their
, social or economic status. It lias been observed that the victims expect the
NGO's and government agencies to co~npensatefor all the losses incurred by
: them whicl~is usually not possible. They should develop an attitude to get back
to their normal course of life and job as speedily as practicable.
Tlie past experiences of Uttarkashi earthquake (1991) and the Latur earthqualte
(1993) are that community has become more and more de endent on exterllal
F
help. 'L'Ileir expectations from relief agencies are very l~igli. T11is is tlie reason
that even after several years after the disaster the community has not fiilly
recovered. This trend should be reversed. The relief is to provide temporary and
timely assistance to the victims. It sliould not be conipared with 'tlie
compensation. The NGOs and local volunta~yagencies sliould work hard to
cha~lgethe attitude of the people and make then1 self-reliant and independent in
the long run. The experience in Gujarat earthquake (2001) was colnparatively
befter because the affected communities, althougli suffering much more damage
and deaths, should col~siderableresilience.
Disaster Management and
Awareness 17.6 INTERACTION BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL,
COMMUNITY AND INSTITUTIONS
Disaster is such an unwanted happening which never informs in advance before

co~ning.Therefore the various agencies institutiorls and communities should be
well prepared in advance so that they can handle the situation Inore efficiently.
For that, there should be disaster preparedness training courses, and disaster
I-esponseworltshops which should include members of govern~nentagencies,
non-government organisations, and other persons who have a responsibility,
stake and interest in disaster response operations.
The-training may be at three levels, viz., individual, institutional and community

levels as indicated below:
1) Individual Training
a) Sltills training (e.g, in categories such as rescue, first aid)
2) Institutional Training
a) Seminars & worltshops (e.g. Annual Preparedness Setninars)

b) Training Modules (e.g. in general disaster managelnent response
operatio~~s)
3) Community Level Training .
a) Awareness upgradation
b) Simulation exercise (indoor)
c) Mock exercises (outdoor)
d) Unit (single agency, full scale)
e) Combined.
Such Trainingprograrnlnes will also enhance the interaction between the

co~nmunityand organisations.
Further it should be noted that there should not be one way com~nunication.
Whatever infor~nation the NGO's or other officials have from their past
experiences should be given to the people excha~iginginforniation openly:-
The policies of the government regarding the grants compensation and rescue of
the sufferers should be made known to the people in that area .
There should be regular contacts within the responsible authorities for

estbblishing telecommuuications service, including the repairs of 11or11ialsystems
and the installation of tell~pora~y
radio network, where needed.

I) Write any two factors inhibiting normal and positive Iiu~nanbeliaviour in Humar~Rchaviour i~nrl
Responsc: Indivitlual,
disaster situation?
Communitv. Instittrtional
2) What measures can be applied for cnsusing positive human bchaviour

response?
3 ) What should be the normal psyche of the relief worlcers (or providers) at the
I
disaster time? .
17.7 LET 1_JSSUM UP
I In this Unit, we have disci~ssedthe hu~nanbehaviour and response in disaster

situations. The normal and abnormal beliaviour patterns have been
distinguished. Factors that prevent tlie people from giving a positive response
and rational behaviour have been indicated. Disaster situations affect tlie
I providers i.e. rescue worlters also. Therefore the psyche of provide^.^ and victims
I
in disaster situations have been discussed. The importance of interaction
I
I between individuals, institutions and community has beeli ckpliasized and the
I
role of training has been stressed.
17.8 KEY WORDS
~s~cll'e : The mind, me~italtliinki~ig

I
Maladaptive Bel~aviour : Ab~iormalbehaviour- anything away or

deviant from normal behaviour which
..
I itself varies from place to place
Disaster Management and Disaster Syndrome : Characterizes the sy~nptomsor certaill
A~vilrencss signscof the victims of these disasters
Resilience : Ability to recover quickly from disaster
Drill practices : Rehearsal for the rescue workers
Psycho-physiological problems : Body proble~ns arising from mental
stress
..
Trauma : Severe psychological or physiological
stresses.
Psychiatrist : Doctor who treats mental disorders
Ullrnann, L.P. and Krasver (1975) Approach to abnormcrl behavioilr (2" eeditio,l) .
Englewood, Prentice-Hal I.

EXERCISES

Shock Stage;
Suggestible State; and
Recovery State

0 The people suffering sllould be given'supportive psychological treatrne~it
and proper rest. These can alleviate sy~nptomsthat lead to post-
traumatic stress disorder.

Shock absorbing capacity
Economic loss
Death of a close person
r Time period of the disaster

In disaster prone areas, the people should be made aware of the
likelihood of occurrence of disasters and the steps needed to cope with
these.
The advantages of cooperati~lgfully with the rescue workers should be
impressed on the people.
* Practice drills and mock exercises specific to the likely disasters should
be conducted regularly.
To the extent possible, the affected people should be involved in the post
disaster rescue, rehabilitation and recovery.
Human Bellaviour ant1
3) Yoi~ranswer should include the following points: Response: Intlividual,
o The normal psyche of relief workers slioi~ldbe that they are doing the Communitv. Institutional .
worlc as their sacred social~dutyto help their suffering brethren. They
. should concentrate on doing the work without showing off.
UNIT 118 COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND
AWARENESS
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Community Awareness and Participation in Disaster Situation
Ensuring Community Awareness
Techniques for Effective Community Participation
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Answers to Checlc Your Progress Exercises
18.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading the Unit, you should be able to :
a explain the concept and importance of community participation and

community awarencss in the context of a disaster;
a describe ways and means of creating comm~mityawareness; and
discuss the techniques for effective cotnmunity participation in disaster
. management.
18.1 INTRODUCTION
111the last two decades, the term community participation is being used in all
development processes in the country. Donors like World Bank, Asian
Development Bank, UN Agencies as well as NGOs are increasingly demanding
that the development programmes should have involvement/participation of
recipient cotnn~unities.This holds true for programmes related to disaster
management as well. For effective participation by communities, proper
awareness is a prerequisite. This Unit deals with the important aspects of
co~n~nunity pal-ticipation and awareness in the context of disaster management.
18.2 COMMUNITY AWARENESS AND

PARTICIPATION IN DISASTER SITUATION
Community ~warLaessand Participation
Comnlunity Awareness: There will be more effective participation if the

com~nunityis aware about its vulnerability and the risk involved in various types'
of disasters in that area or State. Awareness is one of the most important aspects
of disaster preparedness. People can be made aware by formal and informal
methods for different aspects of disasters. Goven~tnent,NGOs, Media, Technical
Institutions, etc., can create the desired awareness in the area of disaster
mitigation and preparedness. An alert co~n~n~lnity will take active part in any
disaste~{&~tion/mitigationprogramme and w$.t'provide more i n p ~ ~int s terms
of loch1 kviowledge and available resources. They will be ready to accept all
initiatig taken by Government, NGOs, or other external agencies and
e in the programme in case they are also involved in decisiori making at
: ; Efie i p f', the project.
I Community Participation
Community Participation: There may be many definitions of community
but three concepts are commonly used in most of the development and Awareness
programmes. These are:
1) Participation as Community Contribution: Most of the time, this type of

is found in development programmes. Communities provide
free or partly free labour and other resources to the programmes
("Shramdaan" or "dhandaan") but no part in planning and decision making.
Even if they are consulted through participatory approach or direct
I
discussion, their suggestion are either not incorporated in the final
programme or are modified according to the ideas of local administration or
I
I donor agency. In most of the reconstruction and rehabilitation projects, this
I gpproach is being followed very often. It is noted that this type of comlnunity
participation is perceived by local people as cheap or free labour option by
the project authorities.
2) Participation as by the project Authorities: This type of participation is to
build up community leadership and organization. This could include
l
formation of local committees, Task forces, Youth clubs, small cooperatives
or associations to work in disaster preparedness, mitigation and relief.
I In India, Panchayats may be considered as effective co~nmunity
organizations. The Pancliayats are having elected members of all sections of
I the society. There is representation of women, and weaker section of the
I society which are highly vulnerable to any type of disaster.
3) Participation as Community Decision Making: In this type of con~munity
participation, community takes decision at all stages, from project
formulation, funding to implementation. Technical staff and funding
agencies are assigned only advisory or regulatory roles. This form of
participation is a means of empowering local people to make their own
decisions concerning their disaster preparedness, mitigation or relief and
rehabilitation programmes. In other words, it is handling over control of
programmes to the beneficiaries, which external agencies adopting a
supporting as coinpared to a controlling role.
In disaster management, c o ~ n m u ~ ~participation

ity has more significance as all the
programmes, sl~ortterm or long term are for the benefit of the community.
Therefore, there is a need for continuous interaction between community, local
administration and other agencies involved from the initiation of the
programme1 project up to its implementation and monitoring. This interaction
can be visualized as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Interaction of Community with Various Organizations Involved in Disaster Management

Disaster Msnagcrnent i~ntI The three forms o l c o ~ n ~ n ~ ~participation
nity listed above cannot be entirely
Awareness exclusive. 11: nlost of the programmes, it is a mixture of all three forms. While
community participation ill decision mal;ing may be the ~~nderlying principle 00
wl~iclia is based, it is likely that community will contribute labour
and resources, and fi~l-ther,that some form of comnlunity organization will be
established,+orexisting organization strengthened.
Importa~lceand Need of community Participa t'lor1
A disaster ~nanagenie~lt project is liltely to [ail if the goals and methods did not
fit the needs and capacities of the intended beneliciaries,. There is a need for
radical changes in the attitude of progranlrne i~nplementationauthorities as well
as funding agencies. ~ e c e n t l ~World
; Bank and other donor agencies ]lave
moved towards procedures which allow target communities to be involved ill
programme planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation in Inany
human settlements projects and disaster management programmes,. This concept
is shown in Figi~re2.
all phases of a Project) m Evaluation
1 Participation I
I Monitoring 1
Figure 2: Community Particip;~tionC:oncept in Disaster Management
There are Inany practical bcnefits or advantages in having comn~unity

participation i11 disaster reduction ur rehabilitation programme. The more
important benefits are discussed below:
1) Cost Recluction
If Community is involved in planning, imple~nentatio~ and monitoring, cost of
project is reduced considerably. Otherwise, a big sun1 will have to go to outside
age~icies.
2) Efficiency
As project is of direct benefit to the community, pa~.ticipation of local people
allows for more efficient use of programme resources.
3) No Misunderstanding with Administration I
If people are working with administration, there is understanding and

transparency and therefore less problems due to misunderstandings between
implen~entationagencies (Government or Non-Goverii~~~entOrganizations) and
the community.
4) Socio-Cultul-a1accptability
The coln~nunityinvolvelnent will solve one of the i~nportantproblems of most of
the projects, i.e., socio-cultural Acceptability of these projects by the local
people, as the implementation agency is from outside and not having Itnowledge
of local social structure, culture, tradition and economy of the area.
r
: 5 ) Self-reliance and Self-dependence Community ~ a r t i e i ~ a t i o l i
and Awareness
, Co1ilmunity participation provides peoplc with the opportunity to take control
over thcir own lives and feel self-reliant. Otherwise for even small mitigation
measures, community will be dependent 011 outside agency or on Government.
I
6) Coverage I
I
More people will be benefited by the project, if there is co~n~nunity
pal-ticipation.
1 . 7) Sustainability
I In cornmu~iityparticipation, peoplc have a sense of involvement and ownership
in the programme. The project will sustain for long as conimiunity will do the
I follow-up, maintenance and make all efforts for its sustainance.
Note: i) Use the space,given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit I
I
1 ) List rlie i~sualtypes of comniunity participation. I
2 ) Write down five 111ostimportant advantages of community pa~ticipntion. 1)
18.3 ENSURING COMMUNITY AWARENESS
Importance qf Community Awareness
The main aim of community awareness prograrnlnes is to make the comnlunity

more informed, alert, self-reliant and capable of participating in all activities and
-;programmes of disaster nianagement in close collaboration with goveni~l~ent and
non-govern~nental organisations. The awareness will not only promote
com~nunityparticipation but also enable tlietn to understand the following :
I ) What can be the impact of particiilar disaster and what an individual, a

family or co~nmunitycan do to reduce its impact and save life and property.
2) Government's plan for disaster reduction aild available assistance in time of I
-- disasters.
,Disaster Management and 3) Government's limitations of resources and responsibilities.
Awareness
4) Need to cooperate with government to overcome th4e crisis and recover the
community as it is in their own interest.
5) Iniplementation of self-preparedness measures whenever required.
6) What community can do till any external help is available?
Type of Awareness required
The community slioi~ld be provided all necessary information available with

administration. The flow of information should continue even in the normal lion-
disaster periods. People should know that tlie community and government have
colnmon goals and are interdependent in coping with disasters. 'I-hey must work
together at every step to overcome tlie problelns which arise and to restore things
to normal.
Commi~nityshould be aware of tlie relevant. details of tlie disaster management

syste~nssuch as tlie following:
i) Designated s11elte1.sat the time of disaster. It may be school building or other

safe place, where people can immediately reach in disaster situatiori.
ii) Rescue operation. evacuation procedure, tlie shelters.
iii) Special warning signals, if any.
iv) Role of community in providi~igreliel'and reliabilitation programmes.
rr
v) kole of community in proper storage and distribution of relief s~~pplies.
vi) Providing'corsect infor~nationto tlie autliorities si~clias actual needs and
priorities of tl~ezffected co~n~uunity.
vii) Providing correct information to the media.
viii) Checlting ri~niours.
ix) Help most vul~ie~.able
section of tlie com~iii~nity
(old or disabled people,
Women and Children).
x) Provide information on past experiences.
Methods to Create Public Awarer~ess
There are varioi~smeans for creating public awareness. Some important methods
are listed below:
1 ) Use of media and press

2) Short filmsIFoll<songs
4) Orgjnising training camps

5) sholtbtreet plays in fairslreligious fn~ictionslotliercelebrations and occasiolis .
of public gathering
' 6) Tliroilgli schoolslcolleges
7) Special lectilres by co~nmunityleaders or well known persons of tlie area,

\ "
8) Group discussidns alnong Maliila Mandals, Yoi~thClubs, Senior Citizc~is
Community awareness is the key to community participation. Well informed and

well aware people will have more role-clarity in disaster reduction and ,
preparedness programmes. They will be able to contribute tlieir best if they I<now Commt~nityParticipation
the iss~les involved as well as various participants in the past disastcr and Awareness
managedent instances and their own expected roles in tlie process. They will
become more self-reliant in the long-run and less dependent on the government
or any other external agency. The most i~nporta~it benefit of tlie community
, awareness is that they will be able to judge their strength and the weakness and
to identify tlie areas in wliicli they really need outside assistance.
18.4 TECNNIQLTES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNITY

PARTICIPATION
I
I
I
I
Techniques of Commu~lityParticipation trietl by CASA
- A good example of co~iimunityparticipation was initiated by CASA (Church's
Auxiliary for Social Action) after the 1977 cyclone in Andlira Pradesli, by
, I
creating awareness among the rural com~nunitiesand building up a network of
I
comni~~~iity based peoples' representative institutions in the project area. These
I bodies are operational, effective and visible in the villages. CASA organised the
I follo\ving in the affedted villages:
1 ) Village Development Associations

2) Disaster Task Forces
- 3). Youth GI-oups
'I'liere is a positive impact of these village level organisations as pcople are able
to take decisions on tlieir own. This has created confidence, a feeling of dignity,
I pride and self-rcliance among the local people. The idea ol'disaster task forces at
tlie community level has proved to be a good technique and is described below.
Disaster Task Force (DTF)
Local nien and women constitute a disaster task force after a series of
discussions, wliicli can work ~iotonly for disaster prepareclness but in arranging
emergency evacuation and relief within a village. Identification of the members
of DTF is done by local people tliemselves. They are documenting all
proceedings of meetings and selecting tlieir own office bearers. They allocatc
responsibilities to tlie ~ n e ~ n b eand
r s ~nobiliseresources for emergencies.
t
The major responsibilities of inembers of DTF are:
I) Monitoring advance cyclone warnings on radio, television and telephone and

J inform local people verbally or thorough loi~dspeakers.
2) Alert relief helicopters with red flags in ~iiaroonedvillages.
3) Collection of essential commodities like food, meclicine, firewood, drinking
water, etc., and stockpiling them.
4) Managi~igemergency kitchens.
5) Liaison with state gove~*nme~it
& NGOs, for post-disaster support and
rehabilitation.
Extnedi~ig tlie concept, a few villages of District Machilipatnam mobilised

varying amounts in casli from local households and established a Disaster Relief
Fund. This fund is mobilised, monitored and managed by tlie local disaster task
force. For example, in La~ikapallivillage, profits from the annual auctio~iof a
Disaster hlnnagemcnt and fresh water fish tank totalling Rs. 1500/- was deposited in the fund, by DTF
Awareness mernbers. 111other villages, a contribution ranging from Rs. 10 to Rs. 50 per
Ilousellold per year was collected and used for purcllase of rliaterials and food not
available in case of etnergencies.
CASA also osganised training programme for the members of DTFs and
community leaders. Such common programmes created inter-village ~letworlcing'
which helped corisiderably in the dissemination of ideas regarding disaster
preparedlless through common meetings of neighbouring villages. Consequently,
there exis1 DTFs in neighbouring villages as well laying a strong foundation for
disaster preparedness promotion and relatecl activities on a wider scale.
Cornrnl~nityParticipation in Spccific Hazard Mitigation
Apart from rolc of co~n~nunity ill post-disaster activities, they can play m~ijorrole
in pre-disaster activities such as disaster mitigation and prcparedness. A few
examples of com~nunitypatticipation in specific disasters are given below:
1) Floods
i) Awareness of flood plains and coi~structionof flood resistant houses by

using water resistant ~naterialand strong foundations.
ii) Clearance of sediments.
iii) Construction of dylces and e~l~banlanents.
iv) Afforestation i n catchment areas.
v) Evacuatio~ioperations.
vi) Appropriate agricultural practices in flood plains.
2) Landslides
i) Identification of active landslide spots.

ii) Avoid commercial and ~tsidentialconstructions in hazard prolic areas.
iii) Malcing strong foundations of structures.
iv) Contribution ill terracing and forestry.
slope stabilization tl~sougl~
v) Compaclion of ground locally.
vi) Making rockfall barriers.
i) Watershed rnanage~nent,construction of check dams, reservoirs, ponds,

water tanks, wclls to utilize every drop of water.
ii) Afforestration and catchment area treatment.
iii) Changi~lgcropping patterns.
iv) Live-Stock (Cattle) Management.
v) Encouragement to non-agricultural vocations and small industries.
i) ~o'tistruc~ion
o r wind resistant houses (which can be rebuilt easily).
ii) Avoid loose material such as nietal/aluminium sheets, which can blow
away and cause damage or illjury elsewhere.
- ,
iii) Construction of multi-purposc cyclone shclter
iv) Deploy battery operated comn~unicationsystems, use of tla11sis:or rildios.
5 ) Earthquakes
i) Construction o r earthqualie resistant builclings in highly scismic areas

following the building codes.
--.-
ii) People in vulnerable arcas shoulcl be provided with knowledge ol'
first-aid and Ilre-lighting.
i i i ) Retrofitting of' weak buildings.
iv) Storage of fire extinguishers, excavation tools at some known places.
< .
V) Training of masons in the highly seismic areas, so that they can construct
safer buildings.
Cheek Your Progress 2
Note: i ) Use the space givcn bclow for your answcrs.

i i ) Cllccl<your answers with Iliose given at the encl oSt.11~'Unit
I ) List out I'our important methods for creating public awareness.
in mitigating
3) Writc down Ilve points highlightin~the role oS conl~nu~iity
tloods.
18.5 LET US SUM UP

In disaster management, t11e1.e is need of active community participation and
awareness. Only Government efforts or NGOs help is not sufficient to educe
disaster impacts or mitigation and preparedness. Awareness is necded at all
levels of the society. It can be created through ~necliaand press, exhibitions,
training camps, schools, colleges, ad community discussions.
Community participation is needed as it is more cost-erfectivc, cfficienl and

provides self-reliance and confidence to tlic vulnerable com~nunity.
Community participation in specific disasters like floods, lanclslides, will be

different. So community should be aware about the disaster possibility and rislts
involved and act accordingly Tor mitigation and preparedness.
.
Disaster Management R I I ~ The main aim of community awareness and participation is to have well
A~vsrer~ess infbr~ned, self-reliant, confident and well-prcpalaed c o ~ n ~ n u n i t ywhich can
indepenclently take decisio~ls,and use local lanowledge and resources in disaster
situations. Tlie com~nunity also includes community's cooperation
e with Government, non-governmental organizations or external fi~ndingagencies .
at every step of disaster mitigation, preparedness and recovery. When
co~n~nunity is wol.lting with Governmenl or NGOs or external agency, there is
total transparency and no room for misunderstanding.
18.6 KEY WORDS

-- --
Exclusive Separate from each other

NGO IVon-Governinent Organization
Senior Citizens Elderly persons (generally beyond the
age of 65 years)
Sustainability Maintainabi Iity
Tal-gct Cornmuriity Community aimed at
18.7 REFENCES AND FURTHER REAIDNGS
Aysan, Yasemin; Clyton, A. ; Cory, 6; Davis; I and Sandcrson, D. (1995),

'Developing Building for Safety Programmes', Intermediate Technology
Puhlicatio~ns,London.
Based Disastcr Management - A Case Study
Kumar, Jayant (1995), 'Com~iii~nity
From Coastal Andlira Pradesh' (Mimeograph). I
Oakley, Peter et.al. (1991) 'Projects with People', International Labour

Organ isat ion, Geneva.

EXERCISES
Clieclc Your Progress 1

e Pal-ticipation as community contribution
0 Participation as by the project Authorities
e Participation as community decision nialting.
2) Your answer should include any five of the following:

Cost Reduction; Efficiency; Self-reliance; Socio-Cultural Acceptability;
Sustainability; W idc coverage and good understanding with the
administration.

0 Use of media and press; Short Filnis; Organising Training camps;
Posters/Cartoons, Group Discussions.

* Awareness of flood plains, Clearance of sediments, Construction of
I
embankments Afforestation in catchment areas; Evacuation operations.

UNIT 19 PUBLIC AWARENESS
PROGRAMMES
Structure
r 19.0 Objectives
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Beliefs and Myths Regarding Disasters
19.3 Public Awareness Programmes Through Face-To-Face Interactions,
Electronics Media, Print MediaJMaterial
19.4 Training of Trainers for Creating Awareness among Public
t 19.5 Let Us Sum Up
19.6 Key Words
19.7 References
19.0 OBJECTIVES
Afier reading this Unit, you should be abre to-
e explain tlie importance of Public Awareness Programmes in Disaster

Management;
e Describe the techhiques which can bc used in tlie Public Awareness
Programmes; and
I
discuss tlie importance of training in creating public awareness.
19.1 INTRODUCTION
From times immemorial, human beings have faced disasters. The international
Federation of Rcd Cross and Red Crecent societies lias estimates that every year
011 the average, natural disasters kill over 150,000 people and disrupt lives of 129
million people all over the world. In India there is not State wliicli is free from
nati~raldisasters. l'here are four types of disaslers, common in ihe countl.y i.e.
Floods, Droughts, Earthquakes and Cyclones. Landslides and Bushfire are also
common in the Hinlalayan Statcs. There are two approaches towards the
mitigation of these natural disasters. First is "Structural Approach" in which tlie
main emphasis is on the planning and construction of structural measures which
niay resist the forces unleashed by tlie natural phenomenon such as ~ a r t l i ~ u a k e s '
or Floods. Construction of embankments regulators, drains or by-pass channels
in flood-prone areas are examples of structural approach.
The second ~nitigationapproach is know as "Non-Str~~ctural approacliJ7.In this

approach, empl~asisis laid on disaster related legislation (Legal Framework),
Incentives or providing grants and subsidies to tlie people to include mitigation
measures in their construction activities. Training and Education are tlie other
important aspects of illis approach. For effective implementation of any
programme,, public involvement is very necessary, and this can come through
awareness only. TIILIS,public awareness is the 1110stimportant non-structural tool
to deal with disasters.
As part of the Public Awareness Programme for disaster mitigation, the local
people should be made aware of the following:
a) Types of disasters likely to occur in the area and the time and li4equencyof
their likely occurrence.
b) The vulnerability of tlie area to tliese disasters.
, I
Disaster Management and c) The types of risks and elements at risk due to the disasters.
Awareness
d) According to the vulnerability atid risk involved, what type of mitigation
measures should be adopted
e) Based on vulnerability and risk assessment, a local preparedness plan slio~~ld
be prepared in consultation with tlie people.
f) They should know the available resources and the help likely to be available
at the time of disaster from gover~lmentaland non-govenimental sources. .-
g) The importance and need of community participation should be impressed on
the people.
19.2 BELIEFS AND MYTHS RECAlRDING DISASTERS
There are various myths and beliefs regarding natural disasters. Over the ages,
these disasters have generally been taken as nature's anger and accepted by
people as their fate or destiny. Every region and every culture have many
examples of belief and myths related to the origin and occurrence of disasters.
Now with the increasing awareness, people have stai-ted realising the actual
causes and appreciate the scientific reasons for natural disasters.
The first and foremost awareness in disaster manage~nelit is to remove the

irrational beliefs by providing basic knowledge to the people regarding the
different natural calamities. The causes of tlie disasters and tlieir mitigation
measures should be explained to them in tlieir own language. 'This should be the
first and foremost component of any public awareness programme.
Who can help in removing existing myths and and irrational beliefs
Taking the children into confidence at the scliool stage turns out to be the most
effective tool for removing irrational beliefs. Starting from primary educatioii up
to higher education, scientific knowledge should be imparted regarding natural
disasters, tlieir impacts, losses due to various disasters and areas most vulnerable
for a particular disaster. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and
Colnmuiiity Based Organisations (CBOs) can also play very important role in
creating and upgrading awareness among masses, regarding area specific
disasters and measures to be taken to get prepared for such events. Some of tlie
local clubs like Rotary club, Lion's club may also take up disaster awareness
programmes. These clubs have enough resources and some times they adopt
villages for some specific social work. In disaster prone areas these clubs can
create awareness for construction of cyclone shellers or earthquake resistant
buildings using appropriate building materials. They can prepare c1ia1-t~ of Do's
and Dont's for those areas and local people may by made aware accordingly.
Similarly, education regarding causes of other likely disasters and preventive
measures may be imparted to vulnerable cominunities.
Now in India, we have a very effective tool or a delivery system viz.,

'Panchayats' for creating correct awareness among people and provide tliem
area-specific education. Panchayat membcrs are the elected representatives of
the people in villages. There is 30% participation of women. If, Pancliayat
members are sensitized properly, they can help in creating public awareness in
masses. People will understand tliem better as they are from them and will
communicate in the local language and idiom.
In brief, for getting people's cooperation and effective participation,

Government, Non-Government Organisations, schools, social clubs, Panchayats,
all should work together. They should remove the superstitions and myths
regarding disasters from people's mind and provide them with the right: kind of Public Awareness
illformation, knowledge of disaster mitigation and preparedness. Prograrnmcs
The ob-jective of creating public awareness is to promote a well informed, alert

and self-reliant community possessing scientific attitude and who can help .and
cooperate with aid agencies (government 01- non-government) in disaster
management

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end oftlie unit.
L
1) What tjlpe of awareness should be created among the people in disaster

lnanagement?
2) Who can help in removing existing myths and irrational beliefs?
19.3 PUBLIC AWARENESS PROGRAMMES

C
There are three maill approaches for creating proper public awareness
programmes-
?, 1) Face to Face Interaction
Face to face interaction is most effective in generating a wortl~whilepublic

awareness programme. In India, the rural people are more vulnerable to natural
disasters. These people have low literacy rate but they can be educated for
disaster mitigation by calling a public meeting or organising street plays 01.
inviting them to a group discussion. They can clear their doubts at one to one
interaction sessions. This kind of awareness can be provided by the local
I goverllment functiol~aries,NGOs or Pa~ichayatmembers. Schools can also play
important role in this type of interaction.
l These discussion sessions should be designedlprepared thoughtfully to meet the

local requirement, They sl~ouldbe in simple local language and their impact
Disaster Management and should be monitored. These programmes should be a continuous activity. Face to
Awareness face interaction is possible through the followirlg ways-
a Illustrated Lectures
a Meetings
o 'Nukkad-Nataks'- Street plays
Group discussions and Debates
a Social gatherings or in community fiinctions.
Door to Door campaign
Panchayat nieetings
2) Electronic Media
In India, the irse of electronic media is becoming a very important means of

creating Inass awareness. I n providing disaster warnings also, this tool has given
positive results. T.V. and Radio are reaching the remote corners of the vast land
that is India. Transistor radios have made the facility available even where there
is not electricity. There are two advantages of the use of electronic media-
i) The awareness programme may be broadcast and telecast repeatedly so that

it can have ~naxilnurncoverage in the target area.
ii) The message registers on the masses.
The continuous use of electronic media in disaster awareness and education will
also maintain the awareness level of the target community. It should be taken as
a regular programme on electronic media as is done for family planning, literacy
or other similar mass awareness programmes.
For radio and T.V., special progra~nmes/serialscan be prepared on various

/natural disasters to educate people regarding-
*
a What basic preparations can be made in the pre-disaster period?
a What to look for early warnings.
8 What they should do at the time of disaster?
a What type of help Government is likely to provide at the time of disaster?
8 The role of community in disaster prevention, preparedness and
response/relief?
a The community should understand that natural hazards can not be prevented
but disasters can.
Disasters are not discriminative. They affect individuals, families and
community irrespective of age or status. They affect -government
infrastructure and services and paralyse the life support systems.
a The Co~nmunityand government are interdependent in disaster management.
They should cooperate witli each other to minimise human sufferings due to
natural disasters. The community should work witli Government macliinery
to restore the basic facility and bring normal life quickly back after the
disaster. They should also appreciate the limitations of government and .
available resources.
a The concept of self-reliance and self-help in the disaster management should
be highlighted.
a Good case studies of community participation and role of community in Public Awareness
disaster mitigation should be shown. Progrnrnntes
0 Media can show the negative impacts of dependency and expectancy of the
people in relief and recovery. The positive features of self-reliant, well-
prepared community being able to face any difficult situation successfully
should be high.lighted.
a Use of traditional lcnowledge in disaster preparedness may be highlighted
through media.
e National and State resources for disaster prevention, preparedness and relief
can be described so that there may be Inore transparency between
government progralnlnes and the commu~~ity/people involved in disaster
i management.
3) Print MediaIPublicity Materials

t
This is the iinpoi-ta~ltmethod to create public awareness among the literate
people. The print media usually educates the people as well as the concerned
officers. Press call also highlight the strength and weakness of any public
awareness programme launched by government or the people. The print media
can also assess the effectiveness of a programme.
Awareness material can be prepared in printed form, which can pravide-
i) basic needs or requirements of the community for disaster prevention as well

as in relief work.
ii) information about progratnmes assisted by government, NGO or
international donorslagency in the area of disaster tnanagement.
iii) about the safe places at the time of early warning.
iv) clear instructions about do's and dont's in a particular disaster situation.
v) the type of actions, that should be taken by the colnmunity to prevent
disasters. eg. Various risk zones and necessary preventive techniques in
constructio~lof building in those areaslplaces.
vi) other disaster related education in suitable forin such as.
* notices
* posters
* cartoons
* photographs
0 exhibitions
* films, documentaries.
vii) Thefe are Inany other ways to communicate disaster awareness related
info;mation such as printing short message or slogan on
Leaflets
Tickets (Bus tickets, Cineina tickets)
Shopping bags
@ Banners
* Other methods of displays at 1)~iblicfi~nctionsor on sport events, country
faits etc.
-- - - - -- -

Awareness 119.4 TRAINING OF TRAINERS FOR CREATING
PUBLIC AWAmNESS
The creation of public awareness requires proper training on how to provide

disaster related education to the people. There should be specific training module
for specific target group. The following people should be trained to provide the
knowledge to the people i l i the vulnerable community. Such trained persons
will be the trainers for the public.
i) Government Officials involved in the process of disaster management.

ii) NGOs and CBOs.
iii) School teachers and volunteers from clubs, .youth forums and Mahila
Mandals.
iv) Local Leaders.
As stated earlier, disaster management is a ~nultidisciplinarysibject, and wide

range of functions and skills. Some of the ilnportaiit components are-
@ Planning
0 Organisation
0 Management of day to day activities
0 Identifying counter disaster actions and their implementation.
0 Mallagemelit of rescue, relief, first-aid, and communications.
Other crisis management actions.
For skill development in these areas, special training modules, compatible with
the national and local preparedness or contingency plan, should developed. The
responsibility of providing training to these trainers should also be well
identified.
Broadly, there are four basic areas in which training is required to create public
awareness of disaster management. These are as follows:
i) Disaster management a general module

ii) Skill.training for emergency operations, rescue
(swimming, climbing, first aid,
resuscitation, fire fighting), welfare,
communication etc.
iii) Coordination all related functions.
/
iv) Specialised training Construction programmes and other
technical knowledge for specific
disasters.
It should be noted that the broad objectives of training are to teach people to
carryout specific tasks based upon accepted methodology.

I
'1) Name the three important ways to create public awareness? Public Awarcness
Progr.ammes
2) List the ways by which face to face interaction is possible.
19.5 LET US SUM UP
This Unit has brought out. the importance of Public Awareness which is one of
the most effective non-structural disaster mitigation measures. The local people
sl~ouldbe aware of the vulnerability of that area for the likely disasters. They
sliould also know the elements at risk and expected loss due to these disasters.
People should also know the existing contingency. or preparedness plan for
specific disaster as well as availability of resources through government and non-
government organisations.
The Unit has discussed the need to dispel the prevailing beliefs and myths
regards disasters and to have a realistic appreciation of the naFure cause and
impact or disasters. This public awareness can be best brought through schools,
clubs, electronic and print media. Face-to-face interaction are most effective in
the context of a large segment of the population being illiterate. The unit has also
discussed the training aspects for creating public awareness.
19.6 KEY WORDS

4
Counter disaster actions ' : Anti-disaster actions

Myths : Imaginary stories based on popular
traditional beliefs
LegislationJLegal Frame Work : ~ a & and
s Acts
Electronic Media : Television and radio
Print Media : Newspapers, Magazines and other ,
printed material
Resuscitation : Artificial respiration, Reviving a
drowned or choked person by restorjng
t
the breathing process. 29
Disaster Managenlent and
Awareness 19.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Sllarma, V.I<. (199 5), 'Disnsler Manrrge11ieiit ', IIPA. New Delhi.
Carter, W. Niclc (1991), 'L>isu.sler Munu,qen7er1t - A Di.s~rsler M~nluge~.',~
Hu17dbook1,Asian Development Bank, Marnta Publication.
Reed, Sheila B. (1 992), 'Inlroduclion lo hazurds ', UNDRO Publication.

EXERCISES
I ) Your answer sliould include the following points:
Types of disasters lilcely to occur in the area and their probable tiriie and
frequency.
* Types of risks due to these disasters and thc vulnerability of tlie area to
Ihese.
e Type of niitigatiSn measures needed keeping in view the risks and
vulnerability.
* Resources available locally and from outside.
2) Your answer should include tlie following points:.
* School and collage teachers tlirough students
* Non-government orgariizations (NGOs)
* Coriiinuriity Based organizations (CBOs)
Pancliayat ,

1 ) Your answer should include: Face-to-Face interaction; Electronic Media and
Print MediaJPublicity Material.
2) Your answer s h o ~ ~ include

ld tlie following:
Lectures; Meetings; Group Discussions; Street plays; Door to door
campaign; Pancliayat Meetings.
UNIT 20 INFORMATION ORGANISATION
AND DISSEMINATION
Structure '
20.0 Objectives
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Information Concept : Meaning Types and Importance
20.3 Methods of Col lecting Relevant Information
20.4 Organising Inforlnation
20.5 Effective dissemination of Information
20.6 Feedback for Improving Information Collection ancl dissemination
\
20.7 Let Us Sum Up
20.8 Key Words
20.9 References
V
20.1 0 Answers to Check You Progress Exercises.
20.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading tlie Unit, yo11should be able to
o know tlie meaning and importance of information especially in tlie context of

disaster management,
* understand tlie different types of information,
learn tlie various methods of collecting and organizing relevant information,
* appreciate tlie i~~iportanceof effective dissemination of information, and
.o d i s c ~ ~ s liow
s to get feedback B o ~ n different sources for improving
inforniation collection and dissemination.
*' 20.1 INTRODUCTION
Proper information .is essential for nay rational or planned activity. Tlierel'ore, all
organizations (big or small) and .even individuals neecl to get information and
handle it. Tlie effort is required to be sustainecl over period of time, and includes
the activities of collecting infor~natio~i, sorting it out, storing it, directing it to
appropriate places and ~~tilizing it at "appropriate time in various tasks before tlie
incliviclual or tlie organisation. In this process, there are three important aspects,
i.e., information, data and organisation. It means tliat every information may not
t be usefill for the organisation. Different types of data are required to develop an
information system, accor+dingto tlie neecls of the organisation. Tlie present is an
era wliicli is largely dominated by information technology wliicli is tlie most
w..,
influential and widespread technology in modern times. Every sector of life,
(viz., industry, governmental, business, education, social work, public
adniinistration as well as disaster management) rnalte use of information and they
' shoulcl develop own information systems according to tlie special needs of that
sector. in this unit, we shall discuss tlie various aspects of information
organization and dissemination with particular reference to disaster management.
20.2 INFORMATION CONCEPT: MEANING, TYPES

AND IMPORTANCE
Meaning and importance of information
' Any data, encryption, description, pliotograpli, sketcli or map about a person,
place, thing event or s~lbjectconstitutes the information about it. But haphazard
Disaster Management and information does not malce anybody wise. Only when the information is
Awareness properly collected, arranged verified, analysed and presentcd in an
understandable form that it turns into reliable knowledge which then becomes a
powerfill tool in the hands of an individual or organization for planning and
operational purposes. That is why it is said that systematic data is information,
analysed information is Icnowledge and knowledge is power. Hence the
impol-tance of information is self-evident.
Types of information
Different types of information are traditionally stored in different institutions and

organisations, text documents in librarics and archives, administrative
information in tlie records of 01-ganisations,scientific data in laboratories and
statistics in statistical offices. Many institutions may liave marc than one type of
information. Each organisation 01. institution has its own ways of processing and
administering the information types that it deals with. Recent advances in
information technology have made possible lhc combined PI-ocessing and
communication of different types of information by multimedia or integsated
systems. So first of all we should Icnow various types of information and the way
they contribute to various activities, especially those related to disaster
management.
There are three broad types of information:
1) Descriptive information
Most of the organisations, of any size in st~.uctureand functioning, liave a set of

rules. This may involve salaries of tlie people worlcing, their various functions,
accounting record boolts, inventories of stores and warehouses, individual
performance records, etc.
The organisations involved in disaster management may have many descriptive

information to keep in their computers 01.files sucli as:
o Case studies of earlier disaster events.

Manpower involved in various activities.
(~re~arednes;,
Relief, Rehabilitation).
Stocltpiles/warelio~~se
Records.
Record of Emergency kits (Medicines, Tents, etc.)
Any other descriptive matter sucli as organisations involved, resources
~~tilized
etc.
2) Probabilistic Information
These are the infol.matioii on the basis of which description of the situation can
be inferred or guessed. Such information call be of two varieties.
i) Predictive Nature - can be irsed for forecast. eg. The amount of rainfall data
in tlie catchment area will provide information, which will predict the
amount of water flow (flow rate) in the river.
ii) Inferred Information - This is the infor~natibnwhich attempts to describe
the situation by means of inrerence from a limited set of observations or
measurements. This is tlie case, where a statistical sample is used to project a
general patte1.11or a larger pattern. 'The heat or cold wave situation over a
large,area inferred on tlie basis of temperature observations of one or two
places is an example of this type. I
1 3) Qualitative Info~mation 1;lforInation Organisation
snrl Dissenlinstion
There [nay be the following types of Qualitative Information:
i) Explanatory Information - which explailis or elaborates the brief or coded

inforniation.
ii) Qualifyirig and Qualitative information - which provides additional
descriptive information of a for~iialsystem.
iii) Patterns and Norms - this information will determine tlie norms i.e., how
things should be dolie and tlie values according to wliich evaluations or
judgement will be made.
I
iv) Judgemental Information
approacli/~netliodologyplan.
- approving or disapproving tlie
Importance of Information in disaster management

Y
The safety and welfare of people and their belongings are at stake in disaster
management. The importance of inforniation in disaster management lies i n the
fact that information plays a very significant role in cvery spllcre of disaster
situation. This is depicted in ilgure 1 .
1 Vulnerability Risk I~lstit~ltional
Public Ed~~cation Resource Warning

and Training Base System
I a
Figure 1: Imporlance of Infolmi~tionin aclivities related to Disasler Management ,
The i~iiportanceof inforniation is quite fruitfill in the pre and post disaster
sit~~ations
as also at the time of tlie occurrellce ofdisasters.
=
d
.
1) Pre-disaster situation
i) Early War~iing
ii) l'lanning for Preparedlless
iii) Mitigation optio~isavailable for a specific disaster
iv) Vulnerability.and risk assessment
2) Disaster situation
i) Real time Warning

ii) Taking ad~iiinistrativedecisions
Disaster Management and iii) Provide appropriate and timely relief
Awareness
iv) Resources available with various organizations
v) In monitoring and evaluation of relief efforts made by the Government
and NGOs
3) Post-Disaster situation
i) Rehabilitation for the affected community according to their

a) Social needs
b) Culti~ralneeds
c) Economic background
The most important requirement in respect of information is that it should be

Concise
Accurate
Complete
0 Relevant
Check Your Progress 1 , &.

1) What do you.understand by information?
2) How many types of information you know about?
20.3 METHODS OF COLLECTING RELEVANT

INFORMATION
111fol.rnationcan be available from a number of sources, but before accepting it,
the receiver must verify the reliability, accuracy and completeness of it.
T]le following are some of the effective ways of collecting information: Information Organisation
and Dissemination
1) Libraries
a) Research Repol-ts
b) Annual Repol-ts
c) Pamphlets
d) Journals
e) Reference Books
2) INTERNET
3) Interviews Questionnaires, Surveys, Network Observations
1
4) Observations -
a) f r o n ~ s i t e
4
b) from field network

C) fro111remote sensing tools SLICII as radars and satellites
5) Mass Media
a) Newspapers and Periodicals
b) Radio
C) Television
6) ' Meetings
a) Seminars
b) Conferences
C) Worksliops
Information collected from research reports, annual reports, pamphlets, journals

and reference books is usually very accurate and focused. One call get a proper
accoLllit of tlie subject from them.
Interviews can be taken if the number cf people is less. ExpelZs and experiencctd
people in tlie field are interviewed to gather information. However, if the number
of people .is large, then the questionllaire or survey method call be used to collect
relevant information. The questionnaires n~ilstbe prepared carefirlly in order to
get ~lsefill inputs fro111 maximum people. But, though this method is very
effective, it only reaches a certain number of people-the literate people.
The mass lnedia ,of communication like newspapers, Journals, radio, television
*d
atid Internet have brought about an infortnation explosion. Television and radio
provide information to people in different walks of life. In today's world these
are undo~~btedly tlie biggest source of all types of inforniation.
The field observatiolls provide the scientific inforlnatiorl necessary to study the
disastrous event and to forecast its behaviour.
Last b ~ far
~ tfrom least is the information collectio~ithrough meetings, seminars,
conference and workshops. People who participate in sucli meetings get all
opportunity to know the latest techniques and tlie ongoing research and
developme~itin the relevant fields. When the experts and others get together to
exchange their views, they actually sliare each other's knowledge and
experience.
Awareness 20.4 ORGANISPNG INFORMATION
From the earlier section, it is clear that there are various ways of information
collection. The next step is to organise information in a proper manner. A
suggested format in which information about a cyclone disaster event may be
organized is given below to serve as a typical example. It may be mentioned that
maintaining a proper sequence is essential for useful organization of disaster
related information:
1 ) Introduction (about the place, socio-cultural aspects)

2) Disaster history of the place (frequency of cyclones, previous history,
damages caused)
3) About tlie disaster, viz., Cyclone (wind speed, area covered, other
characteristics)
4) Damage caused by tlie disaster (Cyclone)
a) Death ( H~~manlLivestocldPo~~
Itry/Otliers)
b) D.amage to Crops
c) Damage to Uortic~ilture
d) Damage to H o ~ ~ s e s
e) Damage to Industries
f) Damage to Infrastructure
Comm~uiities
g) Damage to Artisa~is/Fisllen~ne~i/Weavers/OtI~er
h) Damage to 0t:lier Sectors
i) Total number of persons affected
5) Response (Relief Provided to the sufferers)
a) by Gove~.nmentAgencies
b) by Non-Governmental Organisations
c) by International Agencies
6) Rehabilitation: S I I O I ~& Long-tenn measures taken for
a) Socio-cultural, and
b) Economic Rehabilitation
7) Lessons learned
8) Long-tenn Approach for Mitigation
This is just one example. The total illfonnation, if organised in a proper form is
much more useful to field workers, control room, authorities researchers, trainers
and the public.
20.5 EFFECTIVE DISSEMINATION OF

INFORMAQTION
In disaster situations, information should reach the authorities and people as early
as possible and there should be effective means of dissemination of these
information. Tlie disseminated information should be authentic and accurate. The
fastest available communication method should be used. Tlie information should
not lie unattended at tlie receiving end. It s h o ~ ~ lbe
d quickly converted into
action. Most importantly, the information sliould be ~ ~ p d a t eatdfrequent intervals.
If the danger has passed, a de-warning information sliould be disseminated
36 quickly.
Before dissemination of information, care should be talten to exclude any Information Orgnnisation
~ni~information that ~niglitliave crept in advertently otherwise.
or disinfor~natio~i and Dissemination
Bllt this verification process should be so arranged tliat it does not delay tlie
dissemination of information which needs to be quick in order lo be timely and
useful.
20.6 ' FEEDBACK FOR IMPROVING INFORMATION

COLLECTION AND DISSEMINATION
It is absolutely essential to have feedback information from the field from tlie
people and the disaster management personnel. Feedback informatio~iis required
on every aspect sucli as nature of tlie disaster, effect on tlie people and property,
tiinely reception of warnivgs, i~sefulnessof warnings, rescue and reliabilitation
activities etc. There are several ways of getting the feedback. A survey may be
conducted im~nediatelyafter tlie disaster, which will provide tlie correct feedbaclc
and people's perceptions. Past experience has shown that only Government
machinery is not enougli to deal with disasters atid people's participation is
required. Regular reedback is essential for reviewing and upgrading tlie entire
disaster ~naliage~nent process.
Checlr Your Progress 1

ii) Clieclc your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
' 1) List at least five ways of collecti~iginformation.
2) What do you uliderstand by "Effective Dissemiriation of Information"?
20.7 LET US SUM UP
Information is the base froln which we derive knowledge and formillate action
plans for disaster management or carry out operational work during disaster
situations. Information plays a key role in dealing with disasters at every slate
, viz., pre-disaster; during disaster and post-disaster stages. Herein 'lies tlie
i11lportance of infortnation in tlie context of disaster management.
Disaster Management and There are different ways of collecting information but it is vel-y essential to
Awareness organise the infor~nationproperly. Only then, information can be utilized quickly
and 'effectively. In this aspect, feedback from the field (from affected people,
from the rescue and rehabilitation personnel, media etc.) is very necessary to
update tlie information so that tlie action plans can be updated. Effective and
quiclc dissemination of information is equally imponant.
20.8 KEY WORDS

Data Large amount of infol-mation
Real-time In actual time i.e., during disaster
Dissemination Distribution or Cornm~l~iication
of in:lbsmation
Encryption Data in coded Form
Misin fortriation Incorrect information (~rsually~~nintentional)
Disi~iformation Wrong or misleading infc~~.mation( ~ ~ s u a l l y
deliberate)
20.9 REFERENCES AND FLTRTHER READINGS

Avgeroir C & CornTord Tony, (1993), Develol~hg 61funrlufior7 Sy,v(et~r.s-
Concepts, Issues und Pracfice, MacMi l Ian Press Ltd.
Bhatnagr, S. C & Bjoln - Anderson, N. (1990), I1?jbr17zutioiili.cl?nolo~y in
Developing Cottntrie.~,No~.th-Holland,Amsterdam.
Banerjee, U. K (1992): I11Jbrrnafion Tet,hlrology ,for Cotl~nlonMun, Computer
Society of India and Concept Publishing Company, New Dellli.

EXERCISES
Cliecli Your Progress 1
1 ) Y,our answer sliould include the following points:

e Information consists of any data, elicryptions, description, photograph,
drawing or map about some person, place, thing event or subject. In
order to be useful information slioi~ldnot bc haphazarcl b ~ r tit should be
properly collected, verified, analyzed and stored properly.
2) Your answer should inclucle the following points:

a Descriptive Information; P1.obabi1ist.i~ Information; Qualitative
Information.

Libraries; Interviews; Questionnaires, Si~rveys,Network observations;
Mass media, Meetings, INTERNET.

111fo1-mationshould reach the recipient q~licltly thoirgh the fastest
available coinmuiiication system.
Information should not lie unattended or i~ni~tilized
at the receiving end.
a Inforniation slioilld be updated frequently.
e De-warning infor~nation s110uld be disseminated if the danger from Informatioil Organisation
disaster has been averted or has passed away. 'and Disseinination
e Misinfol-mation and disi~iforrnatio~~

should be carefully but quicltly
excluded from information dissemination.
UNIT 21 DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Role of Relevant District Administrative Agencies
Interaction With Other Agencies
Comlnunication Networl(
Role of Sub-District Administration
Relief Measures
Reliabilitatioti
Let Us S~tlnUp
Key Words
Answers to Clieck Your Progress Exercises
21.0 OBJECTIVES
After regding this unit, you slio~ildbe able:
Q to i~nderstandtlie working mechanism of tlie District Administration atid

other field level agencies in taclcling disaster situations; and
to understand strategies for relief and rehabilitation measures at field level.
21.1 INTRODUCTION
Tlie District Adnzinistration is the focal point for field level orga~iizatiolisand
implenlentatidn of all government contillgelicy plans related to disaster
management. Considerable powers have therefore been vested in tlie District
Collector to carry out operations effectively in tlie sliol-test possible time.
The District Administration is required to prepare in adva~icea contingency

district disaster management plan depending on tlie type of disasters likely in tlie
district. Coutingency Platis are required to keep into account the type of
preparedness atid tlie relief material required to be mobilized. Tlie concertled
departments need to work togetlier in a coordinated manner and provide an
efficient feedback and monitoring system to tlie District Collector.
21.2 ROLE OF RELEVANT DISTRICT

ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES.
I
India is a Parliamentary Delnocracy with a federal structure. Botli tlie Union
. Government and tlie State Governments are rill1 by elected representatives. The
framework within which tlie government is run is laid down in a written
I Constitution. The country lias a well establislied administrative set LIPboth in tlie -
' States and in tlie Central Goverriment:The country's day-to-day administration
I
- centres around tlie District Collector (also k~iownas tlie District Magistrate or
I Deputy Comlz~issionerin sonie States) wlio heads tlie administrative organization
in a District. Tlie country is divided into Districts of varying sizes each headed
by a District Collector. In some States a number of Districts are grouped togetlier
to form Divisiolis headed by Divisio~ialCo~nmissioners.The head of tlie State's
dministratiue set-up is tlie Chief Secretary. The State Headquarters has, in
I addition, a ~iurnberof Secretaries heading the varioiis Departments handling
I
specific subjects under the overall supervisioris and co-ordination of tlie Cliief
Secretary. At tlie level of the State Government, natural disasters are ilsually tlie
i
Disaster Management: responsibility of the Revenue Departmerit or the Relief Depal-tment where the
Role of Various Agencies State Relief Commissioner, ~ ~ s u a lal ysenior officer of Secretary's rank, is the
officer. While importaut policy decisions are taken at the State
FIeadquarters by the Cabinet of the State headed by the Chief Minister, day-to- ,
day decisions involving policy matters, or exercise of financial powers whicll
!lave not been delegated to the Divisional Commissioners or Collectors, are taken
of exercised by the Secretary in the Department. The actual day-to-day work of
ad~iiinisteringrelief or implementing contingency plans for disaster mitigation at
tlie field level is the responsibility of tlie District Collector. The Collector
exercises coordinating and supervisory powers over fi~nctionariesof all the
Departments at tlie district level. During actual operations for disaster mitigation
or relief, the powers of tlie Collector are considerably enhanced, generally, by
standing instructions or orders on the sub-ject,or by specific Governments orders,
if so required. Sometimes, the administrative culture of tlie state concerned
permits, although inforinally, the collector to exercise higlier powers in
enlergency situations and the decisions are later ratified by the competent
authority.
The Collector or Deputy Commissioner is the focal points at the districl/field

level for directing, supervising and monitoring relief measures for disasters and
for preparation of the district level plans.
Contingency plans: At the district level, the disaster relief plans are prepared
wliich provide for specific tasks and agencjes for their implementation in respect
of areas in relation to different types of disasters. While the District disaster relief
plans exist, all the districts are now preparing district disaster management plans
that include tlie pre,paredness aspects as well.
A contingency plan for the district for different disasters is drawn LIP by the
Collector Deputy Commissioner and approved by the State Government. The
Collector/Deputy Commissioner also coordinates and secures the input from the
local defence forces unit in the preparation of the contingency plans. These
contingency plans lay down specific ac1,ion points, and identify key personnel
and contact points in relation to all aspects.
21.3 INTERACTION WITH OTHER AGENCIES
Interaction with other government and non-governmental bodies is done at the

district level by various district level mechanisms wliicli are:
~ i s t r i c tRelief Committee: The relief measures are reviewed by the district

level relief committee consisting of official and lion-official ~nenibersincluding
the local legislators and tlie members of parliament.
q
District Control Room: In the wake of natural disasters, a Control Room is set
up in the district to function as the district emergency management centre for
regular monitoring and coordi~iationof the rescue and relief operations on a
continuing basis. It woiks round the clock and llas very good com~nunication
facilities.
Coordination: The Collector maintains close liaison wit11 the Central

Government authorities available in the districts, such as, the Ariny, Air Force ~
and 4Navy,Ministry of Water Resoyces, Health etc. who supplement the efforts
of the district administration in the rescue and relief operations.
The CollectorlDep~~ty ~ornmissionercoordinates voluntary efforts by mobilizing

the non-government organizations capable of working in such situations and also
oversees proper distribution of the aid and relief material received from outside 1
the District.
Check Your Progress 1 District Adn~inistrntion
Note: i) Use the space given be!ow for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at: the end of tlie nit.
1 ) Briefly discuss the role of relevant District Administrative agencies in

disaster management.
- -
2) Explain briefly the fi~nctionof District Control Room.
21.4 COMMUNICATION NETWORK

The normal mode of telecom~nunicatio~is is overland telephone and fax, but in
times of stress and if there is a breakdown of tlie overland system, radio
communication is resorted to. The wireless network is generally run and
maintained by the police organization. Cellulai- phones also come handy if it is
available locally and its network has not been disturbed by the disaster. Satellite
phones are very helpful but these are not yet available at all district lieadqual-lers
but there are specially brought and pressed into service if the situation so
demands.
The radio amateur network (tlie HAM operators), wherever available, also plays
an important role in providing voluntary comm~i~iicationfacilities when normal
I channels of co~nmunic,ationbreak down as happens in disaster situations.
Internette-mail also serves well as a com~nunicationchannel so long as the

s~ipportingtelephone network is working.
21.5 ROLE OF SUB-DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION
A District'is sub-divided into sub-divisions and further intp Telisils or Talukas.

The head of a sub-division is called the Sub-Division Officer (SDO) while the
head of a Tehsil is generally known as the Tehsildar (Talukdar or Mamlatdar in
some States). Contact with the individl~alvillages is through the village Officer
or Patwari who lias one or more villages in his charge. When a disaster is
apprelle~ided,the entire machinery of the District, including officers of technical
wid ,other Departments, swings into action and maintains almost continuo~~s
contact with each village in the disaster threatened area, The entire hierarchy
Disaster Mnnagement: right from the Central Governmental to the District level, and the sub-
Role of Various Agencies
Divisional/Telisil level becomes alert to the situation.
21.6 RELEIF MEASURES

As pointed out earlier, each district is required to prepare in advance contingency
plans for each of tlie likely disasters in the district. The relief measures listed out
in the contingency plans are as follows.
Establishment of Control: As the first part of the relief strategy, the district
administration is required to establish control over the. situation by
notifying and mobilizing necessary agencies and organizations required to
intervening.-A Control Room is siinultaneously energized.
Military Assistance: If the district administration feels that the situation is

beyond its control, then immediate military assistance may be sought to carry out
the relief operations. Tlie District Collector is the designated authority to make
this assessment and to seek military's help.
. . Medical: Specialized Medical Care may be required to save tlie injured

population. Besides, preventive medicine may have to be administered to prevent
diseases from breaking out.
Epidemics: In tlie relief camps set up for the affected population, there is
likelihood of epidemics from a number of sources. Tlie strategy should be to
subdue such sources of infection and immunize the population against them. I
Rescue and Salvage: A major effort is needed to rescue the trapped persons and
to salvage destroyed structures and property. Esseiitial services like
, communications, roads, bridges, electricity would liave to be repaired and
restored to y a b l e rescue and relief work and for normalization of activities.
Corpse Disposal: Disposal of dead bodies is to be done as part of clean up

operation to bring some sense of safety in tlie surviving population and also
prevent spread of epide~nics.
,
Deployment of Resources: Considerable amount of hutnan, and economics
resources are required to be mobilized in a short time.
Outside Relief: During disaster situations, as co~isiderablerelief flows in from

outside, there is an immediate need to coordinate tlie relief flow so that the
maximum coverage is qchieved, there is no wastage, and there is no duplication
of work in the same area. ,
Special Relief: Along with compensation relief, essential items may have to be
distributed to the affected populati0.n to provide for temporary sustenance.
Information: As information flow and review is essential part of the relief

ekercise, constant monitoring is required to assess the extent of damage and
resultant requirements which form the basis of further relief to the affected area..
Dissemination of correct information is essential for media coverage and it also.
helps to quell rumours'.
31.7. REHABILITATION
, ,I At the District Lev,el, while the immediate rehabilitation is carried out by the .
District Administration Jhemselves, the long term exerci~esare taken up by the .
state level and central agencies. (Of late Voluntary Agencies have also begun
I 8- working in, partnership with the government). For example, shelter provision is i
~ l s ~ ~ ataken
l l y care of by tlie State Housing Boards and Develop~nentAuthorities. District Ad~ninistration
111 all rehabilitation efforts the district ad~niiiistrationbecomes the coordinating
body.
Typically, the rehabilitation works comprise tlie following components:
Housing
For Ho~isingrehabilitation, the existing settlement ]nay need to be completely

reconstructed at new site for which land acquisition may have to be done.
' Ho~~sing rehabilitation may also be carried out by way of improve~nentof

existing damaged houses by carrying out damage repair.
As part of the long-term mitigation strategy, the existing str~~ctures

may be
strengthened as proofing against iiture disasters.
Infrastructure
Infrastructure such as roads, communications, water supply, sewerage and public

buildings such as schools and health centres may be required to be rebuilt in the
new relocated sites or existing ones may be repaired. Historical monuments,
religious places may also have to be repaired as part of the rehabilitation
programme.
. Economic Rehabilitation
-Economic Rehabilitation is essential for normalization of activities. Various new

,opportunities may be 'created in addition to getting the destroyed stocl<s
replenished for restoration of livelihood.
Farm'.Zhplements, livestock, seeds etc. may be distributed as initial capital to

restart economic activities in the rural areas.
Employment may also be generated by way of carlying out rehabilitation works.
Social Rehabilitation
To help it to recover, the com~nunity's social systems have to be restored.

Restoration of such systems could ensure sustenance of essential services within
the community.
Social Rehabilitation may include new components s ~ ~ as c hcommunity training

and funding so that they are able to lead a better quality of life.

ii) Check your answers with those given at tlie end ofthe unit.
I ) Brieily analyse the role of Sub-District Administration in managing

disasters.
Disaster Management: 2 ) Write a note on relief measures.
21.8 LET US SUM 'CTP

The basic responsibility of Disaster Management lies with the State Government.
However, tlie actual operations are carried out by the District Administration.
The District Administration thus becomes tlie focal points of all disaster related
activities. Districts are required to prepare Corltingency Action Plans for each
type of disaster likely i l l tlie district. The Contingency Action Plan outlines the
various measures required as preparedness to face disasters and tlie relief
measures to be carried out i n case a disaster occurs. Relief activities are
coordinated by the district administration through the district re1 ief commn'ittee.
In case, tlie impact of disaster is high and long term rehabilitation works also
need to be carried out, the decisions are taken at the State level with tlie District
.Administration becoming tlie field level coordinating body.
21.9 KEY WORDS

Federal Structure : System of government in which the States are
coordinated by a central government but the
states also have the powers and laws within their
territory.
Key Personnel Persons who carry out important taslts in
implementing a plan.
Contact Points Persons or officials who are to be contacted i n
tlie concerned organizations in case of
emergency.

Contingency Action Plan for Natural Calamities, Ministry of Agriculture,
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Government of India.
Maharashtra Emergency Earthquake Rehabilitation Programme, P~~ogramlne
Management Unit, Earthquake Relief and Rehabi l itation Cel I, Government of
Maharashtra, Mu~nbai

EXERICES
L

111India, the district administration is headed by District Collector who is
also called Deputy Comniissioner or District Magistrate ill solne States.
The District Collector is responsible for coordinating and supervising the District Administration
preparedness, rescue and relief work relating to'disaster management.
r For disaster management work, the district administration takes guidance
and directions from the State Relief Commissioner and the Chief
Secretary of the State.

r When a disaster seerns iniminent or has actually occurred, the district
administration sets u p a Control Room.
r The District Control Room functions as the district emergency
management centre and works round the cloclc with good
communication arrangements. It is responsible for regular monitoring
I and coordination of rescue and relief operation on a colltinuing basis.
I Check Yo~lrProgress 2
I . I) Your answer sliould include the followi~lgpoints:
I r A district is divided into sub-divisions and tehsils.

e Contact with villages is through Patwari. In times of disaster the entire
Iiierarchy becomes active up to village level.
I :
2) Your answer sliould i~lcltldethe following points:

I
Rescueand Salvage
e Corpse Disposal
0 Medical
0 Outside Relief
yMilitaryAssistance
Information
UNIT 22 MILITARY AND PARA-MILITARY
FORCES
Structure
22.0 Objectives
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Role of Artried Forces
22.3 Role of Para-Military Forces
22.4 Special Roles of Air Force, Army and Navy
22.5 Let Us Sum Up
22.6 Key Words
22.8 Answers To Check Your Progress Exercises
22.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
0 define the role and functions of Armed Forces, both in Peace Time and
during Emergencies and Enemy Encounters;
0 describe the primary role of %ra Military Forces and their involvement in
National Emergencies and major events; and
o discuss their interaction with each other and contribution during Disaster
situations.
22.1 INTRODUCTION
Basically, it is the duty of the civil administration to be prepared for and to
manage disasters (natural or manmade) when they occur. There is a structured
organisation in which the district administration under the charge of the District
Collector plays the vital role. The Police, which is a civilian service, assists in
disaster management in the efforts related to law and order, evacuation, search,
rescue, wireless co~nmunication,disposal of dead, and general security. Non-
governmental organisations and community based organisations render help
according to their capability and capacity. In most situations, this combined
civilian effort is able to manage. However, when the disaster and its effects are of
such severity and suddenness that is beyond the combined capacity of civilian
agencies, the military and para military forces have to be summoned and they
always rise to the occasion.
22.2 ROLE OF ARMED FORCES
The military forces or defence forces or anlied forces play a very important role
during disaster situation and also in the post-disaster scenario. Their main assets
are: discipline, training, professionalism, specialized equipnlent, resources and
above all a minimum response time. Generally, they are called upon to manage
the following tasks:
Evacuation
Maintenance of essential services
Distributing of essential supplies in remove and marooned areas.
0 Transport of relief material
o Medical aid
0 Management of re1ief camps
-
Military and
22.3 ROLE OF PARA-MILITARY FORCES Para-Military Forces
I
In the earlier days, Military i.e., the Armed Forces used to take care of the
outside enemies and conventional police used to look after internal security and
law and order. With the growth of population and new activities resulting in the
need for specialized security services to valuable sectors such as the borders, the
industry, vital installations etc., it became necessary to create a variety of
paramilitary forces under the Govt. of India. More prominent of these
paramilitary forces are:
a) Border Security Force (BSF)

b) Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)
c) Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)
d) Indo Tibet Border Police (ITBP)
e) Railway Protection Force (RPF)
f) Assam Rifles
g) National Security Guard (NSG)
11) Coast Guard
i) Rapid Action Force (RAF)
j) Territorial Army
Ilnportant point to note is that the Police Force is under control of the respective
State Administration while all the para-military Forces including the "Civil
Defence Organisation" are under the control of Governlnent of India and these
are deployed to assist the local police whenever necessary.
I
Apart from their primary role as their name implies-e.g. BSF guards the borders,
CISF takes care of CentraI Public Sector undertakings includi~igtheir security
and fire fighting, all the Para-Military Forces are deployed in the troubled areas .
or during major national event like GeneralIState Elections.
The Coast Guard is a special duty force for guarding tlie coasts and to deal with
~lndesirableactivities such as smuggling on the coasts.
22.4 SPECIAL ROLES OF AIRFORCE, ARMY AND

NAVY
Armed Forces and para-military forces play important roles in disaster situations
as described below:
Special Role of air Force. During emergencies for heavy troop n~ovementbe it
Army Personnel or para-military forces - the Transport wing of Air Force is
called in, in a big way, The helicopters of Air Force are used for survey and
dropping of food packets together with rescuing of stranded people, especially in
flood situations. Air Force also has the responsibility of VIPIVVIP movement.
';5pecial Role of Army. The local Army commander, anywhere in tlie country has
orders from Ministry of Defence, to assist the civil authorities during any
i
.contingency. For this, however, only the District collector has~tl~e autliority.lo
requisition the aid of military and that too in extreme emergencies, on a written
,'request. 117 riot-affected cities, places, Army Flag Marc11 - only parading is
arranged in order to deter anti-social elements indulging in further trouble and to
pacify common population by boosting their morale for peace and assurance of
their safety and security.
I
j
+ .
Disaster Management: Special Role of Navy: The Navy has a special role in the event of a disaster or1
Role of Various Agcncies the sea or on coasts or in ports. Cyclo~ies,storm surge or oil spill are the [nost
prominent among the disastrous events that col~ldoccur in these locations. In
discharge of their duties, the Navy is assisted by the Coast Guards.

1) When are tlie military forces asked to help in disaster management and by
whom?
2) What are tlie tnajor para-military forces of our country and what are their
primary fi~nctions?
3) How ca'n the Defence Forces be i~sefulin Disaster Management ?
'22.5 LET US SUM UP

The Army, Navy apd Air Force constiti~tethe Arn~edForces. They have been
given tlie main, defence, task of guarding our boundaries, our slties, our seas and
t l i ~ the
~ s sovereignty and integrity of our nation.
Witli the vast boundaries, vast sea coast and growing external and internal
. I
problems and the situations created by natural and manmade disasters, a nuinber
of Para-Military Forces have been created like BSF, CISF, CRPF, Coast Guards,
NSG, Assain Rifles, and Home Guards.
All the Military Forces have the mandate to aid civil authorities during disaster Military and
Management. The para-military forces, too, area sizeable extra help which can be Para-Military Forces
requisitioned for combating large-scale disasters and their aftermath.
The discipline, training, equipment, resources and the quick response time make,
the military and paramilitary forces very useful in disaster management.
22.6 KEY WORDS

Military The nation's Armed Forces. This is a term with
which the conlmon man is familiar and includes
all the wings.
Para-Military Forces : The forces of a military nature created for
specific taslcs.
!I National Centre for Disaster Management, 200 1, Manual on Nc;turnl Disaster

Management in India, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India

EXERCISES ,

!
I 1) Your answer should i ~ ~ c l u dthe
e followi~~g
points: .
Military Forces are asked to assist the civil adminislratio~l in disaster
management when due to the severity of the situation, the civil
administration finds it difficult to deal with the situation.
o 'The District Collector' is the designated officer authorized to ask for the
help of military forces in disaster management.
I
BSF (Border Security Force) CISF (Central Industrial Security Force) CRPF
(Central Reserve Police Force) NSG (National Security Gi~ard),Coast Guard.
Their primary functions as their respective name implies, are:
To prevent enemy is filtration into, the country across the border and
prevent any nefarious activities at the border, from within, To guard the
installations of Central Public Sector undertaking together with Fire
Fighting Role. To provide protection to our seafaring vessels and fishing
travellers and thwart any enemy mischief over our waters, elc.
In addition, they may be called upon to assist in disaster situations as the
j
I
need arises.
I
~ h kDefence Forces have the attributes of discipline, training, special
equipment, resources and a very quick response lime. These qualities are
necessary in disaster management. Defence Forces are especially useful for the
following items of work:
II Evacuation
Maintenance of essential services in remote and marooned areas
I
Distribution of essential supplies in remote and marooned areas
0 Transport of relief material
I
I Medical aid
I
! Management of relief camps
i
UNIT 23 MINISTRIES AND DEPARTMENTS AT
CENTRE AND STATE LEVELS
Structure ' '
Objective
Introd~~ction
Existing Preparedness and Relief Measures
Coordination at Various Levels
~ e l i e ~ssistalice
f (Financial Arrangements)
Reliabilitatioli
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Answers to Clieclc Your Progress Exercises
23.0 OBJECTIVES
e describe government's approach in dealing with disasters.

e discuss the centre and state coordination and allocation of responsibilities for
action in disaster situations.
23.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters due to the scale and extent they affect tlie population are a natiolial
calamity and it becomes imperative that action to mitigate their adverse effects
be initiated quickly at the national level.
4'
It has been observed that over the past few decades the frequency of disasters &d
their devastating effects have increased manifold. Apart from other causes the
burgeoning' population, growing infrastructure arid the increased industrial
activity have contributed largely to this situation. Anlong tlie important reasons
for the increased v~~lnerability is the lack of coordinated efforts to Inanage a ,
disaster situations. Precious time is lost in tlie authorities getting their act
together to intervene. A well organised predetermined structure becomes a
p~.erequisite for a prompt and comprehe~isive action to face disasters.
Considerable progress has been made in the recent past in government
organization and division of responsibilities in this regard.
23.2 EXISTING PREPAREDNESS AND RELIEF

MEASURES
i) National Level
At the national level, depending on the type of disaster, a nodal ministry is

responsible for tlie task of coordinating all activities of the state and district
administration and the other si~pportdepartments/Ministry. Tliis is shown in the
table below. The organisational pattern of the Natural Disaster Management
Division of tlie Ministly of Agriculture, Govt. of India is depicted in the following
figure. The nodal ministries form part of the Natio~ial Crisis Management
Committee. Part of their tasks is to prepare detailed Contingency Plans for each
type of disasters falling in areas oftheir responsibility.
Type of disaster1Crisis & the Nodall Central Ministry Ministries and
Departments at Centre
[~irAccide~it
Civil Strife
of Ministry 'of Civil Aviation
Ministry of Horiic Affairs
ant1 State Levcis-'
Major breakdown any of the Concerned Ministries

Essential Services posing widespread
orotracted problems
- -
Railway Accidents Ministry of Railway
Cliernical Disasters Ministry of Environment
Biological Disaster Ministry of Health
Nuclear Accident inside or outside tlie Department of Atomic Energy
country which poses health or other
1iazal.d~to people in India - 1
I Ministry of Anricultu~-e*
--p
h a t u r a l Disasters
Basically tlic responsibility for ~~ndertal<ing rescue, relicf and rehabilitation
llleasures in tlie event of natural disasters is tliat of tlie concerned State
Government. Tlie role of tlie Central Government is supportive in terms of
providing financial and other resources. 'The department of Agriculture and
Cooperatio~l(DAC) of tlie Ministry of Agriculture* is tlie nodal department in
tlic Government at Central level tliat deals with tlic sul~jectof Natural Disaster.
Management. In the DAC, tlie Central Relief Commissioner functions as tlie
~ ~ o dofficer
al L., coordinate relief operations for all natural disasters.
Tlie Central Relief Com~nissioner receives information relating to

forecast/warning of iiatul.al disasters from the India Meteorological Department
(IMD) or from the Central Water Commission (CWC) on a continuing basis and
keeps tlie Secretary (Agriculture & Cooperation) and through him the
Agricult~ire Minister and tlie Cabinet Secretary and tlie Secretary to Prime
Minister and through them, tlie Prime Minister, the Cabinet and the Cabinet
Committee informed. The "National Crises Management Co~nrnittee(NCMC)"
is kept informed through the Cabinet Secretary. He also disseminates tlie
. infor~iiatio~i
to different Central Government mi~iistries/Departme~itsand tlie
State Govern~nentsfor appropriate follow-up action.
Figure I ; Organisational Pattern of the Natural Disaster Management Division of the
Department of Agriculture & cooperation in the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
The Natural Disaster Management Division dealing wit11 Natural disasters b a s earlier
with the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India but now it is under the Ministry of
Home Affairs, Government of India. However, drought as a natural disaster is still being
managed by t h e Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. 17
Disaster Management: LEGEND
'Role of Various Agencies
INFORMATION
INSTRUCTION/DIRECTION
FEED BACK
IMD Indian Meteo~~ological
Department
CWC Central Water Commission
NCMC National Crisis Management Committee
A.M. Agriculture Minister
P.M. Prime Minister
A&C Agricultl~re& Coopel-ation
1V.D.M. Natural Disaster Management
While the Ministry of Agriculture is the nodal ministry managing disaster

situations, it is supported by other ministries as well-an important contribution is
made by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare tlirougli the Emergency
Medical Relief Division of tlie Directorate General of Health Services. In a
typicaI Disaster situation, the Medical Relief Division gets in touch with tlie
Central Control Room in D.A.C and obtains feedback on tlie extent of disaster
situalio~ion a particular day population affected; and Iiealtli profile lilte number
of patients, type of patients etc.
Based on tlie results available, the concerned medical agencies are put into
action.
ii) State Relief Organization And Response
[n the federal set-up of India, the responsibility to formulate tlie Governnent's

resl~onseto a disaster sitiration is essentially that of the concerned State
government. However, the Central Government, with its resources (physical and
financial) does provide tlie needed help and assistance to buttress relief efforts in
the wake of ~iiajordisasters. 'I'he dimensions of the response at tlie level of
National Government are determined in accordance with tlie existing policy of
financing the relief expenditure and keeping in view the factors like:
i) tlie gravity of the situation, .
ii) the scale of the relief operations necessary, and

iii) tlie requirenie~~tsof Central assistance for augmenting the financial resources
at llie disposal of tlie State Government.
Most of tlie States liave Relief Commissioners who are in charge of tlie relief
measures in the wake of natural disasters in their respective States. In the absence
of the Relief Co~n~iiissioner,the Chief Secretary or an Officer nominated by him
is in overall charge of the Relief operations in the concerned State.
23.3 COORDINATION AT VARIOUS LEVELS ,
Coordination at the Central and tlie State Levels is achieved by way of various
co~n~nitteeswliicl~have participation from all departments that are involved in'
Disaster Management. The inore important among these co~n~nittees are as
follow:
Cabinet Committee Ministries i ~ n t l
Dcpertmcnts a t Centre
and State Levels
Tlie cabinet may set up a conimittee for effective iniplelnentation of Relief
1lieasures in tlic wake of a particular natural calamity. The Secretary in tlie
Ministry of Agriculture acts as the secretary of this comniittee. In the absence of
a committee, all the matters related to the relief are reported to tlic Cabinet
Secretary.
National Crisis ~ a ~ l a g e m e Committee

llt (NCMC)
Ulider tlic cliair~iiansliip of the Cabinet Secretary, the NCMC has bee11
constituted in tlie cabinet secretariat. It is a Standing High Power Committee
whicli comes into action immediately in cnse ol' an anticipated or actm l disaster.
The other mcmbers of this committee include tlie Secretary of Prime Minister,
Secretaries of Ministry of Home Affairs, Defence Research and Development
Organisation, and Departments of Science and Tecli~~ology and Agriculture and
Cooperation along with Director I~itelligcnce Bureau, Director General of
Meteorology and an officer or the Cabinet Secretariat. Tlie NCMC gives
clirection to the Crisis Management Group as deeriied necessary.
Top level officers fi.0111other ministriesIDepartnients participate according to the

needs of tile situation.
Crisis Matiage~ncntG r o u p (CMG)
A group uncler tlie chairmanship of tlie Central Relief Comniissioner compl-ising

ilie senior officers from the various ~ninistriesand otlicr co~icelneddepartnients
revicws every ycar contingency plans formulated by tlie kcntral
Mi~iistries/Depa~Irne~its. It also reviews tlie measures requirecl for dealing with a
natural clisaster and coordinates tlie activities of the Central Ministries and tlie
State Governlnents in relation to disaster pscparedness and rclief and obtains
information froni tlie nodal officers on measures relating to tlie above. Tlie Joint
Secretary (National Disaster Management) & Additional Central Relief
Comniissioner is the convcnor of CMG. Tlie CMG have to meet at least twice a
Year. Whcn a disaster is anticipatecl or has occurred, CMG nieets as kequently
as tlie situntion demands.
At tlie State level, tlie State Kelief Con~niissioner(or Secretary, Depastment of

Revenue) supervises and contro~krelies opesations through Collectors or Dcputy
Co~n~nissioners, who are tlie main ri~nctionariesto coordinate the relief operation
at district level. Tlie State Governnients are autonomous in organizing relier
operations in tlie event of na tbral d isasteies and in developing tI16 lo~~g-tern1
~:eliabiJitation nieasures. Tlie State ~ o v c r n ~ i i e n tefforts
$ are supple~lieut'ed by
I
Central Government based on thc recommelidatio~isof tlie ~ i n a i ~ Com~iiissions
ce
who make recommendatio~isfor five year periods.
States Crisis Management Group
:There is a State Crisis Ma,nagement Groqp (SCMG) ~ ~ n d the e r Cliairmansliil~of

Chief Secl-etary1Relief Com~i~issioner of the State. Tlie Group coniprises Senior
Officers from the State D e p a ~ ~ ~ l i eof
n t sRevenueIRelief, Home, Civil S~ipplies,
Power, Irrigation, Water Supply, Panchayai (local self Governlnent), Agriculture,
Forests, Ru1-al Development, I-Iealth Planning, Public Works &id T' *rnance.
8 '
%
The SCMG is required to take into consideration tlie ihfrastrl~ct~~reand guidance

received, from time to time, liom Gover~inie~it of India ancl formulate action
plans fo; dealing with different natural disasters.
Disnster Management: It is also tlie duty of the Relief Co~nmissionerof tlie State to establish an
emergency operations centre or Control Rootn as soon as a disaster situation '
develops. Besides having all updated information on forecasting and warning of

disaster, the centre is also the contact point for: the various concer;ied agencies.
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers:

ii) Check your answers wit11 those given at the end of the unit.
1 ) Mention the concerned Nodal Ministry of tlie Govern~nentof India for

dealing with the following disasters: a. Cliemical Disasters; b. Biological
Disaster; c. Natural Disasters.
2) Tlie Chair~na~i
of the National C17isisManagement Committee is:
a. Prime Minister i
I
b. Union Agriculture Minister

c. Cabinet Secretary
d. Chief Justice of Supreme Court.
23.4 RELIEF ASSISTANCE (FINANCIAL

ARRANGEMENTS) -
Natural Disaster are huge econo~nicburdens on developing eco~iomiessuch as in

India. Given its large size, huge population and weak infrastructure and also
because of its peculiar geography, India is visited by quite a few disasters
(natural and manmade) every year. Consequently, every year huge amount of
resources are mobilized for rescue, relief and rehabilitation worlts followirig
natural disasters.
expenditure on relief in tlie wake of natural disasters are

Schemes for fi~ia~ici~ig
governed by the ~*econlmendationsof tile successive Finance Conimissions
appointed by Gover~i~lleiit
o f India every five years. Under the existing sclie~ne,
each State has a corpus of funds called Calamity Relief Fund (CRF), ,
adlniliistered by a State Level Committee, Iieaded by tlie Chief Secretary of the Ministries and
Departments at Centre
State Government. Tlie size of the CRF is determined having regard to tlie and State Levels
of tlie Sate to different natural calamities and tlie ~nag~iiti~de
of
nbr1nally incurred by the State on relief operations.
The ~ a l a l n i t yRelief Fund was first introduced by tlie Ninth finance commission
set LIP by tlie Government of India which made recomlnendations for tlie five
year period 1990-95. Tlie scheme is designed to enable tlie States to manage ancl
provide for calamity relief on tlieir own by drawing upon tlie resources available
with a fund constituted for that purpose separately for each State. The prescribed
annual contribution to each State CRF are required to be made by the Centre and
tlie concerned State in tlie proportion of 3:l the sclienie fi~rtlierprovides for an
accumulating balance witli tlie proviso that if there is any unutilized amount lelt
at tlie end of five years, if would be available for augmenting the plan resources
!
of tlie State. On tlie other hand. It is per~nissibleunder tlie scheme to draw upon a
percentage of the next year's central assistance, if it becomes necessary to tide
over tlie insufficiency of resources in tlie CRF in any pal.ticnlar year.
The latest (I I"') Finance Co~nmissionwhile ~nakingrecommendations for tlie

period (2000-05) lias continued CRF. Fill-tlier, it lias suggested tlie creation of
National'Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) witli an initial contribution of
Rs.500 crore by Government of India and further aug~nentedthrough surcharge
as central taxes. For example, a surcliarge of 2% on income tax was levied after
tlie disasterous Blii~j(Gijarat) earthquake of 26'" January 2001. Tlie Eleventh
Finance Commission also recommended the establishment of tlie National Centre
. for Calamity Management (NCCM) to liionitor all types of major disastrous
events at the central level.
Relief is also provided by tlie other concer~ieddepartments/~iiinistriesdepending

on requirements. Tlie Ministry of Health 1.1sua1i~ mobilizes meclicine stocks to
affected area through their medical stores located all over tlie country. Other
types of relief may be provided by concerned departments in the form of quick
restoration of essential services like roads, com~ni~nication lines, distribution of
rations. When the disaster is unusually severe, tlie armed forces may be called in
to assist tlie civil authorities. Non-government organisations and philanthropic
societies also extend relief assistance according to tlieir specialization.
I I
1 Rehabilitation lneasilres are taken up if the magnitude of the disaster is high arid
1 loss of life and property entails colnplete rehabilitation.
P
Rehabilitation lneasilres are taken up by Government with tlie assistance froin

tlie international agencies, or large public sector agencies. Rehabilitation rls~~ally
includes restoration of livelihood and slielter in existing places or in new
locations depending on tlie situation. As such tlie rehabilitation works are long
term interventions and may continue for several montlis/years.
I -
I
ii) Check yoi~ranswers wit11 those given at tlie end of tlie unit.
i I .
Disaster' Management: 1 ) CRF Stands for
a) Central Reserve Fund
b) Central Relief Fillid
c) Calamity Relief Fund
d) Crisis Relief Fund
2) Wliat are the main recommendations of the Eleventli Finance Commission

for the period 2000-05 in tlie area of disaster ~nanagcment?
23.6 LET US SUM UP

There is a well-defined governmental structure to tacltle disasters or any other
emergencies. Depending 011 tlie type of disaster, separate ministry has been
assigned responsibility to inobilize resources at appropriate levels.
The Central Govern~nentusually is required .to intervene only when the calamity
is particularly grave ancl beyond tlie capacity ol'tlze State Government to liandle
it.
Relief and Reliabilitation is carried out wit1 funds available from the Central and
the State Governments. Much of the relief and telrabilitation work is carriad out I
I
by the government itself in pal-tnership with internatio~ialand national non-
govel-nmet~talorganizations.
23.7 KEY WORDS

Uu1-geoning Growing
Nodal Ministry The Ministry lnainly respo~isibla
Calamity Disaster of estren~eproportions
Contingency Something that might happen in future

S inha, Ani l and V.K.Shanna, 1999, Culture of Prevention (Natural Disaster
&fu~zngement:Irzdiu), Indian Institute of Public Admitlistration, New Delhi, ancl
Ministry of Agriculture Depa~tmentof Agriculture and Cooperation, Govt, of
India.
National Centre for Disaster Management, 2001, Manual on Natural Disaster Ministries and
Managenzent in India, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi. Departments at Centre
and State Levels
Health Sector Contingency Plan for Management of Crisis situations in India,
Emergency Medical Relief, Directorate General of Healtli Services, Ministry of
Health and Family Welfare, Government of India.

EXERCISES

e Ministry of Environment
e Ministry of Heslth
e Ministry of Agriculture
2) The correct answer is (c) Cabinet Secretary
I ) The correct answer is (c) Cala~nityRelief Fund
1
1
e The Eleventh Finance Co~nmissionhas recommended the continuation of
I
I ' the Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) scheme wliich was started by the ninth
Finance Commission (1990-95).
I
e The Eleventh Finance Com~nissionhas recommended the establishment
of the National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF)
UNIT 24 NON-GOVEWhTMENTAL
ORGANISATIONS.
Structure
Objectives
Introductio~i
Types ofNCiOs, tlieir Objectives and Impel-tance With Regard to Disasters
F~ulctio~ialMeclianisni
Interaction and Coordination
Let us S L UPI ~
Key Words
24.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying tlie i~nit,you slioulcl be able:
describe the different type of NGOs ancl their important role in disaster
management; and
r discuss tlie worliing nieclian ism of NGOs and tlieir partncrsliips witli other
agencies.
24.1 INTRODUCTION
Disaster Management is a multi-disciplinary and multi-di~i~etisio~ial effort

requiring massive, large-scale and ofien long-term interventibn at s1io1-lnotice.
I11 a vast and populous coi~~itry lilce India, it is not feasible for only tlie
goverl~mental macliil~ery to undel-lake disaster management programmes
satisfactorily. Active and willing participation of tlie people is essential. Non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) including tlie community based
ol.ganisatio~is(CBOs) play an iniportant effective role as a bridge between tlie
gover~imentand the people. The non-governmental sector, due to its linkages
with tlie co~iimunitybase and its flexibility in procedural :matters, has an
advantage over governmental agencies in i~ivokingtlie i ~ i v o l v e ~ ~ofe nthe
t people
at comli~unitylevel.
- - - - -
24.2 TYPES OF NGOs, THEIR OBJECTIVES AND

IMPORTANCE WITH REGARD TO DISASTERS
NGOs can be of different sizes, witli different areas of operation and different-
fields of expertise. The Non Governmental Sector covers a whole range of
activities, tliroug1i its va1,ious types of Organisations. So~ileliiajor types of NGOs
are as given ~ ~ n d e r :
1) NGOS with dedicated field operations and resource backup. These are .
large Organisatio~is,such as the International Red Cross Society, that liave
specific areas in which they carry out field operations. They liave access to
large resource bases, and liave tlie capability to extend material, financial, as
well as teclinical suppo~l.111tinies of disaster, their roles are very laudable as
they garner support and resources ftom all over the world and come to the
rescue of tlie affected persons al~iiostimmediaiely.
2) Development Technology related NGOs. Tliese are NGOs involved in Non-Governmental
Organisations
developi~ig and propagating developnient technologies, sucli as Sulabh
International, wl~iclihas renowned activities in the field of low sanitation.
Tliese NGOs are active in times of peace, carrying out tlieir developniental
projects, and can be called in at times of emergency due to natural disaster
for providing tlie affected comniunity with immediate pliysical infrastructure
that may be required. Eve11in non-disaster times their services are usefill for
retrofitting in areas of building technology, s s as to niininiize death and
destruction in fi~turedisasters.
3) .. Interest Groups. Tliese are also NGOs, formed with tlie objective of sharing
interests and community service, sucli as the Rotary Club, However, such
interest groups are vely active, and have come forward to lielp disaster
victims in times of need. Most of these groups have good iinancial
resources. Tliey call play a niajor role in resource mobilization for relief aid
and rehabilitation purposes.
4) Associations of local occupation groups. Sucli associatio~isare formed on

tlie basis of common occupational backgrou~ids,and c o ~ ~ linclude
d groups
such as doctors' associations, traders' associations, Army wives associations
e,
etc. Sucli groups, as with interest groups, can play a major role in resource
mobilization, and also in providing specialized services to the disaster
.. victims.
5) Local Residents' Associations. These associations are formed by tlie local

residents to look illto the interests of tliose living a shared community life in
tlie area which may be rural or urban or in big towns. As such, these
associatio~isare liiglily concerned about tlie welfare of tlie local coni~iiunity,
and need no external motivation to take active part in disaster I-eduction.
Thus, they can be a very useful tool for getting across tlie message o r
coni~iiunityparticipation at the ground level and to muster co~ii~iiunity's
willing pa~ticipation, They are very useful in coordiliati~ig disaster
nianage~nentefforts sucli as distribution of essential supplies or providing
local volunteers.
I
6) Religious and Cl~aritableBodies. Religious bodies are one of tlie most

iniportarit NGOs groups tliat collie to the immediate rescue and relief of the
disaster victims. Tliese bodies have a large and dedicated following in the
community. They also liave control of tlie local places of worship, whicli are
usually strong structures built on high and safe ground, and can serve as ideal
I
I shelters during disasters. Besides, they often have infrastructure to feed mass
I
gatherings, wliicli becomes very useful in times of disaster.
7) Educational Institutions. Educational institutions Such as schools and

colleges are also NGOs that play a crucial role in disaster management. Tlieir
prime responsibility in this regard is to spread awareness on natural disasters
.and preventive action needed to minimize damage due to them, as well as on
immediate relief and rescue methods. Besides, these iristiti~tionshave large
, buildings wllich can be used as sl~eltersfor tlie victims i n times of disaster.
I
I
I
8) Media, Most of tile media, such as newspapers or tlie radioITV cha~inels
that are not owned. by government come in tlie category of NGOs and tliey
perform prime functio~ibkfore, during and after disasters as discussed in
detail in u~iit26 of tli,is Block.
Disaster Mnnngement: Latur A Case Study
A severe earthquake of lnagnitudti 6.4 011 tlie Richter scale strucl< the
Marathwada region of'Maharashtra state in tlie early morning hours of 3oth
September, 1993, at 3.55 a.m. The exact location of the epicentre of the
. earthquake was near the village Killari, a prosperous settlement about forty
kilometres south of Lati~rdistrict headquarters and near tlie boundary of Latur-
Os~na~iabad districts. Tlie damage caused by tlie eartliquake was enormous-
killilig about ten tlioi~sandpersons and destroying about two hundred thousand
dwelling units along with a huge loss of public and private property. The major
cause of SLICII a wide-spread damage was tlie poorly constructed houses with
locally available stones.
Tlie damage was more because tlie Martliwada region lies in Zone I as per theg
eartliqi~akezoning map of India, wliich is supposed to be tlie least prone to
, earthquakes, Hence, tlie eartliqi~altewas totally i~nexpectedand caught the people
. as well as the autliorities unawares.
The response of voluntary groups wliicli came forward immediately after the
eartliquake was spontaneoils and overwhelming. The inirnediate response group
mainly comprised local religioi~sbodies and charitable trusts. They responded
inimediately by undel-taking mass feeding programs and free distribution of
essential itenis such as clothes, i~tensilsetc. Few such Organisations were Akhil
Maliarashtra Jain Sangli, Gurudwara Mandal, Seva Bhavi Sanstha and
Gurudwara Siddlia Peeth. Besides such groups, a number of local and
international NGOs sent medical teams and supplies to the site.
The second category of Organisations that played a vital role were those iiivolved
in developmental activities in different parts of the country. Tliese Organisations
came forward to lielp tlie gover~iment in long term rehabilitation and
recbnstruction programs. Tlie Organisatio~isconiprised religious and charitable
agencies who in turn were provided with financial, infrastructure and research
support by a niimber of private corporate liouses, public sector Organisatio~isand
research & development agencies.
The rehabilitation and reco~istructionprogram comprised pliysical development

of villages, and socio-economic support to the affected community. As many as
23,000 new houses were to be constructed in 49 villages on entirely new sites.
Tlie importance ofNGOs in any develop~nentprocess became further apparent as
tlie difference i n tlie approaches adopted by the government agencies and that
adopted by the lion-Governmental agencies became evident in tlie reconstructio~i
programme. Tlie first category of houses whose construction started within one
month of tlie disaster displayed inlierent weaknesses in design and quality of
co~~stn~ction. For the secolid category of Iiouses, the construction of which
started a little later, the quality of liouses was niuch superior and found wider
acceptance it1 the commii~iity.Tliese liouses were constructed with lielp of non-.,
gover~i~nental agencies who in tul-n relied considerably on local material and
technology; they also incorporated views of the com~nunitywhile developing
building plans.
24.3 FUNDAMENTAL MECHANISM

The essential function of tlie NGOs is to be the vital link between Government
and the Community. Witli their reacli to the remote areas tbrough CBOs, NGOs
also perform tlie very i~nportantfiinctio~iof "gap fillers" at places where the
reacli of gover~i~nentalorganisations is somewhat tenuous. These functions are
made possible in different meclianisms as the situation requires. For example, if
tlie govern~nentrequires to distribute relief material to tlie community, NGOs
may be requisitioned fo'r distribution arid more. i~nportantlyin. identi9ing the
persolis act~iallyneeding the relief. The various other functions that the NGOs ~o'n~~ove~nmentnl
lnay be expected to perfornl are briefly enumerated below:- Organisations
Stage Activity
a Awareness and inforniation Campaigns
0 Vulnerabi 1ity analysis of coln~nunities
Training of local volunteers
Inventory of resources available i n tlie
comlnunity and nearby
Advocacy and planning
During Disaster: Immediate rescue and first-aid including
psycliological counselling
Supply of food, water, medicines and other
immediate need inaterials
. Ensur.ing sanitation and hygiene
Damage and death assessnient
a Help in disposal of the dead
Post-Disaster: a Technical and material aid in
reconstruction
Assistance in seeking financial aid
a Monitoring
Tliese roles are usually played under directions or divisio~isof functions as .

decided by the Government of the District Relief Committee. Thus while tlie
local district office niay be overall incliarge of the disaster inanagement
operations, certain functions may be singularly or jointly lia~idledby the NGOs
sector. In case t11kre are more than one NGOs being able to perform different
types of functions, then their roles may either be put in a hierarchy or alternately
each of them could be directly i'esponsible for their own taslts and coordinate
directly with tlie government agencies. ,
-- Areas of Contribution
NGOs can contribute effectively to the disaster management. efforts in tlie

following areas:
Communication with Community - NGOs have a closer and inforinal link with .
the coininunity and also have presence in the field, which puts tlwn in a better
position to assess, decide and implement relief operations at time of disaster.
Manpower - The manpower available with NGOs is voluntary, dedicated,

disciplined, prompt aiid highly motivated as it comprises basically vol~~iiteers
and
socially co~iscientiouswho are involved at tlieir own initiative.
qnances and Materials - NGOs have very flexible means of mobilizing

I
I
rksources and a number of them specialize in just resource mobilization to be
-. able to fund the activities of other NGOs working in the field.
Professional and Technical Services - A number of specialized technical

services can be mdde available to the community by NGOs, wliicli would
otherwise be too expensive and inaccessible to the common folk. 27
Disaster Management:
Role of Various Agencies 24.4 INTERACTION AND COORDINATION
For an effective functional meclia~iis~n

of the various agencies both government
and nongovernrnent, an effective but simple coordination sclierne has td be in
place, some of the ba~ic're~uirementsof which are as follows: '
I Communication and interaction with the Government: A regular A
cbmrnunication and infor~nation exchange with the concerned government

officers of department is necessary at all levels. This ensures, adequate
preparedness depending on forecasts made by the government departments,
providing manpower help in distributing gover~iment sponsored relief and
ensuring complet'e coverage of disaster relief. Govern~nentof Indian has taken
the initiative to establisli a mechanism called GoI-NGO ~oordinationCommittee -
for providing an interactive forum between Government and the national and
i~iternatioiialNGOs active in tlie field of disaster management .
Communication apd Networking with other NGOs working in the area of

Disaster Management: This makes it possible to be able to .use each others
strengths fi~llybut more importantly, it helps in ensuring that tliere is 110
duplicatioii of work in the same area and.at tlie same time, there ire no areas left
out for action. While coordination at bilateral or multilateral level exists between
many NGOs in India, a proposal is under consideration to establish a nationwide
network of NGOs with tlie National 'Centre for Disaster Managelmelit in New
Delhi acting as the Convenor. This nationwide network of NGOs working for
disaster management is likely to be called "Voluntary Agencies fof Sustainable
Universal Development and Emergency Voluntary Action (VASUSEVA).
I ,
'
Communication and Interaction with the Donor Agencies: Donor Agencies
would prefer that tlie resources available with them -for. disbursement are
accounted for and'distributed properly so as to bring clear benefits to tlie affected
community. This has to be based on an assess~nelitof realistic needs of tlie
community. For this, NGOs, can provide the most appropriate and unbiased
information.
Transparency: An effective and acceptable form of interaction with adequate

coordination sustains only if there is transparency in tlie operations and account.
~ r a n s ~ a r e ensures
n c ~ that the focus of the various bodies involved is towards the
single objective of quickly providing ~naxirni~~n succour to the community.

1) Mention any four major types of NGOs.

I 2) Describe the functions performed by NGOs during disaster Non-Governn~ental
Organisations
24.5 LET US SUM UP
NGOs participatio~lforms a vital part of a Disaster Management strategy. 'This

becomes clear form the multifarious fi~nctionsthe IVGOs are able to perform
before, during and after disaster scenarios. Characteristics unique to MGOs such
as their short response time ancl close link with tlie community make them tlie
no st suitable agencies f i r specific activities of disaster management.
In order to fully benefit fi-om the Non Governmental sectol*, there should be
greater utilisation of tlie services of NGOs in disaster management. At the same
time, the government's role vis-a-vis the NGOs role needs to be clearly identified
so tliat S L I C ~ Ia mechanism call be ~nadeoperational within a short span of a
disaster occui~rence.Caution should however be exercised that tlie government
and the NGO sector do not try to compete or duplicate each other's efforts. I n
fact, they sho~lldcomplement each other.
24.6 KEY WORDS
I Retrofitting : Put a new part or new ecluipment in machine

or a building after it has been in use for
so'metime or is damaged.
Advocacy : Recommended a pa~?icularaction or plan.
Psychological Counselling : Helping to boost the morale of those
affected meritally by disaster.
Hierarchy : A system of organising people into different
ranks or levels of in~portance, e.g. in
govern~nentor conlpany.
Transparency : Acting in a manner that is frank, factual,
honest and open.
Succour : I-Ielp
Tenuous : Thin or insignificant
>
-24.7 REFEFUZNCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Carter, W.N. (1992), Disaster Management: A Disuster Mclnager 's hundbook,

I
Asia Develop~nentBank, Manila.
- 5
Natio~lalCentre for Disaster Management, 2001, Manual on Nutz(rul Disaster
Managenzent in India,Ministry of Agriculture, Govern~netltof India, New Delhi
Disaster Msnagemeot:
-
liole of V:\rious Ager~cies 24.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES

e Developl~~el~t
T e c l ~ ~ ~ o l oNGOs;
gy Associations of Local Occ~~pational
Groups; NGOs with cledicated field operations; Religious and Charitable
Bodies.
2) Your answer'should include the following points:
Immediate rescile and first-aicl; supply of food, water, medicine and
other i~n~mediateneed Inaterial; ensuring sanitatioll and hygiene; and
damage assessment.
UNIT 25 Z[NTERNL4THBNALAGENCIES
Structure
25.0 Objectives
25.1 Int~oductions
25.2 Int'ernational Agencies including United Natiotis: Role and Iniportance ill
Disasler Mitigation
25.3 Imporlnnl Internalionill Agencies in Disaster Miligation
25.4 Financial and Logistical Assistance in Disaster Situations
25.5 Interaction and Coordination witli Governmental ancl Non-Gove~.nmental
Organisations; Govern~ncnt'sPolicy for International Assistance
25.6 Lct 11sSilm Up
25.7 Key Words
25.8 Rererences ancl F~~rtlierReadings
25.9 Answers to Clieclc Your Progrcss Exercises.
25.0 OBJECTIVES
After studyirig this tiit it yo11will be able to:
, e discuss thc role of Inlernational Agencies in Disaster Mitigation;

r describe the itnportant Iiiterriational Agencies in Disaster Mitigation;
e explain tlie mcc11anis111of linancial assistance by international bodies; a i d
r understat~dGovernmetit's Policy for international assistance
25.1 INTRODUCTION
"Red Cross" is tlie first organized trans-national or inter~iationaleffort to provide

relief to those affected by war- a manmade disaster. With'tlie experience gainccl
in attending to the Austrian alid French victims of the Battle of Solferino in 1859,
J.H.Dunant, a Swiss Pliilantliropist and I-lumanitarian, founded tlie International
Conimittee of Red Cross in 1863 in Geneva when dclcgates (tom 14 countries
adopted tlie Geneva Convention. Dunant received tlie Nobel Pcace Prize in 1901
and the International Committee of Red C ~ ~ o swas s Iionoured thrice witli [lie
Nobel Peace Prize (1917, 1944 ancl 1963). It shared the 1963 Nobel with the
Leagl~eof Rcd Cross and Recl Crescent Societies", also headquartered in Geneva.
Both the organisations complement each other. Whilc the International
Committee cleals ~ n a i ~ l witli
l y war like situations, the League provides relief after
natural and man~iiadeclisasters and helps tlie development of national Red Cross
Societies.
This bacltground of internatio~ialassistance since tlie 19"' century has provided a

great deal of experience and precedent on which other disaster assista~~ce
programmes developed. Thus today, there is a reasonably clear ~~nderstanding, by
both donors and recipients, of what is involved in disaster assista~~ce generally.
Also, the increasi~iginterdependence of nations tends to give disaster assistance a
respectable image and ~naltesit an acceptable part of international relations. It is
agreed chat all disaster assistance programmes have their dificulties. I-lowever,
the fact ~~einainsihat the overall concept of international disaster assistance is
currently recognised by most nations as being valid, practicable and productive,
Disaster hli~n;lge~nent:
Role o f Vario~lsAgencics 25.2 INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES INCILUDING
UNITED NATIONS: ROLE AND IMPORTANCE
IN DISASTER MITIGATION
The increasing pop~llationand infrastructural gro\vth worldwide has resulted in

worsening the effects of disastrous events (natural and ~nanmade).The fast
d e v e l o p ~ ~ ~of
c ncomm~~nications
t and the visual impact of television images has
upgraded the awareness and sensitivity worldwide irrespective of the location
whcre the disaster occurred. The world witnessed a few terrible clisasters whicll
took unprecedented toll of life and proper-ty and their effects are still being felt
decacles afier iheir occul-rence. The Bangladesh Cyclone ( I 970), the Bhopal Gas
Lealc (1984) and the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Disaster ( 1986) made the
United Nations (UN) to take cognizance of the situation leacling to the 1989
Resolution o f the UN General Assembly that set forth an international
fra~ncworlcof actlon at national ancl internatior~allevels and also prodded an
international structure wit11 scientific, technical and financial support. The ~rlost
important follow up was the launchi~~g of thc International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction ( 1 990-2000) which is better la1ow11by its initials IDNDR. A
mid-way review of IDNDR was talcen by the UN Conference on Natural Disaster
Reduction at Yolcohoma (Japan) in 1994 when the Y o k o l ~ o ~ nStrategy
a was
aclopted.
line with the thinking within the UN, major inter~~ational

111 filnding agencies
i~~creasi~lgly
recognise the benefits of fundi11gdisaster related projects.
However, a critical 1-actto be 1.ecog11isecII~ereis that it must be the prerogative of

a striclce~l or potential recipient country to decide whether or not it needs
international disaster assistance.
J~lter~latio~lal
agencies provicle assistance at various stages as follows
1) Pre-Disaster Assistance
Pre-disaster assistance from international sources takes 011a variety of forins.
a) Assistalice in building a system of dams, ai~lledto prevent flooding.

b) Developme~~t
of monitoring and warning systems.
(ii) Assistance in Preparedness
. a) Provisio~~ of assistance in the formulation OF plans at national and

regional levels;
b) Provision of assistance in estal~lishing and developing clisaster
management structures or lcey points; for instance, the establishment ,
of a natio~~al
disaster ~nanage~liel~t
centre, office or section.
c) Provision of systems and facilities in the form of warning systems,
communication systems, emergency operations centres; eme,rgency
broadcasting systems;
d) Stockpiling of emergency items, sucl~as generators, chain saws,
shovels, water purification plank, coolci~~gequipment, shelter
materials, medical equip~nent.
2 ) Assistance in Response Operations lntctnational Agencies
AS with pre-disaster circumstances, assistance in response operations can also

. ,
talce vario~!s;Forms, lilte;
a) Monitoring and warning of potential disaster impact.

b) Post inipact survey for instance, aerial photog~.apliic or visilal
reco~inaissa~ice.
c) Provision of eniergency assistance teams; for instance medical tearns,
other specialist tearns.
d)'Provision of enlergency equipment and supplies; for instance
comm~~nications,power generator, clothing, shelter niaterials, food
transport and medical supplies.
e) Provisioli of specialist personnel; for instance, to install and operate
water purification plant.
f) Te~iiporary provision of major response capabilities for instance,
hqlicopter capability for vario~~s eliiergency roles (including survey and
\
assessment and food distribution, shipping capability for movement of
lieavy/bullcy supplies, offioad vehicle capability.
3) Assistailce in Recovery Programmes
Thc post-disaster recovery process i ~ s ~ ~ aconsists

lly or a series of distinct but
, inter-related prgoralnliies, for instance, covering infrastructi~re,medical and
health system, education facilities, and so on. International assistance may
therefore be directed towards a specific recovery p~Og~illll1lle, or conil~rise
some for111of contribution to overall recovery. Therefore, lliey may take the
form of
a) Financial grants or credits

b) Building Materials
C) Technical Eqi~ip~iie~it
d) Agricultul-e reliabilitatioli
e) Extended feeding progl.ammes
Specialists or specialist teams
g) Food for work
4) Assistance in Future Development
In many cases, international assistance in post-disaster recovely may develop

or nierge illto long-term development progranimes, for instance, development
of transport systems, building of dalils and embank~lients.
re-disasterassista~iceand assistance ill fiiture development tend to be of a

routine nature and can be processed in a routine manner. Assistance ill
response operations and recovery programmes usually has a high degree of
urgency, which ~iecessitatesq ~ ~ i cprocessing.
k
In some circu~i~stances, problems can arise .locally. For exilmple, tJie affected .
( commulzity ]nay become totally or over-dtplndent on aid. In sucli a case,
original and traditional customs of dom bating disaster have been eroded. I n
these circumstaiices self-coping lneclia~iis~iis of reliabilitatiorl have to be
strengthened.
Disaster Management: Rapid injectioti of aid especially h o d items can upset a local economy. This
Role o f V a r i o l ~ sAgeucies
particularly applies when local markets and rural production are
interdependent. Such a situation adds considcrably to the problenj ill
immediate post-impact conditions.
Over s ~ ~ p pof
l y aid is another well Itnown problem area which can pa~ticularl~
apply to severe and widely p~~blicisccl disasters. The Maharashtra Ea~-tIiqual<~
(1993), the Andlira Cyclone (1996) and the Gujarat earthquake (2001) are
good exalnplcs of over supply of aid by international agencies. It lnay result in
aid of ~~nsuitable varieties being 5liowered on a stricken people with little 01. no
regard for its ~~sability or thc amount of aid already received.
The work of international agencies depends vely significantly on the

understanding between the agencies and recipient nations, hllost of the ~n'ajol.
problems in international assistance can be avoided if a Sew basic factors are
recogtlised. Assistance agencies need to exercise a sensitive approach and
practice.
When assistance is needed, tlie recipient nation is ~ ~ s ~ ~ina lsome

l y form of
post-impact shock. In such a situation, the recipient may have diffic~~lty in
identifying assistance needs.
'T'lie desirable concept is one of a mutual relationship t l i r ~ u g l i o ~tlie

~ t whole
process of preparedness, response ancl recovery. In this way, when assistance
needs to be applied, it is merely one pliasc of an ongoing dialogue, rather than
a sudden slioclc response to an already traumatised recipient country.
1
Cllcclc Your P~~ogress
Note: i) Use tlie space give11below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of tlie t~nit.
1 ) Describe different stages at wliicll International Agencies provide assistance

for disaster mitigation.
2) Mention any four Forms of assistance in recovery programmes provided by

Ihternational Agencies.
International Agencies
25.3 IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES IN
DISASTER MITIGATION
There are four niajor categories of International agencies active in disaster
mitigation.
Category I: Core Agencies of the U.N.
Department of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-DHA), Office of Disaster Relief

Coordinator, Geneva. The agency assists in disastkr assessments and relief
management. It also advises on hazard risk assessment, mitigation pla~~ning and
imple~nentation.It provided the secretariat for tlie International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction ((IDNDR) and now houses tlie secretariat for its
successor progranime viz., t l ~ eInternational Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(ISDR).
FAO-Food and Agricult~~re

Organisation
It offers teclinical advice on the reduction of vulnerability and monitors and

advises in food production. It is headquartered in Rome.
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS), Nairobi
It advises on settlement planning that will reduce risk and on post-disaster

reconstruction.
UNDP:
The United Nations Develop~nentProgramme (UNDP) with headquarters in New

York incorporates disaster tnitigation in developmental planning ancl also
provides financial aid for technical assistance for disaster management. It offers
administrative support to resident coordinator and advises on flood loss
prevention, ~nitigationand management through agencies sucli as UN Economic
and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP, Bangkok). UNDP
has sanctioned the project to the Ministry of Agriculture (Govt. of India) on
"Strengthening Disaster Management capacity' for tlie country.
UNESCO:
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

(UNESCO) in Paris funds research in disaster mitigation and strengthening of
heritage structures against flood and earthquake damage'. It is supportive of food
manageinent programmes and runs a publicatio~~s programme.
Category 11: United Nations Agencies with Support,,Roles in Disaster

Mitigation
The United Nations Centre for Regional Development provides training and
research in regional develop~nentand planning and related lields, for developing
'countries. Its projects focus primarily on research and training, but include
advisory services and information dissen~inationcomponents, Its operational
units include the Regional Disaster Prevention Unit (RDPU).
The United Nations Envirol~mentProgramme (YNEP) perceives and includes

. disaster mitigation in its e~~virorbnentalprogramming. It has a working
relationship wit11 the UN Centre for Hu~nanSettlements (UNCHS) (Habitat) and
'*
has its ow11 publications prograitime.
Disaster Manilgement: 'The UNICEF (United Nations Childre11's Emergency Fund) attencls to the well-
Role o f Various Ager~cies being of women and chi!dren including that at the time of disaster. It collaborates
with the World I-lealtll Organizalion (WHO) and World Food Programmc (WFP)
in social programmes. including improve~nenl01' water supply, sanitation and
health. Besides running its own publications progl-ammes, it is now entering, illto
disaster preparedness, planning ancl mitigation work in alliance wit11 otller
agencies.
'The UNIENET or United Nations International Emergency Networlc through a

network of computers, places menibers of'tlie worlcl-wicle disaster riianagement
comniilnity in direct co~nmunicatio~iwith each other and provides tllenl
instantaneously with both bacl.;ground and operational disaster related
inlb~.malion.
'I'he UNHCR (U 11ited Nations High Conim issioner for Refugees) assists refugees
tllrough cainps, financial grants and otlier assistance.
l'he WFP or World Food Programnie provides targetccl food aid, son~etimes
linl<ed to 'food for worli' programme ibr const~.uction of floocl protection
structures and coordinates pre and post disaster emergency food aid. It also runs
its own publicatio~isprogralnnle.
Tlie WHO or World t1calth Organisation provides assislrzncc in post-clisastcr

rapid response. It promotes 'ilealth cities' programlnes ancl is supportive of
disaster mitigation measures. It also has its own plrblications programme.
'fhe WMO or Wo~~ld Meteorological Organisation providcs technical guidance,

training and coordination to the national weathcr scrvices to upgrade [heir
forecasting capabilities for the weather and climale related disasters.
Category 111: Major Intel-national Agciicies (outside tlie UN Systen~)
Tlie Asian Development Banlc located i n Manila finances projects in Asia and the
Pacific. It is conimilted to ensuring disaster mitigation which is included in
programming of its projects. It publislies mitigation lia~idbool<s.Publishi~~g
programme and advisory worlc is being clone as part of technical assistance.
'Tlie Asian Disaster Preparedness Cc~itrc i l l Barigltolc provicles training and

i~~formationservices for countries in [lie Asia and the Pacilic region to form~~late
policies and develop capabilities 111 all areas ol'clisaster nlaliagement.
The European Comm~~nity Humanitarian Office is newly founded, but active in

the developnient of disaster mitigation strategies. Its parent body, t l ~ e
Commission of European Comm~~nitiesorganises fi~nding of niitigation
structures such as cyclone shelters in Bangladesh.
The Inter~iatioual Institute for Environment ancl Developnie~it(IIED) of USA .

proniotes and disse~iiinatesresults o r research on tlie development of tenements
and squatter settlenlents in ~ ~ r b aarea,
i i social factors wliich cause or aggravate
natural disasters and interventions that can limit their impact on tlie poorest
sectors of society. It provides technical assistance to national ancl international
agencies.
r
Organisation for Economics Coope~.atio~i& Development (OECD) o f Europe Iias
issued guidelines, tliroi~gh ils Development Assistance' Commitlee, to aid
agencies on disaster mitigati41.
The World Banlc (IBRD-I~iternational Balilc for , R e c o n s t ~ ~ ~ ~ c tand

io~i
Development) offers loans for structural adjustment and projects. It plays a ,
catalytic role in the development of mitigation strategies. It funds large-scale International Agencies
flood control and water nianagement projects, as well as running its publication
programme The Bank has recently funded the Maharashtra Earthquake
1.eIiabilitation programme in India by providing loan.
h
'I'he International Federation of Red cross and Red crescent Societies (IFRS)
assist programmes of tlie national Red-cross societies of various countries, In
India, they assist and work with the Indian Red Cross Society. IFRS also publish
a 'World Disaster Report' fio~iiits Geneva office.
Category IV: National Bodies Assisting Ovel-seas
ODA - Overseas Development Administration (UI<) operates a

disaster response unit and ~11ide1-talcesadvice ancl studies ill
disaster mitigation. It finances consultancy ancl construction
work for post-disaster and pre-disaster preparedness. It also
has its own publications programme.
OFDA - Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (USA) liolds regional

seminars on mitigation strategies. It also offers consultancy
and issues publications.
NCDM/Iaclia - The National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM)

established by Government of India at tlie Indian Institute of
Public Administration in Ncw Dellii provides training;
research and consultancy in different areas of disaster
management in India and to countries in the South Asian
region.
-
25.4 FINANCIAL
AND LOGISTIC ASSISTANCE IN
DISASTER SITUATIONS
Logistics liave been described as the procurement and dclivery of the right
s ~ ~ p p l i eins the right order in good contlition at the riglit place at tlie right time.
Obviously, logistics play a crucial role in clisaster mitigation.
International assistance siral ally boosts tlie availability ol' much-needed relief
commodities provided liaison between the striclten cou11tl.y and international
donors has ensured the preclusion of unnecessary relief items.
If, however, good liaison is not maintained, inappropriate ancl often nusa sable
items may be received. This can be a serious liability, since the in-country supply
system liiay become cholted and valuable local resources may have to be
deployed to sort i~sablccommodities from non-usable one. It is, therefore,
~ior~iially
ilie responsibility of potential recipients to ensure that inapprop~.iate
supplies (e.g. i~nacceptablefoodstuffs or clothes) are made known to donors.
International relief input ~lsuallyplaces additional demands on tlie in-countl-y

logistic system. This may be a crucial sector if major ports, airfields roads and
railways liave had their capacity reduced by disaster effects. Extra demands may
also be placed on fitel and food stocks by visiting aircraft and various relief
teams.
Therefore, it is clear that i~lternationalassistance activities, whilst: contributi~ig

many invaluable benefits also impose logistic complications. Any such
complications need to the mininiised through prior planning ancl preparedness
arrangements.
4
Disaster Ma~~agement: hi the interests' of both the striclten country and the international assistance
Role o f Various Agencies agency, it is important that no undue delays are imposed on international inputs
by delays from customs or other formalities.
International Financial aid in disaster situations is released via four main

channels
1 ) The United Nations contribute funds for disaster situations which are
released on request from tlie stricken country. This assistance is channeled
through the appropriate UN agency such as, UNHCR or UNWFP or
UNICEF or UNDP.
2) Developecl nations i~suallyhave some funds set aside for disaster situations
in the under-developed world. The amount they release is determined by a
variety of factors lilte the magnitude of the tragedy, the relations between the
two countries, etc.
3) International bodies like the European Union have also been assisting the
disaster-affected countries.
4) Countries may have bi-lateral agreements among themselves that may

include the c l a ~ ~that
s e if either country is stricken by a disaster, the other will
help with tlie required forrn of assistance - monetary or otherwise.
Major disasters impose a tremendous strain on a country's financial and other

resources. In such a siti~ationit is almost i~npossiblefor it to cope on its own
without financial aid from internatior~alagencies. In sucli a scenario, when aid
starts flowing from various quai-ters, it becomes very essential to keep track of
the amounts coming in and to ensure that they are utilised in an appropriate
manner.
25.5 INTERNACTION AND COORDINATION WITH

GOVERNMENTAL AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANISAITONS; GOVERNMENT'S POLICY
FOR INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE
All interna~ionalagencies require clearance fiom the national government.
The international agencies operate at different levels. They usually have a branch
head office in tlie national capital and some branches at state levels. The head
office regulates the flow of fi~nds;receives orders and instructions from the
agency headquarters and passes them on to the branch offices. It also liaises with
the national government and finalises operational details.
Non-Governmental Organisations usually work in close coi-?junctionwit11 the

intenlational agencies. The agencies nor~nallywork through NGOs. They finance
the specific project and the NGOs do the ground work. This way, the country
gets the firra~icialaid of the international agency and tlie agency, in working
through local organisation (s), gets a true picture of the events and is able to
utilise its resources more effectively.
Alternatively, tlie agencies might fillid and carry out a programme on its own
after first getting clearance from the gov.ernmenta1. Sometimes, these agencies
prograinlyes in part or as a whole.
simply fund t h e gover~irne~it
The policy of Government of India with regard to external assista~icefor relief in
the walte of disasters is not to issue a formal appeal, either directly or tliro~~gh
ally ilatio~lnlor international agency, to request relief assistance fro111 abroad.
Idowever, any assistance donated on a voluntary basis is accepter1 and
acl<nowledged as a tolten of international solidarity. If the assistance is in cash, it
is to be sent to the Prime Minister's National Relief Fund. If it is in Itind, it
sllould pseferably be routed t111.0ughthe Indian Natiorlal Red Cross.
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answcrs.

ii) Check your answers with those given at tlie end of tlie i~nit.
I ) List the core agencies of the U.N. worlii~~g

for disasters mitigation.
2) lBRD stands for:
a) International Bank for Rural Development

b) International R u r e a ~for
~ Reconstr~lctionand Developrncnt
c) Internationa.1 Bank for Reco~lstructionand Development.
d) International Bank for Recoustnlction Development.
3) Mention tlie salient feat~~ses of Govern~nent's Policy for international

assista~lcein the event of disaster.
Role of V a r i o ~ r sAgencies
25.6 LET US SUM UP
When a major disaster strikes, it becomes very difficult for the country to
manage the rescue and relief worlc and consequent rehabilitation on its own. In
such a situation, the assistance of international agencies is required, pal-ticularl~
in developing countries. With the illcreasing recognitioli of the iniportance of
disaster related matters, more and niore agencies are now providing aid in this
field. There are four major types of international agencies active in disaster
management. They interact with the national and state/goveri~inentsand get an
idea of the alnount of lnoney and type'of material that are required immediat~l~.
Many of the international agencies worlc in close colijunction with the Non-
Goverll~ne~ltal Organisations (NGOs).
25.7 KEY WORDS
Self-coping To be able to manage by itself

Infrastructural Collective term for fixed installations including
roads, commu~iicatio~~s,bridges, etc.
Reconnaissance Process of surveying or inspection or gatliering
informat1011
Transnational Across nations
Traumatised Upset, shocked
25.8 REFERENCES AND FLIRTHER READINGS
Carter, W.N. (199 1 ), Disaster Management; A Disaster Manager 's Handbook,

Asian Developlne~~t Bank, Manila.
The Institution of Civil Engineers (1 9 9 9 , Mega Cities; Reducing Vulnerability
to Natural Disasters, Tlioinas Telford, London.

EXERCISES
1) Your answer sliould include the followi~igpoints:

Pre-disaster stage
Respo~iseOperations stage
Recovery Programmes stage
Future Development stage
2) Your answer slio~lldinclude the following points:

* Financial grants or credits; Building Materials; Technical Equipment;
Agriculture Rehabilitation, Food for Work.
1) Your answer sliould include following points:

I
1 40 a UN-DHA, UN-FAO, UNESCO, UNDP
#
1
2) Your answer should include the followirlg points: Internationnl Agertcies
e International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

e Government of India's Policy is not to ask for external assistance
e If aid comes voluntarily, it is accepted as token of international solidarity
e Cash aid goes to PM's National Relief Fund and material aid S I I O L I I ~ be
r o ~ ~ t ethrough
d Indian Red Cross
MEDIA
Structure
26.0 Ol~jectives
26.1 I~itrocl~~ction
26.2 Impo~-tanceand Role of Media
26.2.1 I~ili~rmative
26.2.2 Suggest~ve
26.2.3 Analytical
26.3 Facti~aland Etliical Reporting
26.4 Let 11sSutn UP
26.5 ICcy Words
26.6 Referenccs and Further Readings
26.7 Answer to Check Your Psogress Exercises
26.0 OBJECTIVES - - -- --
After reading this unit, you will bc able to iders erst and and discuss the following:
What is Media?
The importance and role of Meclia in a disaster siluation;
The types of Media and l~owto malce tlie riglit kitid of klioice bctwee~i
different Media available; and
How the facts are reported by Media during and after a disaster situation?
26.1 INTRODUCTION
Media is usually clefilied as impe~.sonal means of com~nunication by ~vliicli
written, visual or auditory or sometimes a combination of sucli messages are
transmitted directly to tlie audiences". In simpler terms, the word media denotes
the means of cornmu~iicai.ion with large nu~iiber of people spread over
communities, cities or countries through written or pritited word or sound and
voice or visual images 01- a combination o r these.
By the definition itself, we understand r.liat media is an organised means df

reacliing large number of people, quickly, timely effectively arid ei'ficiently.
There are two main clial~acteristicsof media,
i) It can reach nill lions of people in slio~-ttime; eve11insta~itaneously. , I
ii) Audio media transceods the limits of illiteracy and tlie visual liiedia call be
effective in a rnultilingual society as well.
iii) It is cost effective and generally user-friendly.
iv) Generally, media provide one way communication i t . to the receiving
people. I
Television, radio, ~~ewspaper, magazines, audio atid video as well as movies are
exarnples of media. These are very ilsefi~lin the rnultilingual traditional and
largely i l literate society in India.
,Types of Media : Media may be of various 161icI;but in disaster management,'

following types of ~nedia are important: /'
i) Print Media - Print Media (newspapers etc.) have made tremendous

progress in India since 1780, when the first Indian newspaper 'The Bengal ,
Gazette' appeared. After Independence, tlie mass media assumed great .
significance. As per official records, more than 25000 different newspapers, ,
magazines and bulletins are being publislied from various states in the
cou~itryi n various larrguages.
- ii) Broadcast Media - They comprise radio and television. Mcssages are
transmitted by thcsc media through satellite and received by viewers and
listeners at clistant places of thc country very quickly. Raclio atid T.V.
rcwch
tilore number of people than print media. In disaster \vasning and crcating
awareness. broadcast media are most effective especially a largc multilingual
country like India with low levcl of literacy. Broaclcast media are sometimes
termed as Elcclronic Media although the latter term would iliclude audio
video cassettes.
1 iii) Display Media - This comprises the following:
a) Hoardings or Billboards 01. illuminated signs which can bc clisplaycd at

busy public places like bus stands, railway stations, parks, etc.
b) Wall paintings and posters on common places including railway stations,

airposls psovicling specific awareness.
c) Small panels on lamp posts 01. inside or outside buscs, railway
compartrncnts, taxis etc.
d) Banners
e) Window displays
t) Sky balloons in trade fairs

g) Small handbills, leafets.
11) Exhibitions and Fairs where special pavilions may be arranged to deal
with the theme of disaster management.
Note: i) Use tlie space givc~ibelow for your answers.

ii) Chech your answers with tliose givcn nt the cncl of'llic nil.
1) Defirie Media and menlion its two characteristics.
2) Nai~ievarious types of Media generally used?

ROIC of Various Agencies 26.2 IMPORTANCE AND ROLE OF MEDIA
Media has a very important role in disaster management. In this context, it'
performs rnajor fi~nctionsmentioned below:
i) Surveillallce of the environment, which means collection ancl distribution

of information concerning events in the c I i m a t e / e ~ ~ v i r o ~ ~A
~ inumber
~ent.
of climatic information is potentially related to the nati~raldisasters,
which can be com~nunicatedregularly and Inore freqi~entlyat the time of
disaster.
The best example is cyclone, Media can play a very important role in
dissemination of infor-mation SLICII as formation of depression on the sea,
its movement towards the coast, areas lil;ely to be affected, etc.
ii) Disaster Awareness Eclucation to the masses can be given by niedia.
" Today we have about 50% illiterate people in India but most of them do
have access to radio or television.

iii) Long term preparedness and mitigation strategies can be explained
effectively to tlie masses through various media.
iv) Media I~elpin policy formulation by co~iductingpublic debate or surveys
or polls.
Why Media Covers Disaster News?
This is because disasters are i~ni~si~al, sudden events which cause enormous loss
of lives and property. It brings many dramatic anci traumatic stories. It depends
on how the news is delivered by tlie journalists. Most of tlie time they try to find
fault in provicling relief to the victims and highlighting the impact on affected
community. So~neti~nes these news encourage international fundraising and
create more public sympathy for the affected people. the amount, depth and
period of coverage will depend on the scale and freq~~erlcy of the disaster, the
speed with which the infonnation can be obtained, and the a n ~ o ~ lof n t interest in
tlie public on tlie sub.jcct. TIie rnedia have a strong i~ilpacton the perception of
and reponse to disasters. Tlius role of media in a disaster is multipurpose and can
be broadly classlied in three categories:
a) Informative
b) Suggestive
c) Analytical
26.2.1 Informative Role
Media can play informative role in all the three situations:
j) Pre-clisaster
ii) At the time of disaster; and
iii) Post-disaster
In Pre-disaster situation, knowledge of disaster vulnerability of the community is

very important. In monsoon season, rainfall predictions, water level in different
rivers, water flow rate, possible breach of embankment etc. are the pieces of
infonnation extremely i~sefi~lfor the people living in the highly vulnerable areas.
Media can highlight some of tlie important ~nitigation ineasures, which
. community should take up in the vulnerable zones of a 11atural disaster.
Similarly, some of tlie success stories of water-shed management in drought
mitigation, can be useful in other drouglit affected areas of tlie country.
Himalayan region is highly vultierable to a nulnber of natural disasters (viz.
Earthquake, Landslides, Flash Floods, Avalanches etc.). A concept of
~nvironmenta~ protection, ecological balance and sustainable development in
tllis region will celtainly help in disaster reduction in tlie region. Awareness in
tliis regard can be generated by media 011 ly tlirougli informative reporting.
AL tlie time of disaster, accurate information sliould be the first ailn of a

journalist. It needs cooperation between local officials and media. Most of tlie
tinie tlie local officials are unable or ~lnwillingto give information, because of
selisitivity or seci~rityreasons or tlie news is still unconfirmed. I n sucli cases
journalist sliould depend on reliable sources/agencies working in relieflor
unbiased local community so tliat right information Iiiay reacli tlie people and
other lisltiolial and international agencies. However, the media lias to ensure
balanced reporting so as to avoid unnecessary panic and rumours.
In post-disaster situation, informative role of tlie media is to provide correct

information about tlie continuing impacts of tlie disaster and tlie actual needs of
tlie affected people so tliat tlie rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes call
be tailored accordingly, The media helps to keep a check 011 various agelicies
wliicli undertake reliabilitatioli programmes.
26.2.2 Suggestive Role
In a disaster situation, there could be many mitigation measures available,

Sornetirnes it is difficult to find out tlie most suitable option for tlie specific
disasier. For example, Flood is a very.comnion natural disaster. There are nwny
states wliicli are prone to this disaster like Assam, U.P. Bihar, and West Bengal.
In this context, media lias a significalit role in providing silitable suggestiolis for
political attention and public illiderstanding for most acceptable options.
Similarly, media lias a role in checking activities whicli lniglit aggravate tlie
adverse impacts ofdisasters.
In tlie process of rehabilitation and reconstruction, media call be used to muster

1 expel? opillioli and solutions, e.g,
- models of lloi~ses
- suitable building material
- suitable topograplly for building new houses
- Do's and Doli't in the constrilction work.
Similar suggestions can be provided in tlie retrofitting of weaker structures and

houses in tlie ea~tliquakevulnerable areas.
26.2.3 Analytical Role
.The lnost critical role of media is analytical. This approach can be applied in
analysis of
.- disaster preparedness
- disaster mitigation
- disaster relief
- .- disaster rehabilitation
Disaste~.Management: There are preparedness plans for each disaster, After the disaster, the
Role o f Various Agericies
effectiveness of plan and lessons learnt from the disaster should be analysed in a
constructive way. It will certainly improve the plan for future use. Similarly, if
there are different mitigation approaches used by Government and non-
Governmental Organisations, the media can highlight both and strive to evolve a
balance of approach. This type of success stories can be replicated in other parts
of tlie cou~itryin similar situations.
The analytical role of media is specially llelpful in rehabilitation and

reconstruction work after landslide or eartliqualte disaster. The Latur earthquake
rehabilitation of more than 50 villages is a good example of this kind. The media
can give views of various role players about the success or failure of their
prcigramme so that it can be a lesson for tlie authorities and the mistakes
committed once are not repeated in similar circumstances.
26.3 FACTUAL AND ETHICAL REPORTING
Sincere journalists try to give accurate facts and figures. They try to get quick
access to the disaster area and the affected people and follow all norms and ethics
or faithful repo~ti~igwitliout fear or favour. Olhers ~niglitbe interested in "news"
or "stories", and might co~icenlrateon failures only. Such repoitage might
produce a saleable copy but most of tlie time it does not yield productive results.
~ e w s ~ i p e reporting
rs of a disaster is very interesting. Suppose, tliere is an
earthquake which has killed a few hundred or few tliousand persons. It will be a
front page news. Or a cyclone killing tliousand persons will get front page
coverage. On the second day, tlie news will be on tlie third or forth page, about
the rehabilitation work and respollse from various sectioils of the society. If there
is a VIP visit in the area, news may again come on tlie front page on tlie
third/fourtli day of disaster. After that generally there is no follow up. There are
no expert analyses.
Media lias great responsibility pa~ticularlyin disaster situations. The ethical part
is equally significant in reporting a disaster. In a riot situation or comniunity
violence, how to give correct news in a way that it does not hurt senti~ne~its of
any section of tlie society is very important.

ii) Check your answers with those given at tlie end of tlie unit.
1) How media can be informative in disaster situation?

2) Wliat are inajor fu~ictionsthat media perform in disaster management? Media
3) Explain the analytical role of media in any disaster situation?
26.4 LET US SUM UP
'
The term "Media" has been explained highlighting the cl~aracteristics,Types of
media have been described and their major fi~nctionsin the context of disaster
management have been discussed. The itnportauce and role of media at various
stages of disaster maliagement have been brought out. Finally, the need for
factual and ethical reporting of disaster situations liase been emphasized.
8
26.5 KEY WORDS
Audience refers to the people who see or hear o; read the messages
in the media.
, Auditory pertaining to the sense of hearing.
Campaigii refers to a planned programme of communication using

media during a specified period.
' Surveillance close watch
Circulation number of copies of a newspapers or magazines sold per

day or per month.
Coverage nuniber of persons from target audience that see, Iiear or
read the message
Transcends rises above
Very Important Person

Million Ten lakli or a tliousand thousand
- - - -
Role o f Various Agencies
Sharma, S.C., 1987, Media, Communication and Development; Rawat

Publications, Jaipur.
Golding, Peter, 1974, The Mass Media, London, Longman.
Kuppuswamy, B., 1976, Communication and Social Development in India,
Sterling Publisher Pvt. Ltd.
The Educational Use of Mass Media, 198 1, World Bank Staff Working Paper No.
491, World Bank Publications.
WorldDisaster Report, 1993, International Federation of Red Cross a'iid Crescent
Societies, Geneva.
26.7 -ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCIES
Check Your Progress.1
1) Your answer sliould iliclude the following points:

e Media are tlie means of communicating with a large liulnber of people
tlirough printed word, or voice or visual images or a combination of
these.
Characteristics of media are:
d) Message can reach niillioris of people quickly.
e) Even illiterate people can benefit from radio and TV; and
f) Media provide oiily one way coln~nilliicationto tlie receiving people.
2) Your answer should include:
Print Media, Broadcast Media; and Display Media,
1) Your answer should include the followiiig points:

o By highlighting the successful mitigation measures and the earlier
success stories of pre-disaster measures.
By providing accurate and unbiased news coverage during disaster
situations. x
By highlighting tlie continuing long term impacts in tlie post-disaster

situation and the needs of tlie affected people,

Surveillance of the environment
Disaster awareness education
Informing the public about strategies for long term preparediiess and
mitigation against disasters. '
Help ill policy formulation through public debates, surveys or polls.

0 Analytical role of media is very important because it enables through
testing the effectiveness of a disaster management plan and makes it
possible to undertake the necessary review and revision of the existing
plans.
e The analytical role of media is equally applicable to all stages of a
disaster inanagement plan such as the preparedness, mitigation, rescue,
relief and rehabilitation.
e The analysis by the media should be unbiased and constructive.
-- -
BLOCK 1 INCREASED UNDERSTANDING OF

DISASTERS - I
Block Introduction
This is the first Block of tlie Course on Disaster Management: Methods and
Techniques (CDM-02). It lias four Units. The block provides a detailed i~nderstanding
of the occurrelice of tlie four ~iiajordisasters i.e. earthquake, flood, cyclone, drought
and famine, damage c a ~ ~ s ebyd them, the gover~imentpolicy perlaining to provision of
relief and rehabilitation and ol.lier related aspects.
UNIT 1 Earthquake
Earthquake is one of the most dangerous and instantaneously destructive natural
hazards. A large portion of India is vnlnerable to eartliqualte activity of varying
magnitude particularly i l l tlie Northern I-limalayan region. This unit focuses on their
impact on the life and property of tlie people, with pa~ticularreference to some recent
ea~tliqi~akesi l l the country. V a r i o ~ ~
relief
s and rehabilitation measures are discussed.
The unit also highlights tlie lessons learnt from tlie past experiences so as to ensure
better handling of ~ L I ~ Learthquakes
II-e to minimize the res~~llant
damage.
UNIT 2. Flood and Drainage

Flood and drainage congestion are the phenomena of nature that have caused great
llavoc of disaster dimensions in India. The unit identifies the major flood prone areas
in India, tlie extent of the vulnerability and damage expe~.iencedin tlie past due to
floods and drainage congestion. It higliliglits the main tlir~~sf of flood management
efibl-ts and tlie struct~~ral
as also lion-structural measures to deal with floods. The unit
also brings forth tlie lessons learnt from previous experiences in Ilandling floods that
l d lielpful in future.
w o ~ ~ prove
UNIT 3 Cyclone
examines, in brief, the three major cyclones that wreaked Ilavoc in India in
Tliis ~111it
tlie recent years. Tliis includes the infamous super cyclo~ieof 1999 that struck Orissa.
An analysis of tlie extent of damage caused by cyclones has been atlempted. The role
of different administrative"agencies in providing tlic relief and rehabilitation has also
been discussed.
UNIT 4 Drought and Famine

Dro~~glltand Famine have devastating lo~igterm el'fects on the ecoliolny leading to
problems like social and economic destabilization, epidemics, malnutrition and
migration. Tl~isunit analyses the damage caused by drought in India with particular
reference to tlie two recent major dro~~gllts
that have occurred in 1982 and 1987. It
Ibcuses on various components of relief and rehabilitation measures. The government
policy towards droi~glit management with its emphasis 011 integrated disaster
preparedness is discussed. This unit attempts to develop a clear understanding of tlie
lessons learnt fiom handling the earlier sit~~ations that woi~ld facilitate further
improvements in drought Inanagement.
EARTHQUAKE
Structure
1.0 Objcctives
1.1 Ilitroduction
1.2 Some Damaging Earthquakes in India - An Overview
1.2.1 Uttarkashi Earthquake
1.2.2 L,atur Earthquake
1.2.3 BI1u.i Earthq~~ake
1.3 Lessons ~earnt'fromtlie Past Experiences
1.4 Government Action Pertaining to Relief and Rehabilitation
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 I<eyWords
1.0 OBJECTIVES
0 (Iisc~~ss some of tlie damaging earthquakes that have occurred i n recent years
in India;
0 describe tlie important aspects of rescue and relief in I.lie areas affected by
earthquake;
0 liigliliglit the lessons learnt from these earthquakes and identify tlie seisniic
zones in-the country ; and
e unclerstand tlic goveniment action pertaining to relief and reliabilitation.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Eal-tliquakesare one of the niost dangerous and instantaneously destructive natural

hazards. The impact of the eartliquake plienomenol~is sudden wit11 llardly any
warning. It is not possible to forecast earthquakes in terms of exact time of
occurrence, place of occurrence and magnitude of tlie event. Thus, such a situation
gives no time for lnakilig preparatioiis at that stage to reduce tlie loss of lives and
property. Tlie ~iiajordamage in case of earthquake takes place in ternis of collapse
of buildings and daniage to infrastruct~~ral facilities, disrupting the nornial life.,
Electric sliort circuits and gas leaks can create big fires and broken water lnai~is
ancl damaged water tanks can lead to severe flooding compounding llie misery of
tlie affected community. A large portion of our cou~itryis vul~ierableto earthquake
activity of varying magnitudes. Most of tlie liiglily vulnerable areas are in the
Hi~nalayanand sub-Hi~iialayan~.egio~is, Andalnan and Nicobar Islands and Kutch
area of Gujarat. These areas have faced at least six earthquakes of ~nagnitude8 +
on tlie Richter scale in the period of recorded history of eartliquakes in tlie country.
Tlie nature atid impact of earthquake disaster is dependent upon a number of

factors including its magnitude, geological and soil conditions, location of fault,
construction of major structures and prevaili~ig construction practices in tlie
particular areas. Tlie occurrence of eartliquakes of significance is increasingly felt
even in regioiis that were earlier considered less vulnerable to earthquakes. For
exa~nplc,tlie Latur eartliq~~ake o f Scptenlber 30, 1993, occurred in seismic zolie
one. As per the seismic zone map of the country, this area was considered to be
less active seismically. On tlie other hand, tlie devastating eartllquake at Bliuj
(eljarat) on January 26, 2001 occurred in a highly prone area. Thus, no place
seems to be fiee from tlie fear of eartliquakes, big or small. Hence it is essential to
have a good understanding of this phenomenon in the Indian cpntext.
1.2 SOME DAMAGING EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA -
AN OVERVIEW
Earthquakes are categorized according to their magnitude in five categories as
foIlows:
Less than 3 il.1 magnitude: Mild, micro or tremor;

3 to 4.9: sliglit;
5 to 6.9: moderate;
7 to 7.9: great; and
8 or more: very great
India has a very long history of ea~-tIiqualces.The occurrence of earthquake is riot a

new phe~iome~ionfor most of the northern parts of our count~y. In the past we
have already faced some major earthquakes like Rann of Kutch ( 1 81 9) magnitude
8.0, Assa~n(1897) magnitude 8.7, Kangra (H.P.) (1905) magnitude 8.0, Biliar-
Nepal border (1934) magnitude 8.4, Andaman Islands (1941) magnitude 8.0 and
Assall1 (1950) magnitude 8.6. Besides these major earthqualces, a large nuruber of
other moderate and minor earthquakes have been experienced in dirferent parts of
the country. In the recent past, India experienced rnajor earthquakes at Uttarkaslii
(1991), L a t ~ (1993)
~r and Jabalpur (1 997), Cliamoli (1999) and Blii!i (2001). In
this section we will discuss in detail g few oftliese recent earthquakes.
1.2.1 Uttarkashi Earthquake

Table 1: Fact Sheet of Uttarkashi Earthquake
Magnitude oL'tlie Earthquakc 6.6 o n Richter Scale

Date of occurrence 20 October, I99 l
Focal depth 12 km
Epicenter Village Agora (30.7' N, 78.68" E)
'rime ~f occurrence 02 1 53 In 16 s
People killed
People in-jured
Cattle head lost
Houses fully destroyed
I-louses partially damaged
Villages affected
a) Seismic History of the Region
The earthquake affected area has a ltnown Iiistory of earthcluake occurrence.

In the last 100 years, this region had experie~icedabout eleven ea~-tIiq~iakes
of
~nag~iitude ranging 6.0 and 6.6 on Richter scale. The retwrn period for the
earthquake of similar magnithde is about 8-9 years. Tile entire area is i~nder
seismic zones 1V and V with a Iiiglie~~vulnerability for seismic losses.
Widespread damage took place due to this earthquake. The detailed break-
up of the damage under various categories grouped by Districts is given in
Table 2.
Table 2: Damage Due to Uttailcashi Earthquake 1991
I District I Affected I Affected I Dasagcd Houscs

1 I 1 , ;1 , ' ~ i l ~ a g e s Population
Human
se;;
F m1
persons loss
(No.) (in Iakh)
-
Ckamoli 699 0.72 573 1973 2 18 10
I)chladun 1 16 0.02 26 452 9
h ~ ~ ~ r i 72 0.0 1 34 449 , - 3 5
(iarl~\val
Nainital - 2 4
Total 2003 4.25 20222 44643 718 4774

il~ldRelief, Govl, of U.I', Apri1.1994
Source: Deplt. Of IZeven~~e
i) Damage to BuildingsNouses:
'The buildings/lioi~sesin the ea~thquakeaffected area can be classified

into' (a) engineered and (b) nou-engineered structures. It has been
observecl that tlie perfor~nanceof these two types of buildings during the
eartliquake was different. Tlie non-engineered buildings fou~id
throughoi~ttlie ri~ralareas and tlie old stone buildings ill thc towns
I suffered severe damage. The engineered buildings were also there in the
I earthquake affected area such as the buildings in the irrigation project
colony at Maneri and Indo -Tibetan Border Police Colotiy at
Maliitanda. Buildings in both these coloni& faced the eardl1 quakc in A
very safe manner and suffered no darnage, except for minor cracks in tlie
buildings that were observed.
ii) Damage to Infrastructural Facilities

I
1
I Large scale damage to infrastructural facilities took place in tlie
i
i
eal-tliquakeaffected area. The damage to roads was due to roclcfall. land-
slides and rock-slides along tlie road side slopes causing heavy damage
to road ~ietworkin the earthquake affected areas. T11e other services like
1
I
communicatio~inetwork and power supply system were affected very
badly due to the severe damage to telephone and electric poles. 111case
I1 of social infrastructure, tlie bu i Id ings that house health and education

facilges had suffered damage. Tlie surface water tanks at Uitarkashi and
Maneri did not suffer any damage, however, the joiilts in tlie piped
supply lines failed clue to ground shaking, resulting in clisruption of the
I water si~pplyin certain areas for quite some time.
1
1 iii) Damage to Bridgcs:
Due to difficult terrain a large number of bridges were located to cross

the rivers and deep river valleys ~tlirougliout the hilly area. Tlie
I performance df steel bridges was found satisfactory except the Cawana
bridge 01.1 the road to Cangotri about six km. from Uttarkaslii. The stone
nlaso~lr-y tower suspension foot bridge suffered slight to me/dium
cla~nages.
It was quilt a di1'f;cull tash for lllc aclnl~nrstratio~~

to orgalllse re1 icr \vorl<just
after tlie eartliq~~al\c c i ~ ~toc Iicavy damage to roads, co~nmunicalionnetworl\
and bridges etc. 7.11~p ~ , i ~ nissue
c r~~volved in the Iirst stage of rescue and relief
was to reacli tlie al'l'ectcd \,illage w~itllIieccssary rclief rtiilterials like food,
watln clolhes. meclici~~cs elc. For this purpose, the army and other para
rnililnry forccs like Bo~.clcrSecurity Force (BSF), [ndo l'ibelan Border Police
(1'1'131-') along\vith llic sclviccs o r 1)ircctorate Ge~leral for Border Roads
(DGUR) we1.c pressccl ink) scr\/icc. A largc number o f other social groups l ilcc
NC'C cadets, N SS volunteers, l'asli 1:or.ce of Uttarltashi admin istmt ion and
several NGCIs also carnc forward lo llelp the local adminisll-ation ill the rescue
ant1 relief operations. T o reacll 111c i~laccessiblevillages, the services of five
heavy and seven light nrlny lielicoptcrs werc i~tiliscd i~nniedialelyafter the
en~-thclual~c. 'I'he DGI3R tool< up the cllalle~igeof repairi~igthe damaged roads
on a war fooling. 'The government p~ovidcdfood itenis lilcc flour, pulses, rice,
oil. sugar, milk, slicecl bread etc. As the ~vinlerseason was approaching fast,
it was not possiblc to 1.econstrucl all damagecl houses; Iie~iceco~nmunity
centres were inlmcclialcly constructccl lo provicle sheller lo llle affected
communily. Besides Ihc conl~nunil:, ccnlrcs, lin sheels, tarpnline and tents
alo~lg~1111blanlcels were clistribulcd ficc of cost to protect people liom the
colcl. Tlie clistrict wisc clislribution ofthese items is givcn in tlie Table 3.
Table 3: Distrib~rtiotiof Rclief Materials
Districts Tin Slicets l's~~poli~~c/l'ents BI:in ltets

I
ant1 Rulicl: Govt of C1.P. 1,ucl~now

Source: D c p : ~ ~ . t ~ iul'l<c\u~iuc
ic~i~
To proviclc i.clief to the people. who had lost every thi~igas a result of this
earthqualie. the government had i s s ~ ~ eorders
d lo pay each family Rs.7501-
per nio~llh from November.1991 lo J a ~ ~ u a r y1992.
, Later on, this amount
was raised to Rs.30001- per fhm ily. Tliis amount incluclecl the cost of 20 kg.
of foocl iterns, one blanket per persvli upto a ~ila>tirnumof 5 blanl<cls per
fanlily and a cash subsicly of Rs. 2001- per. unit per family.
a) Reconst~-uctionof Eal.tIiqual<c Affected Area
In orrlel. to reconstruct the houses which had bcc11 clamaged conlplelely by

the cartliqual<e, a detailed district wise schcmc was clrawn up. The finances
for this sche17:c werc proci~~.eclfrom I-IUDCO and undcr Indira Awas Yojna.
The details of the reconstri~ctionand the progress reported i ~ p t oApril 1994
is ~ i v e nin 'T'ahlc 4.
Eartliquake
District 1-1UDCO Indira Awas Yojlia

--
Houses Houses I-louses Houses
Constructetl Under Construcled Under
LJltarlrilshi 1 1798
1 :;;structi::~
2810
Co~lntr~~ction
26
1 Told - ' 15520

0 26
Source: [)cpilrtn1cnlol'Revcnuc al~dIiclieE (jovt, ol'U.1'. Luclinow
1.2.2 Latur Earthquake

An earthquake of moderate ~nagnitudeof 6.4 (on liichtel3 scale) s t r ~ ~ cthe k
Marathwada region of Maharaslitra state on 30"' Seplembei. 1993. The impact of
this eartliqualte was felt in the adjoining states of Andhra Psaclesli and I<asnatal<a
also. In all, eight districls in Maharaslitra and three districts in I(arnalal<a have
been affected. Flowever, the severely ail'ected arcas were mainly tlle Latur ancl
Osmanabad districts of Maliataslitta. Tlie total asca arrecled clue to this earthquake
is given in Table 5.
was about 52,000 sq. lim. Tlie fact sheet of the earllicl~ral<c
a) Seismic I-Iistoryof tlie Region

The ma.jor portion of tlie earthqual<e af'fected area lies in zone one of llie
seismic zone {nap of Inctia. Accordingly, prior to tliis earthquake this area
was considered relatively safe from tlie estrtliclualtc 11oint"of view because
geologically speaking, it was located in a stable continental region (SCR).
I
I The village I(illari, where the impact of tlic earthquake was most severe, had
i earlier also, prior to tliis cnstliq~~ake cxperienccd s~nalltremors in 1962,
1967. 1983 ancl 1992. In 1 992, about 125 tcrmors wcse felt betwecn A L I ~ L I S ~
and October 1 8- 1 9,1992.
i
Damage due l o Latur Earthqualte
Widespread damage toolc place due to this ea~.thquake. A b o ~ 25

~ t villages around
the epicenter of tlie earthquake were damaged very scverely wliile anollies 58
villages surfercd severe damages. The enlirc region liacl a traditional systcm of
dwelling nit construction which involved heavy stone walls, and a massive roof
over the wooden timber sub-structure. The wall has bcen corlstructecl in such a
manner that it could not resist tlie impact of any cal-thqualcc. During tlie
eal-thqualce most of the houses were destroyed causing clcalli of people in large
numbers as also a wide spread cla~nagcto installations and properties in the
auected areas as indicated in Table 5.
Table 5: Fact Sheet of Latur Eal-thqual~e
1 5.4 on Ricliler Swle

- --
Scp. 30.1993
Focal tlepth 15Km.
Epicenter Villagc Killari (76.34'13. 18.03"N)
Time o f occurrence 311, 55111.47.5 S
Pcople killed 9484
Cattle head,tost 14845
,'
Houses I'ully clamagecl 343 13
Houses partially damaged / 1b.5 lakh
Villages atfected 95,8
AFFected property 30000
lncrensed Understanding Besides the housing, other infrastr~~clural facilities also received severe damages.
-
of Disasters I The infrastructural losses i~lcurredin the two worst affected districts of Lati~rand
Osmanabad are show11in Table 6.
Table 6: Infrastructl~rallosses due to Latur Earthquake
Types of Infrastructure Amount Lost (Rs. in Million)
Electric Instz~lletion
Water Supply System

I
School buildi~igs
Smaj Mandirs
Health Depa~lrnentBuildings
PWD Buildings
Gram Palchayat Buildings
Total 81.54 139.40

Source: Government of Mahnnslitra Rehabilitation Proposals
b ) Rescue and Relief:
In the aftermatll of the eartllquake an overwhelming response by

administration, voluntary organisatiolis and local coln~ni~nity was noticed.
Army services were pressed into action for the rescue operation. This involved
clearance of rubble, rescuing the i~ljured,re~noval and cremation of dead
bodies. The army p6rsonnel had succeeded in rescuing about 9000 people.
Along with the treatment of injured , medical teams were deputed to take up
the preventive measures against the spread of any epidemic. Provisions were
made for temporary relief shelters to tlie survivors of the eal-thquake. These
shelters were made up of G.1. (galvanized iron) sheeted roofs over the bamboo
or wooden frames. About 30,000 families were provided the temporary
slielters in tlie two worst affected districts of Lati~rand Osmanabad.
c) Rehabilitation of Earthq uake Affected Area:

The Government of Maharashtra had started a very ambitious programme for
the rehabilitation of the earthquake affected area. The Maharashtra Earthquake
Reconstruction Project (1993) was one of the most comprehensive.
reconstruction and mitigation projects ever taken up in India. It enco~npassed
all aspects of complete rehabilitation. This programme llacl the followillg
yomponents.
i) Housing Construction and Repair
Under the'rehabilitation programme, about 49 villages were rehabilitated

on new sites with 23000 houses and all necessary iufrastructi~re and
amenities. About 29,600 houses were reconstructed while 1,80,000
. houses were retrofitted, for better earthquake resistance.
i
ii) Infrastructure
This comprise'd repair, reconstruction and strengthening of public

buildings and other infrastructure including scl~ools,health centres, social
service fac,ilities, roads, bridges, etc. .
iii) Econornic Rehabilitation
Tliis included the replace~nc~it and reconstruction on a grant basis, of

business Iosses/agricultllral losses like minor equipment, bulloclts, milcll
cattle. sheep, goats and repair and reconstsuction of dry wells.
iv) Social Rc1iabilitatio1-r
Undcr this head provision was ~naclefor special facilities and activities to
adclress tlie weds of wonlen and cliildren affected by tlie eartliq~~ake alo~ig
with tlie impl-ovenient of various facilities in all the affected districts. The
restoratio~i of various social facilities have been t;iI<en up like old age
Iiomes, balika sadans, homes for liandicapped, community centres for
women etc.
v) Commt~nityRehabilitation
Under this, provisions were made for tlie cost of worlcs and materials to
re-establish essential services within tlie affected community.
vi) Technical Assistance, Trailling and Equipment
Under this tlie provisions were for design, supervision and monitoring of
projecl components. The component also includcd tlic develop~ne~it of a
disaster ~iianagement programme for tlie statc of Maharaslitra and o
seis~i~ic
~no~iitoringand research programme for thc Governmen1 of [ndia.
1.2.3 Bhuj Earthq~~alce
on January 26, 2001, when tlie nation had just started tlie Republic Day
celebrations. a dcvnslating earthquake struck near Bliuj in the I~acliclil~ region of
Gu-jarat a~.ound0845 liours ill thc morning. The magnitude oftliis eart,liquakewas
6.9 on the Richter scale and it was tlie borderline earthqual<e between tlie
"nioderate" and "great" categories. 1-lilting a prosperous region of tlie country, its
impacts were truly disastsous. 'The fact slieet is as in Table 7 below.
Table 7: Fact Sheet of Bl~ujEarthquake
Magnitl~tll:ofthc earlhrluakc 6.9 on Richter Scale

1)atc of occurrence January 26.200 1
Epicenter
,..
1 2 3 . 4 0 " ~ .70.28'8 (near Ullnchao in Bh~!i district
I
I IIIIC~1'0cc~1rrc11cc
I IJeoplckilled 18250
1 Cattle I1,ead lost More than 20,000
I 1 louses destroyed 1 310657 I
tlouses damaged 524929
Villages atl'ected 3825
'The destruction would have been much Illore but for theY'acts tliat Bhuj is a
co~nparativelyless populated area, tlie ea~tli~uake
01-iginated at a relatively deeper
focus (25 km as compared to the focal depth of 12 km in Uttarkaslii eartliquake
and 15 Ian in the Latur ea~thquake),and it occurred at a time when everybody was
I I
awake and most were in the open. Nevertheless, this q~ialteis tlie worst in the
countly in rccent decades in terms of the persons ltilled and i~ijurecl.Gt~jaratbeing
tlie seco~idmost industrializecl state in the country tool<a heavy beating in terms of
adverse socio-econo~nicimpacts but it also had tlie resilience and tlie will to meet
the emergency. The f'amous C~LI-jarati pli i lantliropy and an abundance of goodwill
from across the country channelled relief supplies and services to augment tlie
effo~lsof the central and state governments. Tlie international aid from
govel.nmentaI and non-governmental sources also came in abundance.
The devastation was considerable in Ahmedabad the biggest city and the
commercia1 and educational capital of the state although it was located km
from the epicenter. It was apparent that many multi-storied bt~ildings were
constructed in defiance of tlie engineering norms and land-use regulations. Tlie
initial estimates put tlie total property loss in Gujarat due to this earthquake at
arouncl Rs. 15,0001- crore.
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers

ii) Clieclc your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
I) I-liglilight the damage occurred due to tlie Uttarltaslii Earthquake to buildings,

inli.astructura l facilities and bridges. .
2) How y a s the rescue and relief organised in the areas tiffected by the
earthquake?
3) List the main components of the Maliaraslltra Earthquake Reconstruction

Project laundied in 1993.
1.3 LESSONS LEARNT FROM T H E PAST
EXPER B ENCES
The lnost impor-tant lesson learnt by sti~dyingthe past occurrences o f earthquakes
is that it has beco~llepossible to delilieable seismic zones in the country as shown
in Fig. 1 .
SEISMIC ZONING M A P ALONG WITH STATE BOUNDARIES (SOURCE)

BUREAlJ O F INDIAN STANDARDS IS : 1893 : 1984
Fig. 1, Seismic Zones
s!
It will be seen that the country is divided into five seismic zones with zon 5 being
the most vulnerable.
The olhel- important less011 kom .recent studies is that these appears to be all
increase in the occurrence of eal-lliquakes in recent years although there is no
apparent scientific reason for this. If we take into accoulit the earttiquakes of
magnitudes 6.0 and niore i.e. those earthquakes that caused damage to life and
property, India has experienced one such earthquake once in two years during the
last 14 years. On the other liand during the years (1950-75), there was one such
eartllqi~akein 6 years. In the period before such earthquakes occurred rougllly
once ;il 13 years during the 1 30 years
I
On tlie disaster man&ement side also, if we take care of the various lessons learnt
froni the past earthquakes, we can minimise considerably tlie damage resulting
from future earthquakes. Tile following are a few poiuts which emerged as a result
of a study of past earthquakes.
a) Disaster Management
After every eartliqualte, il bcco~nesevident that tlie preparation to face tlie

calaniity is almost negligible. This fact lias been faced again and again. In
order to avoid SLICII situations after tlie occurrence of eartliqualtes, we must
start the requisite preparatio~isfor facing the event. We can achieve this
tlirough "action plans" prepared for different regions of the co~~ntry. These
plans ~iiustbe tested for their effective firnctioning and ln~lstbe evaluated
and updated Iregil larly accol.dilig to tlie changing requirements.
i i) After every earthquake, a lot of relief material is sent by various voluntary

P SO LIPS, adniinistration etc. Lac/( of coordination in the collection and
proper distribution of such relief materials is very commonly felt after evely
eartliqualte. Meclianism lias to be developed to ellsure proper distribution
of relief material.
iii) Tlie narrow streets of tlie affected areas get blocked by tlie debris,
preventing the escape routes for tlie affected co~nmunityon one hand arid on
the other, Iianiperi~igthe rescuc and relief operations during tlic emergency
period. Similarly, tlie approacli roads get blocked due to landslide and
bridge failure in the aftermath of the ear-tliqualte i l l Iiilly regions. Alternative
~iietliods/tecliniq~~csmilst be identified for pi-oviding the necessary relief
niaterials like food, clothes. meclicine, evacuation of iliji~recl,etc.
People do not I ~ I I O W aclequately about the eal-tliquake resistant features in

house constr~~ction as well as the necessary precautions to be taken during
the dif'er.ent stages of earthclualte mariagement. For achieving this,
awar.cness calilpaigns Iiave to be started 011a vely large scale.
Awareness and sensitization process slioulcl start from schools and through
Panchayats ancl NClOs.
I-Ioose Construction
Builclings with light weight buildilig materials like timber, bamboo etc.,
performed better than tlie heavy material buildings like stone, brick etc.
Helice, to improve tlie performance of buildings, light weight hilildillg
materials should be adopted.
ii) Tlie performance of bui Id ings witli irregular layo~~ts is not satisfactory
during tlie ear-tliqualtes, so buildiligs with simple, r e g ~ ~ l alayoi~ts
r must be
constl-~~cted.
iii) The perforriiance of lion-engineered buildings was not found satisfactory
during tlie eal-tliquakes. So, the buildings should be designed by qua1ified
engineers and tlie construction of thcse b~lildiligsshoilld be done as per tlie
provisions in the code. It lias bee11estimated that colistr~lctingan eartliquake
resistant buildirig adds o~ilyabout 10% to tlie construction cost o f a building.
iv) Tlie collapse of lieavy roofs is one of tlie major causes for heavy loss of lives
during tlie earthquakes. So, tlie light material roofs witli proper con~iections
to the wall systclirs must be adopted. Tlie perforrnance ol'properly laid RCC
slabbed roofs was foulid quite satisfactory. If possible, RCC slabs must be
provided for roofs.
1.4 GOVERNMENT ACTION PERTAINING TO

RELIEF AND REHABILITATION
Disaster management is. the responsibility of the state governments in India. Every
state has fralncd regulations to provide relief and rehabilitatioli- to the affected
community during and aftcr the disaster situations.
The basic pllrpose of relief measures taken up by the state gover.~ilnentis to Earthquake
provide immediate relief to the affected coln~nunitynot cotnpensating fi~llyfor the -
losses incurred due to natural calamity. In case of earthquakes, the relief measures
in terms of econornic help can be taken LIP under the following heads:
i) damaged crops
ii) cattle loss
iii) clothes and i~tensils
iv) ex-gratia payment to tlie next of kin of the deseased persons and also to the
i~ij
used
V) injured persons
vi) provision for free food in the tetnporary relief camps
vii) damaged agricultural implements
viii) damaged llouses
The atnount of relief provided by various states'during tlie time orcalalnity differs
fiaom state to state. For example in the case of tlie Jabalpur earthqualte on May 22,
1997, the state government had talten LIP the following relief measures for lhe
affected community.
i) a l 1'1 in urban areas) for 35256

It started 23 relief camps (12 in r ~ ~ r and
affected people. Food was distributed free of cost in all these camps.
ii) The forest department of,Madhya Pradesh provided bamboos and wooden
logs free of cost to the victilns of the earthquake, for temporary shellers in
the affected villages.
I iii) A sum of Rs.1,00,000/- was provided to relatives ofthe dead persons due to
ihis earthquake,
iv) A sum of Rs.2,000/- to Rs.10,000/- was provided to thc ili.jured perscns,
depending upon tlie severity of injury.
v) A sum of Rs.3,000/1- has been given to the house owners and tenants of rlie
partially damaged liouses.
vi) For the persons whose llo~ises had been damaged fully, a grant of
Rs.l8.000/- and other necessary materials lilte bamboo and wooden logs etc.
for reconstruction of liouses were provided.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the ~ l n i t .
1) -Discuss in brief, the measures that can be taken to mininiise damage caused by
earthquakes in future.
I~icrcssedLJ ndcl.stnrtding 2) What necessary steps can be adopted towards constri~ctionof ear-tliquake
of Disasters - I resistant houses? -
3) What is the basic pLlrpose of relief measures talcen LIP by the slate
government in providing relief to people in case of earthquake? List- the
various heads of giving economic relief.
1.5 L'ET US SUM UP
India has a long history of ma-jor earthquakes parlicularly in the Himalayan

Region. Earthquakes, as we have learnt in this Unit, cause extensive damage to
buildings, infrastructi~ralfacilities, bridges etc. and result. in loss of life and limb.
Fire and flooding can rollow an earthquake. In any SLICII calamity, the prime
issue is organising rescue and relief ta the affected. The Maharaslitra Eartliqualte
Reconstruction Project embarl(ed by tlie government in 1993, cnco~npassingall
aspects of rehabilitation was a significant measure in this direction. This ~ ~ n i t ' l ~ a s
also highlighted tlie need to learn from past experiences t o minimise tlie damage
sesul.ling from earthquakes whose frequency of occurrence appears to be on the
~ncrease.
1.6 KEY WORDS
As an act of grace o r favour, w i t h o ~ ~ t

further responsibility or liability.
Engineered BuiIdings These are those structures that have
been designed taking into account tlie
\mrious effects that would be caused due
.to earthquake.
Non-Engineered Buildings : These are buildings that have been built
without any guidance from a qualified
professional and generally consist of
oneltwo storey residential buildings.
Code Rules, e.g. Building Code which nieans
rules for constru~tiono f buildings.
ASIILI~OSII G a ~ ~ t a t 1994.
n, - '4 Natural Dismter, Ashish Publishing
Earthq~luk~
Ho~~se, New Dell-ri.
Departlnent of Earlllqualte Engineering, Eurlhyzluke Prohlen, Do's untl Dorz'ls
for IJrotectioll, 1993, 11n iversity of Roorlcee, Roorltee.
Green, Stephen. 1 980. 1~71~1"tt~1lionu/ RrliefI Towards A Re,s~~on,siite
D~,SLI,I.Y~CP
,Cys/erns, McGraw I i i l l Boolc Company, New Yorlt.
Ross Simon, 1987, Htrzurd Gcog1*~y?l7v,
Longman, U.1C.
Valdinlir Schenlt (Ed.), 1996, Eurfhq~llrkeH ~ ~ z a rtrnd
d Risk; ICluwer Academic
Publishers, London.

EXERCISES
Checlc Your 1'1-ogress 1

I ) Y O Lanswer
~ should include the following points:
The non-engineered buildings suffered severe clalnage.
0 Large scale damage to infrastructural facilities especially roads,

con~m~~nication
net: work and power supply system.
The steel bridges did not suffer rn~~cli

damage except tlie Gawana
bridge on tlie roacl to Gangotri.
The engineerccl builclings especially those in tlie irrigation project

c o l o ~ ~atyManeri and Mal~itandareceived only minor damage.
3) Y O Lailswer
I~ slioi~ld~ I ~ C I L I C the
I ~ following poinls:
@ Necessary relief inaterials like food, warm clothes, medicines wcse
provided to the al'fectccl villages with tlie liclp of army and otlicr
organizations like the Border Security Force, Indo-Tibetan Border Police
and BoiaderRoads Organization.
The task involved the co-operation of Inany other social groups like tlie
NCC Cadets, NSS volunteers, NGOs, tlie taslt force of Uttarkaslii
administration.
Utilisation of five heavy and seven light army helicopters.
Provision of food items like flour, pulses, rice, oil, sugar, milk, sliced
bread etc, by the government.
Repair of the damaged roads by tlie Border Koads Organization,
Reconstrilction of community centres to provide shelter to tlie affected

co~nmunity.
3) Your answer s l l o ~ ~ include
ld tlie followillg points:
I-lousing construction and repair
Stre~igtl~ening
of Infrastructure.
Economic rehabilitation includilig replacement.and reconstruction of dry

wells, provision of bullocks, ~iiinorequipment etc.
Social rehabilitation in tlie form of special facilities for women, children,
handicapped.
s C o ~ n m ~ ~ nreliabilitation.
ity
Provision for technical assistance, training and equipment.

1 ) Your aliswel- slio~~ld
include the following points:
e Preparation of actioti plans for different regions of tlie country and their
periodic evaluation and update.
Development or proper nlechanism to ensure proper distribution of relief
niate~'ial.
@ Pla~ini~ig
of alternate approach routes for the con~munityto escape
during emel-gency.
* Identification of alternative metl~odsltechniquesfor providing necessary
relief materials like floocl. clothes. medicines etc.
Proper campaigns to make people aware of various aspects of

earthquake management.
Malting houses and buildings earthquake resistant either through proper
engineered design at the construction stage or through retrofitting of the
existing non-engineered houses.

Use of light weight building materials in tlie construction of houses.
Construction of buildings with simple, regular layouts.

Design of buildings by qualified engineers and their construction as per
the provisions ill the code.
I
Provision for properly laid RCC slabbed roofs. i
I
3 ) YOLIT
answer should include the following points: i
* The basic purpose of relief measures talten up by the state government is
to provide itnmediate relief to tlie c o l n ~ i ~ ~ ~ n i t y .
The various heads under wliiclz economic, relief call be provided in case of
eartliqualces are:
Ex-gratia payments to the injured and to the next of kin of the deceased
Damaged crops - compensation for damaged houses
Cattle loss
Free medicines, clothes and ~~tensils
I
Free food in the temporary relief camps !
Grant to replace damaged agricultural implements.

UNIT 2 FLOOD AND DRAINAGE
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Flood Prone Areas in India
Major Floods
2.3.1 Location
2 3.2 F~.eqllencyand Intensity
2.3.3. Damnpc Ctlllsed by Floods
C a ~ ~ sof
e s Drainage Congestion
Flood Management: Major Steps
Post-Floocl Rehabilitation Meas~~res
Lessons Learnt for Further Improvement
Govern~nentEnactments Pertaining to Flood Management
Let Us Su~iiUp
Key Words
References and Furt1ie1-Rcad irigs
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, yo11should be able to:
e identify tlie ~najorflood prone areas in India;

0 discuss the various aspects relating to floods like theil4location, frequency
and intensity ancl damage resulting from floocls;
0 explain broadly the management and techniques of flood disaster mitigation;
0 com~nenton their effectiveness ; and
highlight tlie lessons learnt from tlie experiences, for fi~rtherimprovement.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
As we have read in Unit 6 of the Foundation Course in Disaster Management,
floocls and drainage congestion constitute a phenomenon that has disastrous
effects at solne place or the other in the country almost every year resulting in
damage, inconvenie~iceand even deaths. In l.liis Unit, we shall disc~~ss in solhe
detail tlie flood scenario in India, tlie locations tliat are subject to such problems,
tlie extent of tlie vulnerability and the damages experienced in tlie past due to
I tloods and dsainage co~~gestion for a better i~nderstandingof the ways to deal wi
the problem, and analyse tlie experiences so as to draw appropriate lessons
li~ture.The Government enact~nents,as they exist at present and tlie ones that
under consideration along with tlie ways of handling flood and drainage problems
will also be examined.
2.2 FLOOD PRONE AREAS IN INDIA
On tlie basis of tlie available literature, includi~ig reports of expert groups,

commissions ancl studies sponsored by the government, it has been assessed tliat
twenty five out of ilie thirty five States/Union Territories of India, are flood prone.
These are Andlira Pradesh, Ar~~naclial Pradesh, Assam, Biliar, Clihatisgarh, Dellii,
Gijarat, Haryan.a, Himachal Pradesh, Ja~nnlu and Kaslimir, Madliya Pradesh,
Maliaraslitra, Manipur, Meglialaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Pondiclierry,
Pulljab, Rajastlian, Talnil lVadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Praclesli and West
.. Bengal. However, tlie states tliat are most affected by floods are Assam. Biliar,
Orissa, Uttar Pradesli and West Bengal. The flood effects are also serious in
Iacrensed Understandi~ig e Social reliabil itation i n teie form of special facilities for women, children,
o f Disasters - I
handicapped.
Cornni~~nity
rehabilitation.
Provision for technical assistance, training and equipment.

Preparation of action plans for different regions of the country and their
periodic evaluation and update.
Development of proper ~iiechanisnito ensure proper distribution of relief

niatesial.
9 Planning of alternate approacli routes for tlie community to escape
during emergency.
e Identification of alternative nietliods/tech~iiquesfor providi~ignecessary
relief niaterials like flood. clothes, medicines etc.
Proper canipaigns to make people aware of various aspects of

eartliqualte management.
Malting houses and buildings earthquake resistant either through proper

engineered design at tlie construction stage or through retrofitting of the
existing non-engineered houses.

Use of light weight building materials in the construction of houses.
Constri~ctionof buildings with siniple, regular layouts.
0 Design of buildings by qualified engineers and their construction as per

the provisions in the code.
Provision for properly laid RCC slabbed roofs.
3) Your, answer should include the following points:

9 The basic purpose of relief 1iieasilres taken up by the state government is
to provide immediate relief to the community.
The various heads under which econo~nic.relief can' be provided in case of
earthquakes are:
Ex-gratia paynielits to tlie injured and to the next of kin of the deceased
Damaged crops - compensation for damaged houses
Cattle loss
Free medicines, clothes arid utensils
Free food in the temporary relief camps

Grant to replace damaged agricult~~ral
implements.
--
IJNIT 2 FLOOD AND DRAINAGE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introd~~ction
2.2 Flood Prone Areas in India
2.3 Major Floods
2.3.1 Locatioli
2 3 2 Freqllcncy and Ilitcnsity
2.3.3. 1)arnngo Cawed by Floods
2.4 Causes of Drainage Congestion
2.5 Flood Management: Major Steps
2.6 Post-Flood Rehabilitation Measures
2.7 Lessons Learnt Tor Further Improvement
2.8 Government Enactments Pertaining to Flood Management
2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.10 Key Words
2.1 i References and Further Rcadings
2. I2 Answers to Cliecl<Your Progress Exercises
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
e identify tlie rnajor flood prone areas in India;

* discuss the v a r i o ~ ~aspects
s relating to floods like theili location, frequency
and intensity ancl damage resulting from .flootls;
e explain broadly tlie management and techniques of flood disaster mitigation;
* comment on their effectiveness ; and
e Iiigliliglit tlie lessons learnt from tlie experiences, for f ~ ~ k l iimprovement.,
er
2.1 INTRODUCTION
As we have read in Unit 6 of tlie Fo~~ndation Course in Disaster Management,

floods and drainage congestion constitute a phenomenon that lias disastrous
effects at some place or the other in tlie counl~yalmost every year resulting in
damage, inconvenie~~ce and even deaths. In i.liis Unit, we shall discuss in solhe
detail tlie flood scenario in India, tlie locations that are subject to such problems,
tlie extent of the vulnerability and tlie damages experienced in the past due to
tloods and dl.ainage congestion for a better ~~nclerstanding of tlie ways to deal wi
the problem, and analyse the experiences so as lo draw appropriate lessons
Suture. The Gover~imentenactments, as they exist at present atid tlie ones that
under consideration along with the ways of handling flood and drainage problems
will also be examined.
2.2 FLOOD PRONE AREAS IN INDIA
On tlie basis of tlie available literature, including reports of expert groups,

commissions and studies spo~isoredby tlie government, it lias bee11assessed tliat
twenty five out of [.liethirty five Statesflnio~iTerritories of India, are flood prone.
These are Andlira Pradesli, Arunaclial Pradesli, Assam, Biliar, Cliliatisgarli, Dellii,
Gujarat, Haryana, Himaclial Pradesli, Ja~nniu and Kaslimir, Madliya Pradesh,
Maharaslitra, Manipur, Meglialaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Pondicherry,
Pulljab, Rajastlian, Tamil lvadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesli and West
-, Bellgal. However, tlie states tliat are most affected by floods are Assam, Biliar,
Orissa, Uaar Pradesli and West Bengal. The flood efiects are also serious in
Increased Lll~tlerstending Andlira Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Pur~jab,Rajastl~an,Tamil Nadu and the North-
of Disasters - I Eastern States. The National Flood Commission Report (1980) identified the
count~y'stlood prone area as 40 million hectares. However not all areas are
affected in a year and tlie situation Iceeps va~yingfrom time to time. On an average
in a year about 8 million ha, get affected . A detailed analysis by a No11
Govelnme~itOrganisation (NGO) identified 190 districts out ofthe totdl number of
districts in India as prone to Iloocls.
Acute drainage congestion is experienced in parts of Utlar Praclesh, Bihar, West

Bengal, tIa~yana,Pul~jaband tlie deltaic areas of Andhra Pradcsli, Drissa apalt
from some local areas in other states. The most flood prone areas in India lie in the
Ganga, Brahmaputra and Baralc river basins. The Indus and its tribc~tariescause
flood proble~iisin the Nortli-west region of India. Among tlie Central India and
Deccan rivers, tlie Narmada, the Tapi, tlie Godavari, the Krishna and tlie Cauvery
are important ones. Tlie regions covered by tlicse rivers cause Ilood problems but
these are not pe~ierallyvery s e r i o ~ ~ones.
s There are occasional flooclings in some
other smaller rivers like tlie Braliniini, the Baitarani and the Subarnarelclia. Most
of these rivers also cause problems of flooding and drainage in their lower,
particularly tlie deltaic regions.
Tlie National Flood Commission, based on an atialysis of tlie llood afrected area
and population affected as reported by tlic various States (1966-1 978) fo~oundthat
more than halT tlie arca affected in Inclia by foods lie in tlie l.1iree States of Uttar
Pradesll, Bihar and West Bengal. Si~iiilarlyover liall'tlie pop~~lation in these three
states are affected by floods. The figures in this regard were equally high in tlie
States of Orissa, Assam and Andhra Pradesh.
In a vast country like ours, tlie probleni of floods varies fiom year to year and area
to area. However broad generalisations were made by tlie Central Water
Commission in respect of tlie identified flood regions of tlie major rivers such as
the Brahrnap~~tra, Ganga, the Northwestern rivers and the Central India and Deccan
rtvers .
The main problem in tlie Ganga-Bralimaputra region are clrainage congestion, bank
erosion, land slides, aggradation, channel changes and their regi~nechanges. The
Central India and Deccan rivers liave well defined and stable channels but drainage
congestion and damage in the flood plains including the Delta arc common
problems.
The Central Water Commission llas been maintaining detailed data and derives
information on state-wise flood prone areas and damage statistics. They also
publish such infor~uationperiodically. Tlie Flood Atlas of India published by them
contains some vely u s e f ~ ~information.
l The Natio~ialFlood Commission has also .
brouglit sucli useful details on flood prone regions of India and the efforts of
administration towards flood management.
2.3 MAJOR FLOODS
India has been affected significantly by heavy floods from time to time.
During tlie past 50 years, tlie floods of 1954 caused widespread damages and
attracted the attention of llle public and tlie Parliament and brought into sharp
focus tlie inadequacy of the measures talcen to tackle the situation. The floods of
1954 ~narltedthe launching, at the national level, of the Ilood control programme.
The Central Water Commission started receiving from all thc State Governments
details of damages caused by floods from 1953 and siilce then they liave bee11
compiling the flood damage details. Tlie summary flood darnage picture of
India, as reported by t!le Cliief Engineer, Flood Management, Central Water
Commission at a National Workshop held in 1993, is as ~ ~ n d e r :
So~rieFlood Damage Parameters (Period 1953-90) Flood & Drainage
SI. Item Average Mnximi~mdam;~gc

No. Damage in :I year
1953-90
Area afl'ectcd (Million ha.) 7.94
I 3.
Population affected (Million)
f4ouses clan~i~ged
(Million)
32.86
1.22
Catllc lost (Nos.) 102.905 618.248

( 1 970)
I Iurn~unlives lost (Nos.) 1532 1 I -3 I 6
(1977)
7. 'I'otal tlnmage to crops. 937.56 4630.30
houscs and p ~ ~ b lutilities
ic ( 1988)
(Rs. Csoscs)
Rep "l'hcnlr: paper - Disaster Managcmcnt Training Country Workshop - July I993 -- IIl'A.
New Delhi".
It may be emphasized tliat tlie intensity and extent of floods and tlie
corresponding flood clamages vary from year to year. Still the years 1977, 1978,
1979 and 1988 liave recorded severe damages, as reported by tlie states. In tlie
decade commencing from 199 1 , the severe floods of 1995 would be too recent to
be,forgotten. It will neither be possible nor necessary to discuss in detail all tlie
floods that liave been experienced but we coi~ldbriefly set fo~tlitlie salient
features of two or tliree major floods, tliat occurrcd in recent times.
- 2.3.1 Location
Five states viz., B,iliar, Uttar Pradesli, West Bengal, Orissa and Assam have been
identified as ~iiostpronc to floods. 'This does not mean tliat all these states will
experience liigli floods in tlie same year or at the same time nor tliat tlie other
states will not liave liigli floods. It will only indicate tliat, in an average year, the
flood damages reported from tliese states are likely to be a very significant
fsaction of tlie total damages reported in that year. But there are exceptions. For
instance, tlie flood damage in 1977 in Andlira Pradesli alone was more Illan half
tlie damage in India tliat year. In 1978, the flood damage in Uttar Pradesli alone
was 56% of tliat experienced in India tliat year. During tlie period 1953 to 1990,
the year 1978 witnessed a signii-icantly darnaging liigli flood. 'I'lie area arfected,
the extent of loss to tlie population, houses as reported by tlie State Government
n was tlie highest in 1977, which was
were very liigli. The loss of l i ~ ~ m alives
essentially, due to the very high loss suffered in Ancllira Pradcsli tliat year.
. Siniilarly tlie loss of cattle was tlie highest in tlie year 1979, which was mainly
due to excessive losses in Andlira Pradesli, Gujarat and Rajastlian. I-iowever the
total damage to crops, houses and public i~tilitieswas the highest in 1988.
During 1978, Uttar Pradesli, West Bengal and Biliar accounted for more than two
thirds of the area and population afFected in India. Over four fifth of the I~ouses
damaged in India also lay in these three states. Over 90% oftlie cattle loss that
year was in West Bengal; three quarter of tlie loss of lives was in three states
inentioned. In short we could say tliat over two thirds oftlie national damage due
to tlie tloods was in tliese three states viz., Biliar, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesli.
I n addition, contrary to normal or average picture, the area affected in Iiajasthan
was also very liigli tliat year, perhaps next only to tliat of the highest recorded in
1 977.
Incrcasetl Untlerstnntlirlg-' The National Flood Co~nmissionhad noted that in the triennium of 1976 to 1978
of Disasters - I floods and calamities of that type were widespread affecting more states outside
the traditional flood prone zone. This latter group includes Andhra Pradesh and
Rajasthan and to a lesser extent Gujarat and Haryana. The year 1988 was
marked by severe floods in the Ganga Brahmaputra river system. In fact the
combined Ganga and Bral~rnap~~tra flows, that pass into the Bay of Bengal
through Bangladesh created the severest flood conditions and the largest da~nage
to date in Bangladesh. The Brahmap~~tra brolce all previo~lshigh flood level
nlarlcs all along the rivers in Assam also.
The Report of the Committee on Flood Management in the North-Eastern states

indicates that the area, pop~~lation affected, damage to l~ousesand loss of human
lives was the highest in 1988 during 1,he entire period 1953 to 1989. 'The total
damage in Assam that year was also the highest on record in this period. West
Bengal and Uttar Pradesh also suffered but the damage was the severesq in 1978
in respect of the extent of area and population aiyected.
2.3.2 Frequency and Intensity
The pattern of rainfall varies from year to year and location to location. The
pattern of the river flows generated from precipitation and the run off into the
rivers also varies from year to year. From a study of the b e l ~ a v i o ~of~ railifall
r
and runoff, wherever long periods of recorded statistics are available, many
generalised inferences have beer1 drawn. 'The frequency and intensity of floods
have also been assessed for different locations based on such data, wherever
structures are constructed or proposed across or along rivers, in order to ensure
their reasonable safety. It must also be kept in mind that flood losses in the flood
plains tend to vary with the type of use to which the land is put. Also the relative
safety of the designed structures, embankments etc., is a matter of balancing
between the costs and risks that could be taken. It will not be always possible to
plan for the highest degree of safety for all floods, irrespective of the anticipated
intensity or frequency. Within the limitations of present knowledge and requisite
data, scientists and engineers predict the intensity and frequency of the flood of
different orders of probability. They indicate the statistical probability in terms
of one in hundred or one in fifty years return period, It should be possible, with
the help of available data to estimate the likely intensity and frequency of floods
at specified locations which wou Id facilitate in designing, constructing and
maintaining viable pl-otection schemes. As an exanlple it co~lldbe pointed out
that ill the case of embanlcments, the height of embankments for different flood
'fieq~~encies and also the corresponding costs are worked ollt talcing into account
the damage likely for these relative I~.oquencies.A common practice followed in
many places is to design for a one in twenty five year frequency flood to protect
predominantly agricultural areas whereas for protectio~~ of vital installations one
in hundred year flood frequency is used.
2.3.3 Damage Caused by Floods

The dalnage resulting from floods is not only dependent on the intensity and
frequency of the flood that occLlrs at a locatioll but also is a reflection of the
extent of l~urnaninterference with nature such as construction of structures across
qr along the floodway and tlie manner of ~~tilising the flood plains for human
activities. The manner of assessing the damages is also to be talcen note of. The
damage statistics are presently maintained by the state governments, and are
subject to various limitations. The states also maintain these details only on the
basis of adriiinistrative jurisdictions, 1 ilce taluk, village or district. Thus the flood
dalnage statistics now available are mainly state-wise and year-wise; they do not
indicate breakup event-wise, river-wise or reach-wise. Their scientific study and
analysis become diffic~lltand not always possible.
-
Flood Sr Drrinngc
2.4 CAUSES OF DRAINAGE CONGESTION
Areas that are flooded when water due to rainfall and or river spill is not able to
drain off as quickly as considered desirable, are referred to as cases of 'drainage
congestion'. Stagnation behind embankments of water due to insufficient
(/rainage,capacity in sluices falls in the same category. 'Thus ~ ~ s ~ ~drainage
ally
congestion andflood are expressions used collectively in common usage.
Numerous large scale saucer shaped depressions are found in Uttar Pradesli,
Billar, West Bengal, Assarn etc., wliicll are locally called 'cliaurs', 'jheels', or
'beels'. Due to meandering nature of a river, rnany oxbow laltes are also formed.
Tllese act as storages of flood water which do not get drained easily illto tlie river
after the floods subside, most of these become drainage congested areas, In
peninsular rivers also nearer the sea coasts, there are similar areas of drainage
congeslion between laiown courses of rivers wliicli create drainage problems.
Tllese get compounded by coastal drift wliich forrns bars across the seaface.
Check Your Progress - 1
.Note: i) Use tlie space given below for your answers.

i i ) Check your answers wit11 those given at the end of the unit.
I) Identify some i~nportantproblems arising duc to tloocls in India.
2) Wliat do you ~~nderstand

by drainage congestion?
3) Wliat are the p~*oblems

arising out of assess~nentof damages due to floods?
Increaseti llndcrstn~~tling
of Disasters - I 2.5 FLOOD MANAGEMENT: MAJOR STEPS
Since tlie stat? of the National Flood Management on a planned basis in 1954, the
111ain thrust of flood nianage~nent efforts has been on structural Ineasures to
modify the floods and flood protection worlts. Essentially, these c0111prisethe
following:-
i1 Em banliments/tl~odwal Is
ii) Storage reservoirs
iii) Detention basins
iv) Channel improvements
v) Banlt stabilisation and anti-erosion works;
vi) Town/village protection worlts
vii) Ring bunds
viii) Diversion works
The oldest and most common methocl is a system of embankments constructed

along river banks to serve as artificial 11igh banlts during floocls. There is
Ilo~ve~~er divergence of opinion on tlie role of e~iibanltmentsand their side
effects. Large floocls are often due to intense rains for a few days followed by
relatively drier spel I , This factor is talten advantage of for moderating tlie 17ood
through a storage reservoir by storing water during the period of high flows and
releasing it after the critical conclition is over. The effectiveness of reservoirs is
however dependant on a number of factors, including the o1:h'er competing uses,
the reservoir operation rules, the relief and rellabi.litation issues, silt load etc.
Detention basins talte advantage of natural depressions, swamps and lakes to
which a part of the flood water can be diverted. Channel improvements enable
better carrying capacity at lower levels and thus help lower tlie flood levels for
the same order of flows or by elimination of acute curves and bends which often
lead to breaches. Bank stabilisation worlts and anti-erosion measures train tlie
river so as to checlc the tendency to erode and damage new areas. Anti-erosion
worlts deflect the water current away from areas vulnerable to attack. Ring
bunds help in keeping the inhabitants from inundation but have other
disadvantages. The other methods sucli as village protection worl<sand diversion
works, though have ce~fain limitarions, are resorted to wherever possible.
Notwithstanding the degree of el%ectiveness, these efforts have given some
protection to about 14 mil lion ha. of flood-prone areas in India.
A summary of the progress of these worlts from 1951 to 1991 is given below:-
Embankments 15764'Km.
Drainage channels 3 1888 I<m.
'Towns protected 857
Villages raised 4705
Area benefitted 14.08 Million ha.
Cost Rs. 291 0 Crorcs
Over the years, it has been realised that: flood msnagement is also possible tliroi~gl~
other types of activities, sucli as : lnodirying tile s~isceptibilityto flood damage and
rnodiQing tlie loss burden. Fload plain management, flood proofing, disaster
preparedness, flood forecasting and warning, and redevelop~neritare steps that
attempt to niodify the susceptibility to flood damage. In fact the realisation in
recent years is that the nonstructural rneasilres are indeed very effective in reducing
-
~ l ~ o cclnmages.
l I hese are also, in most cases, tlic least-cost solutions to tlic Flood & Dr:linnge
ol'mour~tinglosses. Emergency nicasirres lilie e\~acuation,lloocl fighting,
pllblic tiealtl~elrot-ts and reclist~.ibuti\/emeasures lilce disastel relief: tax relief' or
flood insurance are steps towards ~iiodifjiingtlie loss burclcn. In llte ear,licr ~ ~ c ~ . i o d
[Iierc was rnucl~depcntlcnce on stn~ctirrallueasurcs. As clamagcs contini~eclto
~nolint,the cu1.ren1c~npllasisis on the non-structi~ralrneasuI.cs.
- -
2.6 POST-FLOOD REHABILITATION MEASURES
'VIie main tliri~sLof disaster managenlent slioulcl be sliifecl away liom tile prescnt
..
reliel' al,proach towa~.clstlisasler r n ~ l l ~ t t i o nIn. fact it is increasingly felt that all
development prc!jccts in virlnerrtble arcas shoulcl be linlted with and used to tlie
~naxirni~m exterlt as clisaster mitigation machinery. In a poor country lilce ours,
reliel' cloles and such recurring expenscs witllout atti~ckingtlie ri~otcausc by
clisaster. mitigative cl'f\)~-ts\\!ill bc il \vnslel'i~l/LIXLII.!/. I le~iccill1 post-reliabilitalive
nteasul-es should also aim at mitigation ofdisasrers Illat are lil;ely to arise in li~turc.
In tlie frclcl of floocl management In particular, we milst realise that a lack 01'
disc~pl~ne in rcspccting tlie river's dollinin iri the hl-m of lloocl plain, witliout
atlecluate safeguards is to be avoidccl. The approach to managcnicnt oS floods
should inclirclc a package of mcasurcs likc assessnlent of llic vulnerability,
clclineation of vulnerable areas, publishing the inro~.rnntionon \i~lncrabil~ty at
cli~fci.cntlevcls of'probable Iloods, floocl plain I-cgulationetc.
In tlic present limited colitcxt of tlie disaster preparedness measurcs. at'tcr any
[looil clisastc~evcnt, tlic many desirable steps \+auld incli~clethe Ibllowing:
i) A realistic assessment ol'tlamages;

ii recording {lie extent of tlie natural event, tlie flood level etc.
iii) resettlement o r affected pcr~sonsin arcns which would be sal'c in a liliely
event o r
similar natu~.e,in fi~turc;
iv) reconstruction of safe ilnd flood resistant buildings.
Natural disaster nlanagcment, inclutling iloocl disasters, in tlie late sevelities

involved an npproacli ol' risk manilgement, instead 01' the carlicr cl isis management
approach; thereafter it reoriented itselr towards integrated clisastcr preparcdncss
approach: This now involvcs re1 iablc early warning arrangements, carefi~lly
planned eriicrgcncy responsc and better com~iiunitypreparedness. Such changed
emphasis aims at restricting i~nproductivecomponents of relief activities and
illcreased resources and activities l'or enabling tlie al'l'ected pcople to meet the ncxt
liltely disaster ill tlie fi~turein a better manner. It will be scen that tlic strategy ol'
disaster ~iiitigqtio~i would lessen the impilct ol'clisasters i ~ i ~ llong
i e run.
2.7 LESSONS LEARNT FOR FURTI-IER

IMPROVEMENT
I lie experience of ha~idlingtlie flood management measures in tlie first three

? 7
decades was carefi~llyexa~liinedby a high lcvcl espcrl body, called tlie National
Flood Comn~issionand its findings were made available in 1980. It had 11iildc
many valuable recomrnendatio~~s for effective iloocl clamage reduction and offered
suggestions lor a flood management policy. Anyone interested in a study of tlie
tlood management in India would greatly profit by a carefill study of its report as
also the guidelines and instructions L'or tlie implementation of the report issued by
tlie Govcrnment ol' India in 1981. Those who look forygd to on update thereof
Iocrei~sedlJnderstanrling Couldalso look up the reports of two committees set by the Government of India to
uf Disnsters - I study the flood situation in 1987, in the North-East and in lower Ganga basin as
also Orissa rivers. The recommendations made in these reports are still valid to a
significant extent. Tlie revised approach to disaster management mentioned earlier
is another relevant matter. Tlie salient elements of tlie lessons drawn in flood
management would include the following:-
i) Flood management sliould be viewed in a broad perspective forming all

integral part of the overall water resources develop~nentand the econo~liic
development of the region.
ii) Varioi~salternative measures, pliysical or ollierwise, sliould be sl~rdiedfor
flood management and the optimum combination of measures selected.
Elnbanltnients, storages, detention basins etc., sliould be considered in a
comprehensive manner to identify and weigli tlie positive and adverse
effects.
iii) Measures to modify tlie susceptibility to flood damage sliould be
increasingly adopted.
iv) Flood plain zoning which is one of tlie most effective ways of minimising
flood damages should be adopted.
v) Adequate maintenance of completed works should be ensured, to avoid
adding to tlie dayage potential.
vi) Tlie active participation of tlie people concerned at all stages of a project for
flood management should be ensured.
vii) Tlie importance of appropriate organisation, coordination macliinery,
training, research etc, has to be empliasised.
viii) Encouragement to disaster mitigation policies sliould also be urged.
2.8 GOVEJXPWENT ENACTMENTS PERTAINING TO

FLOOD MANAGEMENT
Under tlie Constitution of India, the legislative jurisdiction of the Union
Government on regulation and developlnent of inter-state rivers and river valleys
is sub.ject to tlie extent to which such regulation and development under the control
of the Union is declared by Parliament to be expedient in the public interest,
Subject to this provision, the subject of water is within the legislative powers of the
states. There have been no significant enactments or follow-up of available .
provisio~isso far by tlie Union Government. There is no co~npreliensive
enactment by tlie states either on flood ma~iagement. The National Flood
Commission had recommended that the Central Government should prepare a
model bill dealing with all aspects of flood management to serve as a guide to the
State Govelnments. There were many other suggestions advocating legislation but
there is no existing legislalio~~ dealing with flood management.
The National Water Resources Council adopted tlie National Water Policy in
1987. This contains many elements relating to flood management. However
these do not have any constitutional or legal binding as yet.
, An examination of the ways to deal with floods and drainage congestion brings
out the fact that there is no u ~ ~ i q solution
ue to this problem which is applicable in
all situations and locations. A package of available measures within the overall
framework of water resource development is available and a specific measure or
combination of measures in a given situation is a matter for careful study. In the
same manner the mitigation of flood losses is a complex matter which involves
26 in addition to nature's behaviour, human actions by way of intrusion into the
flood plains without adcquate safeguards. Tlie specific steps to be talten are also
a ~iiattcrof benetlt-cost study of possible solutions considering the risk element
tllat is involvecl in difl'erent degrces of protection uncler different probability
levels, rl'lius this'is a matter for expert multi-disciplinary study and decision
making.

ii) Clieck your answers with those given at tlic end of tlie unit.
1) What are the ma.jor st~.ucturalmeasures i~ivolvedin flood management?
2) What are the components of post - flood rehitbilitation measures?
3) Discuss the salient eleilie~ltsof l e s s o ~ drawn

~s in flood manage~neut.
2.9 LET US SUM UP

Vast areas of India are subject to probleins of floods and drainage congestion. In
particular, the states of Biliar, Uttar Pradesli, West Bengal, Assam and Orissa
are likely to suffer more. Most of the time in a year large damages occur in one
portion or the other of India, Essentially,~tllehigh precipitation concentrated
over a few. days in a year and the inability of the active river channel to carry it
away safely coupled wit11 indiscriminate liu~nanencroach~nentinto the flood
plain are responsible for tlie mounting flood damages. There are a number of
bossible ways of dealilig with the hatter and the specific solution or package of
measures is a matter for expert multidisciplinary study and. decision making.
While both structural and non-structural options are possible, the empliasis in
recent years has been on non-structural measures and on planlied disaster
mitigatiol1 eff0l.t~.The costs and benefits are linkecl with the extent of risk taken
or pern~itted~ ~ n d difl'erent
er probability levels of severily of fi~tureflooding~.
People's participation at all stages of such projects enhances the chances of
cnliglitened cooperation uft.he people in disaster preparedness and management.
2.10 KEY WORDS
Aggt-atlation Rise ol'tlie base of river due to silting.

Banlc crosion Cutting LIP of the river bank by the speeding
water.
I3encfit-cost analysis : ,411cconomic tecl~niquedesigned to compare
inpi~ts(costs)and thc resulting outpilts (benefits).
Chenoel , Water way of a stream, clrain or river.
Flood fighting , Erforts to reduce the impact of floocls, such as
temposaly dyltes, dowcl banl<s, attending to
scour, slough, wave wash etc.
Return periotl 'The period nftcr which a similar event coirld be
cspec~eclto review.
Rislc analysis
,.l I10 ~ S O C B S S01' identifying, a l ~ dcli~kuntifyingrisks
based on hazard assessment, vulnerability
analysis, risk assessment and 17iskappraisal.
Run off , Water that runs over tlie ground surfslce to 4
rives, drain, 01. lal<e,
Rislc mwnagc~neut : 'The efficient use of resoirrces to r e d ~ ~ ctile
o
probability that a disaster will occur by either
reducing vwlnersbilily or modifying the hazard.
Statistical probability : Chance of happening c~lculated f r o n ~ past
numerical data.
Valnerability Tlie capacity to withstand, proteot o ~ ~ e s efro111
lf
or recover rapidly from R potelltially damaging
event.
Osbow lake A lake formed by a bend in c? rivcr
Sluiccs Sliding gates through which water is released at
dams.
Flood Ailas of Irzc/i~r.1987, Government of India.

Central Water Commissio~~,
Central Water Commission, Manual on Flood Forecnsling, 1989 Government of
India.
Ministry of Energy and Irrigation, Report ofihc. Rcrshlriyu Barh Aycrg (Nntional
1980 Gover~imentof India,
C1olnnli,ssionon Fl(>ocJ.~).
Ministry of Irrigation, G'zrid~line~v
und 6?sbtlclion,sfor lhe inzplementrrlio?~
qf'lha
reco~n~nend~r/ions of dze Rcrshiriyu Barh Ayog, September 1981 -Government, of
India.
I<ulslirestlia, S.M., 2000, Flood ,Mcm~rjie~ncl?t
in Indiu, 'lnstitute of Global
Environment and Society, USA. ,
Flood & Drainage
2.12 ANSWWRS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Checlt your Progress 1
1 ) Y O L Ianswer
~ S I I O L I I ~ inclucle the Ibllowing points:
e Drainage congestion
o Bank erosion
0 Land slides ,
e Aggraclation
a Channcl changes
2) Your answcr should include tlie following points:

a Drainage congcstion is said to occur when the areas ilooded with water
due to rainfall and river spill are not able to drain ofT within a reasonal~le
pcriocl of time, tl~uscrcating flood.
3 ) Your answer should include the Tollowir~gpoints:

e Tlie assessment of clamage arising out o f Floods is dependent mostly on
tlie availability o r clamage statistics. 'rhcse statistics are mnilitained by
the statc governments. But these are ~naintainedonly o ~ ithe basis oT
ad~ninistrativeji~risdictiot~Iikc tnluI<,village 01.clistrict.
The floocl clamage statistics are available ~nainlystate-wise a~idyear-
wise, They clo not give details which are event-wise, river-wise or reach-
wise.
'I'herefore, scientific allalysis and study become difticult.
Checlt your Progl-ess 2

1-lie mqjor stri~cturalmeasures involved in food managemelit are:
a. Emban kments/flood walls
b. Storage
c. Detention Basins
d. Channel improvements
e. Bank stabilisation and anti-erosion works,
f. To\vn/vi l lage protection works
g. Ring bunds
11. Diversion works.
2) Your answer should include tlie fbllowing points:

A realistic assessment of dalnages.
Recorcling the progress of the natural event and the flood Icvcl.
Resettlement of affected persons in areas which wollld be safe in a likely
event oi'similar nature in fi~ture.
Reconstruction of safe and flood resistant buildings.
Ir~cr.cnsetIUnt~er-stilrlrting 3 ) Your answer should include the following points:
of D h s t e r s - I
Flood management should be viewed in a broad perspective fosrni~lgan
integral part of the overall water resources development and the
eco~lo~nicdevelopment of the region.
P Proper examirration of various alternative nieasuses of flood manage~lhent
a~idselectiorl of optimum combination of measures.
o Measures to modify the susceptibility to flood darnage should be
Adequate maintenance of worl<sthat are completed.
o Ensuring the active participation of the people concerned at all stages bf
a project for flood nianagement.
r Appropriate osganisation, coordination machinery, training and research
etc.
* Encouragement of flood mitigation policies.
UNIT 3 CYCLONE
Ob-jectives
Introcluction
Major Cyclones in India and Darnqge Caused
3.2.1 Andhra P~.adcshCyclone of ~ o v e l d b e 14-20.1977
r
3.2.2 Orissa Cyclone ol'.)une 1-4. 1982
3.2.3 M:ichilipalnam Cyclone of May 5-9.1990
3.2.4 Orissa Super Cyclonc of Octobe1.25-31, 1999
Relief and Rehabilitation Measures
3.3. l Atiminisl~.aliveResponse
3.3.2 Contingency Action I'lan
3..3.3 Capacity Building through Relief and Rehabilitntiori Work
Firlancing Relief and ~ehabilitatiol\Work: Gover~ime~it
Rules
Lessons Learnt for Further 1mprov4ment
Let Us Sun1 Up
Key Words
liefcrences and Furf:lier Readings
Answers to Clieclc Your Progresg Exercises
I
3.0 OBJECTIVES
Afer reading this Unit, you should be able to :
describe the major cyclones and damage caused by them;

r discuss the relief and rehabilitation measures;
explain tlie rules regarding financial arrangements to mitigate cyclone
disasters; and
liigliliglit tlie lessons learnt for filrtlier improvement.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
There is Iia~dlyany year when India is not visited by a severe cyclone (also called
cyclonic storm or Tropical cyclone). Tlie Indian mainland is flanked on eartli side
by cyclo~ieprone Bay of Bengal and tlie Arabian Sea. Furthtrmore, there are two
cyclone scasons viz., Pre- mousoon (April-May) and Post- monsoon (October-
December). That is why, every year a few cyclonic stor~nsoccur in tlie Indian
territory: morc in tlie Bay of Bc~igalthan tlie Arabian sea, tlie ratio being 4:l
approximately.
'1-
Cyclones, resulting in torrential rain, exceptionally liigli winds and enormotrs
storm surge, are among tlie most destructive clisasters. This fact lias been already
cliscussed (in CDM-01) and the extent of large loss of Iiunian lives in association
r
with tropical cyclones in tlie past lias bee11 listed. The ptlrpose of this Unit is to
provide more information on major cyclone disasters and the management
systems, pertaining to relief and rehabilitation.
3.2 MAJOR CYCLONES IN INDIA AND DAMAGE

CAUSED
Tlie Andlira Pradesh cyclone of 1'Jovember 1977, Orissa cyclone of Jilne 1982 and
anotliel. Andhra cyclone of May 1990 tliat occurred in Machilipat~iam are typical
examples of a few cyclones that have cai~secllarge loss of lives and properties. But
tlie super cyclone of October 1999 tliat devastated Orissa is the worst in century
i.e. since the time scientific observations and studies of cyclones began. These are
dcalt with in some detail in the following subsections.
111ct-cesct~ ~~ntlct-st;~nt~ing 3) Your answer should inclucle the following points:
of D h s t e t - s - I
e Floocl management sliould be viewed in a broad perspective forming an
integral part o r tlie overall water resources development and the
economic development of the region.
B Proper exani~rationof various alternative rneasures of flood manage~ihent
and selection of optimu~iico~iibinationof measures.
Measures to modify the susceptibility to flood dalnage should be
e Adequate maintenance of worlcs that are completed.
0 Ensuring the active pal-ticipation of tlie people concerned at all stages bf
a project for flood management.
Appropriate organisation, coordination ~nacliinery,training and researclh
etc.
e Encouragement of flood ~nitigatio~i
policies.
UNIT 3 CYCLONE
Ob-jectives
I~~trocluction
Major Cyclones in India and Da~nqgeCaused
3.2.1 Andhsa I'sacicsli Cyclone of Noverdber 14-20.1977
3 2.2 Orissa Cyclone of.lune 1-4. 1982
3.2.3 Machilipalnam Cyclone o f May 5-T. I990
3.2.4 Orissa Super Cyclonc of' October 25-3 I, 1999
Rclief and Rehabilitation Measures
3.3. l Adminislsalive Response
3.3.2 Contingency Action Plan
3.3.3 Ct~pacityBuilding through Relief aqd Rehabilitation Work
Financing Relief and ~ehabilitatio~iWork: Government Rules
Lessons Learnt for FLII-tlier1mprovc$~nent
Let Us Sum U p
I<ey Words
Rcfcrences and Ful-thcr Readings
Answers to Check Your Progresst Exercises
3.0 OBJECTIVES
AAer reading this Unit, yo11sliould be able to :
describe the major cyclones and damage causecl by them;

discuss tlie relief and l.ehabilitation measures;
explain the rules regarding financial arrangements to mitigate cyclone
disasters; and
Iiighliglit the lessons learnt for fi~~*tlier
i~nprovement.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
There is hardly any year when India is not visited by a severe cyclone (also called
cyclonic storm or Tropical cyclone). The Indian mainland is flanked on earth side
by cyclone prone Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Furthennore, there are two
cyclone seasons viz., Pre- monsoon (April-May) and Post- monsoon (October-
December). That is why, every year a few cyclonic stor~nsoccur in the Indian
territory: more in l.he Bay of Bengal than the Arabian sea, tlie ratio being 4:l
approximately.
'3
Cyclones, resulting in torrential rain, exceptionally high winds and enormom
stor~iisurge, are alnong tlic most destructive disasters. This fact has been already
cliscussed (in CDM-01) and the, extent of large loss of Iii~rnanlives in association
a
with tropical cyclones in the past has been listed. The pilrpose of tliis Unit is to
provide more information on major cyclo~le disasters and tlie management
systems, pertaining to relief and rehabilitation.
I
3.2 MAJOR CYCLONES IN INDIA AND DAMAGE

CAUSED
The Andhra Pradesh cyclone of FJove~nber1977, Orissa cyclone of June 1982 and
nnother Andhra cyclo~ieof May 1990 that occurred in Machilipablam are typical
examples of a few cyclo~iesthat ha,ve cai~sedlarge loss of lives and properties. But
tlie super cyclone of October 1999 that devastated Orissa is the worst in a century
i.e. since tl;e time scientific observations and studies of cyclones began. 'These are
clcalt with in soliie detail in the following subsections.
Iricrcsscti U~itlerstnntiir~g 3.2.1 Andhra Pradesh Cyclone of Noven~ber14 - 20,1977
of Disastel.~- I
It was a very severe cyclonic storm which initially developed at a low latitude (6'
N , 92"E) in the morning of 14 November, 1977. Tlie cyclone moving initially in a
west north westerly direction, changed its course to north westerly directio~iby the
16"' cvening. Contin~~ing its 11or~1iwesterly movement it struclt Andlira Pradesli
coast at no11h of Cliirala around *I 730 l i o ~ ~on
r s 19"' November 1977. The cycloile
attained a maximum wind speed of 140 knots (260 lanph) during its life period. A
ship "Jagatswamini" while passing througli the centre of the cyclone reported
lowest atmospheric pressure of 941liPa (hecto pascal )at about 1200 IST on 17
November,1977. But the storm became iiiore intense later when the central
pressure would have been fi~~tlier lower and was estimated as 91 1 hpa. This was
tlie cyclone of tlie highest intensity so far observed in the Bay of Bengal and tile
Arabian Sea. The cyclone caused loss of lives and properties on a vcry large scale.
Tlie cyclone liad devastating effects as indicated below:

I) There were heavy to very lieavy rains and gales reaching 200kmllir which
lashed Praltasam, Guntur, Krislina, East and West Godavari clistricts ~~prooting
trees, bending telegraph posts, dislocating road and rail traffic,
telecom~nunicationand powcr s ~ ~ p p in
l y tliese coastal areas.
2) The fury of the cyclone can be gauged from the fact that llie steel columns of
thermal power stations at Vijayawada were sheared ori:
3) About 20 villages in Divi Talulta and 8 villages in Kona area of Bandar Taluka
in tlie Krislina district were washed away by the storm surge. ('l'his is about
500 sq.km of the country side).
4) All standing crops lilte paddy, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco and coconut over an
extensive area and harvested paddy in these coastal areas were damaged.
The losses and damage were finally assessed as:
Popi~lationaffected (in laltlis) 71

Crop area affected (in laklis of acres) 36.04
Houses damagedldestroyed 10,10,335
H~unanlives lost 8504 + 43 (missing)
Cattle head lost 2,30,146
Goats and other live stoclc lost 3,44,05 8
Damage to public utilities (Rs. in crores) 171.66
3.2.2 Orissa Cyclone of June 1-4,1982
A very severe cyclonic storm struck the Orissa coast near Paradip on .June 4,1982.
Tlie cyclone was associated with wind speed of about 200 I<mpIi ancl stor111surge
of two to four metres height of sea water. The cyclone caused loss of lives and
destruction of properties and facilities on a massive scale. Tlie damage caused is
indicated below:
Population arfected 7,323,000

V i l lages affected 15,536
Area affected 25,000 sq. km.
Deaths 243
Injuries . 493
Cattle lost 1 1,468
Crop area damaged 1,589,000 hectares Cyclone
Area saline inundated 89,0000 liectares

I-louses collapsed/damaged 819,000
I'OII:C~ lilies lost 2,566 km.
Sub-stations damaged 314
Canal breaches 1,840
Em banlaiient breaches 302
Irl-igation projecls damaged 2,384

lioads clamaged 13,478 km.
Schools dcstl.oyecl 6,876

Tube wells darnagecl 2,500
Drinking water wells da~iiagecl 1,600
3.2.3 ~ a c l i i l i p a i n a hCyclone of May 5-9, 1990
A vely scvcrc cyclonic storm developed in tlic Bay ol' Bcngal in tlie first week of
Mtly 1990, and crosscd A~ldliraPradcsli coast ncar tlic moutll of the river I<~.isli~ia
on tlic 9"' evening. This was one of the most devastating tropical cycloncs in the
Bay of Bengal tllilt developed in tlic month of May in llic prc-monsoon season.
Tlie cyclonc liad a ~iiasimumwind speecl of about 127 ltts. A ship "Viswaniollini"
~ C 91 2 hl'a at 1730 hours of 8 May while passing tliro~~gli.
repol-led lowest J ) ~ C S S L Iof
tlie centre 01' tlie cyclonc. 'I'liis is the lowest pressurc ever recorded in a cyclone in
tlie nol-lli Inclian Ocerr~i. Tlic cyclonc liad generated a storm surge of 5 metres
inunclating tlic coastal areas ~ ~ pabout t o 20 li~iiinland in Machilipatnani-Cliallapalli
sector o['Krisli~~a tlistrict.
The cyclone o f May 1990 possessed a very high destructive pote~itialand causcd
cxtcnsive daniage to highways, roads, bridges, power and communication lines,
paddy a~iclplantation fields over vast areas of Andlira PI-adesh inspite of goocl
preparedness by tlie government as well as public. Tlie loss of p~~blic and private
(properties was estimated as Rs.2300 crores. Aboi~t5160 villages covel-ing a
% pol~ulationol'77.8 lalili~tvcre rtffccted by tlie cyclone. I-lowevt'r the loss of human
lives in $ndlira J'r.adesh due to the cyclonc was limited to 928. Tliis was because
of tlie timely evacuation 01- about 6 lal<li pcople from tlie low lying arcas. Tlie
k stancling crops in 45000 hectares o r la~iclwerc severely affected and more than 14
laltli houses were either Si~llyor partially damagcd. A very heavy rainfall causccl
flash floods in coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh resulting in breaches of' ~aoads
and rails and extensive clariiages to bridges.
3.2.4 Orissa Super Cyclone of October 25-31,1999

October 1999 was a pal-titularly unfort~~nate month for tlie cyclo~ieprone state of
Orissa because it liad to facc the fi~ryof instense cyclonic storrns twice within less
tlia~itwo weeks and withi11200 Itm of each otliet.. Tlie devastated state had not yet
completed tlie assessriient ol' tllc daniage done by the very severe cyclone that hit
Ga~i.jamdistrict on October 17, 1999 canying winds of tlie order of 180 kmpli
when anotlie~.cyclonic storm - much more ficrce - hit a wicle area of tlie Orissa
coast oh October 29, 1999 with super cyclonic intensity seriously affecting 15
prosperous districts of tlie state.
The super cyclone took bi1.l.11Ihr away in tlie GulFof Thailancl on October 24 1999.
Moving across the Malaysian peninsula, it emergecl in tlic North Andaman Sea as a
well-marlced low pressure area by the rnorrling of October 25, 1999. It
concentrated into a depression by tlie same evening. Moving west-northwest ward.
it intensified into a cyclonic storm by the morning of October 36, 1999 when it was
located no~-tlieastof Port Blair in the Andamans. Then onwarcls. it toolc a
northwest warcl course and attained the stage o-f vcry severe cyclo~iein tlie late
evening of October 27, 1999 when it was positioned about (500 k ~ i isoutl~easto:
Paradip port on the Orissa coast. Within 24 hours i t . by the late evening of'
October 28, 1999 1:he storm had reached the super cyclo~ieintensity with minirnu~ii
winds of tlie order of 220 It111 in tlie sto1.111and was about 400 km southeast of
Paradip. Tlie lowest central pressure in this storm was estimated to be 912 Iipa, i.e.
almost the same as in tlie Anclhra Pradesli cyclone of 1977 clescribed in Section
3.2.1 above. Tlie highest wind in the storm was estimatecl at 360 Icmpli. 11 crossed
coast close to Paradip port around noon on October 29, I 999.
A very peculiar feature (which contributed a great cleal to tlie devastation) of tlie
storm was that even after crossing the coast and moving overlancl, it maintained its
intensity at severe cyclone level (winds of the order of 90 Itmph 01. more) for
almost 48 hours. Therefore it persistecl to lash the area with very heavy rain tuid
winds. Furthermore, it rnovecl eastwarcls overlancl, made a loop ancl emerged in tlie
sea again by tlie niglit of October 31, 1999 when it wealtenecl ancl finally
disappeared.
According to the White Paper published by tlie Orissa Gavel-nment, 13 million

people in 97 bloclts ancl 28 urban areas wcre seriously affected by tlie super
cyclone. As many as 9885 persons were verified cleacl and 40 were reporled
missing. Tlie nu~nberof clwelling un~tsdestroyed or clamagcd was estimatecl at
16.5 lakli. Tlie affected crop area was about 18.5 laltli hectare ancl the damage
caused to tlie agri61lt~1re sector was estimated at 1773 crore rupees. Almost the
entire green cover, compr~singInore than 9 corore trees, clisappeared ducilo the
storm. The inundatioo clue to saline water witli storm surge csceeding 15 meters at
many places polluted the d~.inkingwater sources. About 3.5 laltli cattle perished.
In tlie white paper, Orissa Government soi~glitan assistance or Rs. 62'78 crore for
tlic relief, rehabilit;tion and reconst~*uctionworlts.
Tlie Orissa super cyclone of 25-31 October 1999 was indeed tlie wo~.stcyclo~lic
storm to hit India in tlie 20'" century.
Note: i) Use the space given below for Y O L Ianswers.

~
ii) Clieclt your answers with those given at thc cnd of the unit.
I ) Explain tlie occurrence of Andlira Pradesli Cyclone of 1977.

2) Describe the Orissa cyclo~ieof June 1982 and damage caused. Cyclone
3) Why is cyclone a frepent phenomenon in India?
3.3 RELIEF AND REHABILITATION MEASURES
The basic responsibility for undertalting rescue, relief and rehabilitation measures
in tlie event ol'natural disasters is that of the concerned State Governments. The
role of tlie Central Government is supportive, in terms of physical and financial
resources and complementary i n sectors like transport, provision of warnings,
inter-state movement of fo.od grains and other esse~itial commodities. The
di~ne~isio~is of the responsibility at tlie level of National Government is
determined by factors l ilte, tlie
i) gravity of tlie disaster;
ii) scale of relief operations required; and
iii) need of central assistance for augmenting the material resources at the
disposal of tlie State Government.
For ilndertalting eliiergelicy relief operations and rehabilitation, relief manuals
and codes are available for each of the states. ?'li&e docuriie~lts provide
guidelines for undertaking relief and reliabilitatiori work immediately, in tlie case
of natural calamities.
3.3.1 Administrative Response
A broad view of the administrative response at the national, state and district
levels is given in CDM-01 course but is briefly repeated below:
s For effective implementation of lnitigatio~iand relief measures, a Cabinet ,
Committee on Natural Calamities Iias been constituted under tlie cliair~nanshipof

the Prime Minister.
'There is a National Crisis Management Co~ilniittee (NCMC) under tlie

chairmansliip of Cabiliet Secretary consisting of Secretaries of different
ministries concerned.
I~~cre;~setl
Understanding For dealing with matters relating to rclicf in the wake of major natural calamities,
of Disasters - I a Crisis Management group (CMG) lias been set LIP ~ ~ n d the e r chairmanship of
Central Relief Commissioner (CRC) in tlie Ministry o f Agriculture wit11
representatives of tlie concernecl Ministries ancl Departments. The responsibility
is to review, every year, the contingency plans formulated by tlie Central
Min-istriesiDepart~iie~its,tlie measures required for dealing with a natural
calamity and coordinate tlie activities of tlie Cenlral Ministries and State
Governments in relation to disaster preparedness and relicf.
At tlie State level, there is a standing committee under tlie chairmanship of

Millister in-charge to direct and control programmes for reducing tlie adverse
impact of natural calamities.
At tlie administration level, there is a State level committee ~ ~ n d ethe r

~IiairrnansIiipof Chief Secretary to ensure prompt ancl adequate relief measures
and reconstruction of damaged infrastructure. It also decides on the norms and
iterns of assistance.
For coordinating relief activities, a separate Relief Department has becn set up ill
many of the States lieacled by a senior officer of tlie rank of Principal
SecretaryiCommissioner. Tlie actual relief oper;itions are ~~ndel-talten at tlie
clistrict level by a group wliicli is lieadecl by District Collector. tIe is assisted by
the field level organisations and voluntary organisations constituted at the block,
telisil and village levels.
The committees at tlie dis~rictlevel have adequate rcprese~itationof people's

representatives, concerned Departments, NGOs, other members 01' pi~blicand
local el S-govcrn~iientbodies.
3.3.2 Contingency Action Plan

A National Contingency Action Plan (CAP) lias been notifiecl and this is updated
every year. Tlie CAP idenlilies tlic initiatives requireci to be takcn by various
Central MinistricsiDcpartmls i n [.he wake of natural calamities, sets down tlie
procedure and determines tlie focal points in the aclministrative macl1i1ie1.y.At the
State level, tlie State Relief Commissioner (or Secretary, Dcpal-tment of
Reveni~e)directs ancl controls the relief operations tlirougli Collector or Deputy
commissioner, who is responsible for all relief operations, coordination, direction
and control at tlie district level.
3.3.3 Capacity Building through Relief and Rehabilitation

Work I d
Tlie growing awareness of tlie interrelation between disaster, cnvironment and

development lias led to a shift in emphasis from relief to mitigation. Tlie capacity
to respond to tlie challenges of natural disasters is del~endentupon tlie cxtent of
preparedness to mitigate their impact and reduce their occurrence wliicli is possible
o~ilythrough sustainable develop~nentefforls. Therefore ilie prcsent day eelnpliasis
is to steer relief and rehabilitation work towarcls capacity building of tlie
community so that future can be handled effectively.
Some of tlie lo~igterm mitigation measures lilte construction of cyclone shelters

along the coast, construction ~Tembanknients,clyltcs ancl reservoi~.~, afforestation
of tlie coastal belt, reconst~.uctionof cyclo~ieresistant Iiouses, enforcement of
building codes for cyclone prool?~igs t r ~ ~ c t ~ ~insurance
res, cover, lancl use zoning
and legislatior1 and education and training are among tlie items wliicli could be
take11LIPas a pal* of ~'eliefand rehabilitation work, which in the long rLln will be
benc'ficial to tlie coastal population. 1'11~1s111c prcscnt day relief and
seliabilitation measures are aimed not only to provide immediate help to the Cyclone
\iictilns but also towards tlie requisite capacity-building or the community to
fight fi~turedisasters effectively. Some of the reconstr~~ction projects taken LIP
the devastating cyclones towards the beginning of tliis decade are
formulated containing eleliients of mitigation measures. Tlie following are some
recent examples of comprehensive reconstruction efforts with mitigation plan
built into them.
- --
i) l'he Cyclone Reconstruction Projcct (1990) was initiated in the coastal

A~idliraPradesh. 'I'his consistecl of s~lchcomponents as housing and
pi~blic buildings, reconstruction of electricity transmission lines,
dl4ainageancl ri~ralwater supply. It also includcs such mitigation efforts
as expanding road networlc, colnmunication network, planning of shelter
belt trees and building ilp of cyclo~ie slieltcrs. This project was
completed in 1994.
i i) 'The Cyclone Reconstl.i~ctionPro-iect (1992) was started in Tamil Nadu,

Kerala and Karnatalca. Under tliis Project, the liouses destroyed during
November 1992 cyclone have been suitably reconstructed with assistance
liom Housing and Urban Development Corporation (I-IUDCO),
Ciovernment of India, tlie concerned State Governments and contribution
from tlie beneficiaries.
3.4 FINANCING RELIEF AND REHABILITATION

WORK: GOVERNMENT RULES
:5cliemes for financing expenditure on relief and rehabilitation in tlie wake of
natu~.aI calamities are governed by tlie recommendations of Filialice
Commissions appointed by tlie Government of India every five years. Under the
existing scheme in operation for tlie periocl 1990-95, each State has a corpus of
filnds ca511ed Calamity Relief Fund (CRF), aclministerecl by a State Level
Committee,, headed by the Chief Secretary of the State Government. Tlie size of
tlie corpus is determinccl having regarcl to the vulnerability of the State to
diffei-ent natur.al calnliiities and tlie magnitude of expenditure normally incurred
by tlie State on relief'operations. Tlie corpus is built by annual contributions of
the Union Gov.ern~ncntand tlie State Governments concerned in tlie ratio of 3:l.
At present. tlic aggregate iui~iualuccretion in tlie State CRF amounts to Rs. 8040
million. The states are frec to draw upon this corpus for providing relief in tlie
evelit of any natural calamity, In the event of a major disaster warranting
intervention at i:lie national level. a provision e ~ i s t for
s tlie Union Government to
s~~pplement the financial resources neecled .for relief operations. Many non-
governmental ancl voluntary agencies also play significant roles during tinies of
I
distress.
In addition to above, funds are also available through some of tlie on going
developmental, programmes in tlie country, like the Indira Awas Yojana and
Jawalial. lZc?igar Yojana. Limited funds are also available from tlie Prime
Minister's Rclief Fund to provide iln~nediaterelief to tlie victims of natilral
calamities.
3.5 LESSONS LEARNT FOR FURTHER

-
IMPROVENIENT
I It has been observed that there is a good possibility of saving lives and properties
from cyclone disaster by adopting suitable sliort and I'ong term disaster
mitigation measures and preparing tlie community to efrectively handle cyclone
disasters. Tlie cyclone reco~lst~.~~ction pryjects as were ~.ecentlytalten LIPin states
liJte Andhra Pradesli also sel-ve as an esaml7le In this direction. One of the
crLlcialshol-t term cyclone clisaste~ mitigation measures include tlie ti~nely
evacuatio~iof people and live stock wliich is [lie only pl-escribed measure to save
lives and properties especially i n the case of storm surges leading to coastal
inundation. The benefit of sucl~ preparedness ancl evacuation was amply
demonstrated in the case of two cyclorles which struck the same place of Anclhra
Pradesli with allnost the sariie intensity once in November 1977 and later in May
1990. ']'he loss of I ~ u r i ~ r l l~ves
n in 1977 November cyclone was about 8547
whel*easthe loss of 11~1man lives i n May 1990 was limited to 928. The difference
was rnainly due to the better Ic\/el of p~.cparedness shown by the disaster
management officials as \veil as ~ ~ ~ l b 111 l i 1990
~ . the people and government
~nacl.rinery\Yere better prepared and ~ ~ n l i kine 1977 about half a million people
were evacuated to safer places on receiving of warnings.

ii) Checlc your answers with those given at the encl orthe unit.
I) Discuss in briefthe administrative response regarding relief and rehabilitation

measures.
2) Briefly explain the role o r contingency action plan.
3) Describe any two examples of comprehensive reconstr~~ction

efforts with
mitigation plans built into them.
Cyclone
3.6 LET US SUM UP
The winds of a cyclone cause death and ii~juriesfroill structural collapse or flying
ol~+jects,witli devastating effects on Iiouses and other buildings, agriculture,
critical facilities e.g. communication facilities and lifelines. Often loss of life
from tlie cyclones is mostly due to drowning, either from the rise in sea water
i~lundatingtlie lalid or frani floods resi~lti~igfrom excessive rainfall. This unit
Iias given us an idea about tlie damages caused by cyclones witli tlie help of few
examples. It throws light on tlie iniportance of relief and rehabilitation measures.
~thas briefly described tlie financing of relief and reliabilitatio~iwork.
3.7 KEY WORDS
Co~itingencyPlans: It refers to series of assessnients and evaluation as to tlie

likelihood of an event occurrence, when and wliere it miglit occur, its possible
magnitude and i~iipactfollowed by tlie development of proposed plans of action
involving;
a) identification of tlie potential threat, e.g., proximity of tlie cyclone, settlements
on seismic .faaults or flood plains etc.;
b) identification o f lilcely impact of diMter e.g. number of people potelltially
affected, da~iiageto property etc;
c) a~iticipati~ig
and developing opti~iiuniresponse to sucli a threat, e.g., educate
people to potential risk, develoflnotification and evacuation plans etc;
d) ide~itificatio~iof existing resources, e.g., areas wliere shelters could be
establislied, sources of food, location of reconstruction equipment.
White Paper: Government Report on recent investigations of an i~nportant
matter or event.
Knot ( I d ) : Nautical mile per hour (unit of speed over tlie sea)
Reliabilitatio~~:It refers to action taken in two weeks or months, immediately
following a disaster to restore basic services, construct te~nporaiyliouses etc.
Relief It means meeting immediate needs of food, clothing, shelter and medical
care for disaster victim; assistance given to save lives and alleviate sl~fferiiigin tlie
shortest possil~letime followi~iga disaster.
Hecto Pascal (hpa): Unit of at~iiospliericpressure

Carter, W. Nick. 1 99 1 , Dis~rsterManugement, A Disaster Manager's Handbook,
Asia11Development Bank: Manila.
Prakasli, Indu. 1995, Di,~uster M~~nagellzent,Rashtra Prahari Prakaslian,
Gliaziabad.
Thomas, Babu, 1993, D i s ~ ~ s l eResponse:
r A H~mdhookfor Emergencies,
Clii~rcli'sAuxiliary for Social Action, New Delhi.
- -

EXERCISES
Check Your PI-ogrcss1
1) Your answer shoulcl include tlie following points:

0 It was a very severe cyclonic storm.
0 The cyclone initially clcveloped i n a low latitude on November 14,1977..
Increased Understanding @ It clialfged its direction by the evening of 1 6"l November.
of Disasters - I
@ Coast on 19'" November .
It struck Andhra ~radesli,
e It was a cyclone of tlie highest intensity so far observed in the Bay of
Bengal and tlie Arabian Sea.
@ It caused a very large scale loss of lives and properties.

@ India is flanked on either side by sea areas (Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea) where cyclones take birtli.
@ India lias two cyclone seasons viz. Pre-monsoon (April-May) and Post-
monsoon (October-December).
@ That is why cyclones occur every year in India and some of these
become severe.
3) Your answer should include the followi~lgpoints:

@ India is flanked on either side by sea areas (Bay of Bengtal and Arabian
Sea) where cyclones take birth.
India has two cyclone seasons viz., Pre-monsoon (April-May) and Post-
monsoon (October-Dece~iiber).
That is why cyclones occur every year in India a i d some of these

become severe.

a The Cabinet Committee
The National Crisis Management Co~n~nittee
The Crisis Management Group

0 State Level Committee
District Collector

A National Contingency Action Plan lias been notified.
0 It identifies the initiatives required to be taken by central
ministries/departments in the wake of natural disasters.
It sets down the procedure.

I
The plan determines the focal points in the administrative machinery.

Your answer should include tlie following points:
0 Cyclone Reconstruction Project in tlie coastal Andhra Pradesli.
@ Cyclone Reconstruction Project for Taniil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.
DROUGHT AND FAMINE
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Major Droughts experienced in India
4.2.1 The Largo-scale Drougl~lof 1982
4.2.2 'I'he I'hcnonicnal I)sougl~tol' 1987
Government Policy Relating to Drought Management
Lessons 1,earnL
Let Us S u m Up
Key Words
References and Fustlier Readings
Answcss to Check Your P~~ogrcss Exercises
Afler stuclying this unit, you slioi~ldbe able to :
o explain tlie difference between drouglit arid famine;

0 describe the mqjor d~.ouglitsin India;
0 discuss the adverse irnpticts caused by drouglit;
e describe tlie relief and rehabilitation measures;
0 llighlight tlie government policies; ancl
understand tlie Icssons learnt from past experiences.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Tliere is no urliversally accepled definition of dro~~glit.Accorcli~igto Na~iiias

(1989), drought involves a scarcity of rain to tlie extent that it interferes with
some sector of economy sucli as agriculture, waler supply 01.other water related
activities.
Thc severity of drougllt depencls on:

0 degree of moisture deficiency
0 duration of dry spells
0 extent of irrigation facilities; and
0 size of the nffectecl area
Fan~ineis defined as tlie situation when food available to the people is extremely
scarce and it leads to liunger and starvation, Thus drouglit and famine are not tlie
same. Famine can occur due to mismanagement even wlie~itliere is no drouglit.
On the othw hand, a drought il'~iianagedwell will not turn into famine. The link
between droi~glitand familie can be broken through good drouglit management
slid enha~lce~iientof the purcliasing power of tlie economically weaker sections
of tlie society. That is why since indepe~ldencethere havc bee11severe droughts '
. but no widespread famines.

Increased Understantling @ It changed' its direction by tlie evening of 16"' November.
of Disasters - I
@ It struck Andlira ~ r a d e s hCoast on 19'" November .
e It was a cyclone of the highest intensity so far observed in the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
@ It caused a very large sca.le loss of lives and properties.
@ India is flanked on either side by sea areas (Bay of Bengal and Arabian
@ India lias two cyclone seasons viz. Pre-monsoon (April-May) and Post-
monsoon (October-Deceniber). .
@ Tliat is wliy cyclones occur every year in India and some of these
become severe.
3) Your answer should inclitde tlie following points:

@ India is flanked on either side by sea areas (Bay of Beiigtal and Arabian
Q India lias two cyclone seasons viz., Pre-monsoon (April-May) and Post-
monsoon (October-December).
@ Tliat is wliy cyclones occur every year i11 India and some of these
becotlie severe.

Tlie Cabinet Committee
@ l'lie National Crisis IliIanage~nentComliiittee
Q Tlie Crisis Management Group
@ State Level Committee
District Collector
2) Your answer should include tlie followiiig points:

@ A National Contingency Action Plan has been notified.
@ It identifies the initiatives required to be taken by central

ministriesldepartlnents in tlie wake of natural disasters.
@ It sets down tlie procedure.
Q The p!an determines the focal points in ilie administrative machinery.
3) Your answer sliould include the followiiig points:

@ Cyclone Reconstruction Project i11 the coastal Andhra Pradesh.
@ Cyclone Reconstruction Project for Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.
UNIT 4 DROUGHT AND FAMINE
Objectives
lntroduction
Major Droughts experienced in India
4.2.1 The 1,argc-scale Drought o f 1982
4 2.2 'l'he Phenomenal D l a ~ ~ g l01'i t 1987
Government Pol icy Relating to Dro~~glit
Management
Lessons Learnt
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
References and Ft~~-therReadings
Answcrs to Checlc Your Progress Exercises
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this nit, yo11should be able.to :
explain the difference between drought and famine;

describe I.he major droughts in India;
0 cliscuss the adverse impacts caused by drought;
describe tlie relief and rehabilitation measures;
0 Iiighlight the government policies; and
~~nderstand the lessons learnt From past experiences.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
'Tlicre is no universally accepted definition 01' droughl. According to Nainias

(1989), drouglit involves a scarcity of rain to the extent that it interferes with
some sector of economy such as agriculture, water supply or othcr water related
activities.
The severity of drought depends on:

@ degree of moisture deficiency
@ duration ofdry.spelIs
@
extent of irrigation facilities; and
size of the affected area
Famine is defined as tlie situation when food available to the people is extremely
scarce and it leads lo hunger ancl starvation. Thus drouglit and f a ~ i ~ i are
n e not the
same. Famine can occur due to mismanagement even when there is no drought.
011the other hand, a drought if managed well will not turn into famine. The linlc
between dro~ightand famine can be broken tlirougli goocl drought manage~nent
and enhancement o r the purchasing power or tlie economically weaker sections
of the society. That is why since i~~dependence there have been severe droughts
. but no widespread famines.
Incrc:~sctllJnderst:~~~tling
of l)i$:t5tcrs - I
4.2 MAJOR DROUGHTS EXPERIENCED IN INDIA
worst drougllt 011 record in India is that of 1899 when tlie rainfall d e l i c i e ~ l c ~
of monsoo~iseason for the country as a whole was - 26.2% and 83% of tlie area
experienced deficient rainfall during the monsooli season. klowcver the drought
of 1877 was a close contender because although tlie area affected was m~lchless
at 66.8%, the rainfall deficiency for t l ~ emonsoon season was rnl~cliworse at
79.1%. Thus, while the pllenomenal drought of 1899 affected a larger area of the
country, that of 1877 was more intense in the areas in which it occurred. Both
these droughts led to s e r i o ~ ~famine
s conditions mainly because of the lack of
communication, information and transport.
Three widespread droughts occurred in India in receilt times during 1979, and
1982 and 1987. The country is lucky not to have faced large-scale droughts
since 1987. Tliis is mainly because the monsoon, which gives about 80% of the
annual rainfall in the country, has been behaving fairly well all these years.
However, tlie monsoon rains are highly variable both in time ant1 space. That is
why there are always some localised areas of low rainrall or local drouglit eve11
in tlie years of very good monsoon rains. The 111ostrecent droughts of 1982 and
1987 are described here in some detail,
4.2.1 The Large-scale Drought of 1982
The drought experienced in 1982 was quite bad with a monsoon rainfall
deficiency of -1 3.7% and 46.4% oftlie area suffering from deficient rains.
Although the Inonsoon started on time in 1987, its pl-ogramnie slowed down.
Further~nore,the rainfall was meagre, especially in the first hall' of the four
month monsooli season. To add to the problems, monsoon receded earlier. The
north, north west and southern parts of tlie country suffered most. Among these
the regions that suffered the worst rain deficiency were Himachal Pradesli
(-50%), Sauraslltra and Kutch (-46%), Jammu & Kashmil* (-37%). West
Rajasthan (-36%), Tamil Nadu (-36%), Bihar (-30%) and Vidarblia (-28%).
The food grain production, as a consequence, was adversely affected. A loss of

9.5 million tonnes was reported in the Kliarif (monsoon) crop itself. As the
efforts to increase food grain production in the following Rabi crop succeeded
due to good drought management, the year finally ended with a sllort fall of otlly
3.8 million tons over the previous year's food grain production.
4.2.2 The Phenomenal Drought of 1987
The drought of 1987 is counted among the five "pl~etlo~nenal"drougl~tson

record, the others being 1877, 1899, 191 8 and 1972. Tile monsoon season's
rainfall deficiency was -19.3% and the area under deficient rainfall was 64.3%.
Although tlie onset of monsoon over Kerala was almost on time on 2 June 1987
(i.e., only one day late), its advance was slow. The monsoon further delayed in
advancing to the ~iorthand north west of India. There was an all time record
delay for tlie monsoon to reach these areas, which are among tlie major food'
prpducing zones of tlie country.
The worst effect of this drougl~tcondition was felt in tlie north, west and central
regions. The areas which had rainfall deficiency of -50% or worse are indicated
42 below:
~a~lrashtra,
IC~~tcll
& Dill -74% Drought % F ~ m i n e
West Rajasthan -67%

Haryana & Delhi -67%
~{imachalPradesh -51%
West U.P -51%
East Rajasthan -50%
Tile above ~nentionedregions account for about 20% area of tlie country and
include prominent food producing regions of the country. The other parts of the
co11ntrywhich suffercd deficiencies of rainfall between -20% and -50% were:
Jammil & ICashmir, Uttaranchal, East Uttar Pradesli, East Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, Viclarblla, Maratliwada, Madliya Maharaslltra, lcerala, Gujarat, Coastal
Andhr-a Pradesli and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
In terms of overall annual food grain production in tlie country for both ICharif
ancl liabi, the 1987 drought rcsulted in a loss of production of 3.0 million tonnes
only ;IS against that of 3.8 mil lion tonnes in 1982. However, the drought of 1987
lialtcd the 11iomenti1111of agricultural growth established during tlie early 1980s.
It affected 15 states n11d 6 Union Territories, damaging crops on a11 area of about
59 million hectares spread over 267 districts. Gujarat and Rajasthan were tlle
worst affected states. Nearly 285 million people have been the direct sufferers of
thc adverse socio-economic impact of this drought and of these, around 92
million people belonged to economically weaker and socially deprived sections
of society. Thc droirght arfccted about 1 68 million cattle. The scarcity of cattle
feed caused a serious problem and conccrn. All such major widespread tlroughts
have ~.esultedin a marlted reduction in the foodgrain production giving a setback
to the economy and food security.
4.3 RELIEF AND REHABILITATION MEASURES
National level ef'forts arc very important in dealing wit11 drought and famine
situations. I'unds arc arranged through:
@ Calamity Relief I:i~nd (Structured grants to the States).
0 National ITi~ndI'or Calamity Relief (Started in 1995).
@ Pri~neMinister's National Keliel'Fund (Discretionary Grant).
@ NGOs
The main objectives of short term relief measures is to protect people's access to
food through:
a) ensuring tlie availability of food in the affected area and

b) protecting tlle entitlements of all groLlps within the affected society.
So~iieofthe important lneasilres for maintaining food security are:
. food subsiclies '
'0' price stabilization by pl-eventing hoarding and starting Fair Price Shops
0 employment generation programmes
supplementary feeding program~nes
special programmes for livestock a~idother household assets

e cornple~nentaryliealth programmes
@ clean drinking water programmes
@ general food supply and tlislribution programmes
The reduction oftlie impact of drougl~trequires measures like:
e ilnprovcd water resource managemetit tliro~~gh digging new wells, improve

existing wells, construct retention dams, construct subsurface dams to trap
water in sandy I-iverbeds, recharge tlic aquifer watcr catchments wliicli trap
water and allow it to seep quiclcly down into tlie water carrying strata;
plant drought-resistant crops;
implement countcr- desertit?cation measures e.8. tree planting.
Rehabilitation involvcs assisting the affected people to increase their purchasing

power tlirougli work programmes, to keep u p their liealtli, and to replace assets
lost during tlie drouglit arid famine situatio~i,Tliese type of programmes arc
nceessary after severe periocls of temporary food insecurity and famincs when
liouseliolds have lost most assets, been forced to migrate and have experienced
high rates of mortality. The programme involves liealtli care services,
counselling, providing'material support like coolcirig i~tensils,~iiakingavailable
trallsportation back to previous Iiome sites, re-establish homes and productive
activities. I
The timing of reliabilitation intervention is specially important, e.g, seed

distribution programme should be completed bcforc tlie start of the next sowing
season. For achieving success, the intervention has to be planned and
implemented alongside relief activities. The seed progralnme is a I<ey
cornpollent of rehabilitation efforts. The rationale of this programme is tliat since
tlie affected people tend to exhaust tlieir seed stoclcs citl~ertliroitgli repeated re-
sowing or consuming Illem as food, tlie rcquired seeds need to be niade available
to iliem.
During the drought of 1987, itnports liad to be resorted to the tune of 200,000
tonnes of pulses, 30,000 tonnes of butler oil, and 22,000 tonnes of skimmed milk
powder. 7790 Fair price shops wcre set up in tlie drought affected arcas within
Lliree months.
As scarcity of cattle feed caused a serious concern, cattle shelters atid fodder
banks had to be set up. Paddy straw was moved in from Punjab to Gujarat and '
R~jastlian to serve as substitute for fodder. In order to manage the droughl

situation, massive initiatives were undet-taken for relicf and rehabilitation
measures by tlie Government of India and the concerned states. All these prompt
atid expensive relief and rehabilitation measures ensured tliat the phenomenal
widespread drought of 1987 did not become a famine.

il) Check your answers with i.liose given at tlie end of lie utiit.
1 ) List tlie two major droughts experienced in India. Drought & Farnine
2) Briefly describe tlie socio-economic impact of the drought that occurred in

1987.
3) I~iclicateany five i~nporta~it

lneasures for ~naintainingfood security.
4.4 GOVERNMENT POLICY RELATING TO

DROUGHT MANAGEMENT
Tlie experience of 1970s and 1980s sllows that the drought management
approach lias shifted from crisis response to risk management, at all levels ofthe
government. The emphasis has been on integrated disaster preparedness through
early warning arrangements, planned emergency response and better
preparedness. This policy proved very useful while dealing with the drought of
1987 which, incidentally, was the last major drought of the 20"' century.
TIie risk inanagelnent measures co~isistof the following components:
Food subsidy throi~gliPublic Distribution System.

Availability of food grains from states or fro~ncentral buffer stock.
Supplementary feeding programmes.
Drinking water and health programmes,
Easy credit for agrici~lturalsector
Piice ~Jabilisation.
E$iployment generation.
Increased Understanding
of Disi~sters,-I
s is semi nation of information
@ Special programrnes'for farming communities and for their livestock..
The major initiatives taken by the Government of India during the drought of
1987 are listed below:
Campaign for enhanced agricultural production in the next season through:
Better Water management.
Increased Area coverage.

Upgraded technology package of seeds and fertilizers and extension service.
Relaxed credit terms through the National Bank for Agriculture & Rural
Development (NABARD).
Special programmes for energising 150,000 pumpsets through Rural
Electrification Programme.
Additional supply of petroleum products to drought affected areas.
Distribution of 137,000 mini kits in drought affected areas for enhancing the
cultivation of vegetables.
Works regarding Employment generation
54 major irrigation projects.
32 tnediun irrigation projects.

Minor irrigation projects e.g. Soil conservation .
Laying of road I inks.

Provision of Drinking Water.
Cattle feed.
Subsidy to small and marginal farmers and growing fodder on 230,000

hactares.
Free irrigation. '
The Government of India has launched various development programmes to

serve the long- term needs of the different sections of the drought affected
communities. The important programmes are listed below:
Desert Development Programme (DDP).

@ Drought Prone Area Programme'(DPAP).
~ o o for
d Work Programme (FWP).
National Rural Employment Programme (NREP).
Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP).
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP).

@ Accelerated Rural Water supply
Programme (ARWSP).
Indira Awas Yojana (IAY).

e Jawahar Rozgar Yo.iana (JRY). Drought & Famine
e Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) - to assure 100 days of ernploy~nent

during'lean agricultural season in d r o ~ ~ gprone,
ht tribal and hilly areas.
These programmes targeted specially the poor inhabitants of rural areas and tried
to co~i~bine
development with drought management.
Section 18 of the National Water Policy (GO1 1987) dealing with Drought
management, states as under:
18.1 Drought Prone Areas should be made less vulnerable to drought

associated problems through soil-moisture conservation measures, water
harvesting practices, the minimisation of evaporation losses, the development of
the ground water potential and tlie transfer of surface water from surplus areas,
where feasible and appropriate. Pastures, forestry or other modes of developlnent
which are relatively less water-demanding should be encouraged. In planning
water resource pro-jects, the needs of drought-prone areas should be given
priority.
1
18.2 Relief works undertal<en for providing employment to d r o ~ ~ gstricken
ht
population should preferably be for drought proofing."
Under tlie Government of India, the main responsibility for natural disasters as
well as Inan made disasters, except drougl~tat present rcsts with tlle Ministry of
Home Affairs. The responsibility of drought management is with tlie Ministry of
' Agriculture. The Natural Disaster Management Division f~~nctions under tlie
Ministry of I-Iome Affairs. The Ministry of Water resources deals with and
coordinates improved irrigation coverage in the various states of India.
The Central Government, yith its large physical and financial resources is able to
encourage emergency preparedness, provide crisis response and immediate
assistance. Under tlle sclle~neof financing the disaster relief expenditure, while
the execution of ,relief operations is tlle major responsibility of the concerned
State Goveniment, the Central Government supports and supplements the efforts
by extending financial, physical and tecl~nicalassistance.
As none would like tile liistory of the Bengal Famine of pre-independent India to
repeat itself in future, the need is to make the system, resilient, stronger and more
efficient.
4.5 LESSONS LEARNT

I
The nianagelnent of the drougllt of 1987 underlines the fact that by appropriate
institutional support and proper co-ordination of efforts, crises could be met
confidently and the policies co~lldbe translated into practice no st expeditiously.
F
This experience also embodied the re-orientation in the approach to drought
management and marked a major departure in terms of caring for the quality of
life and not i ~ l e r e lconfining
~ to providing sustenance to mitigate hardship.
Prolonged drought may undermine the self-confidence and self-reliance of
affected communities. The affected people should be assisted and supported to
r~placetlieir assets lost during the temporary phase of food insecurity and where
it is required, their livelihood sllould be re-established. Response requirenlents
involve major commitment and expenditure of resources. A long-range
mitigation measure is tlle policy of providing irrigation facilities to si~pplement
the rainfall and thus to ensure agricultural production in all vulnerable areas of
India. This will have to be a continuous effort and made an integral part of the
development programme,of the area.
lrrcreasetl Understar~ding Extensive socio-economic develop~ne~lt of drought prone areas would provide a
of Disasters - I
solution in the long term. However, the short term needs must aim at generating
new sl<illsand fu~zlieravenues of employment, in order to enhance tlie purchasing
power of the affected population, especially tlie weaker sections of the society.
Clieclt Your PI-ogress 2

1) Mention the salient points pertaining to d r o ~ ~ g hmanagement

t contained in
the National Water Policy of Government of India.
2) Highlight the major initiatives undertaken by the Government of India during

tlie drought of 1987.
3) Briefly discuss the lessons learnt for further improvement in drought

management.
4.6 LET US SUM UP
This unit has brought out tlie distinction between drought and famine. In order to
increase the understanding regarding major droughts and famine in India, two
representative droughts of 1982 and 1987 have been dealt with. It has thrown light
on tlie relief and rehabilitation measures. In addition, it has highlighted the
goveriiment policies pertaining to drought. Lastly, this unit has developed a clear
understanding about the lessons learnt for further improvement.
-
Drought & Fnrni~~e
4.7 KEY W O m S
central Buffer Stock: The Central Government maintains a stock of foodgrains

that feeds the Public Distribution system through Fair Price Shops on which the
economically weaker sections of society depend. This has improved the benefits
of this system specially during serious disaster situation, like major droughts.
The buffer stock is replenished through open market purchases at liarvest times
and it is generally not allowed to fall below 12 million tonnes.
Pasture: Land suitable for grazing of cattle.
Subsidy: Money contributed by government to keep down prices of essential
commodities.
Price Stabilization: Keeping prices under control; prevention of undue increase
in prices of essential articles during difficult times.
r 4.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Prasad Ka~ntaand B. D. Singh, 1994 Drought Disaster and Develop~nent,Mittal

Publication, New Delhi.
Namias, J., 1989, Mc Graw Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology
Sen. A, 198 1, Poverty und Fanzine, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Government of India, 1987, National Water Policy, Ministry of Water
Resources, New Delhi.
Singh Tapeshwar, 1995, Drought Disaster and Agricultural Development in
India, People's Publishing House, New Delhi,
Tl~omasBabu, 1993, Disaster Response: A Hundbookfor Enze~gencies,Church's
Auxiliary for Social Action, New Delhi.
Report of Irrigation Commission, 1972, Govern~nentof India, Ministry of
Irrigation and Power, New Delhi.
Kulshl-estha, S.M., 1997, Drought Mcznagen?e?zt in India, Tech. Report No. 1,
Insti9ute of Global Environment and Society, U.S.A.
4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PRPGRESS

EXERCISES
5
I) Your answer should include the following points:
@ The large scale D r o ~ ~ gof
h t 1982
The phenomenal widespread Drought of 1987
Economic impacts such as reduced income of far111 lands, fall in

industrial oiitput, ~~nemployment, inflation and higl!er prices, decreased
agricultural g ~ ~ t p uloss
t , of livestock, reduced prices, poor purchasing
power.
@ Social impacts i.e. malnutrition, poor hygiene, i l l health, migration and
increased stress and morbidity.
k
Incrensetl l ' ~ ~ i I c ~ . s t : t ~ ~ c l i l ~ g 3) Your answer shoultl include tlic Ibllowing points:
of Disasters I -
@ Price stabilisation by preventing hoarding and starting Fair Price Shops;
Food subsidies.
+ Increasing purchasing power through Employment generation
programmes.
@ Special programtne for livestoclc and other household assets.
0 General food s ~ ~ p pand
l y distribution programmes.
1) Your answer should i~icludetlie following points:

0 Drought prone areas should be made less vulnerable to drought
associated problems through various means.
@ Modes of develop~nent,that demand less water, should be encouraged in
tlie plannilig process.
0 I11 platitling water resource prospects, preference should be given to tlie
needs of drought prone areas.
@
RelieF works i~ivolvingconstruction projects should aim at drouglit
proofing of tlie area.
2) Your answer should include the followi~igpoints:
@ Campaign for enliancing agricultural production.
Relaxed credit terms.

@ Special prograin for energising pump sets.
0 Distribution of agriculture mini kits.
Employment gerieratiori works.
Provision of drinlcing water.
3) Your answer should include tlie follawiug points:

Appropriate institutional support arid proper co-ordination of efforts
provide positive results.
The affected people shou Id be supported and assisted.
0 Rehabilitation needs should be properly assessed.
Proper respolise needs long time commitment of resources and should

preferably be made integral part of tlie development programme of the
drought affected area.
NOTES
UNIT 5 LANDSLIDES AND SNBW
AVALANCHES
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
~ a j o Disasters:
r Landslides and Snow Avalanches in India
5.2.1 Vulnerable Areas, Frequency and Intcnsity
5.2.2 Kind and Magnitude of Damage
5.2.3 Relief Steps taken
5.2.4 Mcasures for Rehabilitation
Lessons Learnt
Government Rules
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying tliis Unit, you sliould be able to:
o discuss tlie occurrence of landslides and snow avalanclies in India with

reference to tlie likely rcgions, frequency, and intensity
o explain the kind and magnitude of damage due to tliese disasters
o describe tlie possible lneasures for relief and rehabilitation; and
o liigliliglit tlie lessons learnt from these disasters and tlie need for rules and
regulations to reduce tlie risks.
5.11 INTRODUCTION
As we all know, a largc part of India consists of ~nountainousterrain. In the north,

there is tlie extensive I-Iimalayan mountain system extending all along from tlie
west to tlie east. Its lofty peaks rise to more than 8000 metres Iieight. The middle
ranges of the Himalayas are about 5000 metres high on tlie average while the
foothills rise to about 6000 metres. The Himalayas abound in glaciers and are the
origin of many rivers and streams. There is abundant rainfall and snowfall ofien
accompained by strong winds.
The peninsular region of India starts from the Vindliyaclial ranges and consists of
the Deccan Plateau wliich slopes eastwards. On its edges, tliis great plateau is
bound by tlie mountain ranges of the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats. The
Nilgiri mountains are in the soutliern parts of the plateau. The west-central parts of
tlie country have the ranges of the Aravali mountains.
I
I Many of these mountain syste~nsare relatively new (in the geological sense) and
, - The rock systems are therefore fragile,
are still growing such as the Himalayas.
Given tliese special geological and geographical features and combined with the
heavy rainfall system of tlie two monsoons (the summer monsoon and the winter
monsoon) and also the not-so-rare occurrence of eartliquakes, it is but natural that
the mountainous areas of India are vul~ierableto the hazards of landslides. In the
snowy regions of tlie Himalayas, snow avalanches are tlie additional dreaded
d isasters.
I ncre:~sedUndcrstancling 111the earlier part, i.e., Block 3 of the Foundation Coi~rse,we have clclined land
of Disasters - 11 slides and snow avalanches, described their characteristic feati~resand discussed
the effects and causes of landslides ancl snow nvalanclies. In this Unit, we will
discuss these two disaster phenomena in more cletail and with specific reference to
India. We shall also discuss relief and relinbilitation measures, as also the lessons
learnt from past experience.
5.2 MAJOR DISASTERS: LANDSLIDES AND SNOW

AVALANCHES IN INDIA
Landslides and snow avalanclies affect tlie remotely located, often isolated, small
communities in villages or lia~nletsin the mountain regions of the country where
external assistalice takes time to reach in timcs of emergency when tlic normally
difficult terrain and tracks ,may become almost inlpossible to negotiate. Many a
times, even the information about the occurrence of such events and the damage
done takes days to reach tlie district and state Iicadcluarters. Becai~seof these
reasons, landslides and snow avalanclics assume tlie stati~sof major riatural
disasters eve11tliougli tlie affected area and population may be rather sriiall.
5.2.1 Vulnerable Areas, Frequency and Intensity

Landslides: Landslides are a frequent and recurring phenomenon in the various hill
ranges of India from Kerala to tlie Himalayas. Arcas prone to landslides include
the Eastern and Western Ghats, the Nilgiris. the Vindhyachals, the mountains in
the northeastern States and tlie great Himalayan range. The irlcidcncc of landslides
in these regions is a recurring feature especially during and after spells of heavy
rains. As the geological history of the rocks and the rainfall regime have strong
bearing on the incidence of landslides, there are variations in the occul.rence of
landslides in different parts of the c o u ~ i t ~asy is indicated in Table 5.1 given below.
Table 5.1 : Incidence of laildslides in Inclia
Region Inciclence of Landslides

Himalayas High to very high
Northeastern Hills. High
Westerti Ghats and the Nilgiris Moderate to liigli
Eastern Ghats Low
Vindhvaclials Low
~andsl'ydeZonation Mapping is a modern metliod to identify landslides prolie areas

and it lias been in use in India since tlie 1980s. In this method, tlie vulnerability of
different parts of a landslide-prone region is assessed in terms of past occurrences,
steepness of slopes, conditions of rocks, and rainfall rates and the different areas
are given "ratings" like Very I-Iigli, Higli, Moderate, Low, Very Low, wliicli
indicate tlie li#eliliood of occurrence of landslides in those areas. Sollie of tlie
regions for which such zonation mapping lias already been completed or is nearing
completion are :
North S ikkini
Garhwal Himalayas including Yamuna Valley

Satlij Valley in I-Iimaclial Pradesli
The roads in Himaclial Pradesli, Jammil & Kaslimir and Uttaranclial arc Landslides and Snow
Avalancl~es
l?articularly prone to landslides. The phenomenon assumes alarming proportions
in the hill districts of north Bengal, Silckim and tlie northeastern States.
Snow Avalanches: The Himalayas are well known for the occurrence of snoy
avalanches particularly tlie Western Himalayas i.e., the snowy regions of Janimu &
I<asli~nir,fHimac1ial Pradesli and Uttaranclial. Broadly speaking, an area of aboqt
200,000 square kilonietres in these tliree States is vulnerable to snow avala~iclle
disasters. Snow avalanches also occur in the eastern parts of the tlimalayas but the
denser forest and vegetation cover on the eastern and tlie northeaster11I-Iimalayhs
(clue to heavy rains in these mountains) act as binding force and inhibit excessibe
accumi~lationand slippage of snow mass, The western Himalayas liave mahy
vulnerable sites prone to snow avalanches where Iiundreds of lives are lost and the
social ancl economic life is disrupted evely year. Tlie formation zones in tjiis
region are located between 3000 and 5000 metres height.
I n Jammu & Kasli~nir,tlie most affected areas are in tlie bigher reaches of I<ashliiir
ancl Gurez Valleys, Kargil and Ladalcli and some of tlte major roads there. In
Himaclial Pradesli, tlie vulnerable areas are : Cliamba, I<ullu, Lahoul-Spiti and
Kinnaur. Specitic villages liighly prone to snow avalanches liave been identified in
these districts of I-limaclial Pradesli. In the Garliwal I-Iimalayas in Uttarancllal,
parts of Tehri-Garliwal and Chamoli districts suffer from snow avalanche problbm.
Just as zonation napping is done for areas vulnerable to landslides, Zone Planning
is done for snow avalanche sites and tliree types of zones arc identified pertailling
to the frecluency and intensity of snow avalsu~cliesaround an avalanche site. In
other words, Zone Planning provides a means to assess the anticipated danger due
to snow avalanclies at the vulnerable site. Tlie tliree types o r snow avalanlclie
zones are :
1 , Red.Zone : Tlie most dangerous zone where sriow avala~~cl~es are nlost
frequent and have an impact pressure of Inore than 3 t o n ~ ~ per
e s square metre.
2. Blue Zone : Where the avalanche force is less than 3 tonnes per square mdtre
and wliere living and other activities lnay be permitted with constn~ctionof
safe designs but SLICII areas may have to be vacated on warning.
3. Yellow Zone : Wliere snow avalanches occur only occasionally.
It is important to note that the word "Zone" appears in two ~liea~iiiigs

in tlie context
of snow avalanches., Firstly, the different areas covered by a s~iowavalanclie
during its life cycle are called zones, e.g. Starting Zone and Run out Zone as
discussed in Unit 9 of Block 3 of CDM-01, Fouridation Course. Secondly, the
word zone is also used to describe the places of most occurrence, less occurrence
and least occurrelice, e.g. Red, Blue and Yellow Zones described above.
5.2.2 Kind and Magnitude of Damage
Thcre is no doubt tliat anything that comes in tlie way of n landslide or snow
avalanclie will suffer severe damage and may even be totally buried or wiped out.
Anything located on top of a landslide will also not survive when the rock or mud
slips out from below it.
Lancislides: More often, the major landslides are cornbinations of rockslide and
rockfall. They all involve tnove~nentof mass (soil, debris or rock). The process of
movement of mass may vary fro111slow soil creep to abrupt and sudden rockfall.
Landslides, also known as laudslips, range from low angle and rather slow slides to
sudden vertical falls.
I~~cre:tsetltJ~lderst;~ntlir~g Based on the type of movement, relative rate of movement and kind of material
of' Disasters - II involved, landslides can be designated into 5 Itinds as follows :
Q Slump with earth flow

Q Debris slide
e Debris fall
ea Rock Slidc
0 Rock fa I I
Landslides, being niore widcspread in different ~nountainousor liilly regions of tlic

countly (as against snow avalanches which are confined to the snowy regions ol
the Himalayas), cause darnage wliicli is Inore varied and more widespread.
Increased pol,ula~ion, spurt in quar~ying,mining and construction activities near
unstable liill slopes, ill-conceived developmental activities in the vulnerable liilly
areas, have rcsulted in more landslides and greater damages. Apart from the
catastrophic damagcs suffered by communities living on or near unstable liill
slopes as their houses along witli persons and property ]nay be destroyed by a
landslide, the 111ostcrippling damages due to landslides are suffered by (i) roads
and (ii) productive soil. Damage to roads leads to considerable inconvenience and
econv~nicloss. The disappearance of land and the cultivable top soil takes away
the agricultural potential of the affected area t l i ~ ~
depriving
s them of their already
meager livel ilioocl.
Landslides are also known to result in bloclcing of streams or overflowing of lakes

thus causing flash floods because large v o l ~ ~ ~ nofe sdebris falling in a lake or
reservoir caiise its watcr to overflow or tlie temporarily blocked stream may
suddenly relcilse the liugc quantity of impounded water to cause a devastating flash
gqod downstream,
Snow Avalanche: In case of specific kinds of snow avalanches, the resultant

damage is quite characteristic. For example, the "slab" type snow avalanche, in
which massive slab or slabs of hardened snow come hu~tlingdown, tlie liit is very
hard and s~nasliesanything that takes the liit. It is on record that in 1975, a group
of mountaineers climbing the Dliaulagiri region of tlie Hi~nalayassaw a massive
"n~attress" of snow 15 metre thick poised for collapse as a slab type snow
avalanche.
On tlie ot!,er had, "loose snow" kind of snow avalanche covers a large area. Due
to tlie fragile nature of the rocks of tlie still-growing Hi~nalayanmountains, the
snow avalanche may also carly large quantity of debris comprising loose soil,
small stones, and large boulders. "Airborne" avalanches occur on tlie slopes of tlie
greater I-limalayas and are one of the most devastating kind affecting large areas in
tlie vsll leys.
Wliile occurrence of snow avalanches is dependent on tlie arnount of snow, the

nature of the terrain and tlie prevailing meteorological (weather) factors, tlie
magnitude of damage done depends directly on the population density and tlle
. nature cF human activity in the region liit by a snow avalanclie. Every year,
litelally thousands of SIIOW avala~icliesare triggered off at numerous avalanche
sites in the higher hills of the three most vulnerable States viz., Jaminu & Kaslimir,
~ i n ~ a c l / aPradesli
l and Uttnranchal. Though it is not possible to get complete
reports of damages and casualties because avalanches occur in remote areas, the
Snow & Avalanche Study Establisl~ment(SASE) of tlie Defence Research &
Development Organization (DRDO) in Manali (Himaclial Pradesh) has been
monitoring snow avalanche activity over important mountain ranges in the
I-Iimalayas. SASE is also the nodal organization for forecasting snow avalanches.
It issues forecasts 18 to 24 hours in advance of the likelihood of avalanches
!
identibing tlie likely areas. The warnings are issued to tlie Defence Services and Landslides and Snow
1 para-military forces as also to lhc civil population in the area. The statistics Avalanches
I collected by SASE on the loss of lives due to snow avalanches during the 20 year
I period (1 974-94) are given in Table 5.2 below :
i
i
Table 5.2 : Loss of lives in snow avalanclles (1974-94)
?
--
Year Number of Deaths Reporter1
11
23
S
14
258
6
50
110
132
39
6
72
NIL
259
12
42
24
I. I
11
1993-94 13 --
It will be seen from the above Table that the years 1978-79 and 1987-88 have becn
the worst on record in terms of h u ~ n acasualties
~~ due to snow avalanches. All the
three States (J&I<, I-I.P., ancl Uttaranchal) sui'ferecl the wrath of snow avalanches in
March 1979. In 1-I.P., 235 17ersons were reported killed in Lahoul-Spiti district
alone. The loss of properly, cattle and forest assets rarl into crores of rupees.
Bamni village near Badrinatli. was completely buried under snow. Destruction in
.I&K was also enol.lnous. I h e snow avalanches of 1988 were also very damaging.
On a single day (1 7 March 19S8), 52 persons were killed in Zanskar and 57 in
Kargil (.J & K). It is noteworthy that both in 1979 and 1988, major darnages were
in March when the risi,s of snow avalanche increase as the accumulatecl snow
starts ~neltingand there is fresh heavy snowfall combined with strong winds.
About 2500 km of major roads in the Himillayas are exposed to the dangers of
damage due to snow avalanches. Continuous avalanching in winters disrupts
communications by road bloclis or road damages. Janimu-Srinagar, Srinagar-Leh
and Manali-Leh roads are particularly vulnerable to such obstructions. At times,
the avalanches deposit as much as 20 metre deep snow on thcse roads which are
the supply lifelines in these areas.
A very d d a s t a q ~ i gtype! of denage occurs due to Rash floods when debris from
snow avalanche blocks a water stream, or even a river, te~nporarilyi~npourldi~ig
large volunies of water which, on overconling the blockage, rushes to inundate
large areas downstrea~n.A prominent example of this type of damage occurred in
March 1979 itself when flash floods generated in Saraswati and klaknanda rivers
due to snow avalanches caused extreme damage to roads and agricultural lands in
the Vishnuprayag arqa of the Garhwal Himalayas.
Il~crcasedUnderstanding 5.2.3 Relief Steps Taken
of Disasters - I1
Reduction of losses (life as well as property) would by itself be an immense relief.

So the basic question behind any possible relief is : how might the losses on
account of landslides and snow avalanclies (or any other natural disaster for that
matter) be reduced? This can be achieved through the following four fi~nda~ne~ital
steps :
a. Modify the Cause, i.e., reduce the forces of nature 01. their intensity to the
extent practicable.
b. Modify the Hazard, i.e., channelize or divert the forces of nature as much as
possible.
c. Modify the Loss Potential, i.e., prepare, plan and waln to tlie fullest extent.
d. Modify the Impact, i..e., rehabilitate and reconstruct quiclcly and wisely.
In tlie pa~ticularcontext of landslides and snow avalanches, we can achieve (a)

above to some extent by artificial release of landslides at weak points and by
blasting off unusual acculnulations of snow and by building protective fences and
restraining struct~lressuch as "cribbing" or "piling" at sites known for landslides or
snow avalanches. Modification of hazard as mentioned at (b) above can be done
by reopening the flow of water in a stream blocked by a landslide or snow
avalanche before it assumes the dangers of a flash flood. ~ o d i f y i n ~ ' t f iloss
e
potential (Item "c" above) needs long term preparation and constant vigilance.
These would involve awareness of hazard and la~idslidesand snow avalanclie,
for~nulationof forecasts, arrangements to receive and clisseminate warnings, and
action plan to face the hazard when it occurs. The final item (d) above pertains to
relief steps ilnmediately after the event, i.e., to rehabilitate and reconstruct quickly
(to reduce hardship to the affected colnmunity) and wisely (to reduce tlie adverse
impacts during ally future recurrence of disaster).
Essentially, the relief steps comprise tlie followi~~g
1) Search and Rescue

2) Medical assistance to the injured
3) Disposal of tlie dead
4) Food and Water
5) Emergency shelter for the ho~neless
6) Opening up access roads if blocked; and restoration of cornm~lnication I
channels
7) Psychological counselling of the survivors who have lost their close relatives
8) Repair of houses and facilities
I
9) Assistance (technical and financial) to restart economic activity to restore

regul,ar work and income
I
10) Reconstruction through proper planning.
5.2.4 Measures for Rehabilitation I
Measures for the rehabilitation of a .community affected by landslide or snow I

avalanche will depend very much 011 the extent of the damage done by the
disastrous event.
If the damage has not been severe, the rehabilitation will take the form of (a) short- Landslides and Snow
term relief to restart norrnal activities and (b) taking long-term measures so that Avalanches
any firture landslide or snow avalanche does not hurt the co~nmunityat all or at
least, not as much.
We have already listed the short-tern1 relief steps in the preceding section. As
-regards the long-term measures, these will comprise the fol-lowing:
I ) Reducing the hazard proneness of the site through engineering measures

such as strengthening or modifying the slopes, removing fragile and
unstable pol-lions, securing snow accumulations by snow fences, snow nets
or by cribbing, and improvement of drainage.
2) Stopping indiscriminate quarrying and mining in moi~ntainareas.
3) Afforestation of zones prone to landslides and snow avalanches so that

trees and vegetation provide a binding force to prevent slippage of debris,
rock, and snow.
4) Creation of a voluntary, commi~nity-basedpreparedness-system of watch,

monitoring and alert. This will not only be useful in times of a disaster
but will provide enough self-confidencc (and thereby self-reliance) which
is an essential objective of an effective rehabilitation programme.
5 ) Provision of assistance for economic rehabilitation by arranging work,

employment, loans, and grants.
In the extreme case of sevcre damage to a community by a landslide or snow

avalanche, the site may be rendered totally unusable. In that case, rehabilitation
takes the form of relocation and reconstruction, In such an event, the new site
should be carefill ly chosen so as to minimize vulnerability and risks.

..
11) Checl<Y O L I answers
~ with those given at the end of the Unit.
I) Which areas in India are. pa~licularly vulnerable to landslides arld snow

avalanches?
2) Describe briefly the Itind and ~nagnit~rde

of damage resulting from snow
avalanches.
Incre;rsccl Understanding 3) What are tlie relief steps that need to be taken in tlie aftermath of landslides or
-
of' Disasters I1 now avalanches?
5.3 LESSONS LEARNT

The most important lesson learnt is that landslides and snow avalanches are among
the serious and frequent disasters occurring in India. This is because the large
mountainous regions (the Himalayas, the Eastern and Western Ghats, tlie Nilgiris,
and even the Vindliyachals) are prone to landslides. Snow avalanches are coinmon
in the Himalayas, especially tlie Western parts of the Hilnalayas.
Secondly, there are preferred sites where due to reasons of g e o l o ~ and climate,
such disasters occur often. It is useful to identifj, such sites and p e p i r e zonation
maps.
Thirdly, flash floods resulting from the blocking (and later release) of a hill stream
or a river by the debris of a landslide or snow avalanches can create a dreaded
disaster.
However, a vely important lesson learnt is that there are relief steps that are
possible in pre-disaster as well as post-disaster stage. Careful zonation mapping
and pre-disaster engineering steps will go a long way to reduce tlie frequency of
occilrrence and tlie intensity of impact of landslide or snow avalanche. A
community which has been hit by a landslide or snow avalanche will need long-
term rehabilitation process_tornalteit recover from tlie trauma of the disaster and to
render it safe from future catastrophes of this type.
5.4 GOVERNMENT RULES
The responsibility to deal witli landslides and snow avalanclie lies witli tlie State
Government. The Central Gover~ilnentmoves in to assist tlie State Gover~~ment
depending on the seriousness of the situation. The District Administration (the
District Collector) is the nodal functionary on behalf of the State Goverliment and
they can requisition the assistance of the Defence Services sliould the situation
warrant it.
However, there seem to be no government rules as such specifically for landslides

and snow avalanches. When these occur, these are treated as a natural disaster and
dealt with accordingly., Most of the actions lie in short-term relief and
rehabilitation to the affected communities.
1
Landslides and snow avalanches have been receiving considerable attention in

research mode by central agencies such as the Department of Science &
Te4hnology (DST), Central Road Research Institutk, (CRRI), Central Building
Research Institute (CBRI), ~ e b l o ~ i cSurvey
al of India (GSI), the Indian Institutes
of Technology (IlTs), and University of Roorkee. The Snow and Avalanche Study
~stablishment(SASE) of the Defence Research & Development Organization Lmndslides and Snow
Avalanches
(DRDO) specializes in the studies of snow avalanches. These institutes have
prepared zonation maps by integrating ~nultipledata bases such as topographical
data, geological data, remote sensing data, geo-technical investigatioli data,
climatological data and actual occurrence data. Hazard zonation mapping based
on tliis technique of integrated multiple database is used for forecasting arid
forewarning. As already stated in Section 5.2.2 above, SASE is tlie nodal
organization for forecasting of Snow avalanches.
Strict enforcement of existing rules and framing of new rules to stop indiscriminate
quarrying and mining near vulnerable slopes and to stop deforestation in high risk
areas will go a long way to reduce the hazards due to landslides and snow
avalanches. The houses and roads in the vulnerable zones should be built only
according to the prescribed building codes which need to be enforced strictly.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end ofthe Unit.
I ) What are tlie lessons that yoit have learnt fiom tliis Unit?
2) What are the govern~nentrules to deal witli disastcrs due to landslides and
snow avalanches?
3) Can you suggest some specific aspkcts which should b e covered by

government rules in order to reduce the hazards due to lalidslides and snow
avalanches? .
increased Understanding
of Disasters - I1 5.5 LET US SUM UP
This Unit brings out the fact that landslides and snow avalanches arc among the
major disasters that-affect the-mountainous regions of India. The areas prone to
these disasters and the frequency and intensity of these disasters have been
discussed. The kind and magnitude of damage resulting from landslides and snow
avalanches have been described. Possible relief steps and rehabilitation measures
have been indicated. Specific aspects on which strict rules and enforce~nentare
required have been mentioned.
Climatological Data : Data pertaining to climate.

Cribbing Making a bin type retaining wall consistiilg of
interlocking members of steel, concrete or
wooden logs and used to stabilize slopes and to-
protect road cuts in the high hill.
Quarrying Digging or blasting for collecting building stones.
Flash Flood Sudden, but short-lived torrential flood carrying
an i~nlnenseload of solid debris.
Formation zone : Where the avalanche starts; also called starting
zones.
Slump Mass movement involving an actual breaking
away of rocks leaving a fresh mark on a hillside.
Zonation Mapping : Mapping ]nap of identified zones.

Indu Prakash, 1994, Disaster n~anugement,Raslitra Prahari Prakashan, Ghaziabad.
D.S. Upadhyay, 1995, Cold Clinzate Hydron?eteorology, New Age International
(P) Ltd., New Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, Chennai.

EXERCISES
1. Your answer should include tlle following points:
Areas in India particularly vulnerable to landslides are: I-Iimalayas, Eastern
& Western Ghats, Nilgiris.
Areas particularly vulnerable to snow avalanches are: Hi~nalayas
especially tile Western Himalayas in the three States, viz., J&K, H.P. and
Uttaranchal.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
Damage from-snow avalanche depends very much on the kind of the snow
avalanche, e.g., slab type or loose snow type or air-borne type.
Slab type avalanche,smashes everything in its way or airborne o;'loose
snow type covers a very wide area.
Roads suffer the worst damage.
Sonletinles if the avalanche falls in a lake or reservoir or blocks a river of
stream, it can result in a flash flood.
3 Your answer should include the following points. Landslides and Snow
Avalanclres
I o Esselltially, the relief steps comprise the following:
I
- Searcli and rescue

- Medical assistance to the injured
- Disposal of the dead
- Flood and Water
- Emergency shelter for homeless
- Opening access roads and restoration of communication
- Psycl~ologicalcounselling to survivors
- Repair of houses
I - Assistance to restart economic activities
iI - Reco~lstructio~~
Check Uol~rProgress 2
through proper planning
1. Your answer should include the following points:
l o Landslides and snow avala~lchesare serious and frequent.
I . o There are preferred sites where these occur
l These call also give rise to flash floods.
I Yet, relief,steps are possible.
I 2. Your answer should include the following points:
l 0 There are no government rules as such.

Even where there are ~.ules(e.g., to regulate quarrying and mining near
mou~ltai~l
slopes), these are not enforced strictly.
I 3. Your answer sllould include the following points:

o Stringent rules and strict enforcement are required to stop indiscriminate
quarrying, mining, and blasting near unstable slopes of .mountains in
disaster prone areas.
Si~nilarly1:here should be stringent rules and strict enforcement to prevent
deforestation in vulnerable areas.
--
TJNTT 6 FIRE AND F O m S T FIRE

Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Major types of fires in India
6.2.1 Forest Fires
6.2.2 Coal Fires
6.2.3 Gas Fires
6.2.4 Oil Fires
6.2.5 Building Fires
Location, Frequency and Intensity
6.3.1 Damage done
6.3.2 Prevention and Protection
6.3.3 Lessons Learnt
Government Rules
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Answers to Check Your Progress Exel-cises
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
e recognize the seriousness of tlie liazards due to fire and forest fire;
e understand the cliaracteristics associated with fires in forests, coal, oils and
buildings;
appreciate the extent and severity of damage due to such fires and the
methods of fire prevention and protection; and
have a general idea of government rules for precautions against fire hazards.
6.1, INTRODUCTION
In tlie Foundation Course (CDM-01) in tlie Unit 10 of Block 3 dealing with fire
and forest fire, a basic idea was given about the different types of fire hazards
indicating tlie causes and impacts. A number of precautions, wliicli would
prevent tlie occurrence of fires or retard their spread, were also listed.
The occurrence of fires and forest fires s e e m to be on tlie increase and they
cause very considerable damage and liuman misery including death and
disfigurement as also disruption of eco~iomicdevelopment. Therefore, it is
necessary to illcrease our understanding of the phenomena of fires and forest
fires.
4.2 MAJOR TYPES OF FIRES IN INDIA
6.2.1 Forest Fires
The first thing to note is that except in rare cases of lightning strike, forest fires
in India are almost always man-made. Tlie main causes are: smokers throwing
I
'beedi' or cigarette butts, or travellers, shepherds or picnic-makers leaving
I6 behind burning or smouldering embers.
Forest fires seldom occur in rain forests or decicluous broad leaf forests. But all Fire nnd Forest Fire
coniferous forests and even the evergreen broadleaf forests in hot and dry regions
often develop conditions suited for spread of forest fires. Of course, the basic
requirement is that both the air and-the burnirig fuel (grass, bush, fallen leaves,
branches of trees, deadwood) should be dry. Hot sunny days wit11 low humidity
and strong breeze are coriducive to tlie rapid spread of fire in a forest. Many
trees in forests give out oily or wax-like substance, wliicli helps burning and
i~itensificatioliof forest fire.
Once started, forest fires are seen to travel as much as 15 km per hour dowliwind
side while spreading slowly sideways too. Extinguisliing a forest fire is not easy.
Generally forest fire once started, continues until there is heavy rain or tlie burning
, fuel is finished.
In almost all cases, a forest fire starts as a "s~~rface fire" in which dry leaves,
slnall bushes and deadwood lying on the ground in a forest get burnt. Flames
may rise to about one to two metres at tlie most. But if surface fire intensifies,
thiclter buslies and small trees start burning and flanies [nay reach heights of
about five metres. On fu~.tlierintensification, bigger trees start burning and
flames may reach tlie tops of tall trees burning the top portions (the crown) of tall
trees. Sucli vely intense forest fires are called "crown fires" and are extremely
clestructive. Sometimes tlie trunks of big trees explode while burning in such
intense fires.
Burning forests give out considerable amount of smoke, gases and hot air going
upwards. These also carry burning e~iibersup in tlie atmosphere and hurl them
in tlie neighbouring areas upto distances wliicli could even be one or two
kilometers away. . Tliis depends on the strength of prevailing winds. Such
burning embers, thrown out of fiercely burning forest fires are very liazardous as
these can start fresh fires citlier in tlie neiglibouring forest areas or even in the
residential areas or agricultural fields near the forests.
6.2.2 coal Fires
Coal is a cornmon and cheap source of energy and is utilized tlirough the process
of burning. In other words, coal needs to be burnt so that it can be i~tilizedas a
source of energy. But this property of coal niakes it a liazardous substance when
large amounts of coal burn accide~itallyand without much co~itrolon tlie
resulta~itcoal fire. Thus, coal fire can occur either in large stocks of con1 (coal
pits or coal dumps) or in coal mines below the ground surface. Therefore, the
coal mining areas such as those in Billar, West Bengal, Orissa and Madliya
Pradesh a~idAlidhra Pradesh are prone to such disasters.
Coal fires generally get started through negligence or ignition of combustible

gases. Sometimes, soft coal (especially in deep mines or big dumps) gets so hot
due to gases tliat it may itself start a coal fire (without an external source of fire
or ignition) particularly'whe~ithe atmosphere around is very hot and dry. Sucli
occurrences are called "self-ignition".
In many areas of coal mines (e.g., Jliaria in Bihar), there are underground fires
burning in coal mines for decades and travelling along the coal-bearing areas
below the ground. Such instances transmit considerable heat to the ground
surface wliicli often cracks and emits gases and smoke which-heat and pollute tlie
area and make it unfit for-livin g . Thus, coal fires burning inside coal mines
cause, double destruction - firstly by destrqying the coal inside the mine and
secondly by making the area on the ground surface hot, polluted and unfit for
living or econo~iiicactivities.
Increased Understanding 6.2.3 Gas Fires
-
of Disasters If
The increasing use of cooking gas in houses and hotels both in cylinders and
through pipes is indeed a fire hazard. This gas is also used in cars in some cases.
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is being introduced in a big way in public buses.
These gases are mostly supplied in compressed form and-transported by trucks. .
Some industrial gases are also inflammable. All these constitute a ,widespread
fire hazard.
6.2.4 Oil Fires
Inflammable liquids such as kerosene oil, diesel, petrol, spirit, liquor, ghee, other
oils, paints, tar and certain chemicals are prone to fires which can be grouped
together in tlie category of "oil fires". Such liquids catch fire easily through
naked flame or an electric spark. Then they burn on the surface and spread out,
thus spreading tlie flames as well. If the oil is in a container, there could be the
vapours of the oil and these are also inflammable. This could lead to an
explosion in the container. In fact, many such inflammable liquids are also prone
to self-ignition because they undergo oxidation on coming in contact with the
oxygen in the air. Tliis heats tlie liquid. If the temperature rises enough, the
"flash point" is reached when the liquid starts burhing by itself. Therefore, such
hazardous liquids or oils are stored carefully away from residential areas or
crowded places. Further, good air circulation, cooling and ventilation is to be
ensured to avoid the danger of oil fireg. Petrol storage depots, airpdrts, and oil
tankers are,particulal-ly vulnerable sites.
6.2.5 Buiiding Fires
Building-fires are the rn st common among the fire disasters. Increasing

?
pop_ulation, increasing conce~{rationsof population in closely built small Iiouses
--
06 jhuggi-jhoparpattieso r in multi-storeyed buildings in cities, increase tlie fire
hazard. Unnecessary accumulation of co~nbustibleor inflammable articles or
hazardous material add to the danger. Hotels and Cinema houses need special
mention in this context. Lack of water or equipment for fire fighting allows the
fires to burn fiercely. Hot and dry seasons add to the possibility of fires as also
the careless use of electrical equipment, naked wires and loose joints. -, An
electric short-circuit or a spark is often responsible for large-scale fire disasters
tlie like of which are reported every summer from many cities. A large number
of building fires owe their origin to the residents smoking in bed and'falling
asleep while smoking. Accidents in kitchens are also among the major causes of
fire^ in buildings.
I
In their start and further spread, the fires in buildings are as varied as the
buildings tliemselves. For example, buildings can house residential units or ,
apartments, hotels, schools, colleges, hostels, laboratories, business houses, I
industrial establishments and factories, stores and shops. Buildings may be
closely situated in a colony or be independent bunglows or farmhouses with
considerable vacant area around. Buildings could also be multi-storeyed.
Heating syytems and air-conditioning plants, especially in large and-tall multi-
storeyed buildings add to the fire hazard. The air conditioning ducts offer easy
path for fumes, gases and smoke to be conveyed to other parts of the building
quickly and false ceilings of inflammable material add to the hazard. In fact,
choking due to smoke-or-soot is the cause- for the majority of deaths in a fire
incident.
AS indicated above, the electric i~istallationsand the wiring call cause fire in Fire and Forest Fire
buildings when these get heated due to overload. People often do not realize that
putting extra electrical load above tile berlnissib~elimit causes overheating or
breali in the insulation in tlie electrical equipment which can either result,in a
spark or explosion or bum due to overheating.

ii) Check your answers with those given at tlie end of tlie Unit.
I) Wliat are tlie most common causes of tlie start and spread of fires and forest
fires?
2) What are the major types of fires in India?
3) Wliat are tlic basic requirements for spread of forest fires?
4) In forest fires what are termed as "Surface Fire" and "Crown Fire"?
Inct-eased Undel-standing 5) What do you know about ~~nderground
coal fires?
o f Disasters - I1
6) Can there be an oil fire without an outside source o f fire'?
7) How does increasing population in urban areas add to fire hazards in

buildings?
8) What are the ma-iol. causes of start of fire ill buildings?
6.3 LOCATION, FREQUENCY AND INTENSITY
A s regards location, no place is free from the hazards of tire but the risk is more
in congested areas, badly arranged stores, near combustible or i~iflammable
material, badly maintained electric installations, multi-storeyed buildi~igs,coal
mines, forests and in locations with hot atid dry climate over long periods OF
ti~iie. Based on these fundamental considerations, it is easy t o appreciate that
major fire disasters occur i n crowded large cities with multi-storeyed buildings
and large clusters of jhz~ggi~jhoparpc~t~i~z~sand in vulrierable places like coal
mines, illdustrial areas and stores of combustible and inflammable siibsta~ices
and chemicals.
There is no inlierent Freqk~encyin tlie occurrence of fires or forest fires but it is Firc anrl Forest Firc
clear 11iat ignorance, carelessness, negligence, and bad maintenance add very
considerably to tlie possibility of occurrence of fire disasters. Complete or rcliable
data for tlic entire count~yare not available but it has been estimated that about 30
fire incidents occur in 11icliaannually resulting in aboilt 15,000 deailis cvery
year. Thcse tigures appear i~nbelievablebut these are reasonably correct estimates.
In Dcllii, for which reasonably correct ligures arc available, about 400 fire events
arc repurted every year on the average. There are Inore tirc incidents during the
sllmmer months when on tlie average about 30 calls are attended by the Dellii Fire
Service. An estrelne example relates to 17 and 18 June 1997, when tlie number of
lire incidents reported was 53 and 70, respectively.
The intensity of a Fire event clepencls vely largely on the nature and amount of tlie
combustible and inflammable material available for feeding tlie fire. Hot aricl d ~ y
\reather conditions add to the intensity of a fire event. Strong winds fan tlie fire
and make it sprcad rapidly downwind.
6.3.1 Danlage Done

As already mentioned, more i.lian 30 lakli fire and forest fire events of various sizes
occur every year in the country. These result in physical damages runni~iginto
thousands of crores of rupees. It is vely i~nfortunatetliat fire rclated deaths also
run into tliousands per year in the country. Besides, a large number of clomestic
animals are also killed or maimed in iires.
Forest fires destroy very large areas, depleting natural resources, taking a heavy
toll of life especially the wildlife. Forest fires destroy valuable bio-diversity.
6.3.2 Prevention and Protection

Prevention, is better than cure - so goes tlie old saying. In the context of fires also,
prevention is definitely better than protection. But if a fire does happen, protectioll
becomes most important. Protectio~ifrom lire consists essentially ofdeteciion of
tlie tire as early as possible and extinguishing it as soon as practicable. Thus,
safeguarding life ancl properly from fires and forest fires involves three basic
as~ccts,which are: (i) Prevention; (ii) Detection and (iii) Extinguishing.
Prevention
Rcsearcli into causes of fires and forest fires, identifying methods of preventing
different types of iires and devising new techniques o r fire prevention are part of
the specialized s t ~ ~ d i eins different branches of engineering. But now the idea of
absolute fireproofing or complete prevention of fires whetlier it is coal, oil, gas,
buildings or forests, is considered to be impractical because one cannot decongest
the buildings nor stop everybody from careless habits of smoking or burning slnall
fires in or near forests, nor even put a total ball on fireworlts which seem to be a
must during festive occasions like Diwali. Therefore, the present day emphasis is
on creating conditions or designs so tliat hazardous materials wjll be stored safely,
fire sources will be handled carefi~lly,electric equipment maintained properly, and
tittings and fixtures niade of such material that will not catch fire easily or burn
slowly. Ful-tlier, the buildings should be so designed that fires will be isolated in
Illat portion of tlie building where it started and not spread immediately to the
whole building. Finally, periodical inspection and rectification of defects are very
important part of the fire prevention process.
Above all, creating awareness among people is tlie niost important part of fire
prevention. Evely person sliould be made aware of tlie serious risks and dangers to
him or her, the family, the home and the work place from fire hazards. Proper
awareness will enable one to avoid conditions that would start a firc or spread of
Increased Understanding fire. Basically, this means keeping fire source and colnbustible or inflammable
of Disasters - II
material separated and under correct conditions of control. Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) and the media can play a very helpful role in spreading the
awareness among the public. Periodic "fire drills" would also spread such
awareness. Schools could play an important role in creating awareness fro~nthe
early stages.
Detection
Detecting a fire, as early as possible after it starts, is the most crucial step in
protection from fire hazards. The three principal indicators of a fire are: (i) smoke,
(ii) heat, and (iii) flame. The success of early detection of a fire'lies in recognizing
one or more of these indicators of a fire. Detection can be planned through (i) self-
help by every person by being vigilant around him or her, (ii) a system of alert
volunteers for a s1,ecific place like a forest or a coal godown or a crowded place
like circus or a religious or social congregation, and (iii) automatic detectors or
sensors such as heat sensors or flame detectors or smoke detectors in multi-
storeyed buildings, markets, cinema halls, hotels, factories, offices or cotnpitter
centres.
Extinguishing
Once a fire or forest Ijro 114s been detected, immediate action is required to stop it
from spreading and to extinguish it totally. Towns and cities have fire brigades.
But every moment is precious and fire should be tackled immediately till
professional fire fighters arrive on the scene. Where there are no fire services, ihe
citizens have to deal with the fire themselves.
For extinguishing a fire, the basic strategy is to isolate the fire that has started, to
stop it from receiving oxygen by preventing its contact with air atid to cool the area
so that the fire is extinguished.
111 most cases, fires are extinguished by water and/or sand. I11 case of oil fires,
special foam chemicals are used. Electric fires are extinguished, by switching off
electricity and using carbon-di-oxide or halbn gases to extinguish the fire. Forest
fires are exti~lguisliedtnostly by beating the burning bushes with handtools and by
cutting a strip through forest to prevent fire from spreading. In case of fierce forest
iires, huge quantities of water or special chemicals are dumped over burning
forests with the help of specially equipped helicopiers. But SLICII fierce forest fires
generally do not occur in our country. Moreover, this method is very cos'tly.
6.3.3 Lessons Learnt
The most i~nportantlesson to be learnt is that no place is imlnune to fire and every
persoli Ilas to be always alert to the possibility,of a fire hazard. Further, allnost all
fires and forest fires srp nian-~nade. It takes the careless or ~ ~ n w i action
se of one
person to begin a dest~,uctivefire. Therefore, it is the sacred civic d l 1 6of every
citizen to ensure that he or she does not cause a fire or a forest fire to begin or
spread.
Secondly, combustible and inflammable material' should be stored, handled and

trhsportqd safely to avoid the risk of fire.
rrllirdly, all electric equipments and wiring should be maintained properly so that Fire and Forest Fire
the risli of short c i ~ u ior
t spark is avoided.
People passing through or visiting forests should not leave burning or smouldering
embers behind. Smokers should be careful to extinguish cigarette or beedj butts
completely before throwing away. They should never smoke in bed.
Buildings in crowded localities, especially multi-storeyed buildings, should be
properly designed and maintained. The exit routes should not be locked or
otllerwise obstructed and these should be well marked by "signs".
Early detection of a tire is a vely crucial step in fire protection ancl tliis should be
ensured through individual alertness, volunteer system and automatic fire detection
systems.
6.4 GOVERNMENT RULES
Fire prevention and protection often become "State" subjects which means that the
responsibility lies pri~narilywith the State Governments. Therefore, the main rules
for fire prevention and protection are laid in the form of Slate Regulations or
Municipal Bye-laws. Idowever, at the national level, there is the National Building
Code Part IV which deals with fire prevention, protection and guidance by
specifying standards for construction, plumbing, electric installations including
wiring, safety, sanitation, lighting, ventilation, heating and air-conditioning. As
already explained, absolute fire-proofing is not a practical proposition. Therefore,
Building Code presents a compromise between fire safety and cost of construction.
At the initiative of the Delhi Fire Service, the Delhi Administratioh and the
Ministry of I i o ~ n eAffairs of Government of India, the Parliament passed the Fire
Prevention Act 1996 making it essential to provide the minimum prescribed
protection measures for getting buildings certified before these are declared fit for
occupation. In addition to rules by Government, there are also the guidelines from
such organizations as the Loss Prevention Associati011 of India, the Bureau of
Indian Standards, the Institute of Fire Engineers (India), the Central Building
Research Institute, tlie National Safety Council, and Insukance Companies.
However, all the rules apply only in cities and towns wliere there is some kind of
municipal control. There also, the rules are not always adequately enforced and
are flouted more than observed. But for tlie vast rural areas of tlie count~y,fire
prevention and protection depends entirely on the Initiative, alertness and
resourcefi~lnessof the local. individuals and the communitjy. No wonder, we have
such large numbers of fires occurring in our country, year dfter year.
Note: i) Us,e the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1 ) What types of locations have greater risks of fire?

Incl-cased Understanding 2) Wliat are the tliree basic aspects in fire safety?
of Disasters - 11
3) What are the rules governing fire safety?
4) What are the important lessons that you have learnt after studying this unit?
6.5 LET US SUM UP
Fires and forest fires 'are very destructive disasters and are almost always
manmade. While there are distinct features of each fire event depending on the
nature of the burning material (coal, gas, oil, building, forest etc.), location
(crowded area, multi-storeyed building, village, jhuggi cfusters, forests, etc.),
weather conditio~is(hot, dry, strong winds); the colnlnon result is loss of life and
property and misery for the surviving victims. Multi-storeyed buildings, jhuggi
clusters and large congregatio~issuch as marriage and religious gatherings, where
there is abundance of thatched or tented housing and where there is fire kindled for
cooking or fireworks, etc., are specially vulnerable to fires. Electrical short-
circuiting, sparks fsom loose connections, and burning cigarette and beedi pieces
are very cornmon causes of starting fires. Needless to say, fires also pollute the
atmosphere.
Fire safety or fire protection involves tliree important aspects, viz., (i) prevention,
(ii) detection and (iii) extinguishing. Public awareness of what to do before fire,
during fire and after fire is of critical importance. Municipalities and Government
Departments make Bye-laws and Building Codes to guard against fires. But vast
rural areas are not covered by these rules.
- - - - -
Fire ant1 Forest Fire
6.6 KEYWORDS
Rain Forests Dense forests created by a climate of heavy rains.
Coliiferotls Mountain area tree which bears cones sucli as
pine tree. .
Deciduous Those plants and trees that shed their leaves
annually and thus collecl a lot of dry leaves on
tlie1groundcreating a fire hazard.
Evergreen Always green; trees having green leaves, all tlie
year round. Such trees also shed their leaves but
only after new leaves have appeared. Therefore,
sucli trees also, in cl~y climates, produce dry
leaves wliicli can burti.
Humidity Dampness; Amoiuit of moisture in the air.
'Embers Burning or smouldering pieces of coal, wood etc.
J11 uggi-tjlioparpatties : Clusters (large groups) of huts, tempora~y
shelters built from wooden planlts, thatched
roofs, plastic sheets etc. all of wliich are
combustible.
Builtling Code Rules by wliicli local autliorities control l.lle
construction or alteration of builclings.
Bye-laws Rules made by municipal autllorities.
Media Through wliicli information can be conveyed to
tlie public. For example, newspapers, magazines.
radio, television.
Made of hay or straw.
Indu Pral<ash, 1994, Disuster M~incg~.m~ent,

Raslitra Praliari, Pral<aslian,Gliazinbad
(U.P.)
W.L. Waugli Jr. and R.J. Hy (Editors) 1990, licn~clhook of Emergency
Greenwood Press, New York, NY, USA
A4~rn~7gcmenf,
A.E. ,Cote and J.L. Linville 1986, Fire Protection Hundhook, lvational Fire
Protection Association. Quincy. MA, USA

EXERCISES
I ) Your answer should include the followillg points:

Human negligence or human indifference
Strot~gwinds
Dryness (low humidity)
Coal Fire
; OilFire
l~rcrersetlUnclerstaoding Gas fire
- I1
o f Disasters
Building Fire
a Forest Fire

* Dly fuel (leaves, grass, bush branches of trees)
Dry weather
a Strong breeze
4) Y O Lanswer
I~ should include the following points:
0 Surface Fire: when dry grass, leaves, deadwood and small bushes burn.
o Crown Fire: when, on intensification, forest fire starts burning the tops of
tall trees.

e These burn inside coal mines and spread inside over large areas
e These burn for decades
a These generate intense heat even on ground surface which cracks thereby
emitting gases and smoke
a On one hand coal is destroyed inside the underground coal deposits while
on the other it becomes unfit to live or have economic activities on the
ground sulaface.
6) Your answer should includc the following points:

Yes, through self-ignition

r Closely built houses
* Multi-storeyed buildings
a Jhziggi Jhopc~rpatties
* Accumulation of combustible and inflammable niaterial
a Bacl electric connection or electric equipment
e Smoking in bed and throwing burning cigarette or beedi carelessly
I
e I<itchen accidents
e Use of combustible and inflammable ~natesialin fi~rnishingand decoration
e Storage of hazardous cliernicals without adequate safety.
Check Your PI-ogress 2

* Coligested areas
* Badly arranged stores
* Electric equipment not maintained properly
* Multi-storeyed buildings
Jhz~ggi-jhoparpatticlusters
1
26
--
e Coal mines Fire and Forest Fire
0 Oil Storage areas

Forest
/ 2) Your answer sliould inclede tlie following points:

i 4 Prevention
e Detection
a Extinguishing
3 ) Your answer should include tlie following points:

e Municipal Rye-laws
e Building Codes
t,
e Fire Prevention Act
e Guidelines from organisations such as Loss Prevcntion Association of
India, Burcau of Indian Standards, Institute of Fire Engineers (India),
Natiolial Safety Council, Insurance Companies.
4) Your answer sliould include tlie following points:

e Allnost all fires and forest tires are lnanlnade
a While it is allnost impossible to ensure totsll prevention of fires and forest
tires or to make absolute fire-proofing of buildings, preventive precautions
can help in reducing the occurrence of fires and forest fires uid also reduce
tlie damage to life and property when fires occur.
0 Multi-storeyed buildings and crowded places like hotels and cinema halls
should be properly designed.
0 Electrical equip~ne~it
should be well maintained
e Early detection of fire and forest fire helps.
o Rules and gi~idelines pertaining to construction of buildings and fire
prevention should be strict.ly followed.
UNIT 7 INDUSTRIAL AND
TECHNOLOGICAL DISASTERS
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Special Features of Industrial and Technological Disasters
Tlie Industrial Hazards
7.3.1 The Chemical I-Iazilrds
7.3.2 The Nuclcar tlazards
Transportation Accidents
Industrial Disasters: A Case Study of Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster
Chemical and Biological Warfare Disasters
7.6. l Chemical WarFdrell'errorist threat
7.6.7 Biological Warfilre/'l'errorisl tlircat
7.6.3 Nuclear Warlhrell'errorist Threat
7.6.4 [nstitutibnal Arrangcmenls
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
References and Fultlier Readings
Answers to Check Your Prog~xssExercises
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After studyi~igthis ~ ~ ~YOLI

i i t should
, be able to :
e understand tlie subtle difference belween industrial and technological

disasters;
a learn about tlie types of industrial and technological disasters and their
special features;
highlight the case of Bhopal Gas Leal<disaster; and
discuss chemical and biological warfare disasters.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Tlie industrial and tecli~~ologicalhazards do not have a very well defined

definition. In general, both these types are tlie result from accident, failure,
mishap or misuse of some kind of technology. Tlie disaster may be brought
about by causes like leakage, spills, radiation fallout, explosions and fires,
structural failure and transportation mishaps. All the teclinological innovations
have certain amount of risks and very well defined benefits, as the use of the
available technologies in appropriate manner make life easier and elljoyable. For
example, the transporlatio~~ sector is serving the manlcind in a big way thro~~gh
co~nfortableand short duration journeys for long dista~ices;at the same time the
accidents involved in this sector cannot be ruled out. The major reason behind
the large number of accidents is either machine fault or tlie failure of human
beings in one form or the other. The case is alniost similar with all disasters
involving usage of technology which is getting more and more complex.
However, for the sake of convenience in study, industrial'hazards'coverthe on-

side and off-side disasters emanating from large installations or u~idertakings.
All other hazardous events occurring at public places or private premises while
using or transporting technical devices or rnetl~odology are grouped as
technological disasters.
Industrial and
7.2 SPECIAL FEATURES OF INDUSTRIAL AND Technological Disasters
TECHNOLOGICAL DISASTERS
~nclustrialand technological disasters are characterised by tlie followilig special

features:
Pretlictability: I~idustrialand technological disasters have no predictability as such

because ol"the inherent nature of tlic causes indicated under introduction above. In
case of tlie machines and equipment, there is a concept or "mean time between
Sailul.es (MTBF)" but it is not necessary tliat evely mechanical or eq~~ipnnent
failure will lead to a disaster. In fact, the technological and industrial systems are
designed to slni~toft' partially or totally once there is a sub-system Sailure. In major
industries or technological installations, there are more than onc safety systems.
But disasters do occur due to a combination of technical circumstances or due to
human fatigue or I'ailure. In any case, there is no usable concept of predictability
in industrial and tecli~iologicaldisasters.
C:ontrilrtutory Factors: Most of the industrial and technological disasters are

;~ttribi~tableto Iii~ma~i
error (due to erroneous judgmcnt or operator fatigue or
negligence in operation andlor maintenance) or due to system failure (malfiunction
of cquipmcnt or macliine or structural railure). 'I'he probability of their occurrence
is not prdictablc as explained above. However, there are factors tliat aggravate
tlie chance of occurrence.
'I'liese arc:
* Laclc of proper mainte~ianccof the installations

Lack of adequntc training oi'opcrational and maintena~icestafS
* Lack orawarcncss of the serious consequences of negligence
* Lack ol' safety rehearsals
e Deactivation of safety systc~nisfor repair or niaintenance without alternate

safety cover
Sstbotagc :i-om williin or outside
I-lence cternal vigilarice is tlie key to reduce the chances ~Foccurrenceof industrial
a~icltcclnnological disasters.
Typical Adverse Effects
Industrial and technological disasters lead to adverse effects that are typically
spread over a smaller area as compared to natural disasters but tlie resultant human
mise~yand econo~nicloss are sonleti~nesmore colossal and cruel. The common
adverse effec~sare:
(i) Physical damage which may extend to neighbouring areas

(ii) Large number of casualties involving deaths and serious illjuries requiring
urgent medical attention on a large scale
(iii)Trapped persons requiring special techniques and equipment for retrieval and
treatment
(iv) Environmental degradation of air; water and land which sometimes may take
years to be rectified and may therefore, necessitate relocation of the population
(v) Loss of employmelit of not only the involved persons but also of the affected
area at large.
increased Urltlersta~itlir~g Immediate Post-disaster Iiequirrments
o f Disasters - I l
Induslrial and technological disasters occur wilhout any notice and tlie disaster
management systcm has to be bsoi~glit into action as early as practicable.
Therefore, the first and forornost requirement is that tlie incident should be brougllt
to tlic notice oftlie local ant1 distsict autlio~.itles(Civil and Police) immediately by
the fastest communication mctliods available Simultaneously, fire fighting has to
comnicnce beca~~se most of tlic industrial and tcclinological disasters result in fire.
Iiowever, tliese being different fio~nnor~nalliouseliold or building fires, need
special equipment and fire-retardant material depending on tlie causes and nature
of tlie fire. In most cases of Fircs resi~ltingfrom industrial and teclinological
clisastcss, ~ l fire
~ epersonnel need to wear. spocial protective gear and masks.
Search and rescue, medical attenlion inclutling trauma care and evacuation become
essential immediately.
Industrial and teclinological disaslcrs need a thorougli clcan up mission to retrieve

and salvage as much as possible and to arrest tlie spread of adverse environmental
effects.
7.3 THE INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS
'I'lie accidents in various types of industries like manufacturing, power

production 'etc, and in storage and transportation of various liazardous materials
used in tliese industries fall under tliis category. Tlie risk involved under this
category is deiined as tlie chances of deal11 or illjury per person per number of
hours exposed.
Tlie major disaster threats have emerged in the chemical and nuclear industries.
Tlie manufactu~~ing,processing, transpol-tation, distribution/storage and tlie
application/use of many products of tliese two aseas are hazardous. Tlie
.following paragraphs highlight some aspects under these two major groups.
7.3.1 The Chemical Hazards
The chemical industry is massive tlirougliout the globe, n~anufactusinga liuge

quantity of che~nicalsannually. At present four and a half million clie~nicalsare
registered with the 'Chemical Abstracts', and thousands of new clie~-\~icals are
created every year. Tlie creation of new chemicals becomes imminent for higher
standards of every day life. Tlie advances in tliis particular industry are due to
substantial demand. In our country, tlie cliemical industry is about US$20
billion-a-year industry. Tlie chemical industry faces multiple risks involved with
production, tra~isportation, storage, usage and disposing off tlie effluents
containing residual cliemicals.
Tlie studies conducted on tlie clieniical disasters' show that tlie incidence of
clie~nicalemergencies and disasters are on increase throughout tlie world. Even
tlie risks involved within tliese types of industries are liiglier due to the
i~ivolvementof larger anlounts of materials involved. For example, the tonnage
carrying capacity of the sea going petrocl~emicaltankers increased seven times
during tlie period 1960-1980. Similarly, trucks carrying chemicals, evcn
petrochemicals, have increased along with tlie liiglier carrying capacity. Tlii~s,
tlie risk involved in tlie increased capacity is autoniatically liighcr.
From tlie tecli~iologicalhazards points of view, 1984 was tlie worst year, where
three major disasters took place in the world. I n these three disasters, about
3,500 people died. These disasters were:
i) Bhopal (India,2/3.12,84) - more than 2000 deaths, 34,000 eye infections, lntlustrial and
2,00,000 people left the city. Release of toxic gas from the factoly in tlle urbari Tccli~~ological
Disasters
area. The Bhopal disaster have been discussed in the Section 7.5 in detail.
ii) Mexico City (Mexico, 19.11.84) - 452 deaths, 31,000 homeless and 3,00,000
evacuated from the site. LPG explosions in a high density residential area
near the industrial site.
iii) Cubatao (Brazil, 25.2.84) - 500 deaths in the petroleum spillage ancl fire in
an illegally built town near tlie industrial site.
7.3.2 The Nuclear Hszarcls
The nuclear power ind~istrywas developed bccause initially, it seemed to offer a

relatively dependable and inexpensive source of energy. The history of nuclear
industrial development is about half a century old. After a few accide~itsin this
industry lilte Chernobyl (former USSR), the industry is being considered as a
major hazardous one. Majority of developing countries including India are using
n~~clear power increasingly to get rid of contin~~ously
increasing need of imported
sources of energy. According to the 1nter.national Ato~nic Energy Agency
(IAEA), developing country's present share of world's installed nuclear power
plants is about 7.0%. A total of 21 developing countries either have nuclear
power plants in operation or have tlie plants i n construction or plaiining stage.
This number will be increasing in fi~ture.As per the estimates of IAEA, nuclear
energy production is growing at an average of 2.8 to 3.9 percent per year
worldwide i? the periocl of 1989-2005.
Besicles, tlie in-plant 'nilclear plant' problems, risks are associated with tlie
transportation and disposal of nuclear wastes over lolig distances including other
increasing byproducts of the nuclear plant processes.
7.4 TRANSPORTATION ACCIDENTS
As mentioned in the preceding section, transportation is very niuc11 i~ivolveclin

industrial and technological activity. l'herefore, transportation accidents
constitute a special category of industrial and technological disasters, Tlie
accidents in various modes of transport like roadways, airways, railways and
seaways fall iinder this category. . The risk involved under this category is
defined as the cl~al~ces
of death, or injury per kilometer travelled.
Tlie piiblic transport systems in present tilnes are ~nuclisafer in conipariso~~ to

few decades ago. The innovation in tlie safety systems have reduced the clia~ices
of occurrences of disasters considerably. With all available sources, tlie number
of deaths in the 11-ansportationsector are on the rise due to increased number of
Lravellers and enhanced travelling distances. Tlie nobility at present is very high
due to increased businesses and higher toirrist activities tlirougliout tlie globe.
The transport related risk is also high due to higher occupancy of the vehicles
used for travelling by air, rail or road ways. Even a majority oT passenger
vehicles have large capacity to acco~nmodatetlie large n~~tnber of passengers.
Tllus any accident results in inore deaths or ilijuries. One example of this type of
disaster is tlie mid air collision over Charkhi Dadri near Dellii in
November, 1 996.
Mid-air Collision betwechiSaudi-~azakhAeroplanes:
On November 12, 1996 around 6.40 P.M. two planes owned by ICazak11
Airlines(KZA 1907) and Saudi Airways (SVA 763) collided in tlie air near
Charkl~Dadri, 80 Knl north-west of el hi. The following is the fact sheet of the '
disqter: -
Increased Underst;rnding o Collision height - about 5000 metres above mean sea
of Disasters - II
level.
e Average speed at itlipact - 500 km, per hour
e Total people ltilled - 351 (3 12 on board the Saudi Airways
Boeilig 747 and 39 in tlie Icazakh
Airlines IL-76)
o Radius of debris - about five kilometre
Separation between the debris - about seven kilometres bctween the two
planes
c Approximate weight - about 500 tonnes o f the wreckage
Tlie clironology of tlie events leading to the disaster call be summarised a s .

following:
e Saudi Airlines fliglit took off from the Indira Galidhi International Airport at
Delhi at 6:33 P.M. for Dahran and Jeddali, with 3 12 persons on board. Tlie
Air Traffic Controller at Dellii airport tells tlie pilot to climb to a height of
14000 ft. and standby.
a At the satlie time, a Kazakh Airlines plane coming to New Dellii witli 39
persons on board is cleared to descend to 15,000 ft. by tlie Air Traffic
Controller.
o Both tlie pilots confirmed the stipulated heights as given by tlie Air Traffic
Controller . Within a minute, the radar in tlie control room liad two blips on
screen, indicating two planes approaching each other and merge witli each
other. Tlie blips disappeared from tlie screen just after merger.
A US plane saw the bright glow in tlie sky and two fire balls falling down to
the ground.
0 As the debris was spread over five I<m radius area, without proper road
connection, it took about 2 hours by tlie local authorities, to reach the debris
site.
Tlie local people started tlie rescue and search operation immediately after tlie
disaster.
0 There was'no survivor.
o Tlie cause was faulty equipment in aircrafl and pilot error.
Note: i) Use the space given below for your alrswers.

ii) Clieclt your answers witli tliose give11at tlie end o f the Unit.
1) What do you understand by industrial and tcclinological disasters?
27
"&
'
2 ) What are the various types of industrial Ilazards? I~ldustrialand
Tesl~nologicrlDisasters
- -- - -
--
j) Describe any disaster related to transpo~lationsector.
7.5 INDUSTRIAL DISASTERS: A CASE STUDY OF

BHOPAL GAS LEAK DISASTER
One of the most disastrous events since the history of chemical industry occurred
in Bllopal, the capital city of Madhya Pradesh, on the night of Deceniber 02,
1984. in the factory of Union Carbide of India Ltd. (UCIL) due to lealtage of
Methyl Iso Cynate (MIC) gas. UCIL, a subsidiary of the multi national company
Union Carbide Corporation (USA) was in the business of manufactul-ing
pgricultural pesticides among other things. MIC was required in these
rnanuFacturing activities and was therefore, man~rFdcturedand stored at the UCIL
plant in Bhopal.
C.'iiaracteristicsof MlC
NllC has very special characteristics which make the chemical very hazardous.
Some of die properties of the MIC are:
* It is extremely volatile and vaporises very easily

It can boil at a tempet+atureof 38degrees C, so it is very important to be kept
cool.
* It is chemically very active and reacts violently with water.
It is highly toxic, it is about 100 times lethal than cyanide gas,
* It is heavier than atmospheric air, it stays near the ground after release.
Tlie Disaster
Iluring the night of December 2-3, 1984, about 45 tonnes of MIC (Methyl ISo
Cynate) gas leaked from the UCIL (Union Carbide of India Ltd.) plant at Bhopal.
MIC was stored in the underground tanks, which became contaminated with
dater. The contamination produced chemical reaction, followed by a rise in gas
pressure and a subsequent leak. Tlie chronology of the events leading to one of
the most disastrous events in the history of chemic(zl industry is as follows:
I l~cl.easeclUnderstnntli~ig Chrorlology of the Event
of Disasters - I I
Decenlber 2, 1984, was a routine day at the UCIL factory in Bhopal
c MIC was stored in an ~~ndergroilnd tank. The pipeline washing starter1 at
9:30 p.m. as a routine maintenance operation
e Retween 10:30 - 1I:OO p.m. : workers engaged in pipcline washing became
aware of a leak. Little attention was however paid considering it a normal
leak. A casiral attempt was made to trace the source of leakage, but of no
use. The leak continued.
c Around 12:15 - 12:30 a.m.: The pressure in the MIC tank -I..,, ~ p t o55
pounds per square inch (which was the maxim~~rn cne gauge c o ~ ~ lread).
d
The temperature had also shot up to 2DO degree C and was increasing. An
operator saw that the co~~crete above the tank was cracking. About 12:30
a.m., the relief valve of tlie tank gave away arid large quantities of MIC gas
leaked into the at~nosphere.
r The workess at the factory realised the risk of a massive disaster. 'They tried
to activate tlie safety systems available at the factory at about 12:30 a.m.
The three safety systems available within the factory arid tlieir condition at
that time were as under:
r Turning on the flare tower to burn off toxic gas. This system was not in
working condition as a piece of pipelinc Icading to the tower had been
removed for maintenance.
r Using the vent gas scrubber, whicli was considered 1:he main line of defence.
It was also not in an operational condition.
Transferring the MIC from the tank into a nearby spare tank. 'I'lle gauge of
the spare tank indicated that the tank already contained something. This ,
gauge indicator was found defective, later on.
After failure in all the three safety systems, tlie worl<ers atteriipted to douse the
leaking gas with water spray. Tlie water spray reached a height of 100 ft. from
the ground, while the leak was at 120 ft. above tlie ground. At 1 .OO a.m.,
realising that nothing coirld be done to stop the leak, the workers at the plant fled.
c At about 1 .OO a.m. tliousands of people living around tlie plant were
awakened by the suffocating, burning effects of the gas. As on three sides,
tlie UCII, plant was surrounded by slums and other poor settlements, the
people living in these colonies were the worst sufferers.
e There was no warning or guidance to the general public around this time.
There were two types of alarms in the factory, one mild siren for workers and
one loiid pi~blicsiren. Tlie public siren was started only at about 2:30 a.m.
Aboi~t2.00 a.m., a large number of people were rushing out of tlie town
through the liigl~waysleaving Bhopal. The Inad rush on the main roads of
the city resulted in stampedes. About two lal<li people hacl f e d the city by
3:30 a.m.. The gas cloitds dissipated around 3:30 a.m..
e By 4:00 a.m. hospitals were crowded with suffering people.
In the wake of the tragic disaster, a large number of people lost tlieir lives and
received illjuries, many to tlieir lungs and eyes. ~ c c o i d i n gto the Government
reports, 1754 persons had died and 200,000 wcre injured.
Removal of dead bodies of livestock
The real problem was the removal of dead bodies of livestock, which was still
littered on the streets and houses of tlie affected areas. About 20 dumpers and six
cranes were pressed into service to remove 790 buffaloes, 270 cows, 483 goats, lndustrinl and
90 dogs and 23 horses. During the burying operation or dead bodies, adequate Technologic~lDisasters
care was talien to check tlic spread of epidemic.
Emergency Response and Relief Operations
~ h reparation
c for coping with a major accident of ~~nprecedented dimensions
affecting the surrounding communities like this one was minimal. After the
event thc immecliate response was chaotic and inadequate. I~iTormation
regarding the gas release was late and incomplete. The police and medical
services were unaware initially that there had been a release oTMIC gas. No one
knew about tlie adverse erfects of tlie gas release and tlie treatment methods of
[lie affected persons.
For the relief purposes of tlie affected persons a relief commission was createcl
directly ~ ~ n dthe
e r Chief Minister. Two additional collectors were made incliarge
of relief and rehabilitation respectively. Tlie main duties of the additional
collectors included tlie proper field work coordination and to ensure the
implementation of administrative directives. Various gas affected localities were
divided into seven administrative zones. Each mne'was under tlie administrative
control of a deputy collector.
Tlie ncxt of liin ofthe dead persons were paid immediate ex-gratia compensation
of Rs. 10,000. The poor fsl~nilicsin the gas affected wards were paid an cx-
gratia of Rs.1500. Wheat and rice were distributed free in tlie affected local'ities.
The local administration faced problc~ns in the absence of reliable socio-
economic surveys which made tlie identification of poor families very difficult.
The gas relief commission and the state department of industry lau~iclied
scliemes to provide alternative employment for the affected people.

ii) Check Y O L Ianswers
~ with those given at the end of the Unit.
1) Write a note on Methyl Iso cyanate.
2) Explain in detail the Bhopal gas leak disaster.

Incressctl Ur~cIcrctantIing 3) Explain tlie variol~srelief measurcs taken LIP by the administration after the
of Disasters - 11 Bhopal gas leak disaster.
~ . ~ - C N E M ~ CAND
A L BIOLOGICAL WARFARE
DISASTERS
The threat of chcmical and biological warfare has been tallced about frequently in
the past years but thc likelihood of sucli occurrence lias assurned serious concern in
the emerging terrorism dominatecl cnviro~iment. Such tactics have been rightly
given the name of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD).
Cheniicals, in the f o m of poisons, liave been used as agents of hal-m since times
immemorial. These assume disastrous proportions when used for large scale or
mass killings. Such situations can arise either inadvertently, or thro~tgliignorance
or in a criminally planned manner. Inadvertent use of poisonous substances - by
children in many cases or mixing of toxic clietnicals or poisons in country liquor,
are well known examples. In tilncs of strifc, tlicre are threats of poisoning the
water supply of entire tow11or city and hence special vigilance is to be maintained
around water works atid water tanks in case of actual or perceived threats of this
type-
ii) Toxic Gases
Quick acting, toxic gases have been envisaged as the tileans of ilnniobilizing or
killing large segments of pop~~latio~l and are reported to have been ~nanufactured
and stored by many countries during wars or war like situations although it is not
very clear if these were used as Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) so far. The
chemicals, in the form of gases, that havc bee11usually talkecl about in this context
are the following:
(a) Nerve Gases are basically highly toxic insecticides and act by inhibiting
important enzyme activity in human body, These are generally the colnpounds
of fluorophosphoric acids with alcohol and known as esters. In a well repotted
case, the A u ~ nShinri Kyo cult in Japan released Sarin nerve gas in Tokyo
subway in 1995. It resulted in the death of 12 persons and many more had to
receive medical treatlnent for extended periods.
(b) Pllosgene is the name given to carbonyl chloride and is a poisonous gas used in
certain chemical and dyestuff manufacturing processes. It acts on human body
by danlaging the lungs quiclcly.
(c) Hydrogen Cyanide interferes with the transfer o r oxygen from the blood to the
li~lrnalitissue. This was the killer agent in the BI~opalgas tragedy of 1984
, when the Methyl Iso Cyanate gas in contact with the moisture in human eyes,
nose and lungs generated hydrogen cyanide which blocked the supply of
oxygen to tliese organs and blinded and killed thousands. That was a clieniicaI Industrinl a11c1
accident but a siniilar sccnario of a chemical disaster can be created by a Technological Disasters
terrorist 01'enemy agent.
id) Muslartl gas is also called yperite and is clicmically identiliecl as

dicliloroclielhyl sulpliide. I t lias a faint odour of garlic. It causes co~ijunctiviti~
in tlie eyes leading la blindness and creates very painfill bliste1.s on tlie skin.
Relcase of a poisonous gas at siligle point or even a m~~ltipoint ground based

release may aSfect only thc people in tlie vicinity or tlie down wind communities.
I-lowevcr. aerial spray li-om low flying vehicles such as helicopters or crop-
.;praying light aircraft is a Inore dangerous proposition.
~f peoplc can gct nw:ly cluickly or otlier\vise limit cxposurc to tlic poisonous gas
a ~ ~cand seccivc p r o ~ n ~ medical
~t attention. chances oS survival with manageable
in.jusies will he quite high. But this will depcnd ~ l p o the~ i ability of the medical
l~crsonnelto con.cctly identiSy tlic toxic gas liom the first symptonis on the victi~ns
antl tlie availability of antidote medicine in tlic required cluantity.
Tlie All Ilitlia Instit~rteor Mcdial Sciences in Ncw rlcllii lias established tlie
National I'oisons Inforniation Centre in its prcriiises to collect and tlisse~iiinate
inforn1:ltion about difl'ercnt poisonous substa~iccs.
7.6.2 Biological Warfare / Terrot-ist threat
I n tlie contest of biological disasters, menlion is often niatle of botulism, small

pox, Venezuclan E q ~ ~ i En~cplialitis
~ic (VEE) and a~itli~.ax; tlie last onc being tlie
one that has rccently collie into great prominence bccause determined efforts
appear to liave been madc to LISC it as n weapon of harming targeted individuals
~ g l ilias been no evidencc of its use as
and terrorizing tlie gcneral p ~ ~ b lii~c l t l i ~ ~there
a weapon or mass destruction.
(a) Botulism is perhaps tlic most Ictlial bicllogical agent. It is made by a bacteriuni
ancl sprcads tlirougli co~itanii~iated air, foocl or wntcr. Death occurs within-24
hours clue to paralysis of breathing muscles. Antibiotic treatment, to be
erfectivc, niust st:lrt I d o r e sy~iil~to~iis
ap~xa~'.
(b) Small Pox: Evcn tliougli small pox as a disease lins been eradicated fro111the
world, tlic V ~ ~ L has
I S been prcsel-vcd in a few reputed laboratories and is kept
~ ~ n d liigli
e r security. 'I'lie Sear is that if it colncs in tlie Iiands of a terrorist
organization, it may be releasecl tli~~ougli aerosol spray. The problem is that
there is no effective d r ~ ~t~.eat~~icnt
g and vaccinatio~iprogramliies liave long
been stopped.
(c) Venezuclan Equine Encephalitis (VEE) is fatal among humans and there is no
I<~iown
cure so far. It lcills tlirougli inflammation of brain tissues.
S
id) Antlirax is caused by tlie spore forniing tlie bacterium Bacillus Anthracis and
is really a disease associated with herbivorous animals. Thc disease occurs
naturally in arcas where people raise livestock. H~~nians contract the disease
tlirougli cuts in tlie skin or by breathing in anthrax spores or by eating antlirax-
infected meat. If anthrax spores are collected in a concentrated form and
spread in tlie atmosphere on a large scale quietly, as a colourless odourless and
invisible spray, it can certainly turn into a biological disaster because it spreads
rapidly when it is inhaled into the lungs. At that stage, it is difficult to control
altliougll alltibiotic treatment of antlirax is available. Tlie problem here also is
that tlie antibiotic treatment must stai-t before tlie development oFsy~iiptomsof
fever and cough, otl~erwisethe mortality rate is almost 90%.
7.6.3 Nuclear Warfaremerrorist Threat
Even tl~oughInany countries possess nuclear at.senal, yet on a realistic assessment
it is sensible to tliinlc that these may never be used as lias been seem for over a half
ccntuly that such lethal weapons liave been in existence. But the possibility,
always remains of some terrorist organizations ~nakinga crude device. Noting tlle
complcxities of design and ~nanufactureand the need for a long distance delivery
system, the use of a nuclear device by terrorists would perhaps be a remote
possibility. Even if it takes place, the incident would not posc problems inore
colnplex than those associated with a technological accident in a nuclear power
plant. which we liave ci iscussed earlier.
7.6.4 Institutional Arrangements

A Nuclear Biological and Cliernical (NBC) Warfare Girectorate has been set up by
the Defence Services. An inter-services coordination committee monitors tlie
activities.
Thc Defence Research and Developlnent Establislilnent (DRDE) of the Defence

Research and Development Organization (DRDO) is the premier establish~nentfor
studies it1 toxicology and bioclieliiical pharmacology and development of anti-
bodies against bacterial and viral agents.
7.7 LET US SUM UP

This Unit brings out the fact that industrial and technological disasters result from
accident, failures, ~nisliapor misuse of some kind of technology. The disaster may
be brought out by tlie agents like technical spills, radiations fallout, explosions and
fires, structural failure and transpol-tation misliaps. Special feat~~res of industrial
and technological disasters have been discussed in some detail. A case of Bhopal
Gas leak disaster has been presented. Finally, cliemical and biological warfare
disasters have bee11discussecl.
7.8 KEY WORDS
Bacterium : Mici.oscopic or even smaller single-called organisms

occurring in enormous nu~i~bers every where in
nature in air, water, land, sea, plants and animals.
They can start clie~nicalchanges including disease
and decay.
Hazardous Industry : An industry using raw materials \vliich by
themselves, produce sucll products which could lead
to massive disasters and heavy loss.
Spores : Minute reproductive bodies produced by plants or
animal cells.
Herbivorous : Animals that feed on plants and vegetation.
Toxic Leak : Unco~ltrolled leakage and eventual spread of a
liazardous gas, e.g., Ammonia, Chlorine, and other
more toxic gases which call be fatal and can cause
asphyxiation, i.e., difficulty is normal breathing.
Some of the gases - like the Methyl Iso Cyanale in
Bhopal Gas Tragedy can leave far reaching
disabilities among shrvivors.
38 Trauma : Sudden shock either physical or meiita! or both.
- - - --
7.9 REFERENCES AND FLTISTFHESW READINGS Industrial and
Technological I~isasters
Green, Stephen, 1980, Irllernalional Disu.sfer Reliqfi Towards A Respo~~sh,e

Syslenz, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York.
ROSS,Simon, 1 987, Hc~zar.~J
Geography, Longman, U.K.
Sliarma, Vinod I(., 1994, Disaster hfllnugenlcn~,Indian Institute of Public
, Administration, New Dcllii.
Smith, Keith. 1996, Envirw~w~e~rltrl
Hazards, (School Edition), Assessing Risk
and Reducing Disaster, Routledge, London.

EXERCISES
Clleck Your Progress 1
I ) Your answer slio~~ld

include tlie following points:
r There is only a si~btledifference between industrial and technological
disasters.
e While almost all inclilstl-ial disasters are also teclinological disasters, all
technological disasters are not industrial, e.g., transportation accidents.
o Industrial disasters have on-site and off-site aspects.
2) Yoi~ranswer sliould i~lcli~de

the following points:
0 Chemical hazards
Nuclear liazards
3) Your answer sliou Id include the following points:

A major transportation disaster occurred near Dellii in November 1996
when two aircrails collided in mid air about 80 km from airport.
One aircraft was ascending while the other was descending.
There was no survivor and all the 351 persons on board tlie two aircraft
perished.
The cause was faulty equipment in aircraft and pilot error.
1) Yoiir answer should incli~detlie following points:

MIC is very volatile
It boils at 3 8" C and has to be kept cool
It reacts with water violently
It is highly toxic-~nuclimore lethal than cyanide
0 It is heavier than air and spreads near ground surface;
2) Your answer sliould include tlie following points:

It occurred on the night of December 2, 1984
All three safety systems were either inoperative or did not work
Gas leaked and spread around
There were populated areas on three sides of the factory
Nobody seemed to know the defensive methods against the gas
1754 persons dead and 2,00;000 were injured.
lrlcrcased Understanding 3) Your answer should include the following points:
of Disasters - 11
* Affected persons were treated in hospitals
Next of kin of dead were paid Rs. 10,000/-
Poor families were paid Rs. 15001- per family for immediate expenditure -
a Dead bodies of cattle were buried to avoid epidemics

e Ernploy~ilentschemes were launched for surviving persons.
-
LTNIT 8 EPIDEMICS
Structure
0b.jectives
Introduction
Major Epidemics in India
8.2.1 'I'he Si~rat(Ciujarat) Plagiie Epidemic - 1994
-
8.2 :! Dcnguc Epidcmic ill Delhi 1996
1,essons Learnt
8.3 I P l a p ~ ~ e
8.3.2 Dcngilc 1:evcl.
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
8.0 OBJECTIVES
Afcr going through tliis Unit you should be able to:
o explain an epidemic situation ,
identitj/ the causes for occurrence of epidemics; and

list tlie steps involved in the control of epidemics
8.1 INTRODUCTION
You have alrcady Icarnt in tlie earlier unit on epideniics (Unit 12, Block 3, CDM-
01) about its meaning, causation and tlie control measures for preventing
epidemics. In tliis unit, we shall describe two epidemic situations in tlie recent
past, wliicli liave been in the national and inter~~ational ~ncdiaheadlines. You
will also learn about tlie magnitude and causative factors of these epidemic
situations. Towards tlie end of iliis unit, the lessons learnt from these particular
situations will be liigliliglited.
:8.2 MAJOR EPIDEMICS IN INDIA

India is endemic to Inany diseases such as Malaria, Kala-azar, Cholera,
Tuberculosis. These erupt in epidemic form when conditions are favourable for
their spread. Epidemics are disasters by tliemselves but these call emerge in tlie
aftermath of other disasters as well.
In the recent past, two epidemics, viz., plague and dengue inflicted tlie Indian
population very badly at Surat and Delhi, respectively. I-lowever, these occurred
by tlie~nselvesand were not tlie result of any other natural disaster.
8.2.1 The Surat (Gujarat) Plague Epidemic - 1994

Plagt~eis a disease known to mankind from ancient times. Indin lias undoubtedly
a long history, which is replete with plague epidemics and havoc caused by them.
This recent outbreak of plague generated a tremendous concern in and outside
the country. No other disease so anienable to prevention and control lias
generated such serious concern in conte~nporary times. If its present
epidemiological picture is appropriately examined, it does not deserve the
attention it received. The rcasoli for its larger than life size attention in the media
ill the country and outside, and tlie reason for tlie controve~*sies wliich plagued
this plague outbsealc are possibly due to an inappropriate perception of tlie
Increased Understanding 3) Your answer should include the following points:
of Disasters - 11
Affected persons were treated in hospitals
Next of kin of dead were paid Rs. 10,0001-
@ Poor families were paid Rs. 15001- per family for immediate expenditure -
@ Dead bodies of cattle were buried to avoid epidemics

a Employment schemes were launched for surviving persons.
UNIT 8 EPIDEMICS
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Major Epidemics in India
8.2.1 The Surat (Gu,jarat) Plaguc Epidemic - 1994
8.2.2 Ilengue Epidemic in Dellii - 1996
Lessons Learnt
8.3.1 Plague
8.3.2 Uengi~cFever
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
8.0 OBJECTIVES
Aftel*going thro~~gli
tliis Unit you sliould be able to:
* explain an epidemic situation .

* identify the causes for occurrence of epidemics; and
e list tlie steps involved in the colitrol of epidemics
8.1 INTRODUCTION
i t epidemics (Unit 12, Block 3, CDM-
You have already learnt in tlie earlier' ~ l ~ i011
01) about its meaning, ca~lsationand tlie control measures for preven~ing
epidemics. In tliis unit, we shall describe two epidemic situations in the recent
past, which have been in tlie national and inter~iationalniedia headlines. You
will also learn about the magnitude and causative factors of these epidemic
situations. Towards the end of tliis unit, the lessons learnt from tliese particular
situatio~iswill be highlighted.
1 8.2 MAJOR EPIDEMICS IN INDIA

India is endemic to many diseases such as Malaria, Kala-azar, Cholera,
Tuberculosis. These erupt in epidemic form when conditions are favourable for
their spread. Epidemics are disasters by themselves but these call emerge in the
aftermath ofother disasters as well.
1.
I n tlie recent past, two epidemics, viz., plague and dengue inflicted tlie Indian
populatio~lvery badly at Surat and Dellii, respectively. tlowever, tliese occurred
by tlielnselves and' were not the result of any other natural disaster.
8.2.1 The Surat (Gujarat) Plague Epidemic - 1994

Plague is a disease known to mankind from ancient times. India has undoubtedly
a long history, which is replete with plague epidemics and havoc caused by them.
This recent outbreak of plague generated a tremendous concern in and outside
tlie country, 1'40 other disease so amenable to prevention and control has
generated such serious collcern in colitelnporary times. If its present
epide~iiiological picture is appropriately examined, it does not deserve the
atte~itionit received. The reason for its larger than life size attention in tlie media
in tlie country and outside, and tlie reason for the controversies which plagued
tliis plague oi~tbrenkare possibly due to an inappropriate perception of tlie
P~~crcased Understnrldi~~g changing epidemiology of plague in modern era, when we have powerful
of Disasters - I1 management and diagnostic tools to contain the disease.
This outbreak occurred in h a t on I 9'" September, 1994. Following the sudden

increase in the number of admitted cases with acute onset of fever, chest pain,
cough, hemoptysis and deaths between 19"' and 20''' September, 1994 in different
city hospitals, a sense of deep concern arose. As no history of rat fall could be
elicited and typical bubonic cases were not seen, primary plleumonic plague
outbreali was considesecl a possibility. The clinical presentation and the course
of the disease pointed towards the pneulnonic plague.
Though stray cases were reported from other parts of the city, the major
concentration of the reported cases came from the two adjacent localities of Ved
Road and Katargarn where the population were by and large Maharashtrians, the
sanitation was very poor and the localities were highly congested slums.
Furtller~nore,these areas are situated adjacent to river Tapti which was flooded
between 7''' and 9"' September, 1994 due to heavy rains. About five lalth cusecs
of water was released from the Ultai reservoir which led to the heavy water
logging of the area. When the flood water started receding on 14'" and 15'"
Septelnber, 1994, the people of the localities startcd cleaning the areas and
perhaps many of them handlcd dead wild rodents and animals. The Ganapati
festival was observed with pomp and grandeur on 18"' September, 1994, when a
large procession passed through the area and thereby getting infected probably.
While the first patients were hospitalized on September 19, the panic was so
great that by September 29, about 2 lakh persons (one-third of the population)
had fled the city.
During tlje period of the outbreak, 52 deaths were recorded from Surat city of
which majority occurred before 25"' September, 1994. A total of 1088 cases
were suspected, about 146 were presumptive cases and 52 deaths due to plague
took place during the period from 19"' September, I994 giving an overall case
fatality rate of 4.8%.
A study was carried out in Surat city during 8-19 November, 1994. Several
ideritifiable risk factors were studied like occupation o f t h e people, their visits
outside Surat dut.i~igthe incubation period, exposure to a case, pal-ticipation i n
the Ganapati procession festival, participation in cleaning operation, any
associated illness, consumption of antibiotic, which could be accountable for the
sporadic spread of the epidemic. The s~~rprisi~lg thing was that the National
Capital Delhi was also hit by the plague soon thereafter, although located
faraway at about 1000 kin. from Surat.
Coiitrol Measures
Apart from identifying the patients and providing them proper medical treatment
and care, a massive cleaning and sanitizing operation was conducted by the
Municipal Corporation of Surat under the inspiring guidance of its Chief
Executive whose efforts at cleaning up the city and thereby protecting it from
epidemics were lauded nationally and internationally,
8.2.2 Dengue Epidemic in Delhi - 1996

Dengue epidemic struck the Capital from mid-August to end-November, 1996,
with Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever (DHF) and Dengue Shock Syndrome (DSS),
tlle worst ever in India's history. The virus, viz., Type I1 Dengue was identified
as the causative agent in a number of clinical samples. There were in all about
10,000 cases with nearly 400 deaths as reported from all parts of the city.
following reasons were identified for tlie dramatic emergence in India of Epidemics
DengueIDHF as a major public health problem:
1) Ineffective Mosquito Control Progra~nmes

2) Major denlographic and social changes, the most important being
~~ncontrolled ~~rbanization,
excessive population growth and urban decay
characterised by substandard housing and inadequate water and waste
disposal systems; and
3) Inadequate medical and health services.
b
Dengue fever is caused by the bitc of a rnosqirito known as Aedes Aegypti which
prof~~sely breeds in coolers, storage tanks, earthen pots aild other receptacles with
rainwater or storcd clean watcr. There are a large number of other possible
breeding places of Aedes Aegypti, viz., flower vases, neglected cups of jugs,
liouseliold collection of water, neglected features of buildings, uncovered
cisterns. wells. roof gutters, cracks in the masonry, traps of drains, flus11 tanks,
ant traps, water receptacles of various kinds, rain filled c~nptycans or food tins,
leaking water supply, water meters, sluice water chambers, water for birds,
broken bottles, garden tanks, tree chambers, tree holes, fountains, t~.ougIls,a
variety of dumps for engineering goods, trees, scraps and many more. / '
Following the report of six deaths due to dengue at the All India Institute of
Medical Sciences in Thc Timcs of India on September 13'", 1996, the Municipal
Corporation of Dellii (MCII) deputed two senior officers from tlie Antimalaria
Department to collect the details. Containment measurcs were immediately
talten in tlie localities from where these cases were reported. By September 14,
1996. I.he total number of' cases admitted as DHF in Dellii was 1 I ,
The MCD and the New Dellli Municipal Committee (NDMC) took the following
measures:
1) I-louse to liouse survey for detection of vector breeding sources

2) Intensification of anti-larval operation
3) Focal spray wit11 pyrethrum extract
4) Intensification of lieollth education Activities
Public notice by way of newspapers to educate tlie people regarding dengue and
to control the domestic breeding of mosquitoes was done. Likewise equipment
like spray pumps, fogging machines were put in operation in large numbers.
Control room for monitoring the siti~ationand distribution of pyrethum solution
,
to the NGOs was also takcn-up.
In i.hc year 2001, dengue again seemed to appear in Dellii and a few cases were
reported in October. Timely campaign against breeding of mosquitoes by public
education and public liealtl~~neasuresensured illat tlie disease did not attain
epidemic status.
Clleek Your Progress 1

ii) Chccli your answers with tllose given at the end of the Unit.
Increased IJnderst:lncling
- II
o f Disssters
1.) Explain the reasons for the outbreak of plague in Surat in 1994.
2) Give reasons for the emergence of DengueIDHF in India.

'% b
8.3 LESSONS LEARNT
8.3.1 Plague
1) The diseases of the past can make their resurgence if favol~rableenviron~nent

conditio~~s are present. Efforts to prevent the resurgence of such deadly
diseases have to be made by way of good sanitary conditions, hygiene and-
cleanliness.
2) T l ~ edecaying material itlcluding dead anin~alsin the unsanitary conditions
that usually prevails after the occurrence o f destructive natural disaster
situations such as earthquakes result in the spread of diseases1 epidemics as
was seen in the case of the Latur earthquake of 1993.
3) People living in poor sanitary conditions, congested s l ~ l ~ and
n s overcrowded
localities are more' prone to commu~~icable diseases like plague.
4) Migratory population and people participating in crowded f u ~ ~ c t i duri
o ~ ~I s I ~
festivds and processions create conditions co~~ducive
for the spread of such
diseases.
5) Surveillance and monitoring programme for the diseases like plague are
lacking at present. For want of required datafinformation on various
causative factors, these epidemics cannot be forecast, thus further deterring
timely preventive measures.
6 ) Public needs to be educated about the signs and sy111ptornsof likely diseases
so as to enable the early detection and preventive measures of sucl~diseases.
7) Local l?ealth autl~oritieshave to keep a constant vigil on the epidemic prone
areas.
8.3.2 Dengue Fever

1) The outbreaks of dengue including dengue lle~norrl~agic
fever (DHF)/dengue
shock syndrome (DSS) can be anticipated through a system of surveillance
and n~onitoringof Vector densities.
2) A check on the spread of epidemics by means of adequate control and Epidemics
monitoring measures before and after the occurrence of epide~nicshas to be
ensured.
3 ) Breeding conditions ancl the vector around Dellii and in other parts of thc
country pose a constant threat of dengue in India. Desert coolers. water
storage ta~ilisand utensils, leaking \vatel. supplies, wclls and fountains, rain
water collections and water bodies, tyre dumps, junk cans, rain-soalced and
uncleared garbage dumps, etc. provide excellent places for Aedes breeding.
4) DHF has become endemic and would surface periodically beca~~sc oi' tlie
very high vector breeding. The only practical approach to avoid f ~ r t ~ ~ r e
epidemics lies in preventive vector control with main reliance on source
reduction and sanitation.
5) Extensive training progl.amme to update their I<nowledge and slcills in this
area is essential for health workers.
0) We must accept and face the reality that dengue can surface again and to
prevent future outbrealcs, especially in tlie absence of any specilic antiviral
treatment 01.vaccine, s~rstainedpreventive comm~uiitymeasures is the only
key to success. Public education in this regard is very essential.
1Vote: i ) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Clreclc your answers with tllose given at the end of tlie llnit.
I ) What are tlie lessons learnt after the outbreak of plague in Intlia?
3,) I-las dengue become endemic in some parts of tlie country? Ifyes, wliat should
be done?
8.4 LET US SUM UP

I n this unit you have learnt about the two major epidemic situations of the last
tlecade.
'rlie Plague epicle~nicoccurred in Surat in the year 1994 whereas dengue fever
epidemic gripped the country's capital in 1996. You have learnt that in both
these epidemics not only large number of people were affected but a sigriificant
number of persons also lost their lives. The likely causative factors have been
explained and tlie i~nporta~it
lessons learnt Iiave been higlllighted.
I
Increased Undcrstandi~~p
o f Disasters - II 8.5 KEYWORDS
Bubonic A disease situation involving swelling of glands

in the body
Anti-larval operation : Action to kill tnosquitoes at tlie larva stage
itself.
Endemicity A condition or illness that is colnlnon among the
people tliroughout the year.
Haemorrhagic Disease in which blood flows oul
Epidemio!ogy The study of the occurrence of a disease in
human population.
Vector Insect that spreads disease, e.g., ~nosquito
Bneurnohic Pertaining to pneumonia which is a disease in
which lungs get infected and develop swelling.
$.6 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Purk. K., Text Book ofpreventive and Socinl Medicine, M/s. Banarsidas Bhanot,
Jabalpur.
Maclnohan B. and T.F. Pugh, Epidenziology : Pririciples and Me~hods,Little ,
Brown Boston.
Anderson M., An Introduction to Epidemiology, Macmillan, London.
Ver~naB.K. and Brij Bhushan, Disaster Manugement in India: A Cornn2unity
Perspective, in the book "Disaster Management"edited by V.K. Sharma, IIPA, -
New Delhi
Manual of Epidemiologyfor District Health Managenzenl, WHO, Geneva. ,

EXERCISES
I
I) Your answer should include the following points

I?' The surroundings were generally very unclean and unhygienic.
e The flood that preceded the plague outbreak brought dead bodies of wild
rodents and animals.
e While cleaning up the area,. people came in contact with these dead
rodents and animals.
2) Your answer should include the following points

Dengue spreads through the Aedes Aegypti type of mosquito which breeds
in clean but stagnant water, the like of which is available in and around
houses.
' Q Effective mosquito control programme is a major reason for the
emergence of dengue.
Inadequate medical nd ublic health services have also contributed to the
7
emergence of dengue.
I
Check Your Progress 2 Epidemics
1) Your answer should include the following poirits

o Good sanitary conditions are esseritial to avoid plague.
e Crowded places should be avoided.
Regular surveillance and monitoring are necessaly.
o Such epidemics can stall after major natural disasters also.
e Public education is essential.
Yo11ranswer should include thc followi~igpoints
e Yes, dengue is endemic in Dellii and other parts of India.
o Strict monitoring and co~itrolof breeding of mosqi~itoeshas to be ensured.
e Public education is necesqary.
UNIT 9 DISASTER MAPPING
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Defining a Map
9.2. I l'ecl~niquesto Reacl and Interpret Maps
Tecliniques for Area Mapping
Zoning of Seismic Activity
Industrial Zoning at Micro Scale
Mapping Prominent Disaster Prone Areas
Let Us Sum Up
Key Worcls
References and Fu~-therReadings
Answers to Checlt Your Progress Exercises
9.0 OBJECTIVES
Alter you have ~.caclthis llnit, you should be ahle:
e LO learn about maps and mapping techniques;

e to innclerstand tlie usef~rlnessof disaster niapping;
e to appreciate the importance of disaster mapping as a tool for risk assessment
and damage evaluation for different types of disasters;
e to explain Geographical Information System (CIS) in [:he context ol'disaster
mapping; and
e to describe disaster mapping as a powerf~11 tool Tor clisaster maliage~nent.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Disaster mappingis a tool for. assessing, storing ancl conveying infi)r~iiationon
tlie _reographical location of a disaster occurrence and spl-end of tlie effects or
13robableel'hkts ol'disasters.
Every year ill a country like India, natural disasters lilie foods and cyclones are
fairly frequent. Eartliq~lalcesalso occur time aricl again. The occ~~rrences of such
disasters, tlieir intensity, tlie arealregion of their occurrences and 1.lieir i;iipact lias
to be assessed, so as to have inlbrmationldata about the damages caused by tlie~n
to tlie area/population specific or probable damages or impact likely to be
causeil. ['roper mapping will be lielpf~~l not only for pre-disaster preparedness but
: also in rescue ancl relief operations with greater accuracy zuid speed.
With the datalinformatio~~collection, storage, retrieval becoming highly

leclinological ancl scientific, new specialized tech~iic~ueslike Geographical
Inlormation System (GIs) are increasingly used for disaster mapping and these
aw proving to be very L I S ~ T L I I .
9.2 DEFINING A MAP

Map ,,iS delined as a representation of a por-tio~lof eat-tli's surface in a two-
di~ensionaldepiction. Accorclingly, mapping de~iotestlie making of a map i.e.
sefti~igout various physical geographical Features on a map. A map may show
lixecl features such as cities or mountains or variables such as temperatures or
populations. Maps can be on computers '(GIs). Pre-disaster and post-disaster
maps will show the impact of disaster. In order to be precise and accurate, most
maps are geo-referenced, i.e., they are portrayed with reference to irniversally
standardized geographic references, as in latitude, longitude and altitude.
Prep:~reclness i ~ r i t l 9.2.1 Techniques to Read and lrlterpret Maps
hlitigiition
l'raditionally, maps Iia\/e becn prepared bascd on physical surveying. These
maps are the11 pl.esented as liarcl copies, i.e., tliey are printecl on paper, using
colours, symhols, labcls and other drawing elcments to represent geographic
facts. Such a map is on 'scale'. which means that its di~iie~isionsare
pr.oportionate to tlie actual area it represents. A typical town may be
con\leniently ~~eprcsc~itl'cl 0 1 1 a scale of 1 :20,000, meaning that one unit length on
tlie m a p reprcscnts 20,000 unit lengths in reality. 111other words, a distance of
onc c.m. sliown on tlie map represents 20,000 c.m., or 200 m, of actual distance
on gl-ound. Various land uses, activities, zones etc., are shown with different
colours, tlie C O I O L I ~ cocle being explained in a legend, or ltey, on 1,he map itself.
Different s t r ~ ~ c t ~ lorr especif-?c
s locations are shown using various symbols, wliicli
again are explained in tlie legend. A compilation or collection of maps is called
atlas.
The ~ ~ s uproblem
al with such maps is that they are tedious and time consuming to
prepare, diflicult to upclate mid inco~ivenientto maintain. Tlicrefore, now-a-days
remote sensing is becoming popular as a means o r collecting data for nlap
preparation, and Geographical Information Systems (GIs) is being ~ ~ s efor d
storage. analysis and retrieval. Under re~iiotesensing tecliniques, maps are
prepared ~ ~ s isatellite
~ig data or aerial pliotograplis, and are then digitised and
stored on co~np~lters using G1S software. Once this is clone, tliey can be retrieved
and viewed on the computer ally tinie. They can casily be enlarged or reduced,
and even printecl in multicolour format.
Disaster maps usi~allysliow rid\ zones or disaster impact zones. These c o ~ ~ l d

inclucle flood zone maps, seismic zone maps, industrial risk zone maps etc. A
number of such maps may be overlaid on a base map of tlie area to give a
composite disaster map that covers the risk of a number of types of disasters
because many geograpl~icalareas are prone to more than one type of disasters.
The vulnerability atlas oi' India Contours are ~1sef~11
maps of this type covering
v a r i o ~ ~disasterk.
s
9.3 TECHNIQUES FOR AREA MAPPING
Area mapping involves lbur basic steps. First is tlie task of data collection. This
woulcl include spatial clata on physiography, liydrology, geology, population
dist~'ib~~tion, Innd use ant1 activity pattern, str~~cturalconclitions and *
socio-econo~nicdata. Some of the data, mainly tlie pl~ysicalclata, can be
collected through I-emote scnsing. The tlata would then have to be verified on
ground. Thereafter tlie data would need to be plotted on a spatially rcfereneed
medium. either on paper. or using computers. After proper coding, the relevant
inforinat ion w o ~ ~ lbc
d added to the Inap.
9.4 ZONING OF SEISMIC ACTIVITY
Zoning of seismic activity is a highly tecllnical field and requires collection

and detailed study of a time-series data on ea-thqunltes stretching over
decades, or eve11 centuries. The seislllic history of an entire region has to be
al-talysed in dctail. and depeilcli~lgon the freclueilcy and illtensity of seisimic
activity in cliffereilt parts oTt11'he regioi~,seismic zoning is carried out for that
region. '['he presence of active faults and 1-iclgesin the subterranean region
are also studied and act as detenminants in thc process of seismic zoning.
Seismic zoning has to be updated alter every major seismic activity in low
seis~niczones. as happened in the case or l a & Eai-thquake in Maharashtra. *
r.
-.
-
l .
-- Disaster Mapping
9.5 INDUSTRIAL ZONING AT MICRO SCALE
AS compared to seismic zoning, which has to be carried out at regional scale,
inclustrial zoning can bc carried out at a micro scale due to the co~nparatively
localiscd impact of i~ldustrialdisastcrs. 'This is I,nown as micro-zonation.
lntlustrial rislts may arise due to the hazardous process involved i n tlie industry,
01 during storagc. or transportation of lia~arclousmaterials. Depending on tlie
nature ol' r i k , as wcll as tlie activity pattern and intensity in tlie vicinity, risk
zones arc identilied. 71'lie risl, dire to air pollution is generally most widespread.
That of water may cxtcnd over longcr clistances In case of surrace water-, but
woi~lclbe more channelled. 'Tlie risks of land degradation, and subsu~.facewater
and also noise pollution are more localisccl.
i'lieclc Your Progress 1
Notc: i ) llsc thc spacc given below for your ans\vers.

i i ) Cliecl, your answers with those given at the encl of this Unit.
I ) What do you undcrstnncl by Disaster Mapping?
7) Bl.ict1y expl~inSeismic and Industrial Zoning.
9.6 MAPPING PROMINENT DlSASTER PRONE

AREAS
I)r011ghl
I
Earl) \varning of dro~~glit co~icIiti~)~is
will help to ~~ndertalcc contingency
agrici~ltu~~al strategies and to organise relief where ancl wlien it is most neeclecl.
I
Il~~ouglit rcliel' nianagement el'rorts have been greatly helped by remote sensing
21ncl lli5uster mapping techniques. 'The condition or tlie crops as also the amount
ol'\t:~tcrin tlie water bodies or even tlie extent of moisture in tlic ground can be
iii~~pped\\ill1 the help of remote sensing tecliniques. Targeting o r potential
g~.ol~l~cl\\ atel. sites for ti~kingup emergency well digging programmes has been
maclc ~x'ssiible by tlie use of satellite data. Tlie success rate of such wells had
been significantly higher than wlien using ground methocls alone. Tlie first pliase
ol'tlic Drinking Water Mission of Govcrnmcnt o r India consisted of district-wise
gro~lnd\vaterpotential maps using liigli-resol~~tioli Landsal/lRS data.
Prepnredness a ~ ~ d Long-tenn drought prooiing programmes calling for base-line information on the .
Mitigation natural resources of the district or river basin have been greatly helped by the use
of satellite data. A drought ~nonitoring project reccntly talcen up by tlie
Department of Space in collaboration witli thc State concerned covers
management of water resources. agricultilral and land resources and fodder
resources, and integrates natural resource physical data base and socio-economic
and demographic data base. Data from IRS satellite in 1:50,000 scale was used
to generate resource data.
Resource maps such as soil, land-use and liydro-geo~iiorpliology have been

prepared tising IRS data on 1 :50,000 scale. Otli,er maps such as slopes, drainage
-and watershed, tl.anspot-t network ancl settlement location ancl rairifall data have
been prepared from the secondary data slvailablc on Survey o f India
topographical sheets and with tlie Census Depal-tlnent. Tlie socio-econo~nicdata
has been collected from the respective district acl~ninistrations.The conventional
resources of information, socio-economic-and demographic data arc integrated
with the resource data obtained from the IRS satellite imagery in order to
prescribe appropriate land use, fodder and water management practices.
Floods ant1 Cyclones
Each year cyclorles bring copious rains, wliicli submerge lands. Rivers overfow
during flood times and inundate land. 'The extent of such s u b ~ ~ ~ e ~ .varics
s i o n froni
time to time depending upon the intensity oTflood flows. Tlie traclitional method
of mapping areas that gets flooded (for different levels of probabilities are lo use
a map of suitable scale ( 1 : I 5,000) on which inundation information is added.
Over a long period it would be possible to indicate different probabilities of
flooding in these maps. The Central Waler Commission in cooperation with the
. State has done pioneering work in India in this regard and has publisl~edthe
Flood Atlas of India long ago (CWC-1987). In recent decade or two, satellite
data has been mostly used for mapping and monitoring the flood-inundaled areas,
flood dan~ageassessment, flood liazard zonilig, and post-flood survcy of river
do~~figuratio~i and protection wol*ks. Near real lime flood mapping was
performed in the year 1986 in respect of tlie i~nprecedentedhistoric Godavari
floods, as well as floods that occurred in parts of Ganga basin lying in Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh. Near real time was continued during the flood period o f 1987 in
respect of various rivers like Ganga, Ghagra, Icosi, Gandliak, Mahananda,
Brahmaputra, Teesta, Jlielu~nelc., in different parts of tlie country.
Floods in Jhelum and Brahmaputra rivers and in Orissa State cluring I992 were
mapped. Recent availability of satellite data has helpecl flood mapping inspite of
cloud cover. This data has bee11 used recently (1993) for flood 111appingof the
Bralimapulra, North Bellgal and Pulljab floods. Floods in Jhelum and lCosi have
also been mapped.
Efforts are also being ~liadeto compute the flood damage in various parts of the
country by combini~igwnotely sensed data and conventional ground data. A
pilot project is i~nderprogress in a part of Brahmaputra Basin. An analysis of
database on flood inundation during successive years can help delineate areas
si~sceptibleto floods of differing ~nagnitudes. Preliminiary flood risk zone maps
along Kosi and Brali~iiapi~lra rivers have been made ~lsingmulti-year satellite
imagery corresponding to dirfering Rood magnitudes and reti~rliperiods. This
provides valuable illputs to regi~lati~ig
food plain land use.
High-resolution satellite data has been used to nap post-flood river configuration
in order to identify vulnerable .reaches of ellibankments to enable corrective
action. Erosion prone areas alolig the Bralimaputra river have been identified
through multi-year satellite data to delineate river reaches for flood protection
works.
Volcanic E1-uption and Fires Disaster Mapping
Though volcaiiic disasters are not co~ii~iion to India, Antlaliian Islands have two
volca~ioesthat have becn silent. Tliese arc tlie Narconduni and Barren Islands.
I'lle Barren Island \/olcano remained donnant for ncarly 200 years and cruptcd in
March 1991, wliicli continued till November 1991. The volcanic eruption was
~iionitoredusing h/lultitlate satellite data of both day a~idnigh1 passes. Tlie extent
of reach of lava flows was monitored.
Satellite imagery in tlie infrared regions and actual grou~icllaerialphotographs has

bee11employed to map areas damaged by forest tires. 'Tlie data has been ~ ~ s lo cd
study and map a number of forest fires and to monitor Llic vcgctntion
regeneration over burnt areas. 'Tlie 1 I-day repent cyclc providccl by tlie Indian
[<eniote Sensing Satellites (IRS) l ~ a sbeen found to be extreniely valuable in
monitoring tlie forcsl fires.
EartIiqual<ephase data collectecl by tlie National Seismic Tele~iietryNetwork for

the past one hundred years were a~ialysed using a computer, ancl epicentral
para~iieterswere determined. Tliese locations wcre shown in maps.
The epicentral maps are irsed for preparing scismic liazarcl map. Seismic zoning
liiap is tlie basis for tlic code for designing earthquake resistant structures. Apart
ti-on1 tlie earthquake clata, geological factors, soil data etc.. are i~scdfor preparing
tlie building codes. Llpgradation of this code is a continuous process for which
purpose tlie building code is reviewed From time to time. I-lowever, in order Lo
assess the exact nature of risk, several otlict. impel-lalit Sactotassuch as gravity,
mugric~ic,gcocletic, a ~ i dclimalic data arc necessary. Tlicsc clata are thcn i~sedlo
prcpare ~iiicrozonationmaps. which are used, for ~ ~ r b and a n ~wralplanning.
Landslide zonation map comprises of a map demarcating tlie stretches or arcas of

varying degrees of anticipated slope stability or instability. 'I'lie map tlii~sshows
tlie factors co~iducivc to landslides and, hence it has a n inbuilt elcment of
forecasting and is therefore of probabilistic nature. Depelicli~ig upon the
melliodology aclopted and tlie co~iipreliensive~iess of the iriput data usecl, a
lariclslide hazard zonation map be able to provide help conce'rning one or more of
relevant aspects such as location, type of occurrencc of landslide, and affected
people area and mass ~novementof slope Inass.
One of tlie early prqjects on zonation was c rried out by the Central Road
1
1
r
Research Institute, New Delhi in 1984, in ~Iiich~liazal~d zonation techniques were
used to clioose a riiost suitable alignment' from tlie possible alternative
alignments on landslide affected stretches in Sikkirii area. Subsequent
1 monitoring has sliown that t.1ie choices made have proved successli~l. During
1989, a landslide hazard zonation [nap was prepared for a part of
. ~ < ~ t l i ~ o d a ~ n - ~ aliigliway.
i ~ i i t a l This ]nap was prepared with the objective to
evolve a suitable maintenance strategy to keep the hillslopes along tlie road free
OF la~iclslideproblem.
Preparation of a comprehensive landslide liazard zonation map requires intensive

and sustained efforts. Tlie problern is highly interdisciplinary in nature. A large
amount of data concerning many variables, cove~.inglarge slope areas has to be.
collecfecl, stored, sorted and evaluated. Finally, the degree of risk of sliding has
to be evaluated and zonation maps prepared. The use of aerial pliotograplis and
adoption of reliiote sensing tecl~niqueshelps in tlie collection of clata. For
storage, retrieval and analysis, adoption of computerised tecli~iiqucsis usefill.
Preparedness aatl I-lazard zonation maps have multifarious uses, some of which are listed below:
klitign tion
B o In the preparation of development plans for townships, dams, roads, and
other development.
General purpose Master Plans and Land Use Plans.
0 Discouraging new development in hazard prone areas.
0 Choice of optimu~nactivity pattern based on risk zones.
Quick decision mal<ing in search, rescue and relief operations during disaster
and post-disaster situations.
Clearly such maps have a large number of users, including several Govenlment
Departments, and private agencies as well as NGOs involved ill any type of
clevelop~nent,construction of disaster- management work.

ii) Checl; Y O L I answers
~ with those given at the end ofthis Unit.
I ) What do you ~~nderstand

by a 1 :50000 Scale maps?
2) Brietly describe the ~isefillnesso r hazard zoning.
9.7 LET US SUM UP

Disaster Mapping is an important and powerful tool at all stages o f disaster
manage~nent.Now clisaster mapping ~~tilizes new and more accurate techniques
such as remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GLS). Disaster
Mapping leads to zoning for varioi~sdisasters such as floods, earthquakes,
industrial disasters etc. Co~npositedisaster maps include tlic impact of a number
of different disasters liltely over the sallie area.
9.8 KEY WORDS

IRS ' - Indian Remote Sensing Satellite
Risk - Possibility of sonietliing unpleasant or
undesirable might Iiappen lilte floods, eartliquake,
10 cyclone, etc.
Gcomorpl~ology - Study of origin, development and characteristics Disastcr M a p p i n g
of land.
Hazard - Something that is dangerous like earth tremor,
' flood, cyclone, etc.
sphtial - Relating to area or space.
Zoning - ~ a r n i a r k i nan~ area of land or sea from tlie point
of the occurrence of tlie disaster.
Renlote Sensing - Techniques such as Satellites which record data
about a distant location
- Disaster maps including tlie occurrence and
impact of a number of different Disaster
disasiers over the same area.
Mapping Pllysiography - Scientific description of the physical features of
the earth.
--
9.9 REFERENCES AND F'LTTRTHER READINGS
Bawa. D.S. " N ~ M ) Industrial Developtr7e11tof' Flood and Drought

S f)r c r t e ~,for
Prone Arccrs", New Delhi, 1980.
C WC. "Flood Atlus of Irru'iu", 1 987.
Palm, Risa .I. "Nutzrral Hazcn-d's: An Integrative Frun~e~vork
for Reseurch cmd
PI~mning", Hopltins University Press, 1990.
" Vz~/nerubili~~
Atlus of lndiu ", Government of India, 1997.

EXERCISES
I) Y O Lanswer
I~ shoi~ldinclude the following points:
Disaster Mapping is a tool for
a Assessing
Storing and
Conveying, the information on tlie geograpliical location of a disaster
occurrence and its impacts.
3) Y O Lanswer
I~ slioi~ldinclude tlie folrowi~igpoints:
Industrial Zoning involves preparations of regional scale (or micro scale)
maps, indicating industries of different types and tlie nature and extent of
'tlie adverse effects that may arise f r ~ many disaster to or fro111these
industries.
Seismic zoning is on a much larger scale such as tlie entire country,
which is divided, into various seisniic zones on the basis of the
niagniti~deand freqitency of occurrence of earthquakes in the country.
Cl~eckYour Progress 2
I) Your answer should include the following points:
One unit of length on the, nlap represents 50000 units o r length on the
actual ground. .
Tliis means that one-cm distance on this map means 500 metres or half
kilometer acti~ally.
Preparedness and 2) Your answer should include the following points:
Mitigatio~~
e Preparation of developnle~ltplans
0 Preparation of Master Plarls and Land Use Plans
Discouraging construction in hazardous areas
e ' ~ u i c kaction during seal.cIi, rescue and relief operations in disaster and
post-disaster sit~~atiolls
UNIT 10 PREDICTABILITY, FORECASTING
AND WARNING
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Predictability, Forecasting and Warning: Meaning and Inter-relationship
10.2.1 Plediclability
10.2.2 Polecasting
10.2.3 Warning -
10.2.4 Inter-relationship
Activities and Techniques with reference to Specific disasters
3 1 Prcdic~ability
10.3.2 I:olecasting
10.3.3 Warning
l~npo~-ta~iceand Significance
Let Us S L I MUp
Key Words
Ans.wers to Check Your Progress Exercises
10.0 OBJECTIVES
Al'ter studying this Unit, you s h o ~ ~ be
l d able to:
0 discuss the time and space variability inherent in tlie occurrence of disasters;
0 esplain tlie status of predictability o r specific disasters;
0 describe the existing forecasting and warning arrangements; and
I 0 highlight the importance and significance of warning.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Tlie earlier units have provided basic i~nderstandingof the various disasters and tlie
adverse impacts that they make on tlie people and national infrastl~ucturalassets,
A1I types of disasters do not occur at a1I places - or at al l times. Tlie occurrence of
disasters is highly variable in time and place. Even tlie same phenomenon - if and
when it recurs - would differ in intensity, coverage, duration and impact. TIiis
I inherently variable nature of disasters makes it very important that we study the
! preclictability, forecasting and war~iingaspects of disasters. These aspects will be
covcred in tliis i~nit.
1
,
1
WARNING: MEANING AND
4 INTER-RELATIONSHIP
1
10.2.1 Predictability
1 Predictability of a disaster is the key to i~nderstandits nature and thereby to assess

i thc chances of its occ~rrrenceand the fury of the event. P~aedictabilityis an attribute
I i-eallyapplicable to natural disasters. For ~nan-~iiade disasters, it is the Iiiiriian error
I or mechanical fault or organisational failure that is responsible. Therefore, there is
no concept of predictability as such for man-made disasters. Mock drills, regular
I
I
ilispections and updating of precautionary measures take tlie place of predictability,
lorecasting and warning in case of man-made disasters. - 13
I
Preparedness n t ~ d 2) Your answer should include the following points:
M itigi~tion
o Preparation ~Fdevelopmenlplans
o Preparation of Master Plans and Land Use Plans
construction in liazardous areas
Disco~rragir~g
Quick action during search, rescue and relief operations in disaster and
post-disaster situations
UNIT 10 PREDICTABILITY, FORECASTING
AND WAWING
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Predictability, Forecasting and Warning: Meaning and Inter-relationship
10.2. 1 1'1'cdictability
10.2.2 Forecasting
10.2.3 Warn~np -
10.2.4 I~iter-relationship
Activities and Techniques with reference to Specific disasters
O . 31 Prcdiclability
10.3.2 I'orecasting
10.3.3 Warning
I~nportanceand Significance
Let Us S ~ ~ iUp
ii
Key Words
Ans.wers to Check Your Progress Exercises
10.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
a discuss the time and space variability inherent in the occurrence of disasters;
explain tlie status of predictability of specilic disasters;
a describe the existing rorccasting and warning arrangements; and
highlight the impol-tanceand sigiiificance of warning.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The earlier units have provided basic understanding of the various disasters and the
advcrse in~pactsthat they make on the people and national infrastructural assets.
All types of disasters do not occur at all places - or at all times. The occurrence of
disasters is highly variable in time and place. Even the same phenomenon - if and
when it recurs - would difrer in intensity, coverage, duration and impact. This
inherently variabl-e nature of disasters makes it vely impel-[ant that we study the
predictability. forecasting and warning aspects of disasters. These aspects will be
covcred in this unit.

I WARNING: MEANING AND
I INTER-RELATIONSHIP
I
I
i Predictability of a disaster is the key to u~lderstandits nature and tliel-eby lo assess
I tlic chances of its occurrence and the fi~ryof the event. P~.eclictabilityis an attribute
1 really applicable to natural disasters. For man-made disasters, it is the li~~man error
,
I
or mecha~iicalfault or organisational failure that is responsible. Therefore, there is
no concept of predictability as such for man-made disasters. Mock drills, regular
! inspections and updating of precautionary measures take the place ofpredictability,
forecastingarid warning in case of man-111adedisasters. -
I
I
10.2.2 Forecasting
For natural disasters tliat have a fair amount of inherent predictability, forecasting
is the next step in disaster management. Forecasting has to be based 011 sound
scientific principles and operationally proven techniques. It lias to be done by
authorised agency or individual who, besides being co~npetent,responsible and
accountable, is co~isciousof tlie end-use of the forecast and the dependence of the
s~iccessof disaster management on tlie forecast. In order to be effective, the
forecast has to be clearly worded and it sl~ouldbe transmitted q~~icltlyto the user.
10.2.3 Warning
Once a forecast is available regarding an anticipated disaster event it lias to be

lF
converted qllicltly into an area-specific and time-specific warning, urtliermore,
the war~iingsalso need to be user-specific because tlie capacity of different users to
withstand the impacts of a disaster are different. For example, tlic gcneral
warnings for the public would be different from those required specifically for tlie
safety of a railway bridge during cyclone conditions because a strong structure
such as a railway bridgc is designed to withstand certain level of Iiigli winds and to
e r The warnings in this case
permit a certain a~noulitof river water flowing ~ ~ n dit.
have to be issued only if the anticipated winds and river-flow are expected to go
beyond t11e specific safety tliresliolds. I-lowever, for the public, where houses of
!
var,ious types and str ngth have to face cyclone filly, tlie warnings will have to be
in terms of the anticr ated winds and rain in the hope that the individuals and
colmmunities will be prepared and take prompt action witli the help of government
and non-government orga~~isatiorls wherever the anticipated impacts are likely to
prove dangerous.
L,.
A warning has no value ~ ~ n l e sits reache's the users quicldy and well in time.
Therefore, quick communication is very important at the warning stage.
10.2.4 Inter-relationship
The inter-relationship between predictability, forecasting and wa~.ning is

self-evident and sliould have been cl,ear from the discussion in tlie preceding
paragraphs. To repeat, a warning cal;--onty be iss~ledon the basis of a useful and
. reliable forecast and' a disaster can be forecast only if it has an inherent
predictability about it.
Even if an event is predictable, a useful forecast is available, the appropriate

warning Iias been issued, and it has reached the users in time; the whole egercise
will be fiuitful only if the warning is believed and acted upon by the user. ,
Therefore, credibility is very essential at every stage of tlie process of forecasting
and warning. That is wliy the concerned agencies responsible for forecasting and
warning of disasters strive hard to build credibility for their forecasts and warnings ,
so tliat users develop confidence in these and take required action imniediately and
effectively.

/
Note: i) Use tlie space given below for your nnswers.
ii) Check your answers witli tliose given at tlie end of tIiis'Unit.
I ) Why is predictability basic to tlie process of warning? Predictability, Forecasting
and Warning
2 ) Why is it necessary that warnings sho~l(ldbe area-specific, time-specific and

user-specific?
3) How are Predictability, Forecasting and Warning inter-related?
10.3 ACTIVITIES AND TECHNIQUES WITH

REFERENCE TO SPECIFIC DISASTERS
All nntu~.aldisasters takc their toll whether they are floods, cyclones, earthq~~akes,
I
droughts, landslides, avala~ichesand forest fires. Therefore, it is necessary to
I
discuss the predictability, forecasting and warning with reference to each of these
I phenomena.
1
1 Predictability of Floods and Droughts
I
I
It is usefirl to consider these disaster phenomena together in tlie coritext of
I predictability because both floods and droughts are ma~iifestationsof the same
i weather element, viz., water. Floods occur due to excess of water whereas lack of
water results in droughts. Tlierefore, the predictability of floods and droughts in
I
fact ~iieansthe predictability of water, i.e., rain and run off. Further, as about 80%
I
of the annual -rainfall occurs in the sLllnlner monsoon season of June to September,
the predictability of floods and droughts depends heavily on the predictability of
, tlie monsoon rains in the partici~lararea.
I
1
I l'reparedncss and There are additional aspects, which determine whether a particularly heavy rainfall .
i
I
Mitigation will result in floods or scarcity of rain will create drought. For example, repeqted
!
i occurrences of heavy rainfall over an area already soaked with rain will certainly
I give floods. Excess water in a river, due to heavy rains in the upper regions of the
river, will create flood downstream. Absence (or lack) of drainage in any area will
aggravate flooding Iliere. Siini larly, repeated seasons of scanty rainfall will lead to
dro~~glltco~lditions.
1
I
Therefore, predictability of floods and droughts hinges on (i) the predict bility of
rainfall (predictability of ilie monsoon); (ii) whether the earlier rainfall in the area
lias been freque~itor infrequent; (iii) whether aoy river flowing through the area is
bringing excess water from upstream regions; and (iv) wliether there is a drainage
I probleni resulting in accurii~~lationof water in tlie area.
I
As these aspects are either predictable or monitorable, it is reasonable to conclude
I
that floods and droughts have a reasonably good predictability.
Predictability of Landslides, Avalanches and Forest Fires
l'hese three phenomena are being discussed together because these are basically
, I tlle hazards of mountain areas. Ful-thermore, rainfall (or snowfall) plays a crucial
!
I role although man-made causes increase these hazards to a very large extent.
I
p i
Landslides arc in fact downslide movement of soil and rock under the influence of
gravity. Erosion due to rainfall a~idfloods, or excess loading due to heavy
snowfall, or weakeni~igof ground due to stream erosion, mining quarrying, or
earti~quaketremors create landslides. In case of avalanclies, snow loading and
strong winds are the basic causes. Laclc of rainfall and the resulting dryness over
large forest areas sustain forest fires triggered by natural causes such as liglitning
strike or friction, or by ~nan-madecauses sucli as a burning 111atchstickor cigarette.
Strong winds fa11tlie forest fire and spread it. While rain. snow, dryness and w<inds
are predictable, factors sucll as erosion, excess loading and man-n~adecauses are
not predictable. Thus, the overall predictability of clisasters such as landslides,
avalanches and forest fires is less as compared to floods and droughts.
-
Predictability of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are caused by volcanic activity or geological activity. These changes

take place deep inside the earth and the processes are not yet fully understood.
- Therefore, earthquakes are not predictable to the extent that the place and time of
their occurrence can not be anticipated. However, the general areas wliere i
earthquake activity occurs are known and on a statistical basis, it is possible to
indicate that a major earthquake c o ~ ~perhaps
ld occur sometime solnewhere within
a large region. But, as mentioned above, it is not possible to predict the location or
time of an earthquake. Therefore as of now, earthquakes have no predictability in
a practical sense.
I
Predictability of Cyclones
Cyclones have the highest predictability among all tlie disasters. This is nlainly
because the scientists know quite well how cyclones are formed and how they
behave. As soon as formed over the ocean, cyclones can be detected and tracked
continuously with the help of modern instruments such as weather satellites and
weather radar. The accompanying hazard of storm surge is alsp predictable
tlirough techniques which take .into account the parameters of the' approaching
.cyclone as well as the cllaracteristics of tlie coast including the coastal slope under
tlie sea in the area where the cyclone is expected to hit the coast.
10.3.2 Forecasting Predictability, Forecasting
and Warning
Forecasting of Floods
For forecasting floods in tlie major rivers of tlie country, tlie nodal agency is tlie
Central Water ~ o l n ~ n i s s i o(CWC)
n under tlie Ministry of Water Resources of the
Government of India. CWC's headquarters are in New Delhi witli field stations
located in the major interstate river systems. Flood forecasting for rivers means
basically that an estimate is made of the future stages or watcr levels in the river at
selected points along tlie river during flood season. Tlie aim is to forecast the crest
and its time of occurrence at a place along tlie river. For this, it is necessary to
'
have liydrological data (characteristics of the river basin and the flood plains) and
liydro~iieteorologicaldata (rainfall in the catchment area, weather forecast, current
levcls of water and flow along the river). Tlie meteorological data related to
weather and climate and tlie weather forecasts are provided by the India
Meteorological Department (IMD) of Governnient of India to CWC who use this
information, along witli the hydrological data generated by their own organisation,
lo formulate flood forecast.
For floods other than river floods such as flash floods, blockage of water due to
inadequate drainage, forecasting takes the shape of monitoring because forecasting
of such local events is not practical and the only effective method is to mount a
monitoring and reportirig system locally.
Porecasting of Droughts
Droughts are a slow developing and creeping process as against floods, which are
quick and rapid.
As already mentioned, it is basically the scarcity (or absence) of rains that initiates
a dl*ougIitsituation. Long absence or less tlian nor~nalquantity of rainfall creates a
Meteorological Drought, which is forecast on the basis of the forecast of rainfall.
But if tlie rainfall continues to be scanty or totally absent to the extent tliat tliere is
scarcity of water in rivers, ponds and wells, it is called Hydrological Drouglit. If
tlie dry conditions make the land parched to the extent tliat 110 seeds can be sown,
standing crops (if any) wither and tliere is scarcity of water for irrigation, it is
termed as Agricultural Drought and it is forecast by taking into consideration tlie
condition of the crops and soil moisture in addition to the forecast for rain in tlie
coming days.
! Forecasting of Landslides, ~valanchesand Forest Fires
I
The basic forecast in these events is that of rainfall (or snowfall) atid stroqg kinds
I I
but additional factors have to be kept in view. For landslides, tlie stren&li of the
rock and any damage already occurred at ground have to be considered. For
I avalanclies, any undue accumulation of snow at a place or in a form where it could
I
I eventually break and come down heavily has to be watched.
I For forest fires, the extent of dryness of the forest wood and the accumulated dry
i I
material (leaves, twigs, grass) has to be taken into consideration because these
could get ignited either by a liglitning stroke or by other causes.
I
i
iI
Forecasting of Earthquakes
As already discussed, there is no technique available at present by which the place
-
i
I
I
or time of occurrence of an earthquake can be forecast.
j T't.cl);~rcdncss and Forecasting o f Cyciorles
f \I~l~e;~tion
The systeln of forecasting cyclones is quite well developed. The weather

forecasters (meteorologists) are able to detect tlie formation and 'subseq~~ent
movement of cyclones on weatlie]- cllarts that they prepare regularly based on
observations of atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity and winds.
Sim~~ltaneously, they locate and traclc tlie cyclones through satellites ant1 liigli
power cyclone detection radar. The images of cyclone tl~roughsatellite and radar
enable a constant monitoring of the intensification or weakening 0.f tlie cyclone.
Even then, Forecasting ol'tlie rnovement of a cyclone and tlie place where it will hit
tlie coast is a Iiiglily sltillecl task. Cyclones do not travel in straight lines. Their
Iracks are curved and they ol'ten make small loops as they go along. Cyclo~lesdo
not move witli tlie same speed all along their path. Sometimes they slow clown or
remain stationary 01,suddenly increase their speed. Tlierefo~.e,a cyclonc is kept
under constant surveillance and the forecast is frequently ~~pdatecl - generally every
Ilour and more frequently if consiclerecl necessary.
Warning of' Flootls
Tlie Central Water Commission (CWC) through its Flood Forecasti~~g Centres
issues flood warnings. The State Governmenls, based on the local experience. fix
a "Danger Level" for a river at certain places such as near cities or bridges. CWC
issues llood warnings when tl~criver level at a given place reaches or is expected
to reach the "Warning Level" wliicli is ~~sually one metre below the "Danger
Level". CWG i.Issues flood warnings in the form of "Daily Water Level and Flood
Forecast Bulletins". ~ u r i n gflood seasons, State Govern~i~ents set up control
rooms at State and District Headquarters wliicli receive the warnings from tlie
Flood Forecasting Centres of CWC and transmit tlie warnings to the affected areas.
-rl~eFlood Forecasting Centres also broadcast tlie warnings tIi~.oughAll India
Raclio as well as Doordarshan and also publisll in newspapers for widest possible
publiciiy. Tlie warnings are regularly ~~pdated as new observations and forecasts
become available.
Warning of Drougllts
As droughts develop slowly and are caused primarily by continuing deficie~lcyin

rainfall or other sources of water, the resulting situation needs to be watched and
effective relief action is to be initiated as soon as sowing of seeds or standing crops
begill to get affected. 'rller.efore, there is no warning system as SLICII for droughts.
However, tlie Agriculture and Revenue Departments of the states remain watclif~~l
(luring tlie dry weather seasons and tlie situation is monitored reg~rlarlyespecially
for those areas. wllicli arc known to be drought prone due to local climatic
conditions, scarcity of ground water and absence of irrigation facilities.
Warning of Landslides mid Avalanches
As discussed, heavy rains and heavy snowfalls initiate tlie~e~phenomena.Further,

these occul. rno1.e frequently in areas, wliicli are prone to these disasters due to the
peculiar local geological features such as weakness of soil or rock. Therefore,
warnings of heavy rainfall/snowfall combined witli carefill watch by local people
serve .as an effective alerting system. A local volunteer systeln is found to be of
great benefit and is Tollowed even in the developed countries. I
I
1
Warning of Forest Fires Predictability, Forecasting
and Wartling
Periods of extreme dryness combined with absence of rain/snow are the first
indication of tlie hazarcl of forest fires. Accumulation of co~nbustiblematerial
(such as dry leaves and wood) on the ground adds to the problem. I n most cases in
our country, I'orest fires start due to human carelessness. In such circunistances, a
system of advance warning is not feasible and usually the s~nolteor flame is tlie
first war~iing.
Warning of Earthqualccs
As earthquakes cannot be forecast as yet, there is no warning system for

ealthqualtes at present. I-Iowever, there are areas, which are known to be prone to
ea~-thcluakeactivity. Such areas liave a standing warning so to say. The country is .,
divided into zones representing the extent of liazard depending on tlie n ~ ~ ~ i iand
ber
severity of eal-tliqualtes that liave occurred in tlie past. Regio~iswith a history of
strong earthquakes are Inore hazardous and special care needs to be talte~iin
constructing structures such as multisto~~ied buildings, bridges and dams. If areas,
which liave experienced major eartliqualte activity in the past. remain undisturbed
, for long periods of many years, this can be talten as a warning (on a statistical
basis) that an eal-tliquake coiild occilr somewhere and sometimes in the area. But
tliis can only be talten as a general warning because the exact place and time of the
next ealtliqualte in the area cannot be indicatecl.
Another warning indication is tlie continued occurrence 01' tremors at a place

although it is not possible to be sure whether tlie tre~iiorsare indicative of an
impaiding eartliclualte or they denote nature's metliocl 0.F releasing tlie eartli's
internal stress in short bursts of tre~iioss.
i
I n ce~iaincases, some warning signals occur before an eartliqualte such as ~lnusual
' behaviour of animals ancl reptiles, sudden lowering or rising of water level in wells
and widening of existing natu~.alcracks ill the eal-tli's surface.
W i l r ~ i of
~ ~Cyclones
g
Cyclone warnings are issuecl by tlie India Meteorological Department (IWID)

tluougl~its Area Cyclone Warning Centres (Mumbai, Kolltata and Clie~inai)and
Cyclone Warning Centres (Ahmedabad, Bliubancsliwa~.and Visaltliapatnam). In
thc first stage of warning, a 'Cyclone Watch" is maintained during thc cyclone
seasons in tlie pre-monsoon and post-monsool~ancl post-monsoon montlis. In tlie
second stage, "Cyclone Ale11" is issued 48 IIOLI~S (two days) before the expected
commencelnent of bad weather along the coast. Warnings to ports and fislicrme~i
start earlier. 'I'lie ports display tlie warnings by hoisting special visual signals to
warn boats and ships. Warnings are i~pdatedregularly according to tlie progress of
the cyclone, which is kcpt i~nderconstant observatio~ithrough satellite and radar
I
I ecli~ipment."Cyclone Warnings" are commencccl 24 hours before the anticipated
lanclfall i.e. tlie anticipated time tlie cyclone is expected to hit the coast. These
cyclone war~iingsare ~ ~ p d a t eevery
d hour and Inore frequently if tlie situation so
demands. Finally about 12 hours before the s t o w is expected to fall below the
I
cyclone category i.e. the winds fall below the speed of '60 kni/h, "post-landfall
1 scenario" is issued.
Cyclone warnings are sent to tlie ports, airports, railways, State and District
authorities. These are issued to press and broadcast through radio and television.
For qi~icltand effective comniunicatio~iof cyclone warnings to tlie field areas .
liltely to be affected, a special system callcd Disaster Warning Sysle~i~
(DWS) has
been implemented in the coastal areas. By this system, cyclone warnings in local
- . language are broadcast from the Area Cyclo~ieW a r n i ~ ~Cerltre

/
g oTIMD to the field
A
'
and
P~.el)ared~~ess area directly via INSAT and this warning is received through a small apparatus
Mitigation installed at scliools or district offices or pancllayats in the coastal region. A large
number (about 300) of such apparatus have been installed 011 the east and west
coasts in area prone to cyclones, and more are to be installed.
110.4 IMPORTANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE
Wliile it is not possible to prevent the occurrence of disasters, it is certainly

possible to reduce the resultant disaslrous effects tl~ro~~gll
adequate preparedness
and timely action. The efl'ectivet~essof timely action is greatly enlianccd tlir0~1gl1
accurate forecasts and prollipt warnings. Herein lies the importance and
significance of forecasts and warnings of disasters. However, it is to be noted tliat
forecasting and warning are possible only for. those disasters, wliicli have some
inherent predictability.
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers. .

ii) Check your answers with those given at tlie end of this Unit.
I ) List tlie factors on wl~ichcleperlcls the prediclabi lily oI' floods.
2) Which is the most predictable iiatural disaster and which one is not predictable
at present?
- 3) Altliough ea~tliquakescannot be predicted, these are certain indications that

could aleit the people to the possibility of an ea~tliquake.List these.
-
10.5 LET US SUM UP

For effective management of disasters, we need aclcquate, reliable and timely
warnings cvliicli can be formulated only on the basis of accurate Sorecasts. Further,
accurate forecasts can be made only Sor thosc disasters that are predictable. I-lence,
rhcre is a close ancl significant link between Predictability, Forecasting and
Warning in respect of any disaster phenomenon. As man-made clisasters occiu
mostly duc to human error or mechanical railurc and are, tlicrefore, not predictable
it is not possible to issue a timcly warning for such disasters.
Among tlie natural disasters. cyclones are the most predictable and therefore
cyclone warnings prove most effective. Ea~~liqi~akesare not prediclable as yet and
hence ilsable warnings are not possible in advance.
In our countty, the Central Water Conimisiion through its Flood Forecastilig
entres issues food warnings. 'The India Meteorological Department (IMD)
7-
~ ~ r o ~its
~ gArea
l i Cyclone Warning Centres arid Cyclone Warning Centres issues
cyclone warnings.
10.6 KEY WORDS

Crest
Erosion Movemelit of soil or rock from one place to
another i~nderthe Ibrce of running water, moving
ice, rain, snow, or wind.
Flasl~Flood A flood that develops quickly and also recedes
qi~icltly with allnost no advance warning. It
happens due to exceptionally heavy rainfall over
a s~nallarea. In the hilly areas, accu~nulationof
large quantity of water (rain water or river water)
due to blocking of a narrowstrearn also results in
flash flood when the bloclcage gives way under
intense force of the acculni~latedwater.
Hydrological Pertaining to hydrology - tlie science and
engineering of water resources,
/
Hydrometeorological : Pertaining to tlie atmospheric aspects of
liydrological matters especially those related to
water resources and floods.
Meteorological Pertaining to the atlnospliere or the science of tlie
atmosphere.
Rivcr Stage A measure of the lieiglit of tlie water sulface in a
river at a given place.
Storm Surge An abnormal rise of the sea across the coast
under the influence of a cyclone. This results in
destruction and flood due to enormous 'quantity
of saltish seawater crossing over to inland areas.
Weather Radar electronic equipment for detection and tracking
of weather phenomena such as rainstorms and
cyclones.
Weather Satellite A satellite having the capability to take pictures
of weather over tlie earth and transmit these
pictures to a receiving station on the earth.
Usually weather satellites are also eqilipped with
instruments to measure other weather parametors
such as temperature of cloud tops.
1 ,
I
Prepareclness irncl
I
Mitigntion 10.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Agrawal, S. and N.B. Srivastava (Translators), 1986, Prukritik Pr~rlcop(in Hindi),
Joint Assista~lceCentre, Gurgaon.
Deslipandc, B.G., 1987, E~7rthyuakes,Aninials nnd Man, Maliarashtra Association
for tlie Cultivation of Sciences, Pune.
Indu Praksali, 1994, Di,sca/er ~Mcrrr~igement,
Raslitra Prallari Pral<aslian Sahibabad,
Gllaziabad, (U.P.)
Jain, N.K. (Guest Ed.), 1995, Moving Technology, Vol. 10 No. 1, Co~~ncilfor
Advancement of People's Action and Rural Technology (CAPART), New Dellii.
Misra, G.K.and G.C. M a t h ~ ~(Eds.)
r 1995, Naturul Dis~~sterReduction, Reliance
Publishing House and Indian Institute oTPublic Administration, New Dellii.
Rangacliari R., 1986, Flood Forccusting uncl Warning Network on Interstute
Rivers of lndiu, Central Water Commission, New Dellii.
Rangacliari R. (Editor), 1989, hhiiitlul on Flood Forecusting - Central Wuter
Commi,r..sion,New Del hi. I
I I
Sharma, V.K. (Editor), 1995, Dis~~stcr

Mun~~genleiit,
Indian Institi~teof Public
Administration, New Delhi.

EXERClSES
1) Y O Lanswer
I~ slionld incluclc the following points:
e Predictability is tlie lcey to understand tlie nature of any disaster
phenomenon and thereby to assess tlie chances of its recurrence.
U~llessa disaster has predictability, its occurrence cannot be forecast and
therefore warning will not be possible.
2) Your answer should include tlie followi~igpoints:

o Place-specilic so that people there are prepared and relief agencies are
ready for action around the specific area instead of being dispersed over a
large area.
Time-specific so that proper precautions can be taken around that time
because people catinot remain in a state of high preparedness indefinitely
for long periods.
e User-specific so that the persons likely to be affected or those concerned
with relief work can be alerled specifically and quickly.
I 3) Your allswer shoi~ldi~lcludethe following points:

A useful warning can be issued only on the basis of an accurate forecast,
wliicli, in tul-11,is possible, only if the particular disaster phenomenon has
inherent pred ictabi 1ity.
Thro~igho~~t the chain of predictability, forecasting, and warning,
creclibility is essential at evely stage so that tlie,forecast and warning are
22 believed ancl acted upon.
I
Clieclc Your Progress 2 Prcdictn bility, Forecasting
and 'Warning
I ) Your answer sliould include the following points:

a Predictability of rainfall (i.e., monsoon).
a Whether there has already been rain in the area.
0 Whether any river is bringing excess water from upstream.
a Wliethcr there is a drainage problem in the area.

e Cyclone i5 most predictable.
o EarLIiquake is not predictable at present.

0 Tremors
o Abnormal behaviour of animals and reptiles
a Suddcn lowering or rise ofwater level in wells
o Widening of natural cracks in the ea~th'ssurface.
- -
UNIT 11 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS PLAN

Structure
Ob-jectives
I~itroduction
Impo~tanceand Significance
Cliaracteristics, Nature and Scope
Methods For Preparing Plan
1 1.4.1 Shorl-tcm Plan
1 1.4.2 Long-tern1 I'lan
Let Us Sum Up
ICey Words
References and Furlher Readings
1 1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this nit, ~ O LshouIc1

I be able to:
state thc impol-tarice and significance of Disaster Preparedness Plan;

a describe the nature and scope of Disaster Plans; and
disc~~ss the essential featuses of Long-term and Short-term Plans.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters cause sudden disruption to tlie normal life of a community and cause
damages to property and lives to such an extent that normal social and economic
mecha~~is~ns available to the community get disturbed. People and officials are both
caught unawares and in the circumstances so~iieti~nes tend to lose tlieir sense of
initiative and direction. Consequently, relief work is hampered and unnecessarily
delayed.
In such cases, tlie existence of a well tliouglit out and tested disaster-preparedness :
plan is very useful. Tlle officials then liave at their hand, a complete set of 0
instructions, whicli they ian follow and also issue directions to tlieir subordinates
and the affected people. This has the effect of not only speeding up the rescue and
relief operations, but also boosting tlie morale of the affected people.
Disaster plans are also usefill pre-disaster situatiolis, when war~iingsliave been
issued. The plan also serves as guidance to officials ancl precious time is saved
whicli might otherwise be lost in consultations with senior officers ancl getting
formal approval froni autliorities.
11.2 IMPORTANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE

The need for disaster preparedness plan is self-evident, llational and international
experience mostly indicates that where plans did not exist or planning was
inadequate, tlie ill effects of disasters have been worse than would have otherwise
been the case. A senior disaster ~nanagenientofficial is said to have remarked after
a recent cyclone: "When we look back on the cyclone and wliat it did to our
country, there is 110doubt that liundreds of people are alive here today because we
had proper disaster plans".
A disaster preparedness plan essentially contains nieasures to be taken before,

during and after disaster strikes. It contains an inventory of wliat materials are
available where and with whom, and the delegation of responsibilities and
coordination ~iieclianismsamong v a r i o ~ ~gover~irlient
s officials and departments, It Disnster Preparedness
gives location of temporary slielters and guidelines about pa~tnersliipswith other Plan j
boclies lilic NGOs, social worlters and inter~~ational agencies. T ~ L I Sill, a11
emergelicy situation, authorities have a ready g ~ ~ i at
d eIiand tuid are fi~llyaware of
llle steps to be talcen. Creating awareness among the people and preparing the
communities to deal with ariticipated situations are tlie ~iiosti ~ n p o ~ t aobjectives
~lt of
a disaster prepal-edness plan. Disaster Preparedness Plans also contain certain
wide-ranging measul-es to be carlied out. It includes measures like
lon~~,-ter~ii,
constr~~ctionof e~iiba~ikmentsalolig rivers, retrofitting OF houses, periodic
irlspection of critical river stretches, establishing a systelii of c o ~ i ~ ~ ~ i u ~ i i c a t i o ~ i ,
constructioli of relief centres, and land use measures.
A plan has to be practical if it has to succeed. For this purpose, it necds to be

~eviewedcal-eii~llyat periodic intervals ancl amenclcd as necessary in tlie light of tlie
experience gained. Conlpetent plan executio~iby tlie administration has nLlnieroLls
;~~l\jnntages.It ensures that clevelopment arid disaster preparedness do not disturb
caLii other but compleiiient each other. It also ensures that, should disaster strilte, ,
the t r 1 1 1 , 1.11,cnto r c t ~ ~ to
r n nor~iialcyis rnini~~iized
and that loss of life and property
is minimum.
Check Yol~l-Progress 1
Note: i) Use tlie space given below for your ansyers.

ii) Checli Y O L I answers
~ with those give11at tlie elid of this Unit.
I ) What do you ~~nderstand

by Disaster Preparedness Plan?
2) What is the importance and significance of Disaster Preparedness Plan?
1 1.3 CETARACTER'TSTICS: NATURE AND SCOPE
Tliere is no rigid or standard format for disaster preparedness plans. In fact, the
reverse applies, ill that the format needs to fit the cirdumstances in which tlie plan is
being ~iiade'andthe recluirements, which it is designed to meet. The essential point
is tliat tlie disaster preparedness plan should b~.exliaustivebut also practical. I-lence
certain common features telid to appIy to.most - plans. These are discussecl below:
Preparedness and Clarity of Aim
Mitigation -
The aim needs to be caref~~lly and accurately selected, because it determines the
whole thrust and scope of the plan. All information, guidelines, directions and
instructio~is,which are included i n the plan, need to be in line witli the aim.
Realism
The plan must be realistic in the sense that it relates to an accurate assessment of the
disaster threat and tlie vulnerability of the community and that it takes into account
the scale and capability.of counter-disaster resources which are available. In most
cases, the plan will be used under difficult disaster circumstances when, perhaps,
commui~icationsare adversely affected; therefore, tlie plan should be able to
respond to various contingencies during a disaster scenario.
Level of the Pian
Tlie plan must be accurately related to the level witli which it is concerned, e.g.,
Village level, Block level, Taluka or Tehsil level or District level.
Flexibility
Disaster circumstances tend to vary and do not necessarily follow set patterns,
counter-disaster plans also need to be flexible. Flexibility is best achieved by
planning to cope with the fill1 range of possible disaster threats and ensuring that,
within tlie overall plan, response arrangements can be rapidly adapted to new ,and
changing circumstances. Planned decentralization, where appropriate, is a useful
way towards achieving flexibility.
Since coordination of efforts is a key factor in counter-disaster activities, the plan

sllould include an o p t i n ~ i ~system
~ n for direction/coordi~iation.
Assignment of responsibility
\
It is critically impo~tantthat respolisibilities are clearly and unambiguously defined

and nssigned in the plans. Tllis reduces to a n i i n i ~ n ~ ~tlie m possibility of
misunderstandings, duplications and o~nissionsin the various activities the plan
covers. Of equal importance is the fact that clear definition of responsibilities
sigriifica~itlylielps in achieving coordinsttio~lof effort.
Ease of Use
The plan should be for~nulatedin such a way that it is easy to understand and easy
to use. References within the plan slloi~lclbe clear and readily identifiable. Also,
the text of the plan needs t o be kept as clear and concise as possible, with annexes
being used for very detailed information.
-
Plan Components
There are a n~lmberof options for dividing the plan into sections or components.
One way this can be achieved is to have:
i) A main plan (or main action plan) which contai~lsthe primary parts of the plan,
such as the anticipated disaster threat, vulnerability of the community
(including its strengths and weaknesses in relation to each anticipated disaster
scenario), tlie main requirenients for dealing with the threat, resources, Disaster Preparcdness
organisation, direction and coordination, warning, operational implementation Plan
of tlie plan, counter-disaster operatioils, recovery policy, and post-disaster
review process.
i) Sub-plans which are a pait of the main plan but which may be required to
amplify parts of tlic riiain plari wliicl~need special consideration, sucli as
evacuation, relief camps, pl~blicin'for~natiotl,arid so on.
iii) Special plans which tnay be required to deal with special contingencies sucli as
an outbreak of co~nrno~i or rare clisense, which would require specialist
personnej arid procedures, Such special plans wo~lldnormally be designed to
work in harmony wit11 the main plan arid utilize the overall counter-disaster
effort as necessaty.
Viability
i~lcludearrangeme~ltsfor periodically reviewing so that it is kept

The Plan slio~~ld
LIP-to-dateand firlly viable for the purposes for which it is designed.
Structul-e of the Plan
A typical disaster preparedness plan is itructured as follows:
(i) Contents
(ii) Authorization
(iii) Map References
(iv) Introduction
I ( ) The Disaster Threat
(b] National Policy and State Policy
,
(c)' General Concept for Disaster Action
(v) Ainl of the Plan
(vi) Defl!~itions
I
I (vii) Relatio~ishipswith other Plans
i 1
(viii) Main requirements for dealing with Disasters in the area
I
(ix) E~nergcncyPowers
(a) Disaster Legislation
I
,I (b) Other Legislation

(x) Counter-Disaster Resources
I
I (a) Wit11i11tlie area
(b) In tlie neighbourliood '
(xi) Organisational Structure and Respo~lsibilities
I
I ' (a) Prime Minister
I
I
(b) Chief Mi~~iste~./Admi~i,istrator
(of Union Territory)
(c) . Nodal Ministry at tlie Centre and state
'
(cl) National Disaster Management Struct~~re

(c) State or Regional DisasteP Management Committees-
(0 District Disaster Manage~nentStri~cture
+&?. --
!-
Prepnredne'ss and
I (g) Non-government Organisations active in the area and their
, 7 Mitigat~on specializations and resources
1 c
.
, (11) Other community based organisations in the area

I
(i) Defence Services and Para Military Forces available in the area for
Disaster Management work
('j) International Assistance Arrangements
(k) Coordination of Planning, Organisational and Operational Measures-
Control Room
; (I) Media cooperation
1
(xii) Preparedness Measures

(a) General
(6) National Level
(c) State Level
(d) District and/or Co~n~nunity
Level
(e) Training and Public Awareness Progra~limes
(xiii) Communications (General and Emergency)
(xiv) Opel-ational Direction and Coordination
(a) Responsibility for Operational Directi~nand Coordination
(b) National E~nergencyOperations Centre - Control Room
(c) State Emergency Centres - Control Iioo~n
(d) District Emergency Centre (Control lioom)

(e) Field Control Rooms
(xv) Warning Arrangements
(a) General
(b) Agencies Originating Warnings
(c) Transmission of Warnings
(d) iss semi nation and Public Broadcast of Warnings
(e) Notification of de-alert or All-Clear messages
(xvi) Operational Implen~entationof Plan
Stages of lmple~iientation
(xvii) Counter-Disaster (or Response) Operatio~~s
(a) Precautionary Measures '
(b) Activation of Emergency Operations Centres (Control Rooms)

(c) Direction and Coordination of Operations
(d) Information Requirements
(e) Operational Requirements in disaster stricken areas
I
(0 Operational Action - National Level

(g) Operatiortal Action - State, Regional and Local Levels
28 ' (h) ' Period of Disaster Operations (Emergency Phase) I
I
1
I
Disaster Preparedness
Plan
(a) . Statement of Pol icy for Recovery
(b) Kesponsibility for Recovery Programme
(c) Cross-referelice to Recovery Plan (if applicable)
I six) Post-Disaster Review

(a) Responsibility
(b) Debriefing
I (c) Review of Plans and Organisations
I
I
(xx) Support Measures
(a) Training
+ (b) Public Awareness
(xxi) Annexures
(a) Distrib~ltionLists
I
I (b) Telephone Numbers, cell phone numbers and addresses of
fi~nctionaries
I
(c) List of Resources
i (d) Functional Diagrani of Organisatio~i
(e) Allocation of Roles and Responsibilities to Reso~~rce

Organisations
(f) Guidelines for International Assistance Arrangements
1
(g) Comni~~~iicatio~is
(11) Detailed Information on War~ii~lg
I
(i) Measures on R'eceipt of Warning

Preca~~tionary
c) Guidelines on Training
(k) Guidelines on Public Awareness
(I) Format for Departlnental Standard Operational Procedures

1 (m) List of media persons and agencies with telephone ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n b e r s
I
I
Checlt Your Progress 2
, Note: i) Use tile space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with tliose given at the end of this Unit.
t
I ) What are the main cliaracteristics of a Disaster Preparedness Plan?
Preparedness and 2) List at least five main items in the structure of a Disaster Preparedne~sP!an.
M itigntion
11.4 METHODS FOR PREPARING PLAN
11.4.1 Short-term Plan
Shol-t-term plan comprising relief to be provided immediately following a disaster is

generally based on past experiences. Short-term plans are action based and aimed
at restoring nor~nalcyin the shortest possible time.
One of the foremost requiremeilts of any plan woi~ldbe to define the area where it
would be applicable and. the agencies that would be responsible for its
implementation and coordination. Once the boundaries are defined, the following
inputs would be required:
(i) The amount of resource material likely to be required as relief based on the
statistics on the intensity and spread ofvarious disasters in the area in the past
ten year period.
(ii) Certain areas are prone to disaster and each time relief is provided, a number
of short-comings come to light; these become lessons to serve as inputs for
future planning of relief and rescue exercises.
\
(iii) Short-term l'lans should be based 011the vulnerability of the area to particulat
types of disasters. Forecasts on future disasters, if available, should b e
~~sefully
interpreted into action plans.' . , .
. (iv) Short-term Plans should incorporate suggestions and capabilities of all

departments concerned of the District/State, Non-Government Organisations
and Community Based Organisations. Therefore, plans !nay be prepared by
setting up c o ~ n ~ n i t t at
e eappropriate
~ level to include their inputs.
11.4.2 Long-term Plan I,
The situation may not always warrant long-term plans, but such plans should have
the ability to build a culture of disaster mitigation and be aimed at reducing
I
vulnerability of the area. As such any long-term plan should include policy
directives on preparedness as well as post disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation
phases (the latter as afollow up of the short-term contingency plans). The following
are the basic attributes of a long-term plan:
j (i) The foremost requirement for' the preparation of a long-term plan is

estabiishing its need i n ail area, Need may be establisl~edon the basis of the
vulnerability of the.area, resborce availability and trade off between the cost of
its implementation and other competing needs for overall development. In this
context the long-term disaster ~nitigationplan or rehabilitation phn, as part of
overall dexelap~l~eiitplan becomes significant.
( i i ) In case of rehabilitation plan, the Level of damage that has taken place in the Disrster Preparedness
c o r n m u ~ decides
i~~ whether long-term intervention is required or not. Tlie Plrn
strategies of the Rehabilitation would depend considerably on tlie damage
assessment report.
(iii) A detailed survey of the community, which studies tlieir needs and
expectations in detail and seeks out their traditions and customs wliich they
would lilte to preserve, has to be carried out. This would serve as an important
. input in deciding an intervention strategy that is acceptable to tlie comniunity.
(iv) Tlie long-term plan sliould seek an objective of acliieving overall development
and by satisfying basic needs - shelter, economic and social - of the
community. Reducing disaster vulnerability should be a means to achieve the
objective of overall develop~nentand not a11elid in itself.
(v) Long-term plans being resource intensive, many of tlie interventions decided
tlierein are limited by the availability of resources. For example, in riialiy
cases, where tlie need for rehabilitation tlirougli relocatio~iis established, tlie
same may not be implemehted due to lion-availability of land.
(vi) Long-term plans may be implemented successfully o~ilythrough partnersliips
with NGOs and with active c o ~ n ~ n i ~ ~participation.
iity The involvement of
these bodies should be at the outset itself in deciding the interventions
req 11ired.
Check Your Progress 3 .

ii) Check your answers with those given at tlie elid of this Unit.
1 ) What are the items on which a Short-ter~iiPlan sliould be based?
2) ['splain tlie steps in prkparing Long-term Plan.
1
\
11.5 LET US SUM UP
A well-coordinated, comprehensive disaster preparedness plan is a v'ery essential

part of any progra~n~ne of disaster mitigation. Since a disaster mailagement pla~i
contains gilidelines 011 how to act in, before and after disaster strikes, it gives a .
sense.of diiection in tirnes of crises and contributes a great deal towards minimizing
damage in disaster situations. However, not all plans are guccessful or utilized. If a
Preorredness and disaster-preparedness plan is attractively-presented,clear and easy to read, it will be
Mitigatiori
referred to. On the contrary, if tlie plan is a jumbled document, overwhelmed by
masses of statistics, no one will bother to read it, let alone act on it. Since there is
basically no rigid format for a disaster preparedness plan, this flexibility should bc
utilized to tlie niaximu~nand plans should be practicable in the specific area they are
intended for. Plans can be both long-term and short-term. Depending on the
disaster they are targeted at and the time period, different methods are used to make
these plans.
11.6 KEY WORDS
Decentralisation - transferring the responsibility from central control

to lower levels in an organized and planned
manner.
Viability - the capability of tlie activity/plan to do what it is
intended to do.
Counter-disaster resources- resources for combating disasters or their effects.
Coordination - organizing activitieslpeople together to work
properly.
Flexibility - the ability to cllange easily and adapt to different
conditions and circunistances as they occur.
Realism awareness of the facts about the situation.
Stalteholders - all tliose (Goveniment, NGOs, Public) who are
involved slid interested in disaster management.
Army Training Command, Policy Approach and Role of various org~mi~surions.for

Disaster Miwagenlent in Indiu.
A D2,s~/,sterMUI~LI~CI-!Y
Carter, W.N. (1991), Di.sa~.ferMa~~rlgement: Hc~irll,ook,
Asian Development Bank, Manila,
Institute of Civil Engineers for Overseas Development Autliority (1995),
Meg~rcities:reducing vulnerability to ncrtz~raldisusters, T l i o ~ ~Telford,
~as London.

EXERCISES
Check Your Prog~.css1
I ) Your answer should include tlie followi~igpoints:

Disaster preparedriess plan co~~iprisesoxliairstive infor~nation and
guidelines for use during all phases of a disaster situation viz., pre-disaster,
during disaster and post-disaster phases.
Disaster preparedness plan should be easy to i~~>dersta~id
It can be a iiatia~ialplan or a state plan 01. a district plan or a community
plan.
2 ) Your answer should include the following points: Disaster Preparedness
Plat1
a The situation during or afier disaster is chaotic and difficult to deal wil.11
~ ~ n l ethere
s s is a plan of action to follow.
e As the plan is prepared in consultation with all involved agencies
(government or non-gover~~ment),
the coordination is ensured which is vital
for maximum results.

(a) Clarity o-fAim
(b) Rea I'Ism
(c) Level of the Plan
(d) Flexibility
(e) Coordination
(f) De.finitionof responsibility
(g) Viability
2) Your answer sl~oulcllist at least .five out of the 21 items (i to xxi) mentioned
under "Str~~ctirre
of the Plan" in Section 1 1.3.
Cl~eclcYour Progress 3
1) Your answer should i~lcluclethe followi11gpoints:

a liesources likely to be required based on experience of past ten years.
F I,~SSOIIS learnt cluring past disaster situations.
Vulnerability assessments.
Suggestions and proposals of stakeholders.
2) Your answer shoulcl include the following points:

Establishing the need for a long-term plan.
r Assessing damages in the past cases.
Surveying the community for their long-term needs accordirlg to their
traditia~iand custom.
iI Coordinating long-term disaster preparedness plans with development

plans of the area.
Seekingpartnersliips with NGOs and the peopl,e in the area.
UNIT 12 LAND-USE ZONING FOR DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Structure
f
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 General Policy Considerations for Disaster Management
12.3 Issues at the National, Regional and Local Levels
12.4 Zoning Controls
12.4.1 Land Use Macro Zoning
12.4.2 Land Use Micro Zoning
12.4.3 Sub-division regulations
12.4.4 Building or Location I-'erniits
12.4.5 Open Space Controls
12.4.6 Building Codes
12.5 Location of Activities and Land-Use
12.5.1 Implications in Town Planning
12.6 Application of Remote Sensing and GIs
12.7 LetUsSumUp
12.8 Key Words
12.10 ~ h s w e rto
s Check Your Progress Exercises
12.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you sl~ouldbe able to:
understand the relationsllip between land-use zon'ing and disasters;

know how faulty allocations of land-use can ofteq become the cause of
disasters;both man-made and natural; and
describe how judicious land-use zoning can help not only in'jdisaster
mitigation, but also in disaster relief operations.
1 2 . INTRODUCTION
The rapid growth and spread of population in harardous areas is a matter of
increasing concern because it leads to mounting costs of disasters in terms of lives
lost and damage to property and investments. Besides, the high residential
densities add to the problen~sin hazardous areas. The risk is further increased by
the drama& increase in infrastructural investments and development assets that get
destroyed by disasters. There land-use has to be decided keeping in view the
vulnerability to disasters. In other words, land-uselzoning has t~ be done so that
different land zones can be earmarked for major activities in accordance with the
risks that they are likely to withstand.
Land-use zoning for disaster prevention and mitigation may act as a spur to
comprehensive land-use planning, morerso is disaster prone regions. The major
elements of land-use planning may be summarized as follow:
i) Land-use policies and plans setting out the social, "economic and
environmental of comprel~ensiveland development and their stages of
development;
i i ) Land ownership and land tenure patterns identif'ying the legal, social and Land-Usc Zoning for
economic basis of ownership and tenure; Disaster Management
iii) Land values and prices, reflecting the forces of supply and demand for land;
and
iv) Land-use controls which may be subdivided into three broad categories, i.e.,
legal, fiscal and directive.
12.2 GENERAL POLICY CONSIDEMTIONS FOR

DISASTER MANAGEMNT
Land-use policy is only one of the possible strategies to mitigate disaster, and all
1 measures must be responsive to the economic and-social resource balance of the
region. The major concerns of national or regional policy formulation deal mainly
* with economic and social goals but with environmental goals becoming
increasingly important.
Regional policies emphasize local considerations and correspondingly appropriate

physical planning and hence are particularly relevant for disaster management.
Regional policies may include objectives such as a balance between various areas
in the region by directing econon~icdevelopment into backward areas, or the ,
ericourage~nentof urban development to allow for social mobility and progress

necessa~yfor industrial activity.'
Major co~nponentsof regional policies include the selection of areas designated for
transport networks, industry, agriculture, and urban growth. The area aspects of
regional planning are a vital link to national planning efforts and constitute a basic
means of implementing disaster prevention policies.
Thus, guiding the location of activities within a region may not only serve social,
economic and environmental goals but may also serve as a means of mitigating
disasters leading to very significant benefits in the medium to long-term.
Local policies (including urban policies) are extremely important in the total
planning process, for these g ~ ~ i the
d e specific area distribution of human activities.
It is here that investments are made and the development of human settlements
take place. and it is here that specific llazard mitigation programmes are really
required.
India being a developing count~y,most areas iinder developmental planning and

land-use is decided/assigned accordingly. But the requirements of disaster
mitigation tend to receive lower priority because of the overriding considerations
of expediency. Tlle apparent clash of interest between development and disaster
management arises because of the following considerations:
i) The pressures for development are frequently so overwhelming that disaster

risk is often overlooked in the hope of sI101.t-term gains, and little weight is
likely to be given to disaster prevention in land-use policies.
iii Traditional systems'of land-use have over a long period adjusted to periodic
disasters; but the pace of develop~nentover the last few decades has upset the
natural socio-economic modes of adjustment. This pace is not likely to slow
down, i t least, in the foreseeable future.
iii) Traditional and i~lter~nediate
indigenous econo~nicsystems are highly sensitive
to regulation and the economic costs (measured by employment or
employment growth losses) or uprooting, relocating, or i@i6iting development
. qan be' very high in labwr intensve employment s&&fs. This llampers land-
use zoning
) ' to take*care,~fdisastqr
mitigation, .
iv) Growth of populalion and Inntl ~Iior.tagesliave tended to make tlie poor pool-cr
and sli~l'lto marginal lancl. s ~ ~ casl i ravines, steep slopes, low flood plains or
even siverbccls. This ma~ginalland is prone to floods, landslides or ot[ier
adverse natural phenomena.
12.3 ISSUES AT THE NATIONAL, REGIONAL AND

LOCAL LEVELS
In tlie Sormulation of land use ~policics in a broad rra~neworltat ~iatiorialand

regional levels, tlie rollowing issues have bcen founel to be important in the context
of disaster management. Tlie cliscussion here is with reference to floods, wliicli are
tlic mosl li.cqucnt natural disaster.
i) Tlic conflict between irrigat~onand tloocling provides a basic dilernrna for

planners. Some of' ~Iicgains of extra agricultural produce through irrigation
can be legitilnatcly claimecl to be preferable to tlie less tangible henefits of
extra flood manageme~~t and niitigation measures since reservoirs for irrigation
water ~hviouslynced to be I q t li~ll.whereas for flood prevention tlie need is
for empty reservoi~.~to absorb floods when they come. In our country, most of
tlie big reservoirs are for irrigation and not lor flood control. Orily tlie
~cservoirsof tlie Dnmoclal. Valley Corporation cater to food control in addition
to i r ~igdtion.
ii) Floods provide si It for increasing soil re12ility, while botli floocl prevention and
irrigalio~ican either eliminate tlie silting or limit it to well-defined areas.
Large nu~iibersol'small t'armcrs can lose tlieir Iiveliliood 01-have their illcome
reduced if tlieir interesls are not talten into account in the new plans.
iii) Tlie relation between flooclplain management and watershed area management
has still not been suficicntly clarified; lio\vevcr, it is generally agreed that
~lncontrolleddcforcstation and shifting agricultural cultivation can cause soil
. erosion, lower water Iioldirig capacity of tlic lalid and increased risk of
flooding through silting or riverbeds.
iv) Rapid urbanisation has producccl large concentrations of urban squatters who
liave by ancl large settlecl on unoccupied land (boll1 p ~ ~ b l and
i c private) in
~~nattractiveor undesirable locat~ons,inclucl~ngmarshes and other low-lying
lalid exposed to periodic: or seasonal flooding, but where they are close to
employment oppot-[unitiesand services. 01ieof tlie most s e r i o ~ ~aritl
s difficult
challenges to land-use policics is tlic ~ieeclto provide safe and suitable urban
land for all segments of thc population, including the lowest income groups
\vho call least afrortl tlie disr~~ption"!qoughtabout by having to live in areas
constantly subject Lo disasters.
Tlie relocation of squatter settlements from low lying flood-prone areas is
often hampered by the high cost of suitable alternative locations, and the
extremely high per capita costs of new infrastructure and services, for which
subsidies directed at Llie lowest income groups are rare because of unbalanced
Iiousing policies and tlie low capacity of loan repayrner~tamong this segment
oftlie population. FUI-tliermore,as mentioned above the lowest income groups
tend to congregate as near as possible to tlieir sources of employment,
whatever tlie risk. In sum, nothing sliort of comprehensive policies atid
prograliimes can effectively cope with problems of disaster prevention in
urban clevelopment.
The comprehensiveness of a policy framework is apparent where land-use
policies are supported by corresponding social and economic policies. Thus,
tlie reservation of new urban lalid for housing, especially where low income
families are concerned, should be linlced to transport and employment Land-Use Zoning for
Disaster Managcrnent
facilities, education ancl other social services. The modes of investment in, and
development of, new urban lands are complex. The most feasible approach is
one that ~~~iclertaliesthe clevelopment of infrastructu~-eservices ancl Iiousing in
progrcssivc pliases, employing wherever possible popular pa~ticipation
techniques to rcduce capital costs by investing tlie l a b o ~ ~and
r savings of tlie
intc~.estcdpopulation itself. One may cite core-housing. sites and services, and
the creation of small savings and loan societies or co-operative as components
of tlie total land development process;
Y) With increasing i~rban and industrial development resulting in drainage
congestion, tlie risli of floocling increases. On Ilie other hand alternatibe urban
1 clevelopment strategies aimccl at clecentralisation and the creation of secondary
u ~ b a ncc11t1.c~
arc iicqucnlly hcyoncl thc available resources.
I vi) In virlnerable towris and villages, the land-use planning process is confronted
with many of tlic same social arid econoriiic dilen>masthat can be found in
Ia~ncl-useplarlning for floods and otliel- liazards. The most vulnerable areas are
the portions wit11 tlie oldcst housing. The poor- generally live in thc older ancl
most crowded sectors. The economic and social cost of uprooting, clisturbing
ancl resettling this population may inliibit employment and inco~negrowtli alid
also disturb tlic delicately balanced traditional social system especially in tlie
villages. Tlii~s,tlie rezoning o r land in tlie olcler poorly built or higli-risk
pol-lions of towns can have unfavourable incomc distribution cffects.
Noncllielcss. preventive measurcs are required, but should be closely
Iiarmoniscd with both land use ancl Iiousing policies clesigned to respond to the
problcm ol'social and economic development.
, I
Chcclt Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use tlic space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of this 1Jnit.
) Why arc land-usc policy considerations rele\lant for disaster management i n

illc corltest ol'development?
!) What issues at the national and regional level play an i~nportantrole in

land-use zoning for disaster management?
Zoning and sub-division controls are two means by which government can regulate
and control both land use pattern and development in both rural and urban areas.
Legal controls are increasingly used to regulate the activities of the private sector
by placing location restrictions and rni~ii~iii~~iistandards on specific types of land
uses and activities. 'These controls can take tlie following forms:
12.4.1 Land Use Macro Zorli~~g

Macro zoning is the establishn~entof land use planning zones at regional levels.
Such zones gelierally establish agricultural, urban, industrial and recreational uses
incorporating existing and future patterlis. Specitic uses a1.e allowed in designated
areas, altliougli macro-zoning plans are lcvised at appropriate intervals to take into
account changes and growth. Such zoning is an efficient tool to control the
over-all location of various human activities. Macro zoning has a broad firnction
in the seduction of risk since hazardous areas can be zoned permanently for
agricultural or recrcational uses, ~ni~ii~nizing
as far as possible urban or sen~i-urban
concentrations of population or ind~~stry.
Nati~ralhazard macro-zoning is a technique of somewhat longer staliding and more

general application, but has been of limited use for detailed land-use planning,
since it: applies natul.al hazard napp pi rig to the national and regional scales only.
However, the demarcation of a country or 'regions into broad areas of natual
hazard is ~rsefulfor outlining general national policies in disaster.prevention and
mitigation.
As an example, land use planning with respect to flood plains can 'have two
objectives:
i) To bring about the most effective beneficial use of tlie flood plain with least
pbssible risks, consistctit with over-all community development; and
ii) To promote the healtla and safety of the present occupants of land prone to
flooding.
During the forniulation of the land use plan, certain parts of the flood plains can be
studied in the following format.
i) If residential and other public interest uses are to be permitted in tlie floodway
fringe area, it shoi~ld be only ,'after adequate safeguards in tlae form of
construction desigri criteria, which should be enforced to render structures safe
from floods.
ii) Unless economic and location factors greatly over-balance the risk of potential
flood damage, industrial development in flood hazard areas slioi~ldbe limited
I
to a certain type of industry to areas beyond the limits of the floodway (e.g.,
pulp and textile mills, chemical and metal processi~igplants which require
large quantities of water and discharge great amount of effluent).
iii) Site needs for wholesale and distribution uses, which require the stocking of
large quantities of goods particularly susceptible to water, are flexible enough
that locations free from flooding can ~~sually
be found.
iv) Flood plain land can be left as natural parks or developed as golf courses,
picnic spots and stadium areas.
An evaluation of land use must include an analysis of public works and

improvements and their relation to the local flood problem. The planning of public
improvements, sucll as water and sewage treatment plants, transportation facilities
and public buildings require the same type of consideration that is accorded tc
L private developme!lt with respect to floading.
12.4.2 Land Use Micro Zcxing Land-Use Zoning for
I Disaster Management
Micro zoning is the detailed preparation of land use maps by local bodies and
public authorities, particularly in urban settlements, fixing speciric land - uses for
each site (such as residential, educational, colnlnercial, etc.). Micro zoning also
details the density of land uses at pal-ticular sites. Furthermore, micro zoning
establishes a detailed land use pattern within ,the natural hazard macro-zoning
framework. From the point of disaster prevention, micro zoning is a basic tool
which relates natural hazard assessment to land-use planning.
Detailed risk analysis for given locations assists in determining both land-use and
building criteria. It can be said as a general rule, that whereas natural hazard
macro-zoning maps are based on tlie broad geological and geographical
configuration of a given region coupled to records of past hazard frequency and
magnitude, natural Iiazard micro-zoning is essentially a detailed study of the
probability of natural hazards in a given site as determined principally by the
detailed stucly of sub-soil conditions. Naturally, hazard zoning identifies not only
probable intensities but also probable return periods or frequency. Micro-natural
hazard niapping allows tlie land-usc planner to employ quantitative as well as
cli~alitativecriteria for establishing land use z o ~ i n gguidelines. Similarly, it enables
tlie civil engineer to formulate Inore precisely, than wo~ildotherwise be possible,
building codes for public worlts, housing, industry, education and health facilities
and transport networl<s.
12.4.3 Su b-division Regulatioi~s

Sub-division regulations, like zoning, provide public control over the development
of land. The sub-division regulation is a widely used tool that seeks to ensure tlie
proper development of ~lnusedland. This is accomplished through approval of
plans by the designated government authority where the criteria for approval
cstablisli restriction governing the exact way land is subdivided and tlie provision
~nadeI'or p~11)licfacilities and infrastructure. Tlie developer is proliibited from
commencing development until tlie authorized government agency approves a niap
of the proposed design of the sub-division.
12.4.4 Building or Loeation Permits

Building and location permits provide planncrs and government oficials with an
opportunity to exercise ~nicro-controlsover development. A building permit can
be ilsecl not only to regulate tlie type of land use activity and the structure it
occupies but also enables the authorities to control employment opport~~llities
tllereby inllilencing patterns of development.
Tlie point here is that land use controls SI~OLIICI not be limited to those areas tliat
experience flodding, but sliould be expanded to include areas tliat ]nay in fact
contribute the hazard potential e.g. by blocking drainage. \
12.4.5 Open space Controls

Land use policies that regulate the location of agriculture or green area have a
direct impact on the provision of open spaces in the total planning area w d
vice-versa. Agricultural lands, parks and otlier types of open spaces can play an
ilnportant role in ilnproving tlle environment and also mitigating Llie effect of
;iatural disasters.
,Not only do open space lielp reduce capital losses, but equally important, they
serve to limit tlie ldss bf life because of their tendency to generate minimum
human activity. I-Iowever, it should be noted that open space does not inlply the
total non-use of land. Clearly, such areas may be used to satisfy a wide variety of
social and cconomic needs. Thus, open spaces may serve to prevent or mitigate ,
disasters while providing some econol~!ic1.e~1u.n~
as wcll.
Preparedness and 12.4.6 Building Codes
Mitigation
Any discussion of disaster prevention and mitigation must consider not only
"where" but "how" a particular building is built, and this leads to the regulatory
instrument of building codes. Building codes or building by-laws in the present
context establisli minimun~standards of design, constructio~iand materials in order
to avoid struct~~ralcollapse under conditions of severe pllysical stress caused by
extreme natural phenomena to which that land might be vulnerable.
Although building codes are extremely important for mitigating the effects of
natural disasters, tliey should not be considered as separate from land use controls,
especially zoning. The co-ordination of land use controls and building codes is
one of tlie most effective local level devices for disaster prevention and mitigation.
Since building codes are not retroactive, tlie use of performance standards for the
repair or rehabilitation of older structures could serve as a supplementary means of
improving tlie safety of existing structures.
12.5 LOCATION OF ACTIVITIES AND LAND USE
As a basic principle, major functional land uses sliould be segregated and not
mixed as far as possible. Mixing of land uses, especially between residential and
Iiigli-risk industrial, sliould be avoided. All sucli industrial plants and storage areas
of explosive atid combustible ~iiaterial-ands~~bstances slio~~ldbe separated from
residential development by a syste~iiof green belt.
In order to diminish tlie rislc of total paralysis of productive or administrative

activities in disaster prone areas, tlie industrial and business zone sliould be
decenlralised and located in more than one centre in tlie city.
All important installations like centres of commu~iication,ltey supply facilities, and

even Iiistorical lnonu~nentsand cultural landmarks require special attention in case
of a catastrophe. These elements sliould be located in such way that tliey are well
accessible and well protected.
Density of developnient in a disaster-prone area should be Itept as low as possible.

In case of a conflict due to economic criteria (cost of land a~iclinfrastructure) or
with functional demand (accessibility or proximity) the compromise, if
unavoidable, should be a fi~nction of tlie level of risk in the area, building
technology atid material, and lieiglit of buildings and cost of infrastructure.
12.5.1 Implications in Town Planning

Urban planning is a state responsibility and as s~iclitlie plans are prepared under .
tlie respective Town and Country Planning Acts. Such acts slio~~ld be amended to
include disaster mitigation as an integral coinponent of a master plan. Similarly,
techniques of plan preparation sliould include risk mapping and vulnerability
analysis to identify tlie extent and nature of vulnerability.
A modification of steps in master plan preparation would also be ~sequired.Instead

of a detailed zonal plan being prepared after tlie overall lalid use plan, a broad
zonal structural plan 6ased upon risk zones identified should be prepared be for^
the overall land use plan. This will reduce tlie time lag between master plan and
zonal plan preparation. Existing develop~nentin each zone can be accomlnodated
and modified to suit the risk factor of any zone.
AS follow-up, building codes need not be i~niforrnin each zone. Higli-
a li~~tlier Land-Use Zoning for
l.isI<zones, wliicli are consequently Illore vulnerable, should have lower Floor Area Disaster Mnnngement
Ratio (FAR), wider set baclcs, more open spaces, ancl restriction on liigli rise
develop~iient. Use o r builcling materials that increases structural safety should be
mandalory in liigli-risk areas. The rear set back, in case of industrial plots, should
be kept larger than the front sct baclc to prevent factories from being built baclc to
bacl<which rcd~iccsavailability of open spaces for rescue operations.
12.6 APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
'I'lie data supplied by cart11 observation satellites can often provide information
such as maps and images wliicli are usefill at scales 1 :500,000 or better. Maps of
watersheds, river and stream patterns and coastal plains can be produced and
gcograpliical maps completed. They can also be used to show inhabited
setilc~nentswhicli are of the order of 1 Ian or larger in dimension.
Satellite observations of tlie earth can be used to map flood plains and delineate
areas of potcntial floocl impact. Observations by the satellite (e.g., Indian Remote
Sensing Satellite IRS-IC with a spatial revolution of 5.8111arid revisit capability of
5 days) can provide information on surface cover changes, which when processed
using Geographic Information Systems (GIs) can lielp in producing a judicious
land use map and also lielp in assessing tlie impact of various alternative land use
plans. Satellite data can also provide maps of destruction caused by a disaster
(flood, eartIiqual\e. drought, even pests and cliseases). As G1S is a computerized
system, tlic maps in G1S can be easily and quickly ~nanipulatedand studied.
Note: i) Use the pace given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the cnd of this Unit.
. ,
1 ) Explain the various components of zoning control as a tool for disaster

management.
2) Write the steps you would follow in preparing a town plan keeping disaster
management as a top priority.
Preparedness and
Mitigation 12.7 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have learnt how impo~lantland use planning and zoning regulatio~~s
are in the context of disasters. Careful land-use zoning can prevent disasters, and
also reduces the extent of damage both to lives and property. We also saw'tlla,
with varying sub-division regulations, relief operations can also be made smooth
and quick.
' I
I 12.8 KEYWORDS
Land Use The observed (or planned) dominant activity that

occurs at a particular location at the scale of a
region or a city.
Sub-division Locally adopted laws governing the process of
converting Regulations L I I I L I ~land
~ ~ into building
:I I sites. Together ~ ' i t l lzoning, these regulations

I
1I approve or disapprove permissions to make
improvements or to divide and sell a developer's
land based ilpon development standards set folth
i l l the sub-division regulations.
Zoning Zoning provides for the divisign of an area into

zones by categories of allowed and/or prohibited
land uses, such as industrial zone, residential
\
zone or greenbelt zone. Zoning is also done
according to the perceived risk of disasters on the
basis of vulnerability.
Ansari, Jamal H., 1997, Fluodr: Con Lurid Use Planning Help? Journal of the
Institute of Town Planners, India, Vol. 16, No. 1 (171), .Iuly, 1997, New Delhi, pp.
4-6.
Kulshrestha, S.I<., 1997, Hzmzm Settlenzents in Dis~~,rter-Prone
Areus: Plunning,
I ,
Pri17crple,surrd Design Cbnsiderutiuns, in Spatio-Economic Dcvelopment Record,
Vol. 4, No. 1 , Jan-Feb 1997, New Delhi, pp. 23-30.
I Mahavir, 1982, Druinuge Churacterislic.~of an Area CIS LI Delemintmt o f Urbu?~
Development, Unpublished MSc. Thesis, School of Planning and Architecture,
New Delhi.
Srinivasan, Sum itra; 1993, Disnster Mitigation and Urbun Plcmnir~g:Indzislriul
Areas cfDelhi, ~n~ublisl;ed Thesis, School of Planning and Architect~~re,
New
Delhi.
United Nations, 1984, Dis~~ster Preventioli and Mitigutiori; A Canzpendiunz oj
Current Knowledge, Vol. 5, Land Use Aspects; Office of the Unitecl Nations
Disaster Relief Co-ordinator (UNDRO), Geneva, United Nations, New York.
United Nations, 1984, Disaster Prevention and Mitigation: A Corrzpsrrdizltn uf
Czlrrerzf Knowledge, Vol.1 1, Preparedness Aspccts; Office of the United Nations
Disaster Relief Co-ordinator (UNDRO), Geneva, United Nations, New York.
I
Land-Use Zoning for
12.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Disaster Mnnagcn~ent
EXERCISES

1 ) Your answer should include following points:
e
a more pressure 011 urban land;
a pace oFcliange of land use is faster than the society can handle;
o socio-economic cost of relocating people is very high;
o economic presgilres are pushing the poor into marginal lands prone to
disasters; and ~
0 overall economic resource crunch.

0 conflict between conservation storage such as for irrigation and dedicated
flood storage reserve in large reservoirs;
a relation between floodplain nxnagement and watershed management;
a rapid i~rbanizationprocess and pressure on urban land; increasing change
of larid use from agricultural to non-agricultural land uses: and general
resistancc to sliitiing of population.
Check Your I'rogress 2
1) Your Luiswer slioulcl include the following points:

Macro zoning, ~nicrozoning, sub-division regulation, building permits,
open space controls, building codes, arid develop~nentcontrols.

broad zonal plan basecl on risk zones;
building codes;
building material supporting structural safety; and
a monitoring tlirougli techniques o.fRemote Sensing and GIs.
-
UNIT 13 EEPARTNC
COMMUNITY
THROUGH IEC
Structure
Ol7jectives
Introduction
Meaning and Significance of [EC
Ways to Prepare Community Through IEC
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
13.0 OBJECTIVES
Information, Education and Communication (IEC) is one of the most effective -

means for disaster preparedness, as it deals with pre-disaster action for capacity
building of tlie community tlirough Icnowledge upgraclation. After reading the
unit, you will be able to:
o explain tlie meaning and significance of IEC;

II describe the ways to increase tlie disaster preparedness of a community
tliro~~gli
IEC;
o discuss the Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) method and tlie three most
commonly used tools to accomplish PRA; and
e highlight tlie essential means for creating an awareness campaigns.
3 . 1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters can be defined as events that are beyond tlie capacity of normal focal -
resources to cope. Tlie definition provides a Iielpfi~l starting point when
consideri~igdisaster response. The definition of clisaster as an ~~nrnanageable 8
extreme event suggests that response can be organized at one of tlie two levels -
either within local capacity (by strengthening local preparedness and response
mechanisms) andlor from outside tlie local contexl. Tlie former provides the best
option in ternis of providing long term sustainable disaster preparedness; the
latter, if relied upon too ~ i i ~ ~ ccreates
li, a dependency, and is costly, time-
consuming and reduccs tlie local initiative and responsibility within the
coni~iiunity.
In the liglit tlie stre~igtlieningor local preparedness of the community should

always be tlie primary ol?jective. Experience shows tliat disasters are mitigated
best by those affected (co~ii~iiu~iilieslgroups) being well prepared. Tlie
development of sustainable mitigation and preparedness measures comes from
developi~igself-reliance. Hence tlie bclief that the management of disaster is
primarily tlle responsibility of those affectcd by it should bc reinforced wliencver
possible. As such, tlie local preparedness capacity is tlie prirne I-esource for
disaster manage~nent,and this is the target area for. Inforniation, Education, and
Communication inputs. In otlie~. words, we need to build LIP the disaster
preparedness capacity of tlie community tlirougli thc processes of IEC.
I
Prcparing Community
13.2 MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE OF IEC Through IEC
Each of tlie three components of IEC, i.e. information, education and

communication, has its own clistinct significance, origin, perspective and focus
area. l'liese aspects are discussed below:
Information
Preparing tlie community for disaster management through information means

tlie transfer of basic knowledge by means of facts, figures and processes to IIie
coln~nunilyso as to increase tlieir awareness. The lcey i s s ~ ~here e is- tlie
availability of data to tlie people, bascd on which they may fot.~iimore realistic
perspectives, and be better prepared to anticipate and face the disaster. It is useful
for the administration and other agencies for planning purposes, and usefill to tlie
community for developlnent of internal coping mechanisms.
Adequate information provides correct answers to tlic questions of What, When,

Where, How arid How Much with respect to the expected disaster. It also
addresses tlie issue of probability of tlie occurrence of the disaster, more easily
understandable in terms of extent of risk; risk being the cu~nulativeeffect of
hazards and VLIlnerabi I ities. So information in this context tel Is the community
about the hazards, sucli as floods and tlieir causative mechanisms sucli as release
of waters from the upstream reservoirs and tlie time lag betwecn sucli release of
water and actual floods in tlie community locality. The downstream
vulnerabilities such as deficiencies in the Ilousing structures, insanitary
conditions, lack of knowledge of epidemics and tlieir ca~lsesand treatment also
need to be known as also the details of probable adverse effects that c o ~ ~occur
ld
clue to the combined effect 01' tlic hazards ancl vul~ierabilities, Infor~nation,in
this manner creates a picture of tlie reality for tlie community, lielps them realize
tlie risks and motivates tliem to take preparedness acliou.
Education
Education goes a step beyond information And aims at an awakening of tlie

people ratlicr tlian just awareness. It sensitizes the people in tlie community and
besides ~iiakingtliem aware of tlie risks, it enlightens tliem about tlieir individual
and collective stake, the actions needed to be taken and tlieir roles, and it also
motivates them to act.
Education conveys to tlle people an idea of tlie meclianism of tlie occurrence of

disasters. It tells them what to do and what not to do for preventing or mitigating
clisasters. It tells them how to manage situations, and provides them with the
possibility of alternatives. Many a times people are seen to be having a fatalistic
allit~ldetoward disasters. 'They treat disasters as iuiavoidable acts of nature and
!
express total Iialplessness to do anything against them, thereby surrendering i o
them. Education eradicates this kind of attitude by i~ifor~ning comniunities of
best available alternatives and means of achieving them, makes tliem more
motivated to take counter-disaster measures.
I
Mocle and means of education are dependelit on tlie target groups. As s~lcli,the
design and packaging of tlie educational liiaterial has to be based on local
considerations, and should be acceptable, understandable, interesting and
motivating for tlie community that is being addressed. While educating
communities, their traditional practices, existing knowledge and traditional
wisdoni in coping with such situations must also be kept in mind, and
accolnmodated in the educational process. Idowever, if there are any superstitious
slid illogical ideas or c u s t o ~ prevalent
~~s in tlie community in respect of hazardous
or disastrous events, these slioi~ldbe slowly and carefully eradicated. Ofilythen,
-
tllc education process will be considered complete. ,
Communication is the process of infor~nationexchange between two or Inore
groups/individuals. 11 could be applied to both, education as well as emergency
management. In terms o r education and preparedness, com~nunication is a
process of knowledge transfer to the community regarding disaster risks and
mitigation lneasirres to be taken. In this process, tlie system is of flow of
inforniation froni a Itnowledgeable source to the Inass group, i.e. tlie community.
Anotlier ~nanifestationof tlie same process is i n times of anticipated disasters
when the co~nmunicationrelates to hazard forecasts. At such times warnings (
/lave to be issued to the co~nn~unity regarding thc impending disaster in a clear
understandable mariner. This is a very critical and final stage of pre disaster
com~nunicationthat gives the community a chance to take evasive actioll, or
move away from the scene to a safer place in order to avoid or lessen tlie disaster
in~pact.
Olice the disaster has S ~ I . L I C

coni~n~~nicati~)n
~<, becomes an essential suppol+t
systeln for search and rescue (SAR) operations. Field teams have to be ill
contact with tlie base station or control roonl. Tllis is required to coordinate the
eFForts of the field teams for better and widel- coverage in an efficient manner.
T111.ough an effective co~nmunicatio~i system the field tennis get to Icnow what
I<ind of help is required i n which areas. This is also ~1seli11 for reaching out to
the affected community with relief materials like food, medicines atit1 clothing.
The field teams can also send back information to the control room regarding
extent and nature of additional assistance required, and tlie deficient areas. They
shoulcl also infor111about tlie areas covered, so that other teams may be notified
not to visit the same areas again, thereby avoiding overlap. Special medical help
or evacuation teams niay be required in critical situations, and valuable ti~ne
coi~ldbe saved in getting these if there is an on-line communication system,
which would eliminate the need for physically going and conveying tlie
messages. In such situations the communication takes the form o.f Emergency
Management Information System (EMIS).
While dealing with con~~nunicatio~is I'or disiister miinagcnient, modern tools such
as radio or satellite co~~imunication become very ~1seSi11,Amateu~.(HAM) can
also be ~~tilizedifavailable.
Besides the areas discussed above, commi~~iicationis also very ~ ~ s e fini ~the l
process of ~nonitoringand evaluation, In order to know wlicther the rescue,
relief and rehabilitation work is ill progress in the desired manner, flow of
infor~iiation from tlie field i~pwardsis recluired for setting up an effective
monitoring and evaluation system. This applies also to the preparedness and
awareness stages, where monitoring is required for periodic check on the
progress ,.of the effo~Ss, and required modific~~tionsin the programine, if
necessary. Thus the sig~iificanceand importance o f fail-safe co~iimunication
system i s self-evident. That is why more than one type o f co~nmunication
channels is set up to deal with disasters s" that somc means of comlnunication
are available even if othe~.channels fail under'tbr: impact of a disaster.
Cbeclc Your Progress 1
I
Note: i) Use the space give11below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the e~iclol'the unit.
Preparir~gComrnur~ity
I ) Briefly describe the meaning of IEC. T l i r o ~ ~ IEC
gl~
I
2) How are Information, Education and Communication linlted with each other?
13.3 WAYS TO PREPARE COMMCTNITY THROUGH

IEC
Traclitionally, awareness campaigns have been treated as tlie main mctliod Tor
preparing co~iim~initiesthrough IEC. The basic methodology has been relined
and n-rade more effective tlirough participatory tools such as Participatory Rapid
Appraisal (PRA) and Aclion Planning, wliich take care of the disaster
management planning process, a ~ i dat the same time increase the awareness,
1;nowledge and capacity of tlie community regarding disaster processes and
management cf'orts ~.ccluirecl.These are clisc~~ssedbelow:
Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA)
Pa~.ticipatoryRapid Appraisal Ibr risk assessment is carried out in collaboration

with comm~~nity represcntitives, ancl there are numerous tools to do this. The
three most commonly ~ ~ s ePRA
c l tools are disci~ssedbelow:
1) Mapping
Participatory ~iiappingis interacting with the community members on matters

such as:
a) Drawing maps showing physical/geograpl~icalfeatures, liouseho Ids, and

available com~ii
un ity resources.
b) Spealting to community ~iiernbersand learning more about the community.
Ask them to identify a si~itablearea (e,g. a large flat ground suitable for
clrawing outlines in the sand) for' conducting tlie mapping exercise.
c) Explain to everyone present the purpose of the exercise.
d) Ensuring that the map is copied as a pennauent record (on paper) for'fi~ture
reference.
e) Listing the names of the main participants who facilitated and ~iianagedthe -
process.
Preparedness and 2) Seasonal Diagramming
M itigrtion
This is a calendar showing the work performed during the course of a year by
different members of a community. This is achieved through the following steps:
a) Decide what kind of a diagram sliould be drawn (e.g. rainfall, labour

demand, diseases, crops harvested or firewood gathered).
b) Speak to the community members who have knowledge of the issue being
investigated, and who would like to share their knowledge..Women should
have a major say in most of these exercises.
c) Explain what the purpose of the exercise is, and what you would like them to
do, i.e. show how certain requirements change with season.
d) Draw up a 12-18 months calendar, but let participants cl~ooseat which
season in the year they want to start.
3) Children's Drawings
Children do not need much instruction in order to begin drawing - they enjoy the
process and they will spontaneously produce what is important to them.
Children usually assemble near adult's gatherings. This may be a good time to
initiate drawings among children. Speak to them say you would like to learn
more about their lives. The following can be the possible steps:
a) Identify a suitable place, preferably a large sheet of paper because children

love to draw lines in colour.
b) Provide sheets of flipchart and thick marking pens or crayons.
c) Stand back,'relax, and do not interfere.
d) If there are numerous occasions when c l ~ i l d r edraw,
~ ~ you may want to
encourage equal participation by girls, and different age groups - this will
lead to a greater variety in perspective.
e) Review the drawings with the children, ask for explanations if necessary.
Action Planning
Action pla~iningis a step further to the PRA exercises, and addresses the
remedial actions to be take11 up to reduce the risks a~ialysed in the PRA
processes. Action Planning should again be a participatory process, and should
be ideally carried out through a workshop or series of workshops with the
community group. The workshops would also include represe~~tatives from the
local government, emergency services and NGOs to make it a co~nprehensively
participatory effort that would have a sustainable long-term impact on the
community as well as the various agencies involved in disaster management and
mitigation.
Action Planning would lead to the narrowing down the exercise to a few selected
'
actions to be taken up in order to reduce risks of disaster. These actions would
include actions to be taken up by the community as well as those by the
governmental and non-governmental agencies. However, etnphasis would be on
those activities that can be carried out by the commu~~ityitself with minimal help
from outside agencied, in order to build on the internal capacities and coping
mechanisms of the community.
Awareness Campaigns Preparing Community
Tl~roughIEC
Awareness remains olie of the major tools for preparing communities for risk
reduction, and is most effective when used in combination witli other tools that
ensure effectiveness in awareness and also translation of awareness into action.
Awareness needs could also emerge from tlie PRA exercises or as a
~ccommendationof tlie Action Planning process.
Awareness campaigns could bc carried out in a number of ways. The traditional

Iiieans liave been through lectures, printed pamplilets, posters and exhibitions.
Where resources allow, ai~diovisi~al tools such as films are very ~1sefi11.Street
plays and interactions liave also been found to liave a great impact. Tliis kind of
~ilea~is
can be filrtlier modified and niade interesting through integration and PRA
and Action Planning PI-ocess. Printed material, which includes visuals from tlie
comlnunity itself, is round to attract tlie people's attention more easily. In this
way, tlicy are able to relate to themselves, their community as well as tlie various
agencies involved in disaster management atid mitigation.
Calendars cal-lying visuals of tlie seasonal hazard diagrams could prove very
effective as they would constantly kcep reminding the people of tlie likely
disasters for tlie currcnt arid next ~nontli. Video films with footage of tlie
comlnunity and its arca, along with animated gi~idelineson do's and don'ts could
bc airecl th~.ouglilocal television or cable ~ietworkfor slior-t duration slots. Tliis is
more easily applicable in urban areas but can also be used in rural areas now tliat
the reach of televisio~land local cable TV has extended to semi-urban and even
rural areas. Action planning worltsliops could be given a high profile by
arranging 7'-shirts for participants which could graphically depict some ltey map
of tlie arca witli liarards and also telephone numbers of emergency services.
'I'liese ~~sually
attract a lot of attention.
Awareness and emergency management communication can be achieved tlirougli

voluntary innovations even in difficult and inaccessible arcas during disaster
situations. For example, a long pole can-be used to serve as a flag mast erected in
a llood ancl cyclone prone area wlierc thc;.e arc no radio or televisio~lto serve as a
means of warning dissemination. One red flag flutte~-ingon tlie mast may mean
that tlie disaster may occur, stay or alert. Two flags on tlie same mast [nay mean
tliat tlic clisaster is going to occur, prepare to evacuate. And three flags on tlie
samc mast meant tliat the clisaster is almost there, so leavc everything and run.
Tliis mecllanism can prove very effective in remote vulnerable areas, and can
become the central focus of attention of tlie local community. This can be an
idcal tool for creating awareness and also setting LIPa volunteer warning system
at tlie same time.
I
Checlt Your Progress 2 \
f
Note: i) llsc tlic space given below for your answers. I
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the wit. I
1) llow cloes Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) help in preparing the '
community Ibr meeting disasters?
Preparedness anti 2) What are tlie essential means of creating an awareness campaign?
Mitigation
13.4 LET US SUM UP
Information, Education and Communication (IEC) are basic nleans for enabling a
co~nmunityto prepare them for disaster risk reduction. These call be effectively
applied through a number of tools s ~ ~ casl i integration of these with ongoing
developmetital programmes of the community. One of tlie major advantages of
IEC and its tools is that risk assessments are carried out and actioli plans are
prepared at the same time as the awareness arid education processes are going on.
These become long term assets for the cotnmunities as well as the planning
agencies, which can use these locally perceived appraisals and plaris for future
planning, and activities. Above all, the participatio~~of the c o ~ n ~ n ~ ~atn every
ity
stage ensures their involvement from disaster. prepared~iess to disaster
management.
13.5 KEY WORDS
'Capacity Building Increasing the capability

1ntegrity Honesty
Knowledge Upgradation Increasing the knowledge
Sensitise Make tlie people aware of the
iniportance of tlie subject
Stake Deep involvement
Hamid Nabeel and Goethert Reinhard; Action Planning for Citiesd Guide to
Community Practice; John Wiley and Sons, England 1997.

EXERCISES

* IEC stands for Information, Education and Com~nunicatio~i
These three terms are inter-related closely and are very important tools
for disaster management.
Preparing Community
2) Your answer should include the following points: Through IEC
e Adequate In~ormationis necessary to learn about what, where, when,
IIOW and how much about an anticipated disaster.
o Education enables the people and the co~n~uu~iity

to understand the
available information and to learn to face a disaster.
o Communication provides the methods .for exchange of infor~nationand

dissemination of education regarding disaster preparedness.
o All three viz. Information, Education and Communication are essential

to deal wit11,every stage of disaster management, i.e. pre, during and post
disaster states.
I Checlc Yollr Progress 2

PRA helps in preparing a community to deal with disasters through the
following tools:
Mapping
o Seasonal d~iagramming,and
o Children's drawings.
2) Your answer shoi~ldinclude the following points:

e Pri~~ted
pamplllets, posters and calendars
r Media- audio, videos; and local cable TV

0 Exhibitions, street plays aad interaction alnong local groups.
UNIT 14 DISASTER MITIGATION
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
I~npoflanceand Aims of Disaster Mitigation
Approaches to Disaster Mitigation
14.3.1 Struct~~ral
Approach
14.3.2 Non-Str~rcturalApproach
Mitigation Strategies for Specific Disasters
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Refel-encesand Further Readings
Answers to Cliecl<Your Progress Exercises
14.0 OBJECTIVES
Ill
jJ
,I, After studying this Unit, yo11sho~~ld
be able to:
Ij e know the definition of disaster mitigation;

e ~~ndel-stand
the importance ancl aims of ~iiitigationin disaster management,
e describe various types of approaches to disaster mitigation,
e understand mitigation strategies suitable in typical natural disasters.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Natural disasters cause Ioss of life and property every year in India and other parts
of the world. Each disaster disrupts the normal life pattern and essential services.
In India, floods, droughts, cyclones, ear.thqual<c and landslides are Frequently
occurring natural disasters, responsible for devastating econonlic losses, human
miseries and hardships.
Disaster Mitigation involves measures to reduce the effects o f disastel--causing

events. Disaster Mitigation is defined as "All actions to reduce the impact of a
disaster that call be taken prior to its occurrence, including preparedness and long
term risk reduction measures". It also includes the planning and implementation o f
lneasilres to reduce the risks of man-made hazards, and the process of planning for
effective response to disasters; which do occur.
Disaster mitigation includes scientific analysis of risk assessment; realistic

assessment of social. economic, legal and technical processes involved in the
developlne~it of mitigation measures; taking approkriate administrative and
political actions for the application of these measures.
14.2 IMPORTANCE AND AIMS OF DISASTER

MITIGATION
The most impo~lant 'part of imple~nenting,disaster mitigation is the filll

understallding of the nature OF threat. In India, different states are vulnerable to
different types of hazards. Some states are prone to floods and droughts, others t o
floods and cyclones. Sorne states are prone to eartliqualte, falling in liiglily active
seismic zone (zone 5 or 4). Most states are prone to co~i~bination of various
52 hazards.
I
]-he effects these hazards are likely to have and the damage they are liltely to cause Disaster Mitigation
deperlds mainly on the following:
i) Population in that region,

i i ) Type of houses,
iii) Sources of their livelihood (Agriculture, others),
iv) I nf'rastructure
To understand hazards of a specific regionlstate and to develop mitigation strategy,

olic should have knowledge of:
i) Causes of hazards and how they arise,

l
ii) Disaster History of the area
a Occurrence of Iiazards,
b Freclttency,
c Magnitude (severity),
iii) Physical meclianis~nof destruction caused,
iv) Elements at risk (most vulnerable to their effects),
v) Economic and social consequences after damage.
1mport;lnce of Disaster Mitigation
The worst effects of any natusal disaster are loss o f l i ~ ~ m alife,

n injuries and Iiealth
problems of the allkcled people apart from loss of property and livelihood.
Understanding tlie way tli:lt people are killed and injured in a particular disaster is a
pierequisite for reducing casualties.
In an Ea~tliqualte.90% of the casualties are caused by house collapse. Hence,

saving the lives in ea~tliquakcsmeans focusing on prevention of building collapse.
, Similarly, in floods, most ol'tlie deaths are because of drowning in fast flowing or
turbulent watcrs. Reducing loss of life by floods is possible by preventing or
mininiising the extent of water flow or Iceeping people out of the track of potential
' waterflow.
Mitigation is planned after stl~dyingtlie elernents at risk. Saving human life is of

the highest priority in mitigation plans, followed by those of animals. Next comes
safety of crops, infiastr~~cture, and other elements at risk. Identitication of
elements most at risk indicates priol-ities for mitigation.
Mitigation also entails the protection &the econolny from disasters.
Aims of Disaster Mitigation
The specific aims of disaster mitigation are as follows:
i) Creating awareness of risk at community level,

ii) To promote local actio~isthrough comnlunity parlicipation to reduce such
risks,
iii) Induction of ~nitigationmeasures in the national and regional development
plans, la~ld use planning proposals and in project design and appraisal in
di~aster'~rolie
areas.
Prel,nredness and iv) To assist decision makers (politicians and administrators) to understa~idthe
h.1itigi~tion riati~reand extent of various risks faced by the commu~iitiesin their area of
responsibility, ant1 to assess tlie econo~niceffects of ~iaturaldisasters on
agficulture, commerce and industry.
v) To denionstrate ways and means to reduce those risks within the limits of
natiolial, regional or socio-econo~nic conditions tlirougli proper decision
making and pla~iniiig.
vi) To introduce effective lneasilres to implement disaster mitigation plans at the
different levels of public administration based on risk assessment and
vulnerability analysis.
I n brief, ~nitigationis involvement of community, administration, politicians and

decision makers in reduction of risks tlirougli local actiolis and taking mitigation
~nkasuresin tlie local, regional and develop~nentplans.
Note: i) Use tlie space given below .for your answers.

ii) Check yo~transwers with those given at tlie end,of the i~nit.
1) Define Disaster Mitigation?
2) What are the aims of Mitigation?
14.3 APPROACHES TO DISASTER MITIGATION
Disaster ~nitigationfocuses mailily on minimizing the destruction and disruption

by a hazard and offers long-term, cost-effective method of dealiAg with or
managing ~iaturaldisasters. There are two approaclles to disaster mitigation,
i) Structural Approach
i i) on-~trultural Approach
In fact, non-structural measures cornpleniented by structural lneasures is the best ,
way of disaster mi'tigation. However, it is essential to understalid these two I
approaches,
14.3.1 Structural Approach Disaster Mitigation
structural approach for disaster mitigation may refer to:
e Engineered Structures, and .
e Non-Engineered Structures.
Engineered structures are those supervised by qualified architects and engineers

during the planning, designing and construction of structures, including buildings,
'
dams, embankments, roads, and bridges. Usually, there are legally binding building
codes for engineered construction. These codes provide guidelines for appropriate
design and co~istructionin disaster prone areas. Adhering to the building codes
might add only about 5% of tlie cost of building but will make the building safe.
Sucli structures can be designed after collectirig data for hazard vulnerability and
related meteorological parameters (wind velocity, direction, rainfall, its duration
etc.).
After the Uttarkashi earthquake (1991), University of Roorkee provided training

even to field lnasolis for constructi~igearthquake resistant houses in the area.
Non-engineered structures are ge~ierallyconstructed by people with the help of

local artisans like, masons and carpenters, with the locally available material.
'
These structures can be made safer, if people are trained and given improved
designs. These structures are nor~nally of low-cost but having less
strengthlrcsistance for a disaster. There can be strengthening of such buildings by
retrofitting as suggested in a number of villages of Maharashtra after the Latur
earthquake ( I 993).
14.3.2 Non-Structural Approach
Whether structures in an area are engineered or non-engineered, there could be

many ways of enhancing the safety of lives and property by judiciously adopting
- non-structural safety measures. Such approach to disaster mitigation co~isistsof
positive actions through legislation, incentives, educating people, creating
community awareness, forecasting and warning. Sopie of the non-structural
mitigation measures are given below:
i) Legal Framework
In some of the disasters like flood, cyclone, earthquake etc. more casualties occur
because people are living in houses built without following appropriate building
codes. Similarly, there ark other legal provisions regarding activities permissible in
flood plains or near hazardous areas such as large petrol depots or oil refineries. It
is necessary to adliere to these legal bindings.
ii) Incentives
By suitable incentives people could be included to adopt safe measures. For

example, in highly seismic zones, if some incentive can be provided to construct
earthquake resistant buildings in the form of grant or subsidy, people will adopt
'such mitigation measures. The incentive can also be in terms of tax e em tion or
\ T P
providing material required in earthquake proof construction.
Preparedness and iii) P~lsurance
M itigntion
Insurance of crops, buildings and other infrastructure in disaster prone area are
non-structural measures that are yet to gain public patronage. Insurance companies
may provide soft loans for disaster resistant structures and buildings. Alternately,
the insurance premium for houses in unsafe of less safe areas may be subsidized
for poorer sections of the society.
iv) Training, Education and ~l;blicAwareness
Training of the public officials at different levels in an essential part of disaster

management. Separate training for technical people, and NGOs is also required for
specific disaster mitigation.
The general public should be made aware and kept informed about the nature of
hazards to which they are exposed, their vulnerability and protection measures
available. Awareness campaigns should be mounted in the vulnewhle
communities and schools and colleges. For such campaigns in rural areas,
assistance ofNGOs and local Panchayats will be very useful.
v) Forecasting and Warning
Reliable and timely forecasting and warning of an impending disaster can save a
lot of human lives.' In recent years, death toll in -cyclones is minimized
considerably because of effective forecasting and warning system and people's
quick response.
1
1 Check Your Progress 2
J
ii) ~lleckyour answers with those given at the end of the unit;
i \
I
1) Name the two approaches to disaster mitigation?
2) ldentifi a few of the non-vctural measures for disaster mitigation.

-.
14.4 MITIGATION STRATEGIES FOR SPECIFIC Disaster Mitigation
DISASTERS
(A) Floods
i) Causes
Normally floods are caused by lligll rainfall or more snow melt on the higher
altitude of mountains. This raises the level of rivers than its normal level leading
to floods. Deforestation of the catchment areas and sedimentation in the riSerbeds
due to soil erosion can increase the severity of adverse effects.
ii) Flood Severity
Severity can be evaluated from following parameters.
(a) Deptli of water (flooding),

(b) Area inundated (flooded),
(c) Speed orwater flow,
(d) Duration of inundation,
(e) Amount of sedimentation or mud deposition in agricultural field.
iii) Hazard Assessment and Mapping
In case of flood, historical records can provide a rough idea of hazard vulnerability.
I11 case of river floods, topographic mapping and contouring near and around river
systems can also be prepared.
iv) Elerneilts of Risk
(a) Everything in the flood plains,

(b) Buildings, particularly "kucha" or earth buildings or masonry with mud or
water soluble material,
(c) Building with weak and sl~allowfoundations,
(d) Basements and underground buildings,
(e) Underground electrical and telephone lines,
(f) Water supply (~lndergroundpipes),
(g) Sewerage, '
(11) Crops, fisl~eriesand l~atclieries,

(i) Food stock and other essential supplies,
Q ) People and livestock,
(I<) Fishermen's boats and nets etc.
v) Mitigation
(a) Land use planning and control to avoid use of flood plains for residential or
con~mercialpurposes,
(b) Structural measures like engineering of structures to withstand flood forces
and design for elevated floor levels and construction' over stilts. Construction
of reservoirs, dams, dykes, retaining walls, embankments, constructing
alternate drainage courses are structural methods for flood disaster mitigation,
~rc~;i;rednessand (c) Non-Structural Measures, SLICII as, people's participation t h r o ~ ~ geducation
h
hlitigation and creating awareness, sedi~iientation clearance from rivers, afforestation,
effective warning syste~iis,flood resistant houses (with strong f0~111dation and
by llse of water resistant material), challgillg farlning practices, storage and
sleeping area to be much above the ground, flood evacuation preparedness,
arrangement of boats and rescue equipment, adoption of arforestatiou and
clieclcing deforestation in tlie area.
(B) Earthquake
i) Causes
Eartliqualces are caused by vibrational energy released by geological adjust~nents

deep in tlie earth. These lnay also result fiom tectonic drift or local
geomorphology sliiits or volcanic activity.
l'lle vibrations of ea~.tIiqualcecause damage and collapse of structures, which in

turn may k i l l ancl i~ijurepeople living in the area. Eartliqualces have multiple
efrects. It can cause landslides, roclc-falls and dam failure leading to floods and
can cause enorliious loss to tlie setl.lements in tlie vicinity. There could also be
flooding and fires in urban areas clue to broken water mains, gas leak or electric
short-circuiting.
4
ii) Severity
The earthqualte severity is recltoned by tlie niagnitude on tlie Richter Scale, which
indicates tlie a~nountof energy released at tlie focus. Higher tllc ~nagnitude,more
is tlie damage and larger is tlie area afl'ected.
iii) Hazard Assessment and Mapping
A hazard assessment map of tlie country/state can be prepared after ide~itification

of seismic fault syste~nsand seisniic source regions. .India has been divided into
five seismic zones from the point of vulnerability for eartliqualtes.
iv) Elements at Risk
' In high seismic zones follawing ele~nentsare at rislc:
(a) Weak foundation buildings,

(b) Multi-storied buildings,
(c) Buildings constructed by earl11 (mud), rubble, stone and unreinforced masonry,
(d) Old structures,
(e) Building weakened by subsequent modifications, 1
(f) Tall building on alluvial soil or slopes,

I
(g) Undergl-ound pipes, power lines, sewerage lines, water s ~ ~ p p pipes,

ly telephone I
wires, etc., and

(11) Industries, chemical, nuclear plants. I
I
I
v) Mitigation
I
(a) To follow building codes, I
(b) Enforcement of compliance with building codcs requirements and
1
encouragement of higlier standards of construction qua1ity,
(c) More emphasis slio~~ld be given to engineering of struclures to witlistand Disaster Mitigation
vibration forces. I-ligli standard of engineering design of all p ~ ~ b lbuildings
(liotels, scliools and hospitals).
ic
I
(d) Reduce urban densities in high seismic zones,
(e) strengthening of existing buildings, monuments strengthening in the
VLI1 nerable areas,
(I)Encouraging insurance,
(g) Comm~lnityparticipation in constructing safe liouses; creating awareness of
what to clo and what not to clo at the time of eat-tliqualce. Comtn~~nity action
~ O L I in~ fire
S lighting first aid and rescue operation. Regular earthqual<edrills
in the area.
(C) Drought
A major difference between drouglit and other type of disasters is that droughts do
not have a sudclen onset such as in case of floods or earthquakes,
i) Caiiscs
Scarcity of I-ainl'all in tho area, over exploitation of underground water can

aggravate or even cause dro~tglit.
ii) Severity
Drought severity depencls on:
(a) Rainl'all deficiency

(b) Duration of drouglit
(c) Estcnt of soil moisture loss and ~~ltilnately
loss of soil cover
(d) Area affected
iii) I-Jazard Assessme~ltand Mapping
'l'lie meteorological ciepartmcnt prepiwes rainfall map of cncli statelregion. This

illclicates the no]-ma1raini'all pattern of the region. Lcss than normal rainfall for
prolonged ppriod causes dro~~glit conditions. Topographic maps can be prepared of
thk area having lnorc Srequent dro~~glits.
i ) Elements a t Rislr
Y
(a) All types of vegetation and crops,
(b) Hurnan and anil&al liealtli,
(c) Entire li~~llian
settlement (in prolonged drought and famine),
(d) All industries, business and other economic activities depending on water, atid
( e ) Soil system.
.
V) Mitigation
, 5
Both structural and non-structural mitigation strategies are necessary.
(a) Constr~~ctioli
of datns and check dams,
(b) Provision of'irrigation facilities,
(c) Watershed managemeht.
Preparedness alltl (d) Food, fodder and walcr nianageillent including rationing, if necessary,
Mitigation
! (e) Hercl-manngemc~~t,
(f) Proper selection or crop for clr~ougl~t
affected areas,
(g) Leveling, and soil conservation techniques,
(11) Reducing cleforestation and fire wood cutting in tlie affected areas,
(i) Checlting of migration and providing alternate employlnent for people,
Cj) Education and training to the people,
(I<) Comm~lnitypalsticipation in constnlction of check dams, reservoirs, wells,
tanks, afforcstation. introducing water conservatioli arid efficient water
management through comm~lnityprogramme, (pani-panchyat in Maharashtra) .
changing livr$ocl, mal~agemcnt practices, encouraging self-employment by
cottage or village (non-agricultural) industries.
(I) Pitblic I-Iealth Management,
Some of the community based programmes like "Sulthomztjri" experiment in

[dalyana or "Ralegaon Sicll~i"in district Ahmednagar of Maharashtra slio~~ld be
I-eplicated. These are goocl examples of water conservation in these areas with the
help of local people.
(D) Cyclones
i) Causes
Cyclones generate over sea areas in cel-tain parts of tropics s~lchas tlie Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea and move towards coasts. Intense atmospheric
processes ca~lsetllese in the months of April-May and October/November. These
are hunclreds of Itilometers in diameter and are accompanied by torrential rain and
vely strong winds.
ii) Severity
Cyclone severity depends upon wind speed and rainfall.
iii) Haztlrd Assessment ttnd Mapping
Climate chalts are available from the India Meteorological Department indicating
all the past occurrences of cyclonic storn~during the past 150 years. The
Department also provides Sol-ecastsand warnings for cyclones tlirougl~a state-of-
thc-art system.
iv) Elements of Risk
All vulnerable coastal areas:
(a) Weak hbuses and light-weight structures,

(b) Timber houses.
(c) Loose and poorly attached building elc~nerlts(Sheets, Boards, etc.),
(d) Telegraph and electrical- poles,
(e) Sign boarcls, fences, trees, etc.,
( f ) Fishing boats,
(g) Maritiliie industries.
-.I
v) Mitigation Disaster Mitigation
(a) Engineering structures to withitand cyclonic wind forces,

(b) Suitable builcling codes for tlie area having wind load requisement,
(c) Better architectural design of buildings, taking winds speed and wind direction
into account,
( d ) Planting wind breaker trees in upwind oftowns and on coasts,
(e) Cyclone slielters for tlie commiuiity,
(f) Commi~nityparticipation in construction of wind-resistant or easily rebuilt
houses. Proper fixing of elements (like metal sheets, rods, angle iron, etc.) that
could blow away and cause damage elsewhere. Construction of strong wind
~*esistantshelters for community. Protection to animals, arid protection to
fishing boats. Cyclorle reliearsals (dril Is) in tlie vulnerable areas. Selection of
means of cornniunicatio~iat tlie time of cyclo~ie(e.g., I-lam Radio).

ii) Clieclc your answers with those given at tlie end of the unit.
I) What could be tlie mitigation strategy for flood disaster?
2) What could be tlie mitigation strategy for earthquake disaster?
14.5 LET US SUM UP
Disaster mitigation includes all possible actions to reduce tlie impact of a disaster
that can be talcen prior to its occurrence, including preparedness and long term risk
reduction measures. For effective mitigation measures, knowledge of tlie disaster,
history of the place, its vulnerability to types of hazards and elements, which are at .
risk, is ' i ~ i i ~ o r t a ~Disaster
~t. ~mitigatio~iis important because basically it is to
prevent or mi11i~niseloss of life, property and infrastructure from disasters. The
main aim of disaster ~nitigatior~is to create awareness of risk among the
community and to reduce sucl~risk througli their participation. It is to involve
ad~ninistrators and politicians (decision-makers) in induction of ~nitigation
measures in the national and regional development plans. . 61,
t-
Prepnrcd ness and Tliere are two approaches to Mitigation:
Mitigation
i) Structural Approach
Tllis applies to:
(a) Engineered structures (designed and constructed by qualified architects and

engineers)
(b) Non-Engineered structures (designed and constructed by local artisans with
local skill and material)
ii) Non-Structnral Approach
This illcludes (i) Legislation, (ii) Incentives, (iii) Insurance, (iv) Training,
Education and Awareness, (v) Institution Building, (vi) Forecasting and Warning.
Contouring indicating slopes or high areas or low areas on a

- *
map.
Disaster is an event, natural or man-made, sudden or
progressive, which impacts with such severity
that the affected community has to respond by
exceptional measures and it often needs outside
help to cope with the situation.
Disaster Prevention : is ~iiostly applicable to man-made disaster,
where preve~itive measures can possibly be
taken to stop disaster possibilities. Prevention is
a term, which can be used when tlie disaster
possibilities can be totally eliminated. For
natural disasters, mitigation is the more accepted
term.
Disaster Mitigation : involves all lneasures to reduce the impact of a
disaster.
Risk is the probability of a disaster in a \ regiontplace.
Risk Assessment is assessment or quantification of risk by hazard
assessmelit and vulnerability analysis:
Disaster Preparedness : is all actions taken to reduce the risk of a hazard
before the disaster as well as to provide effective I
relief after the disaster.
Topographic \ Indicative of local physical features on a map.

Carter, W. Nick, Disaster Management: A Manager's.Hundbook, Manila, ADB,
1991. .
Disaster Mitigation in Asia nnd the Pacific, Manila, ADB, 1991.
\
' UNDRO, Murluging Natural Disasters - A Manual for Policy Makers und
Pkmners, New York, 1991.
14.8 APJSWERS TO CHECK YOUR P R W m S S Disaster Mitigntion
EXERCISES
'Check Your Progress 1

,
'
1) Your answer should include the definition given in the second paragraph of
section 14.1 (Introduction)

0 Creating awareness in the community.
r Community Participation.
r Mitigation measures in the national and regional plans.
Check Your Progl-ess2

Structural Approach
r Non-Structural Approach

Legal Framework
r Incentives
Insurance
Training, Education and Public Awareness
Forecasting and Warning

0 Land use planning and control
Structural measures such as reservoirs, dams, embankments, alternate
drainage systems
.. as awareness, flood plain laws, forecasting
Non-structural measures such
and warnin evacuaiion, boats ind rescue equipment, relief camps,
9
2) Your answer,should inclcde the following points:
0 Awareness of seismic zones and corresponding risks
Construction of earthquake resistant houses and buildings
Retrofitting old and weak buildings and monuments
Avoiding construction over alluvial soil
- .
Earthquake mitigation drills and keeping special beam cutting equipment
ready
Providing special equipment to locate persons buried under debris.
, \
UNIT 15 SEARCH, RESCUE AND
-
EVACUATION
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Importance and Significance
15.3 Essential ~ecjuirementsfor Search, Rescue and Evacuation
15.4 Methods and Techniqbes
15.5 Let. Us Sum Up
15.6 Key Words
15.7 References and Furtheh Readings
15.8 Answers to Check Yout Progress Exercises
15.0 OBJECTIVES ,
After studying this unit, you shbulq be able to:
0 define the Search and Rescue ($AR) and evacuation processes;
"i
. e discuss the i~nportanceand ignbficance of SAR and evacuation; and
e briefly describe the tradit onal as well as the modern, scientific and
professional methods and techniques of SAR and evacuation.
Relief measures are the immediate ne 4 in the post-disaster scenario, Especially

!
when infinit8 victims are affected an their locations are not clearly known. In
such type of circumstances, search, redcue and evacuation processes are carried
I
out immediately after the disaster has struck a certain area or zone, These are the
most important operations, which are usually performed by the local volunteers,
voluntary organizations and the district and state agencies. If the condition
worsens and these groups are notable to control the situation, then the defence
1
services are also called in to help. In this unit, we will discuss the! Significance
Search and Rescue as well as the evacuation processes. The unit will also give us
an idea about traditional and new methods i.e. scientific and professional
I methods of SAR and evacuation
15.2 IMPORTANCE AND SIGNIF1C.ANCE

Search and Rescue (SAR)
Search and Rescue, often known by the acronym SAR, is the process of identifying
the location of disaster victims who may be trapped or isolated, and bringing them
to safety and providing them with medical attention. The basic aim of search,
rescue and evacuation is toynsure the survival of the maximum possible number of
victims. A plan is worked out with the help of local people through aerial surveys .
and then appropriate steps are Gken by the various teams involved, to carry out the
operations. These teams use local volunteers who are well-versed with the local
.. area and can be instrumental in searching, SAR teams also depen
and heavy mqchines such as cranes and earthmovers etc.,' to
. extricate ihe victims from difficult situations such as collapsed
after earthquakes. Besides bringing about physical and
also to control panic and
,
confisi& ind,to provide moral support.
I
Relief Measures The operatio11 not only includes the evacuation of tlie people'and temporary
relocatio~iin safer areas, but also the measures by which they could survive in
the affected place, by pi-oviding necessary aid to them, ti1l such time that they can
be rescued. Post-evacuation relief through emergency supplies and services is'
also a part of the relief operations.'
In case of floods and cyclones, boats, rafts and helicopters are used to carry out
/
the search and rescue operations by forming different teams and carrying out
SAR operatiolis in the entire area systematically, each team covering its assiglied
sectol-s. In such cases, SAR ~ ~ s u a lincludes
ly locating stranded flood victims, who
may be threatened by rising water, and as per their need either bringing them to
safety or providing them with safe drinking water, food and first aid until they
can be evacuated or returned to their homes. A number of the disasters such as
floods, cyclones and storlns can now be predicted and forecast with the aid of the
skills, tools and scientific techniques developed over the past years. On the basis
of these forecasts, warnings need to be issued to the people in advance, so that
those in the disaster risk areas may brace themselves and take adequate action to
mitigate the impact of the coming disaster. At the same time, rescue and relief
agencies also may gear up and be placed in a standby position to get into action
as soon a s required.
During the season that floods and cyclones are expected to occul., boats, vehicles
and even helicopters for evacuation of people to safer areas should be kept ready
so that they could be made available at a short notice. The possible camp-sites
for the evacuees should be identified in advance, In the vulnerable areas,
drinking water, dry ration packets, ultra-pasteurized milk, food, clothing and
medical supplies sliould be stockpiled, or arranged for ready delivery when
required. Trained rescuers sliould be in a position to assist tlie victims, and local
volunteers should be identified and imparted basic training in rescue and first aid
operations.
It has been observed that sometimes due to delay in rescuing people stranded due
to floods or cyclones, survivors die of shock exhaustion and injhries or snake bite
and also suffer due to mental stress. This has to be avoided to the extent possible.
The public intervention strategy should, therefore, give priority to such
preparedness and the Government should make this known. Only then will the
behavioural response of the community be orderly, systemat'c and amenable to
persuasive control.
1
In dealing with earthquakes, the situation is different because no advance

warnings whatsoever can be given. In the aftermath of earthquakes, SAR usually
focuses on locating people who are trapped inside damaged buildings or are.
buried under debris but are still alive. This is a highly skilled work and needs
special equipment. Trained teams and equipment need to be maintained at a
number of centers in zones 4 and 5 so that these can be quicqly rushed to the site
of earthquake disaster. I
Evacuation
Evacuation involves the removal of a population from pones at risk o f as

imminent disaster to a safer temporary location. Evacuatiq'n is most commonly
associated with cyclonic storms but is also a fre quent requirement with .
technological or industrial disasters, For evacuation to be effective, there must
i
be a timely and accurate warning system, clear identificat'on of escape routes,
provision of transport, an established policy that requires veryone to eyacuate
when an order is given; and a public education prog amme to make the
community aware-of the plan.
Check Your Progress I Search, Rescue and
Evacuation
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of this ~11iit.
I ) What do you understand by Search, Rescue and Evacuation?
2) Bliiefly describe the term 'Evacuation'.
3) Highlight the actions taken by SAR teams in the event of floods and
.. cyclones.
.15.3 ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SEARCH,

RESCUE AND EVACUATION
For the search, rescue and evacuation process to be effective and useful, there are
quite a few essential requirements that have to be available simu~tankousl~, if not
in advance. Prime ones amongst these are:
I
i) Shelter
To provide temporary shelter for victims whose houses have been

destroyed or rendered unusable. This may involve:
Making urgent repairs to some buildings

Providing tents or tarpaulin as temporary shelter
Accommodating groups of homeless people iq community buildings
such as schools
1 Relief Mluures ii) Food and Drinking Water
r To organize and distribute food and drinking water to disaster victims

and also emergency workers
s To estimate damage to crops and food stocks
r To estimate food reserves available (including unharvested crops) ant
organize their distribution along with requisitioning additional stocks
required.
iii) Com~umication
To establish essential radio, telephone, telex or facsimile

bases, control rqoms, and head offices of agencies
coordination and provision of manpower, service and material backups.
Amateur Radio Opprators (HAMS)are often quite helpful.
iv) clearance and Aqcess
To clear the key roads, airfields and ports in order to allow access for
vehicles, aircraft and shipping; and to identifjl and prepare helicopt4r landing
sites in the immediate vicinity of the disaster struck area.
p) Water and Power Supplies

, .
To re-establish water and power supplies, to make temporary
arrangements for them, the provision of potableO Later is often difficult,'
particularly in the early post-impact stages. ~ a t k rpurifLing equipment
might therefore have to be obtained andlor hater purifying tablets
distributed.
vi) Temporary Subsistence Supplies
'To provide supplies such as clothing, medical kits, cooking utensils and
plastic sheeting, so as to enable victims to subsist temporarily in their own
area, thus helping to reduce the pressure on evacuation.
vii) Health and Sanitation
To take measures to safeguard the health of people in the disaster stricken

area and to mainkin reasonable sanitation facilities, including provision of
temporary tpilets, safe water, garbage disposal service and vector control
measures.
viii) Public Information
To keep the stricken comrnunity'informed on what they should do,

especially in terms of self-help. And on what action is in hand to assist
' them. To prevent wild speculation and rumours concerning the future
situation that may lead do unnecessaly fear and mental stress to the people. ,
ix) Security ,
. \
To maintain .law and order, especially to prevent thef? and other criiyes,
1 8,. which could add to themiseries of the victims. .. . .
..
x) Construction Requirements Search, Rescue and
Evacuation
To esti~nztehigh priority building repairs and replacement requirements.
Unsafe buildings aiid buildings beyond repair should be identified and
declared out of bounds till they are demolished and rebuilt.
xi) Disaster Welfare Inquiry
To make arrangements to handle national and international inquiries

concerning the safety and welfare of citizens and residents, including tl-acing
of missing persons, preparation and maintenance of records and inventories
of the dead, and i~ijuredas well as the survivors along with i~iformationon
their locations.
15.4 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

Traditionally, due to lack of technology and scientific approach, it was difficult
to carry out the search, rescue and evacuation operations. The only possible way
out for the teams ,was to work with the help of local people who volunteered
themselves during such operations. The teams used to move around in
vehicles/boats/helicoptersto search out people and rescue them.
In the present context, due to scientific advances, it has become easicr to carry
out these operations efficiently. Advancements in science and techliology have
made it possible to forecast the disaster occurrences with specific locations,
which helps in the initial stages of search and rescue operations. Besides, there
are techniques available, like remote sensing, satellite image~yand computer
based Geographical Information Systems(GIS), wliich help in identifying areas
which are disaster prone, zoning them according to risk magnitudes, i~lventoryi~lg
populations and assets at risk in the respective zones, and simulating damage
scenarios. These tools are useful even while managing disasters as they can
, provide instant access to information required for management decisions.
Modern communicatio~l systems have also proved very usefill in disaster
I
( situations particularly in search and rescue operations. They not o~ilyhelp in
providing warnings before the disaster, but also help in creating awareness,
j which helps in reducing panic, conf~~sion and mental stress. A communication
. network system helps in establishing contacts between relief teams, which wit11
I
better central coordination could work more efficiently and be more effective. It
is for this reason that various control rooms are establislied to manage the
disasters. And in the cases such as floods and cyclones, which can be predicted
I in advance, such control rooms are.also set up in advance.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
I
1) Briefly discuss five major requirements that are needed along with or in
advance of Search, Rescue and Evacuation.
Relief Measures 2) Highlight the difference between the traditional and modern methods and
techniques regarding relief measures.
3) Briefly describe the important steps in providing food to the victims.
15.5 LET US SUM UP
This unit hw dealt with the search, rescue and evacuation operations. The role of
local voluntears and voluntary organizations that' lays focus on essential
requirements to make Search, Rescue and Evacubtion effective has be& ,
discussed. The unit has also described the traditional and modern methods and
techniques regarding search, rescue and evacuation.
15.6 KEY WORDS
~ommunicatidnNehork for disaster management includes the human and

technical network for transmitting information to the public. This information
can be transmitted between the disaster site and the emergency operations centre
via telephone, radio, telegram, television and newspaper.
Evacuate means to remove someone from a place of danger to a safer place.
Evacuation Planning is a structured procedure whereby persons could be moved
from a threatened or impacted area.
Search and Rescue is the process of identifying the location of disaster victims
who may be trapped or isolated and of bringing them to safety and medica!
attention.
Encyclopaedia Britanica - Any edition

Prakash Indu, Disaster ,Management; Rashtra Prahari Prakashan, Ghaziabad
(U.P.), 1994. I
Thomas Babu, Disaster Response; Church's Auxiliary For Social Action, New
Delhi, 1993. v
Search, Rescue and
15.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGWESS Evacuation
EXERCISES

a Search and Rescue, often Itnown by the acronym SAR, is the process of
locating of the clisaster victims who may be trapped or isolated and
bringing them to safety anci providing the~nwith medical attention.
o SAR becomes a necessity in the aftermath of floods, cyclones and
eartliqualces particularly.

r Evacuation involves the relocation of a population from zones at risk of
an imminent disaster to a safer temporary location.
e It is most commonly associated with tropical storms and floods and also
industrial and technologic@Idisasters.
3) Your answer should include tlle follov,~ingpoints:

a I n cases of floods and cycbones, SAR teams search their assigned sectors
for search and rescue work. They use boats, rafts and helicopters to carly
out the SAR operations.
SAR usually includes locating stranded flood victims, who may be
threatened by rising water, and as per their need either bring them to
safety or provide them food and first-aid until they can be evacuated or
return to their homes. In case of all earthquake, SAR iiivolves locating
and rescuing the persons buried under debris. This needs trained
rescuers and specialized equipment.
1) Your answer should i~icludethe following points:

e Shelter
Food and drinking water
Communication facilities
@ Health and sanitation
Security

@
Traditional methods involve local people to work with tlie teams to
search out people and rescue them. The teams are used to move around
in vehicles, boats or helicopters,
Modern methods involve a scientific approach. Advancements in
science and technology have made 'it possible to forecast the disaster
occurrences with specific locations, which helps in the initial stages of
'
search and rescue operations. Besides, modern communication systems
have also proved very useful in disaster situations, particularly in search
and descue.
1
I 4
Relief ~Measurcs 3) Your answer should include the following points:
c T o organize and distribute food to the disaster victims.
T o estimate damage to food stocks and crops.
c T o estimate available food resources locally and organize their
distribution along with requisitioning additional stocks as required.
UNIT 16 SWELTER FOR VICTIMS
Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Concept and Significa~ice
16.3 Shelter for Humans
16.4 Shelter for Animals
16.5 Security to Property
16.6 Let Us Sum Up
16.7 k e y Words
1 6.8 References and Further Readings
16.9 Answers to Checlc Your Progress Exercises
16.0 OBJECTIVES
discuss tlie importance of sheltei provision;

a highlight shelter provision differential in lieu of peculiarities of location,
climatic condition and availability of resources; and
describe the shelter provisio~ifor different types of disasters.
16.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, an attempt is made to discuss tlie iriiporta~~ce
of shelter provision as
part of emergency relief operation as well as long-term rehabilitation plans.
Shelter provisio~i differential in lieu of peculiarities of location, climate
conditions and availability of resources will be highlighted. In addition, shelter
provisions for different types of disasters will be briefly described. The need of
security for property will also be discussed.
16.2 CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE

To i~nderstandthe mechanism of shelter provision and restoration in disaster
management cycle, various cliaracteristics have to be taken into consideration.
i) Need for Different Shelter Strategies
Various types of disasters need different shelter strategies and this reflects on
the level of intervention, the design options and the require~ne~itof'resources,
A~iotlierimportant factor is the likelihood of recurrence of disasters in tlie
same area. This could be almost immediately after a disaster or after a long
interval. Sucli areas have to be dealt with separately and with long-term plan
intervention.
ii) Geographical Factors
The location of the place where the disaster has occurred, the
pl~ysiogvaphicterrain and the subsoil conditions contribute sigliificantly
in ?he &oice of various shelter options. Location also becomes important
i
from tlie strategic point of view. ometimes tlie areas may not be readily
accessible. Such peculiarities severely limit tlie choices available for
intervention.
Relief Measures iii) Shelter Strategies
Varying shelter strategies may be adopted as given below:

I
Large Shelter Space : To accotnmodate large rl~llnberof

people in one place; somctimes
existing community buildings s~lch
as schools etc. may be used for this
purpose
Temporary Relief Camps : Camping sites may be set up in

proximity to the aflected settlements.
Tents may be ~ ~ s e cifl buildings are
not available.
Rehabilitation Settlements : These may be rcbuilt scttletnents in

new sites on permanent basis using
construction technology, which
could provide for proofing against
future disasters. This strategy is
adopted when a conimunity is to be
relocated permanently.
Repair and Restoration : These could be carried out in the

existing areas if the extent of damage
is not very high.
Retrofitting and Stre~~gthening

: Retrofitting is dolie as a measure to
reduce tlic vulnerability of the
existing weak struct~~re to future
disasters.
iv) Knowledge Sharing and Awareness
In view of the daunting task of large-scale shelter relief in the shortest possible
proofilig methods, especially materials and methods of construction sharing of
knowledge could be a boon. In certain cases, there are possibilities of usefully
adapting traditional knowledge in existing structures as well as new ones with
a view to mitigate (or possibly prevent) the effects of disasters.
Note : i) Use Gespace given below for your answers.

1) Discuss the main factors which contribute to the choice of various shelter
options.
D
2) Highlight any three types of shelter strategies. Shelter for Victims
I
1
I
3) Write a note on rehabilitation settlements.
16.3 SHELTER FOR HUMANS
The physical conditions of the existing housing stock of India, particularly in

rural areas, have substantially deteriorated over the years. Most of the houses in
small towns and rural areas stand in dilapidated condition and warrant
upgradation or replacement. The bulk of the housing in the country is constructed
I by the people themselves or semi-skilled houses with varying standards and
specifications without recourse to support from governmental agencies or
financial institutions. In spite of quantitative and qualitative increase in housing
-
stock during the successive five year plans, it is estimated that every year nearly
1,75,000 houses get adversely damaged or destroyed by different types of
I , disasters.
I
House forms and building system have been traditionally adapted not only to
local climatic conditions but to the availability and experienced structural
performance of basic building materials. The major limitations of traditional
1 materials in local applications are in their low resistance to extreme natural -
I forces (e.g. earthquakes, cyclones, floods etc.) and lower durability. As a result,
the level and frequency of maintenance and the resulting lower service life of
houses built with these materials have emerged as major constraints to their
I
performance and durability and render most of these buildings vulnerable under
the forces of natural disasters,
I
In the event of a disaster, these vulnerable structures give way, killing the
occupants or injuring them. One of the immediate relief tasks is of providing
alternate shelters to the survivors.
Shelter Relief
Part of the relief material distributed to the disaster victims may include building
materials like roofing items, camping kit etc. This strategy is adopted very often.
However, it may have a limited effect as the community may not be aware of
how to use them. Besides, these may not provide protection against recurring
disasters.
-
When the settlement is completely destroyed or submerged, the population may
have to be moved to a new location where temporary Relief Camps may be
established. The Relief Camps bay provide for essential services like food, watel
supply and health services in addition to meeting the shelter requirements.
In areas which are prone to disasters, sometimes large structures may be erected
in preparation for disaster. These large structures could be used to house the
affected population. (It is important to note that such structures should be
designed scientifical!y to withstand the anticipated disasters, otherwise they
would offer no refuge when required).
In case of cyclones, designing and constructing of special multi-purpose anti-

cyclone community relief shelters provide safe and secure accommodation to
vulnerable population. This is done through construction in a phased manner of
chain or network of such cyclone relief shelters all along the vul~lerable
coastline. It is erected so as to be within trekkable distances from the threatened
settlements.
The cyclone reliefshelters can generally take care of a population ranging from
5.0 to 300 people .(men, women and children). These are provided as multi-
purpose community facility with spaces to be used for adult education, primary
health centres, primary schools, vocational training,, and community centre
needs. This will be at elevated areas, to be protected from floods and also with a
provisiori for community kitchen, ensuring water supply, sanitation, battery
operated electric supply and in some cases with helipad landing facility. The flat
roofs serve as places for air droppi~~gof food, water and other,packets.
These are of various shapes which'are able to withstand extreme cyclonic storms
and offer least resistance to wind force. The siting, orientation, shapes, structural
strengthening features do contribute to the performance of the structures. In
addition, other school buildings, community centres in the vicinity are also used
as shelters in case the cyclone relief shelters are not available or are not sufficient
to meet the needs.
In case of earthquakes; large commuiiity shelters if situated in mountains have to _

offer protection against the uncertain and strong weather including snow falC as
also stand. the effects of recurrent mild tremors. They have to be not only
seismically resistant' but also capable of being built in a short time and provide
protection from the dicey weather as also security from wild animals like
mountain wolves and tigers, which usually start prowling after the substantial
death of a Iarge number of people and cattle.
Removal of the damaged elements of the structures including debris and

recoveri~gpeople who are either injured or deceased also is a very major task
that is required after disasters such as earthquakes and cyclones.
Shelter Rehabilitation
Shelter reha'bilitation may be introduced as a long-term strategy in areas

completely devastated due to disasters. Rehabilitation is usually required in case
. of earthquakes in which virtually all existing structures suffer damage and may
be unfit for living. However, rehabilitation strategies have their limitations as
they are resource-intensive and may take a long time to implement.
Shelter relocation on a new site and fresh construction of dwelling units may be
adopted in areas where large scale devastation may have taken place. Such
activities were carried out on a large scale in the state. of Maharashtra following
16 the major earthquake in Latur in 1993 and. recently in Gujarat after the
- I ,
/ I
1
destructive earthquake of January 26,2001. However, in many cases, relocation Shelteb for Victims
a
may not be adopted if the community preferences are for their original places of
residence. Also, in certain cases relocation as a strategy might entail higher costs
making it infeasible. In such cases, as part of the rehabilitation, the existing
structures may be restored by repairs and retrofitting. Retrofitting means
essentially the introduction of elements in the existing structures to provide
reinforcements against possible collapse. Such retrofitting would also serve as a
strategy to reduce the vulnerability of the structure against future disasters.
If appropriate earthquake resistant construction features are introduced, this

would go a long way in reducing the damages during the occurrence of an
earthquake. This is for normal housing and for structures, which are constructed
by local people and are generally called 'non-engineered' buildings. Therefore,
the level of technology inputs have to be left at a locally manageable level by
giving the earthquake resistant construction features for walling, roofing,
foundation, door and window fixing etc. using materials like mud, stone, steel,
cement, concrete, roofing material etc.
16.4 SHELTER FOR ANIMALS
During disasters, the casualty among cattle is particularly high because at the
time of disaster, they are left tied to their takes with no means of voluntary
escape. Furthermore, there is nobody to take care of them during and after the
disaster. Considering the fact, that livestock is also a source of livelihood to a
substantial number of households, it becomes vitally important to save their lives
and provide relief in the form of fodder and shelter in the post-disaster phase.
In the absence of any allocated shelter for animals, the community may like to
keep their cattle close to'their own relief shelters, which in turn could lead to
some unhygienic conditions and possible outbreak of epidemics. It would be
I desirable to set up separate shelters adjacent to the camp colonies as part of the
relief package.
I
16.5 SECURITY TO PROPERTY \
In disasters, the community gets dislodged from their homes leaving behind in a ;
hurry their valuables, cash and other household items. They may not-be in a , I
I
position to return immediately to retrieve their belongings. Also, immediately I
after a disaster, the community may be so traumatized that retrieving their

belongings would not be their immediate priority. Often in such situations, there
is the likelihood of their b e l o ~ g i n g.-.
~misplaced
~g or stolen, by in social
elements.
Providing security to their property during such times gives a tremendous

psychological relief to the affected community. This, in fact, acts as an
incentive for their timely evacuation as too often people delay such evacuation
/
measures for the sake of their valuables.
C k k Your Progress 2
Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given.at the end of the unit. 17
I I'
Relief Measures 1) Why have the physical conditions of the existing housing stock in India
especially in rural areas deteriorated substantially over the years?
2) Briefly describe the limitations of the rehabilitation strategies.
3) Highlight the basic needs of livestock during and after the disaster.
16.6 LET US SUM UP

I .
This unit has highlighted the importance of shelter provision as a part of

emergency operations as well as a long-term rehabilitation plan. Various shelter
strategies have k e n descrijxd briefly. The unit also dealt with the shelter
provision for humans and the livestock:lastly, certain significant issues have
lyon emphasised such as shelter provision differential in lieu of peculiarities of
location, climatic conditions, availability of resohrces; and security of property.
/-
16.7 KEY WORDS
~chabiiitatioawork rev* around operations and decisions taken after a

disaster with a view to restoding a disaster-stricken community to its former
living conditions, while encouraging and facilitating the necessary adjustments to
the changes created by the disaster.
, Relief means meeting immediate needs, of food, water, clothing, shelter arid
medical care for disaste; victims; assistance given to save lives and alleviation of
suffering in the days and weeks following a disaster.
Relocation is permanent location of temporary settlement of displaced persons at Shelter for Victims
a place separate from their last place of residence.
Shelter is temporary housing to meet the immediate needs during or after the
disaster.

4
Encyclopaedia Britanica - Any edition

Prakash, Indu, Disaster Management; Rashtra Prahari Pral<ashan, Gliaziabad
(U.P.), 1994.
Thomas, Babu, Disaster Response; Church's Auxiliary For Social Action, New
Delhi, 1993.

- EXERCISES
Check Your Progress P

* Location of the place
* Pliysiograpllic terrain
* Subsoil conditions
I
* Temporary relief camps
1
, Rehabilitation settlement
* Large shelter space
3) Your answer should includ the following points:

P
f These may be rebuilt settlements in new sites on perinanent basis using
co~~struction
technology which could provide for proofing against future
disasters.
* This strategy is adopted when a community is to be relocated
permaneqtly.
\

-
Due to financial constraints, most of these buildings are not properly
maintained.
@ The bulk of the houses are constructed by the people with limited
resources and knowledge.
The major limitations of traditional materials in local applications are in
their low resistance to extreme ~ ~ a t u rforces
al (e.g. earthquakes)

Major limitations of the rehabilitation strategies are that;
They are resources-intensive; and
* These may take a long time to implement.
-- J
Relief Meqsures 3) Your answer should include the following points:
Food and fodder
Shelter
UNIT 17 LIVESTOCK AND RIELIEP
MEASURES
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Importance of Livestock in India
Need for Protecting Livestock During Disasters
Livestock Problems in Disaster Situations
Preparedness, Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Measures
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
References and Further Readings ,
I
I
1 17.0 OBJECTIVES
, After reading this unit, you sl~ouldbe able to:
e Discuss the effect of disasters on livestock population and health;

1
e Comment upon the problems of livestock in disaster situation;
Indicate relief measures for livestock; and
I1 -
e Explain the overall livestock relief management process
1
I
C, 17.1- - INTRODUCTION
I
In this unit, we will discuss the importance of livestock in India in terms of its
economic importance and also the effect of disasters on the livestock population
1 and health. In addition, livestock problems in disaster situations and relief
I
measures will be briefly described.
I
17.2 IMPORTANCE OF LIVESTOCK IN INDIAN
SITUATION
Livestock has been an integral part of human civilisation and culture right from
the time that humans started domestication of animals. In early times, livestock
possession was a symbol of progress and prosperity. Even in these times, the
most significant positive point in favour of animal husbandry is its employment
potential for rural poor. As it does not demand more skill, it suits the farmers and
landless rural agricultural labourers well. It is not only an alternate source to
, 1 provide livelihood but also a proposition favoured by weaker sections o f the
society, most significantly, the women. Dairy farming by landless and poor
farmehyProvides employment potential to thek family members and substantially
j
, contribute to their family income. One study of National Dairy Research
Institute, Karnal shows that a number of dairy animals kept by landless poor
farmers per household is less but .more productive compared to that of big
landlords/cuItivators.
$ j
j( Relief Measures he National Commission on Agriculture in India observed that next to crops,
ji animal husbandry has the largest employlnent potential in rural areas. This sector
.I1 ;', :!,
I/ i
can, make significant potential in direct and indirect employment in several
i l I
! ancillary activities (such as livestock feed, dairy a~idpoultry equipment, leather

!
i, Ii ; and wool industry etc.) for the weaker sections of the society.
/ I 1
1:
1:
I,
I The importance of livestock is depicted pictorially in Fig. I
i: I
/j
;
L A MEASURE
OF WEALTH
Source of Extra Help in Farm

Cash Income
Transport
LIVE STOCK Provider of Food
and Hol~sehold
Articles
I
Special Companion and
For some Family Guide
I
I Members
Figure 1
1 1
I
I 17.3 VEED FOR PROTECTING LIVESTOCK DURING'
There is a mutual give and take relationship between livestock and rural
community. The major livestock products or outputs can be divided into 10
categories as depicted in Figure 2, which also shows the seven categories of
inputs. Income from livestock includes not only cash from sale of anirnals, but
also provision of services such as ploughing and transport. Land and agricultural
improvement requires animal traction for ploughing, animal power for pumping
water and post-harvest processing. The use of dung for manure and fuel and the
making of fertiliser fram dung, bone, feather or horn are obvious livestock
outputs. Livestock products which are used as clothing include wool, skins ,
hides, leather and feathers. In urban areas, livestock are not only companions
for blind, elderly or loneli people but also provide security. The'pgsitive hygiene
aid health aspects of livestock output include soap &king from animal products,
transportation of water and the garbage- scavenging activities of pigs.
Seeing the multiple uses of the livestock population in India and particularly irr
the rural society, it is i~nportantto protect livestock in disaster situations like
I
, floods,*droughtsand cyclones. Durine these natural calamities, animals may be
lost due to drowning, running away out of fright, death due to snakebites etc.
More common and severe damage to.livestock are incurable injuries, starvation
of animals due to being stranded and death due to various diseases after the
22 disaster.
Li\lcstocli a11dRelief
Me:~surer$
I Figure 2: C o i n m ~ ~ n i lInpi~ts
y and Liveslook Ou~pu[s
M~lienever, there is any natural and human-made disaster. atlention of [lit

Go\*ernmcnL,NGOs and others are focused on Iiuman population. Most of tlic
relief and rehabilitation works are for affected hiurnan comn~unity.The next focus
is normally on livestock and otlier damages. According to the Government of'
I
lndi'a policy, first priority in disaster situation is io save human lives and provide
I them relief followed by livestock relief and then o~ilycome other aspects (viz.
repair of roads, bridges, otlier infrastructure, houses etc.) Hence, disaster manager
has to perform an i~nporta~it function to organise disaster relief to livestock next
I only to taking care of humans.
I
Clleck Your Progress 1

I ) Briefly discuss tlie priority systems in a disaster situation.
2) Higliliglit the importance of livestock in Indian situation.

' i
;1
I
I
I Relief Measures 3) Why should we protect Ii~restockin a disaster situation?
j1
19.4 LIVESTOCK PROBLEMS IN A DISASTER

SITUATION
It has been stated above that during any natural calamity, prime concern of
authorities, NGOs and related organisations is to save human lives and provide
relief to the affected community. Livestock and infrastructure are always a
second or third priority. The animal population is also affected eqiially in any
disaster but their relief is nor~nally neglected. It is also clear from the
introduction of this unit that livestock is one of the major sources of our national
wealth. As a significant part of sectoral growth and e~nployrnentgeneratioh
depends on livestock economy, its i~nportancecannot be mini~nised it1 tlie
develop~nentprocess of Indian economy. Loss of any form of livestock will
affect the econo~nicrecovery of the people and will have a delayed and long
lasting ill-effect on agriculture and people's lives, especially the rural poor.
Some of the effects of various types of disasters on livestock are given below:
Whenever a disaster occurs, livestock is affected equaIly like humans. Even

though a disaster usually lasts f0r.a small period of time only, the loss of lives
could be heavy.
UTTARKASHI EARTHQUAKE 1991
In villages near the epicentre of the earthquake, more animals died than human
beings. In village 'Jamak' in which maximum loss of life and damage took place,
72 people died and 200 animals perished -----.
In drought situations, livestock is equally affected as human population.
\
~ c c o r d i nto~information available for 1987 drought, in India, which s still the
latest widespread drought of the country, more than 50% of the tot J bovine
population was affected (out of total population of 21.4 million, 12.0 million
were affected by drought in affected states and UTs). In some states, the
percentage affected was much higher than the national average.
Drought situation also causes rnal~lutritionand leads to starvation deaths of

I
animals. There is short-term as well as long-term impact of the disaster i.e.
mortality and morbidity respectively.
I
111disasters caused by floods and cyclones, the impact on livestock is generally

of short-term duration but severe in nature. Non-availability of feed for the
duration of floods and epidemic diseases after the floods subside are very
Common. Incapacitation, disease or even death of livestock may have long-
lasting effects on tillage and availability of animal products in the affected parts
1
of the codntry.
Direct Effects of Natural Disasters on Livestock Livestock and Relief
Measurers
i) People want to save their ow'n lives and of their family nie~nbersduring
disasters but tend to neglect the safety of their animals. So~neti~nes
animals
run away in panic.
ii) Death of ani~nalsdue to collapse of cattle sheds during earthquakes and
landslides. Even if there are 110 casualities, illjuries are often caused.
iii) It is reported that during the earthquake or during the cyclone, animals try to
free tliemselves of the neck ropes or metal chains. Sometimes, death takes
place in this struggle by way of 'asphyxiation'.
iv) Drowning and washing away of animals in floods is most commonly
reported.
v) Animals and birds are reported as being blow11away during cyclones and
high winds.
vi) Animals get stranded on isolated elevated places in case of floods or storm
surges.
vii) Many a tirne, deaths of animals are caused by attacks through poisonous
insects, snakes, rodents and leaches. Long-term starvation deaths are also
common.
Indirect Effects of Natural Disasters on Livestock
There are many indirect effects of natural disasters on ani~nalpopulation. These

can be summed up as follows:
i) Wet cohditions, after floods or cyclones, enhance the chances of infection

by internal parasites like round worms, tape worms, liver flukes as well as
of many epidemic diseases, like Haemorrhagic Septicae~nia(HS), Black
Quarter (BQ) or Anthrax.
ii) There can be non-specific water borne infections causing diarrhoea and
other enteric diseases.
iii) Water and moisture may lead to wet hair coats, sticking of blood si~cking
leaches, skin disorders and ectoparasites. Standing in wet surfaces or in
water can cause 'hoof-rot' and resillt in lameness.
.iv) Moisti~releads to many respiratory disorders in the animals and birds.
v) Loss of weight in the animals is possible.
vi) Loss of prodirction of milk is most often reported.
vii) Similarly, loss of production of eggs in the poultry is reported.
viii) Losses to the agriculture sector in shortage,of ploughing animals are likely.
The extent of damage to the livestock can be understood by following two cases:
FLOODS IN ASSAM (1988)
Assani is one of the most flood-prone states, suffers two or eight waves of floods
every year. In 1988 (which was one of the worst year), almost all the districts and
about 21742 villages were affected (four times more than average villages
affected), A total of 99 lakhs of animals (70% of total population were affected)
and about 3500 large animals (Valued at Rs. 3.8 crores) were drowned or washed
away and lost. About 644 cattle camps had to be run and 401 8 technical staff was
deputed to carry out relief and rehabilitationwork such as vaccination, treatment
for injured animals, supply of food and feeding etc. It host about Rs. 7.5 crores to
the state government.
. ,
Relief Measures . ANDWRA CYCLONE, 1977/1979/1984/1989
.*
Andhra is one of the cyclone prone states. It has 1050 km. long coastiine. which
is exposed to this type of disaster. The cyclo~leof 1977 is one of the most severe
disasters, which struck the Andhra coast. As a result of which 5.74 lakh cattle
perished in two worst affected districts. It caused a loss of Rs. 1.5 crores to the
state government.
In the cyclone of May 1979,3 lakh and in Nov. 1984 cyclone, one lakh livestock
perished.
In the cyclone of 1989, in Kavali Tehsil alone (in which the cyclone crossed the
coast) nearly 1600 cattle were perished (or lost) and 680 poultry farms, with
more than one lakh birds, were blown away. The number of sheeps and goats that
pel-ished in the disaster was several thousand. It cost more than one crore rupee
loss to the state.
17.5 PREPAREDNESS, RELIEF, REHABILITATION

RECONSTRUCTION MEASURES
1 .
Preparedness
The important measures for disaster preparedness for animals are as follows:
There should be.a separate plan for livestock population in the preparedness plan
at state, district and even block levels. Similarly, there should be some initiatives
by the central as well as state governments to take preventive measures to protect
livestock such as-
I Construction of livestock shelters in disaster prone areas. In normal times,

these structures can be used for animal kid stores, animal production,
extension centre cum veterinary dispensary (on same lines as cyclone
shelters are proposed to be used as community centres).
e Requisite stocks should be maintained for fodder, vaccines and medicines for
I animals in disaster prone areas.
I
* Animal shelters should be near the human shelters so that people can take
their animals with them at the time of warning.
+ Community should be trained to protect their animal population in the
disaster situation.
e Separate action plan should be chalked out for veterinary staff who should
receive the training dealing with to specific disaster situation.
1
I
Contingency pIans to remove the animals from affected areas. For poultry,
1 special cages and transport arrangements can be made.
I
* In cyclone/ flood prone areas, regular mock exercises for livestock protection
i should be there.
j
Relief
The various relief measures for animals in the aftermath of disasters are briefly
indicated as under:
+ St.randed and affected livestock in the disaster shouId be rescued and taken to
safer places such as cattle shelter and. p r o v i d e d - a basic needs for life i.e.
feed, fodder and drinking water.
The community and trained staff should protect the animals against beasts of Livestock and Relief
prey and poisonous insects, snakes and reptiles. Measurers
s The community should maintain hygiene and assist the veterinary staff in
giving vaccine and medicines to the injured and affected animals.
I
e The veterinary and para-veterina~y staff should be assisted in damage
I
I . assessment and specific needs of the cattle.
Removal of dead animals and disposal of dead bodies should be given high
priority.
.
I
I
Non- Governmental Organisations (NGOs) can play a major role in
providing relief to the livestock during the disaster in the following ways-
1 a) establishment and running of cattle camps.

I
b) collection/ transport and distribution of feed and fodder.
, c) collection of forest grass, straws, etc. for feed.
d) accurate reporting on the extent of loss of livestock belonging to individual
farmers.
e) disposal of animal carcasses
f) providing training to the community for animal care during natural
disasters.
1
I Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Measures

\
0 ~ r r a n ~ e m e ncould
ts be made for purchase of livestock that the farmers want
. to sell- out of distress. The cattle can be rehabilitated in 'GoshalasY/
'Gosadans'.
I
e ' Farmers of the disaster-affected area should be encouraged to go for
insurance of their livestock so that they may be adequately compensated for
the livestock lost, incapacitated or dead due to disasters.
r There is a system of distributed cash relief by the State Government for the
loss of animals.
0 Reconstruction of damaged veterinary hospitals and artificial insemination
centres should be given priority.
e After the disaster, cattle breed of high quality and resistance should be
introduced in the area so that better genetic stock could come up for the
future.
t
e Setting up of permanent fodder bank in drought and flood affected areas will
help the people in a disaster situation. This will provide permanent feed-
security system in the vulnerable areas.
I

I
I
I Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

I
i ii) Check your answers with those given at the end ofthis unit.
I
I I ) Throw light on the livestock problems in a disaster situation.
Relief Measures 2) Discuss briefly the three major steps in relief measures for livestock.
_ 3) Mention three important steps in livestock rehabilitation and reconstruction.
17.6 LET US SUM UP

This unit has highlighted the important role of livestock in Indian rural
communities as it helps in the farm and provide extra income to poor people. In
addition, need for protecting livestock in disaster situations has been discussed.
The unit has briefly described the livestock problem in disaster situations,
Preparedness, relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction measures have also been
discussed.
17.7 KEY WORDS
Livestock Animals kept on a farm for use or profit

Preparedness : Actions designed to minimise loss of life and damage,
and to organize and facilitate timely and effective
rescue, relief and rehabilitation in the times of disaster.
To be more specific, preparedness is concerned with
understanding the threat, forecasting and warning;
educating and training officials and the populations;
establishing organizations for disaster management,
including preparation of operational plans, training relief
groups, stock piling supplies and earmarking necessary
fiinds.
Relief Relief means meeting the immediate needs for food,
clothing, shelter and medical care of disaster victims;
assistance given to save lives and alleviate suffering in
the days and weeks following a disaster. The relief
period, for creeping disasters may be months or ever:
yea&,
Resettlement : Resettlement is an important component of a
rehabilitation programme .following a disaster.
Displaced population requires to be resettled as a part of
the process of rehabilitation.
17.8 REFERENCES
Dllali.ja. S. I<. Livc..sloc~kD e ~ ~ c ~ l o l ~fbl-
n i e Rzi1.01 ra: .I an., l 3- 14.
r ~ l , Pool.. Ku~~u'l\slict
1989.
1 O 1
I I- J O I I I
( I I I VOI. 1 &I I, M i l l is1 0 1'
Agric1rltur.c aricl C'ool~cr.ation,Ciover.nrnent ol' India.
- - -- --
17.9 ANSWERS TO CI-LECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Chccli Your I'rogress 1
I ) Your answer should include tlie i'ollowing poinls:

According to the C~ovorrimento f India policy:
e Fisst priority in a clisaster situation is to save human lives and provicle
~ l i c m~.clicl'li)l lowctl by l i ~ c ~ l o cnncl
l i other aspects lilie repair.
2) our answer shoulcl include tlie following points:

. N c x t to agriculture, animal husbandry Iias [lie largest employment
potential i n rural areas.
e It is not only the alternate source to proviclc livcliliood bul a proposition
fnvou~.cdby weaker sections o f t h e socicty like women.
Dairy I'arming by Inndlcss and poor farmers provicle kmploymcnt
~ ~ o t e n t ito
a l 1 heir. S:uiii ly mcmbcrs.
3) Your answer slioulcl inclucle the lollowing points:

Consiclering the multiple uses o f the livestoclc populalion in Inclia, it is
. impel-tatit to protcct livcstocli in a clisnstcr situation.
Ncxt to agl.iculttlrc, animal liirsbanclry provides the largest eml~loymcnt
in rural arcas.
* I t i s tlie main livelilioocl for landless and poor farmers as well as for
weaker sections.
Loss o f livestoclc w i l l not only affect the economy adversely but also
w i l l liavc ii long lasting ill-erf'ect on people's lives, especially tlie rural
poor.
Check Your Progl-ess 2
1 ) Your answer slioulcl inclirde the following point.

Sollie of the majol- poirits to be kept in niind are tlie direcieffects:
' i) Animals run away in panic;
ii) Death o f animals due to collapse o f cattle sheds;
iii) Drowning o f animals in floods;
iv) Starvation deaths; and
v l Respiratory diseases in wet conditions.
I. .
Relief Measures e Some of the indirect effects are:
i) Wet conditions after floods or cyclones enhance the chances of
infection by internal parasites; and
ii) Loss to agriculture sector due to shortage of ploughing animals.

e The animals should be provided basic requirements i.e. food, shelter,
drinking water, and medicines.
- e The cornmGnity and trained staff sl~oi~ld protect the animals against
beasts of prey, poisonous insects, snakes and reptiles.
\ e Removal of dead animals and disposal of dead' bodiks' should be given
'high priority. -
Arrangements be made for pl~rchaseof deemed stock tha:the farmers
want to sell out of distress (sheep, goat etc.). Cattle should be
rehabilitated in '~os1~alas"andGosadans. -.
0 Farmers of the disaster affected area shoilld be encouraged to go in for

insurance of their livestoclc so that they may be compensated for the
livestock lost, incapacitated or dead in the disasters.
a Reconstruction of damaged veterinary liospi,tal& and artificial
inse~<inatioilcentres should be given priority.
UNIT 18 CLEAMNGE OF DEBRIS AND
DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD
Structure
18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introductio~i
18.2 Debris Clearance
18.2.1 Damage lo Buildings
18.2.2 Debris Clearance
18.3 Disposal of Dead Humans
18.4 Disposal of Dead Ani~nals
18.5 Let Us Sum Up
18.6 Key Words
18.7 References and Fu~tlierReadings
18.8 Aliswers to Check Your Progress Exercises -
18.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
a discuss about tlie debris clearance;

a understand tlie process of disposal of dead liuma~ibodies; and
a describe the process of disposal of dead animals.
18.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit,-we will discuss about the cleara~iceof debris and disposal of tlie
dead after the trail of deaths and destruction that disasters leave in tlieir wake.
~ h i unit
k will highl iglit the necessity of immediate clearance of debris, including
that from collapsed buildings and uprooted trees and will discuss tlie location and
means of disposal. Tlie steps to be taken and precautions to be observed in the
/ '
disposal of Iiuman dead bodies and dead animals will be described.
18.2 DEBRIS CLEARANCE
Debris from collapsed buildings, bridges and other structures, as well as uprooted
trees, hoardings ih the wake of a disaster, is the biggest hindrance to search,
rescue and relief operations, as they lead to tlie disruption of communication
services and transportation. As such debris clearance is the first step towards re-
establishment of transport and communicatio~inetworks, and setting up of a
system to enable effective search, rescue and relief efforts.
Search operations for trapped survivors should be tlie first concern in tlie event of
a disaster. These are most difficult where there have bee11 building collapses and
people are buried u~idertlie rubble. In such cases, debris renioval has to be taken
up in a very cautious and scientific manner. Any mistakes during debris removal
can lead to furtller problems if the debris heaps move or settle, crusliing any
survivors trapped underneath. This is the reason wliy in such cases it is advisable
tqfirst cordon off the area a~idallow only technical personnel to carry out these.
operations. If the bystanders are allowed to take part in sucli operations, they
may, though witli good intentions, land u on the site in large numbers, and start
P
moving tlie debris in a liaphazard manner, thereby endangering t$dives of tllose
trapped inside.
I
'I'CCJIIIOI~gi~;~I ;IIIII ~li;llc~.i;lIs11111)01.[ is IIISO very critical 101 clcbris r.ci1loval
L~l)cr;l~ic>~~s. S c t ~ l i - i ~ ~ ~ t o \vith i ~ i ii~os~cof
~ ~ ~ [11c ~ .C:II~~I 111ovi11gecltlip111e111,lil'ts alld
CI.:III~S, l ~ c l i i o \ ~I.LIL~,S.
~ ~ ~ l c \ ~ t i c ~LIII~I
, s cl~.illsctc. is i ~ s c f ' i for
~ l d c i l l i ~ ~\ ~g , i t Il ~~i g lSI;lS
01. Iligll s c l i s i ~ i il!
\ arcas. ' 1 .0 Ioc:llc t~.;~l,pctl bu~.iccl.pcrsons01.aninials, special
5 o L l n ~sIc ~ i s i ~ 01.i g heal ~ I I S ~ I cI q~i ~ i l ~ ~ i li sc ~nccclecl
it i n addition t o s n i f f e l clogs,
Once such a I o c a ~ i c >is~ 111:lclc. ~ nlnlost care is ~.ctlirir.ccli n I l n ~ l d l i n gancl cleal.illg
1lcl11.15 ;II ~Ii;lh l i~c.
klan). a t i ~ ~ ~ cciis:~s~c~.h
s. ;Is SLIC~I (10 IN[ k i l l I>~oI>Ic.building
SLICII :IS c;I~~IIc~~I~II~cs
co'lla~scs LIO. l3uilcli1igi collal?scs arc \vidcsprcail i n case ol' ca~~lliclu;~lies and
c!.clo~~cs and c \ , c ~II~:I\,!~
~ rains 01.Iloocls. 'l'liesc l i i l l o r i11,jut-cnian). p e o l ~ l c r:vell
.
p;~~?i;~ll!:clnmagccl builcli1ig5 i1I.C :I b i g 1?1>1~11ti:ll tll~.eat,as L l ~ c gnia) collal?sc due l o
a n y I ' i ~ ~ . t l ist~.css.
c~ 'I'l~c~-cli)~.c.i t is essc~ilial1101 only Lo I.crilir\;c l l l c clcbris of
col lapsccl huilclings, hill i ~ ~ t c n l i oisnnecclecl on the pa~.liall y dnmngecl slri~cturcsas
\ \ t l l . 111 cnscs wllcrc they arc rccovcrablr ancl ~.cp:~ir.ablc.tlicsc sliould be carried
out as soon as possible. oncl l i l l 1.Iial l i m e 1.11~builclings 0 1l l i c s1ructu1.c sllould not
hc occupiecl 01.i ~ s c d . 111 c;lscs o l ' I ) ~ ~ i l c l iclamagc
~lg hepond repair. tlicy sliould be
clcmolisl~ccll o ; ~ \ o i c l;IIIJ, l i ~ ~ l l i emislial~s.
r A slructurnl asscssmenl is reqi~isccl
i ~ n ~ n c c l i a t c nlicr
ly the clisilslc~.i n older l o i t l e ~ i l i l ytlic extent 01' d:lnlagecl 2nd
partially diuiiagecl builtlings ancl to clcciclc the course u r a c l i o ~ i .
18.2.2 Debris Clearance
Debris clearance i n a post-dis;lster scenario is a coml>lcx lasl<. l i o t o n l y due to

Iiigli v u l i ~ m e sancl l i a m ~ ~ e r eacccssibilit),
cl but because 1 lie Iirlturc o f clebris is also
liiglily vnriccl. I t may comprise ~ - i ~ b b1.1.01ill c dainagccl b u i l d i i i ~ s ,hridgcs and o t l ~ e r
alri~c(i~~.cs, i ~ ~ ~ r o n ttrees.
c c l poles nncl Iloat-cling, clomaged vcliiclcs. goocls and even
accu~nulatcdsolicl \vnstc. \\/liicli may be ol'bio-dcgraclablc o r non-hio-degradable
nnlure. Debris coulcl also i ~ i c l ~ ~l c~l nc ~ . ~ol r~i l~i i~. jlt ~ r i omaterial
~~s and w i l l cel'tainly
inclucle brol\en glass and plastics.
During debris clca~.nnceoperations, care has l o be ~ i l l \ c nso a+ not In cause f i ~ r t l i c r

p r o b l e n l ~endangering lives o r propert)/. Care has t o bc t:ilcc~i to sal'eguard
l i clcbris :~ncl atlcntion 1s also ~leeclccinot to
survivors trapped ~ ~ n d c r r i c a lIlie
lanlper w i t h ally inli-astruct\~renncl service n c t w o r l s i n the process o f debris
clearance. As alrencly menlionccl above, s u r v i v o ~ slloulcl
.~ b e first located. Then
these areas need l o be taken LIP liw, a11d tllc trapped persons rescucd before
filrtller debris cleara~ice.
Chcclt Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for y o u r answers.

ii) Check y o u r answers w i t h 1 hose given a1 the elid o f this U n i t .
1) B r i e f l y mcntion the biggest Iiindrance to search, rescue ancl reliefoperalions.

2) Why s!lould only technical personnel be allowed to cany out search Clearance o f Debris sntl
operations for trapped survivors? Disposal of the Dead
3) Why is structural assessment required immediately after the disaster

wherein damage to buildings is involved?
18.3 DISPOSAL OF DEAD HUMANS
Quick disposal of dead bodies is very important for avoiding the outbrealc and
spread of diseases due to their quick decay. Besides, decomposing human dend
I
bodies on the site with fast spreading stench, present a very unpleasant
I environment for the rescue workers as well as surviving victims. This could have
I a telling effect on their mental health.
1 However, human dead bodies need to be handled with great care and due respect
because senti~iientalvalues are attached to tlie dead and human dignity should be
respected ,even in death. Therefore, the means, process and the manner of their
disposal are of great importance. The first step in this regard has to be the
identification of tlie dead bodies. Tliis is also required for compliance with legal
for~iialities.111case thereis no person to identify or if the body is unidentifi@ble,
\
tlie religious/etlinic identification should be attempted diligently. Once such
background of the victims has been identified, they should be suitably disposed
in accordance with their religious and cultural practices. Officially, it is tlie duty
of the police to handle tlie dead bodies. Unless specifically waived, a post-
mortem examination has to be also arranged by police.
Resources such as fuel lleed to be ~nobilisedfor cremation purposes. Those

whose ethnic background prescribes burial have to buried: If tlie families of tlie
dead are at halid and are willing to take charge of the bodies for illdividual
disposal, this !nay be do11e. Otherwise, in case where there are PO claima~its,or
where bodies cannot be recognised they sl~ouldbe collectively disposed through
mass burial or cremation. All this has to be done by tlie police or under their
supervisio~lmaintaining proper records for fhture reference and for ibswe of death
I certificates later.
I
The location of disposal site is of importance because this land is then always
identified as tlie dead body disposal site by the local residents, Instances ip thel
I
past, where mass cremations of human dead bodies have been carried out in the
village open space, the local villagers have later refused tcrlive in tlie village as it
I
had acquire tlie reputation of being a cremation ground. \
Relief Measures
18.4 DISPOSAL OF DEAD ANIMALS
In most natural disasters, particularly in rural areas the number of animal deaths
are very high, especially in residential areas, due to the fact that most
dotnesticated animals are kept tied LIP,and in the event of a disaster while the
people flee urgently, the animals lert tied LIPhave no chance of voluntary escape.
As a result they often perish.
Disposal of dead animals is as important as that of humans because decaying

dead bodies can be a potential health and environment threat. Still, this aspect is
usually accorded lower priority, more so in case of stray animals. The rescuers
are not willing to handle at~itllalcarcasses. Yet, this must be done expeditiously
by local volunteers till the authorities take charge and get the carcasses disposed.
Disposal is best done by burial, at some place outside the it~liabitedarea. At such
times, nobody should be allowed to hold on to the dead bodies for extraction of
hides or bones or any other recoverable material, because the health threat is very
high, and quickest disposal of the dead bodies is desirable. While burying the
carcass, quick lime should be added as it will hasten the process and control the
spread of any possible infection.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of this gnit.
1) Why is the dispoq'al of dead bodies important?
2) Mention the majot. steps in disposal of the dead humans.
3) Highlight the best way of disposal of the dead atlitnals as suggested in this
unit.
Clearance of Debris and
18.5 LET US SUM UP Disposal of the Dead
This unit described the clearance of debris as a prime requirement in post-

disaster scenario so that trapped survivors may be rescued, and the way may be
cleared for rescue and relief operations. Disposal of the dead needs to be done on
an emergency basis to stop deco~npositionof bodies and spread of diseases. In
the case of disposal of human bodies great care must be taken of the emotional
sensitivity of the survivors and relatives of the dead. Disposal should be done in
accordance with the religious and ethnic background of the dead and with due
regard to dignity of the dead.
I 18.6 KEY WORDS

Debris Broken and fragmented pieces; rubble
Ethnic Relating to characteristics of different race,
culture or society.
Epidemic Control : Control of rapid and widespread outbreak of
disease within a given population and site.
Hide Animal's skin
I
I 18.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

I
I
Encyclopaedia Brittanica - Any Edition
Praltash, Indu, Disaster Management; Rashtra Prahari Prakaslian, Ghaziabad
(U.P.), 1994.
Tllomas, Babu, Disaster Response; Church's Auxiliary For Social Action, New
Delhi, 1993.
18.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGR3ESS

EXERCISES

4
e Debris from collapsed buildings, bridges and other structures as well as
uprooted trees, hoardings etc. could be the biggest hindrance.
Such debris disrupt or obstruct comlnunication and transport.
1
I
e In such cases, any mistakes during debris removal can lead to further
problems if the debris .heaps move or settle, crushing any survivors
trapped under~ieath.
a Non-technical volunteers, although well-meaning, could endanger the
. trapped persons by handling debris without expert knowledge.
1 3) Your answer should include the following points:

To identify the extent of damage in wholly and partially damaged
buildings.
I
a To determine if any person or animal could be trapped or buried in the
debris.
Relief Measures Check Your Progress 2
1 ) Your aliswer should include the followirlg points:

c For avoiding the outbreak and spread of diseases due to their quick
decay.
e Decomposing human dead bodies 011 the site with fast spreading stench,
present a very irnpleasant environment and could have a letting effect 011
mental health of tlie rescue wo~:ltersas well as the surviving victims.

e Disposal of dead bodies needs to be done with great care and with due
regard to the dignity of tlie dead.
o Identification of the dead bodies.
o Post-mortem examination, ~ ~ n l ewaived.
ss
c Resources, such as fi~el,need to be rnobilised for CI-emationor burial
purposes. Generally, this is dolie fi-orn goverlilnent funds through police,
who are officially responsible to take care of dead bodies.
o Identification of the locatiori of disposal site (burial or cremation).
3) Your answer should include tho following points:

e Disposal is best done by burial, outside the inhabited area.
At such time nobody sliould be allowed to hold on the dead bodies for
extraction of hides or bones or any other recoverable material from the
carcasses.
During burial, quick lime sliould be added because it will accelerate the
absorption of the remains inside tlie earth and also prevent spread of any
infection.
UNIT 19 CONTROL OF FIRE
Structure
0b.jectives
Introduction
Types of Fire
19.2.1 Natural Fire
19.2.2 Man-made Firc
Fire Protection
Lnstr~rctionsin Case of Building Fires
Uphaar Tragedy - A Case Study
Let Us Su111 Up
Keywords
References and FLU-ther Readings
19.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
e understand the fire liazard;

know the types of fires;
understand the causes of natural and man-made fires;
Q evaluate the damage caused by different type of tires; and
e fa~niliariseyourself with possible ways of fire prevention.
19.1 INTRODUCTION
Fire is a disaster that Icills, maims or disfigures very cruelly. It can be due to
nat~rralcauses also but is lnostly man-made. Devastation is compounded if fires
occur i n the wake of disasters like earthquakes.
!
I : Fire is a major and frequent hazard particularly in urban industrial environment
i and results in colossal loss to property and threat to lives. In India, it is estimated
that over average fire kills about 100,000 people and damages property wol-th Rs.
100 crore every year. In view of such huge disaster potential of fires, two units
, have already been devoted to this topic. A very important characteristic of fires
lies in 'this fact that these spread very fast. Hence the emphasis lias to be on
C
control of .fires. This unit is devoted to this aspect.
19.2 TYPES OF FIRE

,
1
Fire can be classified into two types.
I
I
I. 1) Natural Fire - Wild FirelForest Fire
2) Man-made Fire
19.2.1 Natural Fire
Forest fires could be both natural and man-made. The forest environment is
particularly susceptible to wild fires, that may be set off by erupting volcano,
lightning or human carelessness. The risk of a naturally ignited fire turning into
cataqrophe is increasi~~gly seen as a function of tlte degradation of the forest
habitat. Crises caused by fires are compounded by such longstanding problems as
rugpoverty, technological constraints and inefficient cropping pattern and use ~37
-
Relief Measures of forestland. Mounting pressure on scarce land and forest resources has led to
rapid and massive derorestation.
Uncontrolled fires have contributed heavily to the depletjon and exhaustion of

natural forests. Like land clearing; they set in motion events that may result in
permanent losses of bio-diversity, soil fertility and s~~stainable forest based
a
production. They i~suallyproduce large tracts of eroded and weed infested lands,
altering ecosystems and increasing vulnerability to natural hazards. Wild fires
destroy timber and forage, disrupt animal habitats, deplete soil nutrients and
diminish an area's tourist value. Rapid run off from a burned over area can lead
to local flooding and erosion of exposed soil. It can trigger landslides.
Fire Seasons
It is observed that during the summer season (April-June), the conditions become
favourable for the fires to take place. This is mainly because the temperature
during that period goes above 40" C, wl~ichn~al<es everything so dry. Further the
wind speed during this period is also very high, which helps the fires to intensify
and also spread.
Type and Reasons of Wild Fire
a) Natural Wild Fire
1) Sparks produced on account of friction of rolling stones or dry branches

of trees.
2) Lightning during th~~nderstorms.
3) Fire caused by volcanic en~ptions
4) Sparks produced by steam loco~iiotivesnear the railway tracks.
5) Sparks produced by pellets in tlie firing ranges of Army.
b) Carelessness on the Part of Humans
I) Careless throwing of cigarette, bidi stubs, match sticks by travellers and

graziers.
2) Careless burning of firewood by passer by.
3) Carelessness in extraction of honey and other forest produce, using
lighted tol.ches.
4) Negligence in camp fires and coolcing operation near camping grounds
and fairs.
c) Deliberate Causes
I) Concealing the illicit felling of trees.

2) Clearing the forest paths by the villagers.
3) ShiFting cultivation.
4) Obtaining green flus11 of grass for grazing tlie animals.
5) Burning the pine needles to clear the ground from carpet of needles.
6) Settling scores (by burning one another's area).
Since there is a ban on felling trees these days, only burnt and falletl trees Control of Fire
can be allowed officially to be talten out o r tlie forests, ~~nsocial
cle~nents
have a vested interest in tlie forest fires.
Factors Affecting Fire
I) Fuel - Surface area of a given volun~eof slash is responsible to deter~iiinetlie

state of spread and resistance to control. Dense heavy fuels arc late in
igniting and burn slowly but produce intense lieat and light. Flashy fuels
ignite easily, burn rapidly ancl produce less heat. Fuels with less than 10%
~uoisturec o ~ ~ t eignite
n t easily.
2) Aspect - Southern slopes, exposed to direct rays of SLIII are more vulnerable.
3 ) Topography - It affects illdirectly and is related to wind beliaviour, Fire

travels rapidly upslope and least rapidly downslope. Convection heating
increases with increase in tlie angle of slope. Fire travels rapidly in narrow
canyons and draws flames. It curls backwards into the fire at tlie top of slope.
4) ~ e l a yin onset of monsoon rains is also one of the causes of wild fire. Due
to very low I~umidityand the dryness, forests are more susceptible to fires.
5) Wind dries fuel, supplies oxygen to fire, tilts the flame forward to il~crease
radiation and convention and transporls burning cinders and liot gases. The
rate of drying ancl fire danger increases with increasing wind speed. Fire
i~sually burns fiercely in tlie afternoon depending upon slope, relative
humidity, wind and temperature.
Impact of Wildfire
Wildfire has a great impact on ellvirotlment as compared to other natural

disasters because it causes ecological destruction with a long recovery period (in
some cases 40-80 yrs).
Indonesia Forest Fire - 1997
The fires that raged in Indonesia and blanketed South-East Asia with a choking
haze were one of the worst forest fires of the decade. The slnoke warted over
parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the Philippines and Tl~ailand.
About 10,000 fire fighters were deployed and worked around tlie clock. More
than 50,000 people got treat~netitin Indo~iesiaand Malaysia only. child re^^
suffered greatly by tlie slnoke and found it difficult to breathe. Even the
monsoon rains couldn't stop the fires.
An Indonesian a,irplane crashed on 25"' September 1997 in which 234 people

were reported killed. This was also attributed to the thick haze and poor
visibility in the area.
There was another accident on September 27, 1997 two days later. Due to the
thick smoke enveloping the region, two cargo ships collided and one sank in the
strait of Malacca in which 29 Indians died among others.
The amount of carbon dioxide emission and environmental impact on the whole
r e g i ~ nwas indeed immense.
Relief Measures Wild Fire Risk Management
. .
A11 effective fire Management Programme includes -
1) Prevention
2) Planning and Management
3) Incident Management Technique
Prevention
Prevention focuses on the factors that cause disasters and seeks to elimi~iateits
effects.
In the context of India, tlie followii~gfactors should be taken into consideration

for the sake of prevention of wild fires.
a) Agricultural traditions: Shifting cultivation in wliicli a part of land is cleared

by fire in order to use it for agricultural purposes (slash and burn or ZHUM)
b) The education level of tlie people
c) Attitude of the people towards environment, especially those people who
either live in these forests or the forests form the means of livelihood for
them.
Planning and Management
It focuses on developing plans to respond to a disaster once it threatens or lias

occurred.
Wit11 proper planning and management, tlie impact of wild fires could be reduced
to a great extent. This cou Id be done by:
1) Zoning and Mapping of Vullierable Areas: The areas prone to wild fire
disaster slioilld be identified.
2) Assessment of Fire Hazard : A complete assessment should be made with the
help of volunteer force and available technology.
F i r e Fighting
Fire can be fought principally by three methods of attack.
i) Direct Method: Where the effort is put directly on or immediately adjacent to

tfie edge of fire. It is used for small and slow spreading fire where labour is
able to work close to tlie edge of fire.
ii) Indirect Method: Where the control line is located along favourable
topographic breaks or natural breaks and tlie area between tlie fire-edge and
control line is burned off. It is useful where ~laturalbreaks (streams, ridges,
rockslides or changes in cover type) occur. Less manpower is needed for this
method and knowledge of terrain helps in location of control line and burnt
area is limited by control line.
iii) Method combining the above two in various ways is also used.
1
i Fireline Procedure Control of Fire ,
When working at the fire-edge:
1 i) fire should be attacked where it meets fresh fuel.

ii) Work should be facilitated by stamping out on burning debris which
should be thrown into the fire, and non-burning one outside the fire.
I iii) Fire guard (a trench) should be dug down to mineral soil.

Logs or roots extending across the line should be cut and pulled into the
iv)
burnt area to prevent fire escaping thl-oughthem.
v) As a bare minimum, all snags, within about 70 meter of burnt area should
be felled. Fire spreads overhead from snags to snags and then it becomes
difficult to control. Snags should be chopped away from fire.
vi) Nonburning snags, in dangerous zone should be made fireproof by
removing all debris around from them.
vii) Fires in snags should be suppressed by water (if available) or by mud.
viii) Any fire that has descended into the roots should be grubbed out.
ix) All surface fires within 80' metres of the fire line should be extinguished.
1 Education and Training

An education and training programme should be carried out. It can act as an
effective tool for pre - and post-disaster planning and management. The
com~nunityis to be divided into the following three groups for the education and
training at the group level:
i) General Public j
The general public should be made aware of and sensitised to the nature and
causes of fires so that they.could defend themselves by knowing the simple
techniques of fire fighting in the event of large fires.
i i) Volunteers/Social Workers
Fire fighting needs trained volunteers and social workers in fairly large
numbers. In fact, fires cannot be controlled without the assistance of
volunteers from the community.
iii) Experts
Professionally qualified person, or group could be pre-selected for this
purpose. This person or group should be trained and made conversant with
the latest technology. Apart from that, the expert should'be able to detect,
evaluate and assess the damage caused by the fire and should also be able to
manage relief operations.
Training Centres
Training centres should by established to provide practical training for the

efficient application of the equipment, planning and implementation of wild fire
control, and mobilisation of fire fighters.
Rapid Detection and Messages
Wild fire disaster mitigation qan be achieved through rapid detection of incident
and'prompt passage of messages to control the centre of fire without any loss of
, time in dealing with the incidents.
.Lb.
Relief Meast~res Fire Brigade
It should be stationed near the hazard prone area. Fire brigades should be well
equipped with modern equipment and the fire personnel trained in fire
suppression methods.
Strengthening of Forest Staff
The pressure on the forests is mounting up due to increase in population along

with the developmental activities. Hence, there is a need to strengthen the forest
conservation staff to have effective patrol. During the fire season, additional
staff need to be engaged to form "special squads" to deal with fire at the
incipient stage to avoid any major incident.
Comrnunication and Transport
An effective coin~nunicationand transport system should be worked out and put

in place so as to help reduce the effect of wild fires.
Incident Management Techniqi~es
1 ) NodaI Agency
A nodal agency consisting of District Coamissioner/District Magistrate
should be formed to coordinate the activities of the various departments in
case of a wild fire disaster. As soon as any information is received 'by the
District Magistrate, the same silall be passed on to the District Fire
Officer/Divisional Forest Officer as well as District Police Officer.
2) High Power Committee at the State Level

A High Power Committee should be constitut d at the state level of the
9
concerned departments under the cliairmanship of the chief secretary to
review the situation and make policy decisions.
3) Coordination Action Committee a t the District Level

An Action Committee st~ould be formed at the district level to take
immediate actions in the disaster struck areas. This Committee should also
be formed under the ,chairmanship of the District Commissioner/District
Magistrate.
4) Stages of Action
Action Committee normally functions at three stages.
1 .Alert 2. Preparatory 3. Operational
During the fire operations, first two stages would be declared simultaneously
while the 3" stage is declared as soon as the information islverified and the
types of contingency are identified.
Types of Contingency
1 Three types of contingency can be verified by the District Commissioner/District

Magistrate. These can be v i s u a l i z e d ~minor, medium and major.
1) Warning System
A proper warning system should operate to give warning and information to
42 public. This woi~ldhelp in avaiding panic and ensuring that the public is
. . ' .
--- ---- --
aware of the situation and take tlie necessary safety actions. Apart from tliat, Control of Fire
authentic press notes to newspapers, All India Radio and TV should be given
along with informing tlie people about the relief camps.
2) Setting up of Control Rooms

For better co-ordination and control of the situation following contl-ol rooms
shall be set up.
a. District Control Room
b. Police Control Room and Fire Control Room
c. Departmental Control Room
3) Depot Service
All tlie service squads should be placed at the depots, which should be
located close to hazard prone areas but in a safer zone.
Note: i) Use the space given below your answers

ii) Check your answers with those given at the elid of this unit.
I ) What are the types of fire?
2) Explain tlie causes of Wild fire.

-
3) What are the main methods of fire fighting?

Relief Measures 19.2.2 Man-made Fire
The trend of rapid urbanization has led to increase in population in cities. As a

result the pressure on land has increased, which has resulted in the overcrowding
and unplanned growth tin the cities along with serious fire-risks. This risk has
further been increased with the expansion of industries and constructio~lof high-,
risk buildings. The fast pace of city life coupled with problems of stress in distress
situations can lead to violent/destructive or careless situations. As a result, the risk
of violence and liigl~erdamage during fire situation is real.
Every year, due to these fire incidents tliere is a tragic loss of life and property. It
is observed that most of these incidents generally occur dul-ing the summer
season as the temperature is higli and tlle conditions become favoi~rablefor fires
and other sucli accidents to take place.
Types of Fires
Basically Man-made fires can be divided into two types.

1) Intentional
2) Unintentional
1) Intentional - I t is a deliberate attempt to harm a community or an individual.

a) Riots- Differences between people could result in arson and riots. Rioters
often become u~~controllable and set fire to property. Fire in riots is thus
responsible for a great loss of life and property.
b) Terrorism - Terrorists terrorise people by exploding bombs in public
places due to which fires are caused with widespread damages. The
recent horrific event of September 11, 2001 in New York was, an
extreme example of terrorist attack of unprecedented fury.
c) Suicides by burning and thereby causing fires.
I
2) Unintentional - This is not aldeliberate attempt but often it happens due to: I
a) Carelessness of Hu~llans
I
b) Accidents
c) Violation of the Safety Norms
a) Carelessness of Humans
A large number of incidents take place because of the carelessness on the part
of concerned people. Even elementary precautionary measures to avoid fires
are neglected or not taken in time due to .carelessness. As a result a large
number of people have to suffer for it. For example in ordinary households the
following types of carelessness are noticed:
i) Carelessness on the part of housewives while cooking on stoves etc.

ii) Use of open flame lamps for lighting
iii) Storing of explosives/inflalnmable material in ii house e.g.-crackers,
kerosene, gas cylinders
iv) Srnoking cigarettes in bed or throwing lighted ends carelessly
v) Not keeping children away from fire goods
vi) , Burning of crackers during festivals and celebrations
,
vii) Unsafe electrical wiringlshort circuit Control of Fire
viii) Generators working on diesel, wliich can catch fire and explode if
these become very hot.
b) Accidents
So~lletimesaccidents are also responsible for occurrences of fire. Accidents

are caused either due to the careless attitude of people involved or
tecRnicalImecl~an
ical faults.
i) During transportation of inflammable materials

ii) Air crasheslOil tank spillover
iii) General vehicles accidents, which can also catcli tire.
iv) Explosions in industrial or cllemical units.
v) Gas leaks wliich can cause fires
c) Violation of Safety Norms
Absol~ltesafety from fires is not attainable in practice but it can be avoided

through certain norms or standards, whicli if not violated can reduce the danger
level is made under section IV of
to a great extent. An attenipt at the ~iatio~lal
tlie National Building Code, which deals specifically with fire protectio~i,
The Code in its different parts deals with safety horn explosions and fires. It
specifies the demarcation of fire zones, restrictions on construction of
buildings in each fire zone, classification of buildings based on occupancy,
types of building co~istructionaccording to fire resistance, tlie structural
components and other reslrictio~isand requirements necessary to minimize
danger to life from fires, smoke, fi111iesand panic before tlie people in tlie
building can be evacuated. Tlie Code recognizes that safety of life is very
important and accordingly deals with various matters, which are considered
essential to the safety of lives.
Classification of Buildings and Non-buildings Based on Occupancy
. a) Buildings
General Classificatiori - All buildings shall be classified accordirig to the use

or character of occupancy in the following groups:
Group A Residential
Group B Educational
Group C Institutional
Group D Assembly
Group E Business
Mercantile
Group G Industrial
Group H Storage
Hazardous
Relief Measures
Others - In non-buildings come the 'others', wliere tlie use might be tlie same
as in the above mentioned groups but the building is not there e.g.- slums,
temporary structures, camps etc.
Road Vehicles - Accidents occur which can cause veliicles to catch fire.
Dry Grass - Dry grass which can cause fire due to tlie carelessness of a
passer by or a deliberate attempt to clear the place.
Railway Yard - The fire incidents miglit occur in Railway yards, where repair
works are carried out.
Airports, ,Oil Depots Fire can occur where large quantities of highly
inflammable file1 are stored.
Causes of Building Fire
1) Electric Short Circuits: Most of the fire incidents that occilr are caused
due to electric short circuits. This is mainly due to bad wiring or high
voltage fluctuations i n an area, or d ~ to~ electric
e overloading by the
users.
2) Naked Flame: Fire caused during cooking on a gas stove, cooking gas or
traditional metliods of burning wood. In all tliese cases, fires take place
due to naked flame. Tlie valves of tlie cooking gas cylinders are usually
not shut off at night and gas leak can cause serious fire if a stray rodent
cuts tlie rubber tube.
3) SparklHeat: Sparks during Iiigli lieat/te~nperature'cancause fires.
4) Fire Works: Fire works during festival times can cause fires. Often fire
accidents take place in fire work factories during the packing,
transportation and selling period.
5) Intentional: Deliberate attempt by terrorists can cause fires in the
buildings.
19.3 FIRE PROTECTION
1 ) All or maxinium number of safety norms, given by National Building Code

and the local bye-laws s h o ~ ~be
l d strictly followed.
2) Tlie design, structure and material of the building s h o ~ ~ lincorporate
d the
adequate fire protection measul-es right from tlie beginning. It would also be
necessary for this purpose to associate qualified and trained fire protection
engineers.
3) Public must be made aware of tlie general fire prevention techniques and all
the prescribed guideli~iesshould be strictly followed. The Loss Prevention
Association of India has issued very ~ ~ s e fguidelines.
ul
4) Carelessness and deliberate attempts made by human beings must be stopped
by making strict rules arid iniplenienting them so that the number of such
incidents can be mini~ilised.
5') Adequate manpower, equipment and facilities should be provided'to fire
stations,
6 ) New techniques for prevention, detection and fire fighting should be
adopted.
7) Drills should be conducted at the required places to familiarize tlie people Control of Fire
with actual situations that exist during tlie fire incidelits so that tlie people
can take appropriate action during the time of any fire occurrence.
8) Evacuation plan sho~lldbe displayed, listecl or placed at locatiotls, where
everyone can see it e.g. lifts, staircases etc., and can understand it easily once
they enter tlie building.
9) The exit routes and exit gates should be clearly marked and should be easily
approachable.
19.4 INSTRUCTIONS IN CASE OF BUILDING FIRES
If you cliscover a fire:

a) Break tlie glass of tlle nearest push button fire alar~nand push tlie button.
b) Attack the fire with fire extinguisher provided on your floor.
c) Telephone the fire station.
If you hear the fire alarm:

a) Leave tlie building immediately.
b) Report to your fire warden at your pre-determined assen~bly point outside the
bui Iding.
c) Do not use lifts if your are on a higher storey of the building but take the
staircase to go out.
d) Do not go to the cloak room or bath room
e) Do not stop to collect personal belo~igings
f) Keep the lift, lobby and staircase door slii~t.
19.5 UPHAAR TRAGEDY - A CASE STUDY
It was the first time in the history of Indian cinema that a disaster of immense
magnitude took place in Delhi at tlie Upliaar Cinema, which claimed the lives of
57 people and caused grave itijuries. It led to the everlasting images of death,
desperation and suffering in public memory. Innocent people who had gone to
watch a popular film were trapped in a virtual gas chamber due to a fire. It was
considered that tliis was clearly a case of tlie violatio~iof fire safety norms along
with carelessness on the part of various authorities and tlie staff/owners of the
cinema house. But the well-educated victims also failed to take elerne~itary
action which could have saved many lives. For example, many ladies were
carrying mineral water bottles as this was a hot June afternoon. Only if they had
used wet handkerchiefs on their noses instead of getting panicky and wasting
time on cell phones, many would have escaped asphyxiation deaths. This
highlights the need for awareness.
Not only in Delhi where a daily audience of over two lakh people comes to
watch movies in 66 cinema halls, but the people who flock the Cinema Hall in
other cities everyday (estimated to be around 23 million). They are exposed to
fire hazards (in 13,000 theatres across the nation).

ii) Check your answers with those given at tlie end of this unit.
0
Relief kleasurcs I ) Explain the types of man-made fire.
2) What are the causes of Man-made fires?
-
3) What are the instructions in case of building fires.
19.6 LET US StMUP
Fire is a major and frequent hazard specially in urban industrial environment. It

results in extensive loss t o property and threat to lives. In this unit, we have
tried to understand the various types of fire i.e. natural fire and man-made fire in
detail and also the various causes of the same. Effective fire management
techniques like prevention, planning and management and fire incident
management techniques have been highlighted. We have also discussed some
case studies which have thrown light on major fires.
19.7 KEY WORDS
Air Convection Current Air, when it gets hot, rises up and cooler
air from different sides takes its place.
Thus convention currents develop in
case of forest fire.
I
, Combustible Capable of burning easily
i
Fire Sensors rSmalt electronic devices that get
activated and sound an alarm as soon'as
48 , they perceive heat. -.
.- .,
Inflarnrnable Capable of catching fire quicltly and Control of Fire
bur~lingintensely.
Self-ignition Catching fire by itself dc~e to sclf-
generated heat.
Smoke detecters ' S~nall electronic devices that get
activated and sound all alarm as soon as
they perceive smolce pal-ticles.
Snags Tree stomps
19.8 REFERENCES
Annual Administration Report, Dellii Fire Service, 1995-96.

L Y June 30, 1997.
J M ~ ~Todcy,
Builcl'ing C'or7gress, Third Anni~alConvention - Feb 1997
Joumcll c!f'h~diar~
Natiollal Building Code, 1983.
P~.akasIi I ndu, Disru/er" kic~r?crgrt17ei1/,
Rashtsa Prahari Praltashan, Ghaziabad,
U.P., 1994.
19.9 ANSWERTO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Checlt Your Progl-ess 1
1) Your answer should include the followirig points:

Natural Fire - wild fire and forest fire
Man-made fires
2) Your answer should include the rollowing points:

Natural wild fire
a Carelessness on the part of human beings
Deliberate causes

Direct Method
IildirectMethod
Check Y O IProgress
~ 2

Intentional
Unintentional

. Electric sl101-t circuit
I
Naked flame
, SparWHeat
Fire works
3) Your answer sl.~ouldinclude the following poiats:
In case of building tires you should Icnow the:
@ Telephone No. of Fire Station
@ Operation of fire exting~~islies
Use of Fire alarms
Nearest entrance and exit route
@ Assembly point on the ground floor
UNIT 20 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
Structure
20.0 Objectives
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Rapid Damage Assessment Tecliniq~~es
20.3 Detailed Damage Assessment
20.3.1 Damage to Buildings
20.3.2 Damage to Idand
20.3.3 Loss o r Human Lives
20.3.4 Damage to Livestock
20.4 Let Us Sum Up
20.5 Key Words
30.6 References and FUI-tlierReadings
20.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit, you sliould be able to:
0 deiine damage assessment and ~~nderstand its objectiqes;

0 describe the rapid damage assessment techniques; anid
0 highlight tlie detailed daniage assess~nent~nethodology.
20.11 INTRODUCTION
Damage assessment is the pcocess' of determining the impact of a disaster.
Damage assess~nent process includes the preparation of specific qualified
estimates of physical damage resulting from a disaster. It ]nay include
recommendatinns concerning tlie repair/reconstmction of stn~ctures,replacenie~it
b f pq~$~nent, a~Xkestorationof economic activities.
'20.2 RAPID DAI$EAGE ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES

Dan~ageassessment is a prerequisite for all disaster ~nanagenientpractices,
Assessing the level of damage is required at two basic leveld of intervention.
Firstly, for emergency relief measures, for which purpose a quick assessment of
damage would become the basis for tlie amount of medical relief and food stocks
to reach the disaster area quickly. At the second level, would be a detailed
technical analysis of the damage for long-term restoration and rehabilitation
works. Frorn a long-term perspective, realistic damage assess~nentexamines the
mechanisms of failure that take place during tlie disaster. These studies are very
r~sefi~l
for all future prevention and ~nitigationefforts regarding disasters.
The basic objectives of damage assessment are;
! o to make rapid assessment of areas affected and the extent of impact, for the
purpose of immediate rescue and relief operations,
e to prepate estimates for the amount and type of relief to be provided and
mode of.relief, in terms of food, clothing, medicines, slielter and other
essential items,
i
Ro make detailed assessment for long-term relief and rehabilitation planning,
and .
to identify focus areas .for purpose of replication in similar situations.
Relief Mcasures
Ide~ltificationof infortl~ationneeds and sources of reliable data;

Collectio~iof data;
Analysis and interpretation of data;
Report writing;
Conclusion; and
Recommendations for plan~iersand decision malcers.
The official agency for reporting estimates of disastcr damages is the Revenue
Department of the State Government, as they arc also the authol.ity TOI- granting
and distributirlg relief to the affected persons. As usual, there is a hiesarchy of
officials who report fiom the lowest level of villages/panchayats tlirougli
blocks/revenue circles, tehsils/talukas, sub-divisions and finally to the districts.
The basic items i~suallycovered in the assessment report, as per the rapid
assesslnellt norlns are:
e Area in square Ic.ilometres

ii 1 @ Total number of villages
i
d e Number of villages affected
f P, .e Total pop~~lation
f ' ,4 Population affected

/
!I a
0
Total number of panchayats
Number of panchayats fully affected ,
/ '
! 4 Number bf panchayats partially affected

In case of floods, areas still under water
Note: i) Use the space given below-for your answers

ii)Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1) Define damage assessment and briefly discuss its importance.

7
2) What are the basic objectives of damage assessment? Discuss any two; Dnmage Assessment
3) , ~ i ~ h hthe
~ rapid
h t damage assessment technique.
Detailed damage assessment goes further than the rapid assessment, and it
includes the following aspects of disaster damage.
i) Verified number of human lives lost

ii) Cattle last
a) Number
b) ~stimatedValue
I
iii) Details of damage to crops (in hectares) and estimated loss of produce (in
rupees)
a)' Area completely damaged (Ha)
b) Area partially damaged (Ha) ,
c) Area likely to be replanted or resown(Ha)

d) Extent of affected area in percentage
e) Crops lost (quintals)
f) Estimated value of crops lost (in rupees)
iv) Houses damaged or destroyed :
a) Number
b) Estimated value
v) Loss to infrastructure, public works and utilities including property of local

bodies
a) Name of the work and utility J
, b) Nature of damage
c) Estimated value of damage
d) ' Estimated cost of restoration work :
Relief Measures vi) Rough estimate of the total financial loss in rupees
(Total of ii(b), iii(f), iv(b) and v(c))
20.3.1 Damage to Buildings
The damage caused to buildings by tlie various disasters may be categorized as

losses under tlie followi~igheads:
r The loss of the main building

0 . The loss due to failure of other colnponents whose damage is attributed to
tlie main building darnage.
e Area covered by tlie collapsed structure
Death or ilijuly to life due to building collapse
Loss incurred in terms of debris removal and restoration
Loss of revenue during the idle non-work period
In addition to these, there would be socio-economic costs arising as a

consequence of the disaster, which would add to the loss under the heads listed
above.
Building damages, on the wider scale, usually are most relevant i ~ \terms of
damage to houses, than other types of buildings. Damage to house property is
estimated in terms of number of househo Ids, percentage of reported damage,
repair cost per household. This estimation is needed to be carried out for
7
houses, even under classified categories of 'Kutclia' Houses, ' ~ u c c a " ~ o u k & ,
and "Semi-pucca" Houses. This is required in order to carry out a value based
assessment.
9 <
I
!i
' Besides the house structure damage itself, there is also an aspect of household
asset damage assessment, which lias to be taken into account. Damage to house
51 1 structure can cause resultant damage to household goods, artisan assets and other
II i I
I
productive assets stored in tlie house. These need to be accoi~ntedfor in terms of
average value of damage per household (in I-upees)
20.3.2 Damage to Land
Damage to land due to disaster could be short-term damage, as in land rendered

' useless temporarily due to coverage by debris of sand and loss of standing crops,
or else it could be long term damage as i n perennial flood, lava or ash deposit, or
loss of productivity of land. flie most important in the immediate post-disaster
scenario is the'aspect of agric~~ltural
loss through land destabilizafion.
Crop damage is assessed in terms of percentage of households reporting damage

under the follawiag heads:
i
1 i) Area damaged per household (ha)
1 ii) Production loss perliectare (quintals)
iii) Pra'duction loss per household (quintals)
iI
iv) Value of production loss per hectare (Rs.)
54 v) Value of production loss per household (Rs.)
Besides the damage to direct land attributes s ~ ~ casl i crops, there is also a long- Damage Asscss~nent
term impact on the productivity of the land itself, which is felt even after tlie
disaster, inainly in case when the floods have receded. The long-term impact on
crop production c o ~ ~ leither
d be favourable or unfavourable. Tlie favourable
effect would be in the form of deposit of fertilising silt olz land resulting in rise i n
soil fertility, wliicli would manifest in crop yields or a better crop after the
rnonsoon season due to water availability. Tlie ~~nfavourable effects would be in
tlie for111of sand castings rendering the land u~ifitfor cultivation. Tliis generally
affects tlie production of Rabi crops and winter crops after tlie floods. This effect
can be assessed in terms of variation in production of crops after floods, as
follows:
0 Yield per hectare (quin$als)

' Normal yield per hectare (q~~intals)
Percentage variation in yield
20.3.3 Damagl to Human Lives
The mast disastro~~s and immediate impact on liun~anlives is in ter~nsof loss of

lives by deaths tlisrt may occur due to the direct impact of ilie disaster, or i.lirougli
indirect inipact as in case of building collapses, fires etc. Illjuries are tlie second
leveI of impact of disasters on human lives, and result from the same sources as
deaths. The impact on lives in terms of deaths and injuries has to be estimated
not only in niunbers, but also in terms of the expenses incurred due to tlie death
or i ~ i j ~ ~asr yalso
, tlie loss of productivity of the persons affected.
In a longer tern1 perspective, the impact of the disaster is also manifested in

morbidity. Usually affer a gestation period, whicli may be about two weeks after
the disaster, diseases start to set in due to tlie insanitary living conditions and
contamination of drinking water and food. The affected persons, wlio may be
lio~~sedin ~nakesliiftrelief camps, have no access to proper civic services, and as
a result vector-borne diseases affect thern, wliicli may even take tlie form of an
epidemic if it goes ~~nchecked. Once again, tlie impact of the sickness due to
disaster is felt in terms of expenditure on., treatnient and loss of e~iiployrnent
during the sickness period. Tliis may be assessed under the followirig Izeads:
i) Total number of sample hoi~seliolds

ii) Percentage of households reporting sickness
iii) Average number of persons reporting sickness per household
iv) Average duration of sickness (Days)
I
v) Average expendit~lreon treatment per household (Rupees)
vi) Average e~nploy~nent
lost per liouseliold (Days)
vii) Average loss of income per household (Rupees)
Besides the physical impact of death, injury and morbidity, and their resultant
financial implications, tl~ereis also a purely economic impact on liu~nanlives,
which is in terms of loss of e~nploy~nent due to dislocation and disruption ,of
;
i routine activities due to the disaster. For assess~nentof this impact, it is necessary
I
to first collect i~ifor~nation on the total number'of lio~~seholds,nuniber of
I liouseliolds reporting wage employment, and Bverage number of wage earners
Relief Measures per household in the affected area. An inventory has to be prepared to enumerate
the following factors.
9 Average employme~ltdays per household

9
e
Average monthly earnings per household (Rupees)
Average monthly earnings per earner (Rupees)
1
These factors have to bc accounted for in the disaster scenario context, as factual
figures in the post-disaster scenario, as well as in a situation of no disaster. The
co~nparisonof these two scenarios would give a gross loss in employment due to
the disaster.
The loss of employme~itcan be further classified according to the nature of skill

or employment in a typical regional setting, the classifications adopted could be:
Agriculture
Dairying
1
Fisheries I
* Non-agricultural Labour
e Artisans
Business/Trade
Service
Others
20.3.4 Damage to Livestock

The damage to livestock, namely cattle, other animals and poultry, which is a
very important asset in rural households, is generally assessed in terms of the
number of households reporting loss, and the per household value of livestock
lost (Rupees). It is generally observed that loss of livestock takes place because
they are not moved out at the time of disaster threat, or else because people flee
the area, leaving their livestock tied up or enclosed, with no means o f escape. In
this light it has been observed that in case of floods, the loss of livestock is
ust~allylow in the areas with high flood zoues, because the people expect a
disaster, and move out their livestock in time. Losses are high in low flood zones
where severe floods are not so frequent, and when they come, they take the
people by surprise, and they are not able to move out their livestock in time. The-
loss in fishpry is also often the result of floods and cyclones.
Check-Your Progress 2
Note: i) Use tlie space given below for your answers

1 ) Briyfly describe the essential elements of detailed damage assessment.

2) "Besides the house structure damage itself, there is also an aspect which has Damage Assessment '
to be taken into account while assessing damage to house property".
Discuss.
3 ) How is crop damage assessed? Mention any three heads under which crop
damage is assessed.
20.4 LET US SUM UP
This unit has dealt wit11 damage assessment as an important tool for knowing the
extent of a disaster's impact, and the basis for immediate rescue and relief
operations, as well as long-term rehabilitation and retrofitting programmes.
However, in order that this could be really effective, damage assessment has to
be realistic. Rapid damage assessment techniques have been identified and
briefly described. Detailed damage assess~nent for long-term relief and
rehabilitation planning has also been discussed.
20.5 KEY WORDS
I
~ssessmentis a survey of a disaster area to make estimates of damages and
recommendations for necessary relief actions.
Damage Assessment is a post-disaster estimate of physical, human and
eco~~omic
damage.
Ha: Hectares
Replication: Reproducing the same at another place or time.
I .20.6 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

I
i Institute for Resource Management and Econornic Development, Scientific
i
i Assessmelit of Flood Damages, New Delhi, 1997.
!
1
R. Rangachari - Data collection and Estimating Flood Damages - Paper .
i Presented in a Workshop on Flood Damage Assessment, 1986.
!
I Report of the Rashtriya Barh Ayog (Gurhy), India, Ministry of Energy and
Inforination, New Delhi, 1980.
I
Relief Measures Shanmugasundaram, J. N. Lakslimanan, and P. Harikrishna, Post-disaster
Damage Sut-vey-1993, Cyclolie Near Karaikkal, Research Report, SERC,
Madras, 1994

EXERCISES
Check Ifour Progress 1
1) Your answer should i ~ ~ c l u the

d e following poii~ts:
Dalnage assessment is the process of determining the impact of a disaster
on specific society.
0 Dalnage Assessment is an ilnpol-tallt tool to assimilate and document the
extent oP impact of a disaster.
e It forms the basis for disaster management actions.
2) Your answer shouid include the following points :-

0 The basic objectives of damage assessment are:
i) to make rapid assessment of areas affected and the extent of impact,
for tlie purpose of immediate rescue and relief operations.
ii) to prepare estimates for account of immediate relief to be provided
and the mode of relief in terms of food, clothing, medicine, shelter
etc.
iii) to make detailed assessment for long-term relief and rehabilitation
plans, and
iv) to identify focus areas for replication in similar situations.
3) Your answer should include the following points :
The official agency for reporting estimates of disaster damage is the
Revenue Department of the State Government,
a Dalnage assessment process includes:
i) Identification of iiiformation needed for data sources
ii) Collection of Data
iii) Atlalysis and interpretation of data
iv) Report writing
vi) Recommendation
The Report should include:
i) Name of Sub-division
ii) Area in square kms.
i
' iii) Area affected in sqs. kms.
iv) Total number of villages
' v) Total number of villages affected
I
vi) Total population

vii) Population affected
58
. .
viii) Total number of panchayats Damage ,~ssess'ment
ix) Number of panchayats fully affected

x) Number of palicl.~ayatspartially affected
xi) In case of floods, areas still under water
1) Your answer should include the following points :

a The essential elements of detailed damage assessmer~t include the
'following:
i) Verified number of human lives alrd cattle lost.
ii) Details of damage to crops and estimated loss of production.
iii) Houses damaged or destroyed.
iv) Loss to infrastructure, public works and utilities includi~lg property,
local bodies, and
v) Rough estimate of total lpss in rupees in all the above items.
2) Your answer sliould include the following points :
Besides the house structure damage itself, there is also an aspect of
household asset damage whicli Iias to be taken into account.
* Damage to liouse structure call cause resultant damage to household
goods, artisan assets and other productive assets stored in the house.
a Above mentioned damages need to be accounted for in terms of average
value of damage per household.
3) Your answer should include the following poilits :

Crop damage is assessed in terms of the following heads:
i) Area damaged per household.
ii) Production loss per household, and
iii) Value of production loss per household.
UNIT 211 COMMUNITY HEALTH DURING
DISASTERS
Structure
. 2 1.0 Ob-jectives
7 1 . I Introduction
2 1.2 Health and Implications of Disaster
2 1 -2.1 Direct I-lealth Consequences
2 1.2.2 Indirect I-lealth Constquenccs
2 1.3 Common Health Problems and It~juriesDuring Disaster
21.4 Essential Medical Equipment and Stores Required
21.5 Plan for Mitigation of Disaster Health Problems
for a C'omposile Long-term Disaster I-lealth Plan
2 1.5, I Ci~~idelirles
21.6 Let Us Siun Up
21.7 Key Words
2 1 .S References and Further Readings
2 1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
2 1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you sllould be able to:
explain how disasters affect the health of communities at risk;

describe the direct and indirect health problcms that arise as a consequence
or disaster situations;
highlight the types of health hazards and injuries that may occur during or
due to disasters of varying kinds;
describe the types of essential medical equipment and stores necessary to
mitigate the aftermath of disaster; and
define a set of guidelines to draw a long-term plan for mitigation OF effects
on health from disasters.
21.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters often occur all of a sudden and are mostly unplanned, unintended and
unexpected. Lack of adequate preparedness or severity of disaster may lead to a
huge loss of human and animal lives, injuries to people and cattle and damage to or
loss of property.
Whatever be the type of natural disaster, the communities at risk have to bear the
brunt of it and strive to limit tlie consequent damage with courage and fortitude
within its local resources in the first few hours or days till outside help arrives.
Disasters. often cause high incidence of ~nortalitydue to injuries, drowning,

electrocution etc.. and morbidity due to total or partial loss of basic sanitation
facilities viz., water supply, sewage disposal system, food shortages, failure of
electricity, telecommunications and even road and rail traffic. Damage to civil
property and personal lives could sometimes be enormous. Dead cattle, pets and
wild animals add to tlie problems. It is, imperative that these burgeoning proble~ns
must be clearly understood fi~lly,addressed and prevented to the extent possible.
C:orn~ii~~nity
Healtli and
Casualty Mariage~llcnt 21.2 HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF DISASTERS
The post disaster deaths and injuries are a direct consequence whereas morbidity
due to variety of factors is an indirect impact on the health of the co~iimunity
affected. Hence the effects of disaster can be classified as :
i) Direct Health Consequences : Illjuries and deaths to people or animals

ii) Inclirect Health Consequences: Eruption and Tralisniission of
communicable diseases due to contamination of water and food supplies,
disrupted swvage disposal system, over crowding and poor environmental
sanitation.
21.2.1 Direct Wealth Consequences

Deaths and ili.juries are a colnl-non consequence during tlie sudden onset of natural
disastel.~like eartliqualces and flasli floods. Tlie ~iio~tality
can be as liigli as 10% of
the population at risk, and mucli more in sollie cases as was witnessed after tlie
Orissa super cyclone ( 1 999) and Bliuj earthquake (2001).
Disasters cause damage to life, which depends upon many factors s~lclias (a) type
of construction of houses, (b) tlie time of occurrence and (c) tlie popl~latiolidensity.
Yet it has been f o ~ ~ nthat
d certain sections and age groups are more vulnerable than
others. The highest incidence of direct health consequence falls upon these
vulnerable sections. It is found that children below 5 years of age (17% to 20%),
pregnant and lactating mothers (3% to 5%), old age group (8-10%) are'more
vulnerable and account for 28% to 35% ofthe vulnerable population.
Tlie nost colnmon illjuries sustained by tlie affected population are fractures,
hemorrhages, shock, lacerated wo~~lids and burns. I~ij~iriesto bone viz. Tibia,
Fibula, Radius, Ullia and skull occur most colnniollJy. Spinal injuries and fractures
of pelvis alone constitute about a twelfth of all injurips.
I
During earthquake llospitals are cramped with patients who nor~nallyremain tliere
for a week (1-7 days). The maximum number of casualties is received in hospitals
within tlie first 2 days (24 to 48 hours) of occurrence of a disaster. During floods
and storm surges maliy deaths occur due to drowning but the incidence of injuries
are relatively less.
21.2.2 Indirect Health Consequences

Disasters of many kind cause diseases, disabilities and morbidity in their wake.
Tlie potential for transmission of conimunicable diseases increases manifold. It
has been observed that transmission of water and food borne diseases occurs
within two weeks of the disaster. Tliis is often due to faecal contamination of food
and water. Other contributory factors are endemic level of 'disease, population
density, population displacement and disruption of' ongoing public health
programmes.
The potential for trans~nissionof vector borne diseases like malaria also goes lip
very much. Vector borne diseases generally occur by tlie tliird or fourth week of
occurrence df a disaster. This is due to disruption of vector co~itrolmethods,
washing away from buildings of residential insecticide, increase in vector breeding
sites, and increased vector-human contact.
Other diseases, which rate very high during droughts and floods, are on account of .
malnutrition and secondary infections that arise due to loss of body resistance to
disease. These conditions are aggravated due to poor environmental sanitation
around temporary shelters and.canipsites. Garbage disposal, drainage system and
public latrines are almost always absent or very poorly marlaged leading to Community l l c a l t l ~IluringI
increased fly breeding and fi11~1ier
aggravation of food and water borne disease Disasters
transmission.
Psychiatric and social maladies have been abundantly reported soon after disaster.
S~lddenmental sliock due to death and destruction all around can create sel-ious
mental depression. Incidences of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and AIDS
/lave been reported among victims of Latur ea~tliquake.
Noto: i) Use tlie space given below for your answers.

ii) Clieclc your answers with those given at the end ofthis Unit.
1) List the direct health consequences of disasters on the com~nunity.
2) What are the indirect health consequences of disasters? I
21.3 COMMON I4EALTH PROBLEMS AND INJURIES

DURING DISASTERS
The niost common health problems and injuries that occur during disasters s ~ ~ casl i
tlood, cyclone and drought are water borne diseases like diarrhea, dysentery,
typhoid, viral hepatitis; mnlnutrition, respiratory diseascs such as pneu~nonin.
whooping cough and other diseases such as, cliicken pox, measles, gastroentcritis,
cholera, conjunctivitis, fever, etc.
'I'lie commonly occurring injuries during earlhquake and fire are head injuries,
illjuries to face and neck, abdoniinal i~ijuries,hemorrhages, fractures, shock, and
burns.
2 1.4 ESSENTIAL MEDICAL EQUIPMENT AND

STORES REOUIRED
Even as the disaster strikes, there is an immediate need for medical eqtiip~nc~it
required to treat the disaster victims. Medical equipment such as syringes, necclles,
scissors, thermometer, stethoscopes, sphygmomanometer, oxygen masks, oxygen
cylinders, first aid boxes, gloves, bandage, cotton, towels, disinfectant, sterilizing
equipment etc. are i~n~nediately required.
I
Community Health and
Casualty Management
, 2 11.5 PLAN FOR MITIGATION OF DISASTER HEALTH
PROBLEMS
While drawing LIPa mitigation plan for disaster related health problems, it should
be ensured that the community for which the planning is being carried out becomes
equal partner right from the inception stage. Failing the involvement of the
population at risk, the plan, howsoever efficient would not succeed. The plan
should be as composite as possible. All related sectors must be involved, I
represented and participated. The plan should be necessarily a long-term plan.

Some suggested guidelines for a long-term plan are given below:
I
21.5.1 Guidelines for a Composite, Long-term Disaster Wealth
Plan
I
A composite plan for mitigation of medical and health related problems arising out i
of any natural disaster should cover the following broad headings: 1
Co~iimunityprofile;
Plan of action;
Resource planning;
Training plan;
Allied planning;
Periodical practice
Post practice evaluation of plan and consequent modification thereof; and
Collaboration and coordination with allied agencies and neighborhood areas.
The information to be included under each of the above mentioned headings of the
long-term plan for a community are listed below:
Community Profile
Community Database which should include the total population and tlie
vulnerable population in view. Likewise the age distribution, sex distribution,
the socio-economical, educational and. culturaI distribution in the
popi~lation/community is to be considered. The cattle and pet population also
shou Id be docu~nented.
Disaster Scenario describing the incidence, periodicity, magnitude, epicenters arid

vulnerable areas.
Population at Risk highlighting the age distribution of the population at risk, the
incidence and mortality rate of tlie vulnerable population.
I
Disease Profile giving the endemic and other likely diseases, past history of I
disease breakout or aggravation in the wake of disasters. 1
I
1
Plan of Action I
Prevention of Risk by the provision and monitoring of basic immunization,
prevention of epidemics by specific immunization, water and food sanitation,
prevention of the break of communicable diseases, pre;ention of mosquito and fly
infestation.
1
I
Promotion of Health by way of nutritional intervention, environmental hygienic,
maternal care, infant and childcare, and geriatric care. 1
1
1
Specific treatment which includes the early diagnosis and treatment of the Community Health During
primary cases, chrotiic and acute cases. Disasters
Medical Rehabilitation including the medical, psychological and social set up of

the affected population and vulnerable groups.
Disposal of the dead. l'liis is a sensitive task. Due care needs to be taken to
protect the dignity of the dead and the sentilne~ltsof the community.
Resource Plailning
Healtl~manpower resource planning si~clias the availability of doctors, nurses,

para-medical staff and above all, able bodies volunteers.
Medical stores & equipment such as drugs, medical and surgical appliances,
diagnostic aids, sterilization equipments, etc.
Logistical ~.equirementssucli as fibel and oil, lighting equipments, tents, beds or

floor covering linen, pillows and mattresses, materials for cleaning and sanitation,
storage equipment like ration, water, buclcets, n i ~ ~ g s .
Ambulances
Medical facilities such as primary health centre, hospitals, nursing Iiomes, mobile
cer~tresetc.
, Food and water including cooking and heating arrangements.
I Training Plan
I Traning of the manpower sucli as doctol*s,nurses, paramedicos, and attendants.
Ad~~linistrators and other related sectors including block development officers,

police, fire and civil defence personnel, village pramukhs, administrators at all
Icvels.
Health education to the population at risk, schoolteachers, women folk, and local
volunteers.
Allied Planning
Available local administrative support (municipal, pancliayat);
Involvement of NGO's and vol~rnta~y

groups;
Commitment and allocation of funds;
l~lvolve~nent
of educational institutions, industrial establishments, banks locally
and nearby;
Formation of area level functional bodies and earmarking of their specific tasks
and responsibilities;
Establishment of co~nmunicationchannels;
I
7 .
Establishment of alternate sources of energy;
Copperation of media for publicity and promotion of public awareness;

Co~nrnunityHealth ant1 Plan for rehabiIitation;
C'ilsualty Management
\
Periodical practice of the long-term plan. Periodical practice dri Ils sliould be an
essential feature of the plan;
Post practice evaluation of plan and consequent modifications thereof. This

will ensure that the plan is always ready for implementation at short notice.
d .
Collaboraiion and coordination with allied agencies, and neighborhood areas.

This is essential in case where the impact of disaster is severe enough to disable the
local arrangements and immediate assistance from neighborhood areas in required.

i i j Checlc your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1) Briefly state the collllnon health problems and illjuries during disasters.
2) Mention the components of the long-term plan for the mitigation of health
p140blemsemanating from the occurrelrce of disasters.
I I.
I
21.6 LET US SUM UP
I
Disasters often occur sudde~ilyand without warnings. A high incidence of /iI
mortality and morbidity is caused by such events. Tlie quantum of loss of life, I
injuries and loss or damage to property will be directly proportional to the type and 11
I
quality of houses, population density, time of occurrence and severity of disaster. I
. All disasters result in serious Iiealtl~problems for the community.
Tlie health related effects of disaster can be the direct consequence of the disaster
leading to injuries or deaths or indirect ones where high mortality will be due to
transmission of comniunicable and vector borne diseases. Lack of proper
'
environmental sanitation and immediate medical aid aggravates the problems.
$1
I
It is important to draw up a long-term composite multi-sectoral disaster-health plan
where the population at risk has full representation and expression in planning and I
its execution. I
I
,
Comlnunity Health During
21.7 KEY WORDS Disasters
Nemorrbage Excessive bleeding

Morbitlity Unhealthy state, condition when disease
is prevalent.
Mortality Loss of life; deaths
Communicable Diseases Diseases that are directly or. indirectly
transmissible fi.om one individual to tlie
other
Lacerated Badly cut or torn
Ortl~opedic A branch of surgery dealing with all
matters pertaining lo the bones.
Tibia, Fibula, Radios, Ullla : Name of diffcre~itbones
Khera, Sliarma, Datia & Verma B.I<.: I-lealth J~nplicationsor Disaster in India,
Swasth 1-1 incl Sept.-Oct. 1994.
Mishra, D.C., 1999: Safeguardi~lg I-lealtli during disaster, International
Conference on Disaster Management: Cooperative Networking in South Asia,
Vol. 11, Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)
NIOD Report on Eartliqualte Disnstcr, Main Maharaslitra (1 993) National
Institi~teof Comm~rnicableDiseases, New Delhi.
Parlt Je & Park K: TestBook of Preventive & Social Medicine Thirteenth Ed:
1991.

EXERCISES
1 ) Your answer sl~oulclinclude the following points:

Death of persons and cattle
IIIJ111-ies
2) Your answer sllould include the following points:

Increase in tlie comn~i~nicable
diseases
Spread of vector borne diseases
Mental depression due to shock and trauma
Incidence or increase in diseases like STD and AIDS in the post-disaster
period
.
I ) , Your answer should include tlie following points:
Common health proble~ns during disasters are diarrhea, dysentery,
typhoid, cough, pneumonia, cholera;and co~ijunctivitifi. = ,.
' . Common illjuries during disasters are: Head
hemorrhages, shocks, burns.
- injuries, fractures,
Cornmur~ityHealth and 2) Your answer should include the following points:
Casurlty Management
Comlnunity Profile
Plan of action;
Resource planning
Training plan
Allied planning
Periodical practice
Post practice evaluation of plan and
Collaboration and coordination with allied agencies and neighborhood
areas
UNIT 22 EMERGENCY HEALTH OPERATIONS
Structure
22.0 Objectives
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Disaster Medicine
22.3 Mandatory Components
22.4 .Triage and Emergency Treatment
22.5 Protocol of First Aid
22.6 Let Us Sum Up
22.7 Key Words
22.9 Answer to Check your Progress Exercises
22.0 OBJECTIVES
e describe the nature and scope of disaster ~nedicine;

e highlight the approach of save a 'life or limb' during rescue and resuscitation
of victinls;
e explain liow to allot priorities for emergency treatment vis-a-vis victims,
seriousness ol.'lieall:li state and chances of survival; and
e highlight the need to train local, population to render correct first-aid for life
threatening s i t ~ ~ a t i oduring
~ i s and outside a disaster situation.
22.1 INTRODUCTION
Whatever tlie type of disaster, it leaves in its wake depending upon its severity, a
state offear, panic, death, disability and disease among the population at risk. The
ensuing mortality and morbidity are directly proportional to tlie extent and
magnitude of tlie disaster event, its proximity to tlie effected cornni~u~iity,
population density,'time of occurrence and the state of preparedness in the
co~nmunity.
The types ,and severity of injuries, disabilities, diseases, and numbers of cleat11 are
largely specific to the types of disaster. As sucli there is a need to enhance the
preparedness of tlie community by imparting knowledge of preventing casi~alties
and damages arising as a consequence of ally disaster, arid to facilitate treatment
through first aid and emergency health operations.
22.2 DISASTER MEDICINE
Disaster medicine relates to the task of preserving health and preventing deaths,
disabilities and diseases that occur as a consequence of natural or man made
disasters and minimising them to the utmost. Promoting health, prolonging life
.- and medical rehabilitation of victims of disaster along with organised commwni~
I
s~~pport bl-ings about a rapid 1.et111-nto normal in tlie aftermat11 of a disaster event
and also Iielps mitigate the long-term adverse impact of any disaster.
Environmental sanitation, control of epidemics of com~ni~nicablediseases,
ensuring safety of drinking water and food supplies and immediate medical
attention are important aspects of disaster medicine. .
Community Health and EarIy availability of efficient medical, para-medical and nursing services helps to
Casualty Management
ensure quick diagnosis and rapid and prompt treatment during disaster situation.
Creating an able bodied and motivated volunteer force from the Iocal comlnunities
and educating and training these volunteers in health and hygiene matters as well
as rendering correct first-aid will greatly assist in limitation of diseases, disabilities
and deaths during disaster situations.
22.3 NDATORY COMPONENTS
(a) Rescue
The principle of 'SAVE A LIFE OR LIMB' should be efficiently employed during

rescue, resuscitation, first-aid and emergency medicare. The first life saving
procedure is 'Rescue' of victims of disaster without aggravating the existing
damage to their health and safety. Rescue operations often become haphazard and
hazardous due to fear and panic that grips nearly every unprepared individual
during a sudden disaster event. Hence through prior training, education and mock
exercises among the local pop~llationand by encouraging large-scale community
participation in disaster limitation planning, Inore lives could be saved and
disabilities limited. Rescue may be necessary when the individuals are:
trapped under the ruins of col lapsed buildings;

buried under mud 01- landslide;
cut off due to floods 01. damage to communication routes.
The rescue parties must observe the followi~~g

rules:
a do not trample over ruins;

do not remove 111bble unless one is sure of not causing further collapse of
building or structure;
use manual method of removing the rubble;
use of the spades and pickaxes should be very carefuI of persons trapped
~~nderneath,
gas and water pipes and high voltage electric cables.
*I
(b) First-Aid
As SOOII as a victim who is buried UI -lerthe debris is noticed:
ensure free supply of natural air; avoid using fans or exhaust for this purpose.
if victim can be reached, clear his throat using your fingers. Remove
dentures if present.
a loosen collar, shirt buttons, and belt; remove shoes and socks.
a use blankets to keep the victim warm.
Once rescued, the victims of disaster may be found injured, bleeding, in a state of
sl~ockor ~~nconscious. A quick physical examination can largely indicate the exact
cause of infirmity. The victim may need resuscitation, stopping of haemorrhage,
prevention of impending shock and its management, location and immobilisation
of fractures using body support, splints or improvised artifacts. The collective aim
of all such resuscitatory measures is to enable transport of a victim to the nearest
medical facility in as stable a state of health as achievable, and w'ithout any further
injury. ,
... ..
I
J .1 '
f
(c) Emergency Medicare Emergency Health
Operations
'cardio-pulmona~yResuscitation' (CPR) of victims of 1ieal-tand respiratory failure
is another important component. These procedures are simple and easily
~~nderstandable by an average literate person, liousewives, and school children.
Some training and practice are of course necessary.. Deaths due to heart attacks,
electrocution, drowning, accidental ingress of foreign body in tlie windpipe, can be
avelted by timely rendering of CPR through trained liands.

ii) Check your answers wit11 those given at the end of this Unit.
1) What do you understand by disaster medicine?.
2) Explain briefly tlie mandatory components of Disaster Medicine to be

followed during disasters.
22.4 TRIAGE AND EMERGENCY TREATMENT
'Triage' in its si~nplestform means SORTlNG of patients. Tlie purpose oftriage is

to assess tlie severity of infirmity along with chances of survival, accord an
appropriate category arid ensure correct attention quickly thereafter.
1 When a large nu~nberof i~ijuredpeople are brought at the sarnc time to the liealtli
1
I establisli~nents,triage becomes necessaly. Experts among tlie local health
I
personnel make a quick but careful assessment of all cases and categorisation is
1 done in the following manner:
1
A) Those who must be sent i~rgentlyto the nearest liospital on account of acute
cardio-pulmonary insufficiency, severe hemorrhage, internal bleeding, severe
1
br~r~is,shock, skull injuries, rupture of liver, spleen and other serious
conditions.
But before being sent to a ~ ~ ' o s ~ i niany
t a l , victims in life threatening situations,
I
arising as a consequence of disaster situation, may necessitate minor surgical
interventions or immediate medical attention on tlie spot. Deep and profusely
bleeding wounds may require exploration of wound and lighting tlie bleeding
vessel. Multiple fractures of long bones may entail careful iinrnobilisation.
/
'
a
Community Health gnd Head injuries will need specialised management and handling of the victim.
Casualty ~ a n r ~ c m e n k Electrocution, drowning, foreign body impaction in the windpipe (trachea) and
a hoard of other .emergencies may occur and must be handled with extreme
care and skill. It is therefore imperative that the local medical personnel must
be given detailed training and some experience at the causality department of
large liospitals in handling emergencies like haemorrhage, shock, respiratory
distress, cardio-vascular failure, skull injuries, multiple fractures, dislocations,
burns, electrocution, drowning, accidental hypothermia.
B) Those cases who are very serious but have apparently less or no chance of
survival. These cases are given immediate medical attention on the spot.
It is important that the local healthcare personnel as well as members of the
con1tnunity have a good knowledge of location and functions of defiu itive
treatment centres. Referring of victims to correct hospitals will ensure proper
treatment without wastage of time in cross referrals. The local healthcare
personnel must also be prepared for the possibility of disruption of roads and
all other means of co~nrnunicationfor upto 72 hours. During this period they
must rely solely on their own skill and resources.
C) Those with minor injuries are treated on the spot (but separately from those in
the category B above) by First-Aid personnel and sent home or to the relief
camps.
22.5 PROTOCOL OF FIRST-AID

-
Disasters bring about injuries and other serious health maladies in large numbers of ..
individuals. The first-aid team must make a reconnaissalice of the area in order to
assess :
e the likely number of causalities;

14 8k
the nature of injuries;

the presence of local hazards e.g. fire, floods, live electric wires, escape gases.
General Principles of First-Aid
The general principles of first aid are:
Rescue and removal of the casualty in the shortest possible time without
aggravating existing health situation.
First aid should be confined to essentials only.
e Immediate arrest of hemorrhage.
Restoration of respiration and circulation.
Prevention of impending shock and treatment of shock if the victim is already
in such a state.
Immobilization of simple and compound fractures and dislocations.
' Alleviation of pain by simple procedures and medication.
Assurance of getting well quickly to the victim and morale boosting.
Cheek Your Progress 1

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1) How is triage important for emergency treatment? Emergency l l e r l t l ~
Operations
2) Briefly explain the principles of first aid during disasters.
22.6 LET US SUM UP
Prevention of deaths, disabilities and diseases, as a consequence of any disaster is

of paramount importance. Timely and correct first aid and emergency treatment
help achieve this aim.
Promotion of health, prolonging of life and rehabilitatioli of victims of disaster is

an important liealtli management factor. Effective rescue of victims, resuscitation,
first aid and efficient treatment are valuable tools to acliicve these objectives.
Training of local healtli personnel and volunteers fro111tlie community at risk, in
rcndering first-aid and emergency treatment during disaster situations, till some
outside help becomes available is a mandatory requirement.
Adequate attention to environ~nentaisanitation, safety and safeguard of water and

food sanitation and precautions against the spread of communicable diseases must
I
be organized with full support and participation of the local community.
i
I 22.7 KEY WOlRDS
Denture Artificial teeth

Resuscitation . . (To revive) to restore life, one who is
apparently dead, collapsed, shocked or
unconscious; artificial respiration.
Communicable Diseases Diseases that are directly or indirectly
transmissible from one individual to
another.
I .
Hemorrhage escape Bleeding from a blood vesscl as a

consequence of an i~iju~y
or operation.
Immobilization Limiting or arresting the movements of
any joint of tlie body, especially limbs by
using body support or splints.
Community Healtl~ant1 Cardio-Pulmonary Any event where heart and lungs $re
Casualty Management.
involved. Tlie primary disease f$icus
may be in the lieart and involvement of
lungs may be secondary phenomenon.
Hypothermia A state of abnor~nally low body
temperature. This state is produced
artificially in surgery of brain or heart. It
can accidentally occur by drowning in
cold water or occur in extremely cold
conditions.
Assar M., Guide to sanitation in natural disasters, Geneva, WHO (1 971).

Caroline NL, Life supporting resuscitation andfirst aid, Geneva, League of Red
Cross and Red Crescent Societies (1984).
Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, United Nations Disaster Relief Coordination,
New York (1 982).
tIandbook for emergencies, Geneva, United Nations High Conimissioner for
Refi~gees(1982).
Health Services Organizution in the event of Disaster, Washington DC, PAHO.
PAHO, Emergency Health Management After Nuturd Disasters, Wasllington DC.

EXERCISES

Disaster Medicine relates to tlie task of preserving health and preventing
deaths and illjuries due to disasters
Disaster Medicine medical preparedness in the pre-disaster pliase and
medical attention during disaster and in the post-disaster phase.
First-aid
e Emergency Medicare

Triage helps in sorting of patients according to the severity of their illjuries
' received due to tlie occurrence of disasters. .
I l'he sorting of patients helps in prioritizing medical attention by first

I
rendering medical treatment for those injuries which are of emergent
nature such as hemorrhage, shock, respiratory distress, cardio-vascular
failure, skull injuries and likewise.
$
2) Your answer should include the following points: Emergency Health
Operations
o Immediate rescue and removal of the casualty
r Restoration of respiration and blood circulation
I r Immediate treatment of hemorrhage, pain, and dislocations

Q Irnmobilizatio~lof fractures wit11 splints
I e Prevention and treatment of shock

r Assuring the victim and boosting his or her morale.
UNIT 23 DRINKING WATER
Structure
23.0 Objectives
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Water Supply Sources and Water Resources
23.3 Drinking Water Purification
23.4 Water Supply in Disaster Situations
23.4.1 Water Storage in Emergency
23.4.2 Distributron of Watcr
23.5 Let us Sun1 Up
23.6 Key Words
23.7 Rei'erences and Further Readings
23.8 Answers to Check Your P~.ogressExercises
23.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
describe the sources of water supply and the requirements of drinking water;
liigliliglit the water borne diseases; I
explain the methods of purifying water; and .

pinpoint the water supply requirements in emergency situation.
23.1 INTRODUCTION
Water is essential to maintain life. It is the basic necessity of life for Iiu~nan
beings, animals and plants. Thus the availability of water, adequate in quantity
and of desired quality is essential for survival. It is very important that the water
required for the human consumption must be free from unwanted impurities and
liasn~fi~l
cliemical compounds of bacteria. In order to ensure the availability of
sufficient ancl good quality water to tlie community, it becomes utmost necessary
to plan and design the water supply system carefi~llyto ensure potable water.
The water supply systems must be designed to withstand adverse effects of the
emergencies created by the various types of disasters.
\
In the aftermath of any disaster, the immediate need of the situation is to provide
sufficie~itpotable water to the affected population. By providing potable water
various proble~nslike spread of epidemics call be avoided. In tlie present unit,
we will study the water supply requirements and various water-borne diseases in
the context of disaster situations.
J
23.2 WATER SUPPLY SOURCES AND WATER
RESOURCES
The basic source of all fresh water is from precipitation, which may be in vari0u.s
forms such as rain, snow, hail, and dew. This from the atmosphere may either
remain on surface or go underground. Our requirements of water are met from
these origins, The surface and sub-surface sources of water is categorized as
follows:
1) Surface Sources
a) Ponds and lakes
b) Streams and rivers
c) Storage reservoirs
2) Sub-Surfacernnderground Sources Drinking Water
a) Wells and tube wells

b) Springs
In the surface sources of water supply, the water drawn from lakes and reservoirs
is considered most sai'e, due to settlement of suspended materials usually present
in the water. However, still water standing for long periods in lakes encourages
the growth of algae, weeds and other vegetation in the water. These usually
contribute to the development of bad sliiell, taste and colour to the water.
SimiIar.ly the quality of water obtained directly from rivers is ~~sually
not ~ ~ s e f u l
for direct human consumption due to the presence of silt, sand and other
s~lspendedsolids. Harmful bacteria and ~lnwanted cliernicals could also be
present in such waters. The practice of discharging ~~ntreatecl sewage into the
river increases such i~iipuritiesin the water. Thus tlie water from majority of
s~lrfacesources c o ~ ~ be
l d contaminated and cannot be used without treatment or
purification.
Rivers and streams are the most important sources for public water supply
schemes. 'I'he importance of water from quantity viewpoint had been recognised
liw a long time now. That's why most of the present urban centres grew up on
the banks of tna-jor ~qivel-swhich enacted continuous and regular wate'r s ~ ~ p pto
ly
the inhabitants. In ~iiostof the rivers the quantity of water flow is not constant
r o ~ ~ nthe
d year but is based upon various factow including seasons. Thus to
l y water, a barrier in the
overcollie this problem and to ensure a regular s ~ ~ p pof
form of a dam is constructed across the river to store the excess water that flows
during the monsoon season. 'The pool so created upstream of a dam constitutes
the storage reservoir. S~nallerreservoir may also be termed as artificial lake.
'The sub-surface sources of water are based on rainwater that percolates down to
be stored inside the earth. The water, which is so stored inside the earth in the
Ii form of ground water reservoirs, constitutes the major source of sub-surface
I water supply. Undergro~~nd water is generally pure because of natural filtration
I
during the percolation process. This type of water is expected to be free from the
I
I presence of liar~nfi~lbacteria but may have higher quantities of dissolved
1 inorganic/organic conipounds depending ~lponthe geological formations of the
I region. The underground water may be brought unto the surface by some natural
* phenomenon like springs etc. or through some artificial means such as by
1
I
I
constructing wells and tube wells.
Table 1: Describes tlie possible pollution of water sources and the remedial
measures.
I
Pollution in water sources and the remedial measures
Water Source I Possible Pollution I Suggested remedial
I Measures.
Dug wells Contamination by Sanitary conservation of
nearby water nearby arqa, sealing of
discharges; surface leaks, chlorination of
water pollution through supply
lining, cover slab, or
n~anhole
Tube wells Entry of pol luted Sanitaty conservation of
drainage due to the area, sealing of the
improper sealing at top, top and at ground level
liquid water discharges with a concrete apron,
in the vicinity
, : I ;
~ o m ' m u n iHealth
t~ and Infiltration wells and
Casualty Management galleries in river beds through leaky liiiiiig and
underground water
channel
Natural streams an Access near point of Sanitary conservation of
springs intake for hulnan and the area, emergency
animals; pol lutional chlorinatio~i at the
discharges upstream; intake point.
irrigation works or
cultivation nearby
Lake or reservoir Drift of pollution by Restrictio~~s and
wind; access to intake treatment to be decided
point for people and by the bacterial purity of
animals; fishing, tlie water at the point of
boating, swimming, and intake; sanitary
wading activities; conservation of the
picnics on marginal land nearby watershed area;
and shores; habitations, routine post-chlorination
manilre pits, and treatment. Regulatory
agricultural operations lneasures for picnic
in the nearby catchment uses.
areas; inadequate
policing.
River flows Liquid waste discharge Corrective steps *to
upstreal11 of the intake avoid, to mitigate, or to '
point and cliemicals in ~iiinimizethe pollutional
the return flow from load at the point 'of
irrigation, sewage intake depending on
farms, dumping discharges into the river
grounds, the growing of and the "extent of
crops in the river bed contamination" in the
above the intake point nearby watershed; pre-
during periods of chlorination during
reduced flow; emergencies; routine
fairs and festivals near post-cli lorination
the river margin; treatment. Eliforcement
laundry, washing, and of pollution control
ferry activities just regulations strictly.
above the intake point.
Raw water Route and mode of Open canals should be
transmission conveyance should be protected in accessible
chosen to reaches
avoid against
additional pollution
contamination; cross
during transmission drainages, if any, should .
be diverted
Treatment plant No part of the plant All quality assurance
should be affected by measures .should be
conta~ninationfrom any followed strictly
sewage or sludge near
the area
Source: Based on 'Guide to 1p1emeasures for the control of enterie diseases'. WHO, Geneva.
1974.
Note: i) - Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end o f this Unit.
1) Describe the water supply sources'? Drinking Water
1 2) Explain tlie remedial measures for re~novingpollution in water sources.

!
I
23.3 DRINKING WATER PURIFICATION
1 Proper selection and protection of water sources are of prime imporl.ancefor snfe
!
drinking water supply. It is always wise and economical to protect water sources
from contalnination t1ia11to treat the water after it gets contaminated. Prior to tlie
j
[
: selection of water supply sources it is very important to ensure the satisfactory
quality and quantity of water. Tlie water sources nus st be protected from human
activities, which limy conta~ninatetlie water. Activities like mining, quarrying,
I hazarclous waste dun~ping,agricultural use of fertilizers and pesticides and
recreational activities must not be allowed around the water source. In practice,
l
it is very di.fficult to protect sources like rivers but all elTorts should be made to
lieep away the val-ious sources and activities wliicl~may contaminate the river
P
waters.
It is very important to purify/treat tlie water before distribution to community.

o The extent of treatment required to be given to the water, however, depends upon
tlie qualities of available raw water and the quality requirements prescribed for
1 the intended use.
I ..I hebasic purpose of water treatment is lo protect the consumer/user from
I
I patliogens and ilnp~lritiesin watcr that may be offensive or ilijurious to li~lman

Iicalth. The water treatlnent systenis for urban water supply scliemes mainly
I involve following stages:
i
I
1
1 ) Pre-Treatment
Ii 2) Sedimentation aided with coagulation
3) Filtration and
i
1 4) Disinfection
I
1
I
Z
1) Pre Treatment of Water
9 The pre treatment of water consists of storage or disinfection of river waters.
Most of the suspended impurities have to settle down under gravity during the
storage process. The microbiological quality of water also ilnproves during the
1
Community Health and impoundment of water in lakes or reservoirs, especially when combined with the
Cnsualty Management '
exposure to ultraviolet radiation of sunlight. Pre-disinfection is usually done
whcn water is abstracted and treated without storage. This process destroys or
reduces I~armfi~l
faecal bacteria and pathogens. Another i~nportantobjective of
pre-treatment or pre-disinfection is to reduce the a~nountof ammonia in the
water.
2) Sedimentation aided with coagulation
The very fine suspended mud particles and colloidal matter present in water
cannot settle down during the pre-treatment impound~nentof water in the
sedimentation tanks. These particles can easily be removed by increasing their
size by changing them into flocculated particles. For this purpose certain
chemical compounds like aluminum sulpliate, ferric or ferrous sulphate and ferrjc
chloride are used. These compounds co~nmonly known as coagulants on
thorough mixing, form a gelatinous precipitate called floc, which absorbs and
entraps the very fine mud particles, colloidal matter, and mineral particles
@resentin ihe water, This can bring about a major reduction in turbidity and in
the numbers of pathogens. This process of adding and mixing of cl~emicalsis
called coagulation. The coagulated water is then made to pass through
sedimentation tanks to remove the flocci~latedparticles after proper settlement.
3) Filtration
Even after the pre-treatment and sedimentation aided wish coagulation processes,
water may contain some very fine suspended particles and pathogens. To
remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still further and to enhance quality,
the water is filtered throi~ghbeds of fine granular materials such as sand. This
process of passing the water through beds of such material (called filters) is
known as filtration. The filtration process helps in removal of colour, odour,
turbidity and pathogens from the water.
4) Disinfection
Disinfection is the process in which microbiological organisms are destroyed by

physical or chemical action, and is commonly used as the final process in the
water treatment. A small amount of the active disinfectant S I I O L I I ~ normally
remain in the distributed water, to destroy subsequent contamination during
distribntion. Chlorine is the most colnlnon and most effective disinfectant used
world over as it is cheap, reliable and easy to handle. The term chlorination is
used very commonly to indicate that the water has been treated with a sterilizing
agent. Other acceptable methods of disinfection are:
Boiling of water
a Treatment with lime
* Treatment with ozone gas
* Treatment with iodine and bromine
* Treatment with i~ltravioletrays
Treatment with potassii~mpermanganate
Disinfection by Chlorination
The application of chlorine during disinfection process require certain

precautions due to harmful effects of chlorine compoi~ndsand thus the careful
dosing of chlorine is essential. The quantity of chlorine required for disinfecting
the-water depends upon the water quality, quantity and cor~tactperiod, i.e. the
period for which chlorine remain in contact with water before serving to Drinking Water
consumer. However, tlie excess amount of chlorine gives bitter and bad taste to
water.
The dose of chlorilie is generally determined by experimenting various

combinations in a water sample and to check the residual left after 20-min~lte
contact period. The dose, which gives a residue of 0.1 - 0.2-mgll milligram per
litre is considered ideal.
Clllorine used for disinfection can be applied in any of the following forms:
i) in the form of liquid clilorine or chlorine gas.

ii) in the form of bleaching powder.
iii) in the form of cl~loroaminesand
iv) in the form of clilorine dioxide.
23.4 WATER SUPPLY IN DISASTER SITUATIONS
An adequate supply of clean, safe drinking water is vely important for the proper
health and well being of the community. When water and sanitation facilities
break down, the public I~ealthis at risk. The chances of break down c=fwater
s~rpplyduring the cmergency situation can not be ruled out. In the aftermath of
an earthquake, ilood, or cyclone, there co~ild be a serious water crisis. It,
therefore, becoliies very necessary to develop contingency action plans for
meeting any cmergency arising due to any of the natural or man made disasters.
These contingency action plans shoilld include:
Coordinating Iiieasures to be taken up to ensure safc water s ~ ~ p p l y

A communication plall to alert and illform users ofthc si~pply
* Detailed plans to provide and distribute emergency supplies of water
Alternative safe water supply means have to be developed i n the case of water
supply system becoming inoperational due to any disaster. Various practical and
social co~lsiderationsmust be taken into account prior to assessing the emergency
needs of the affected community, such as:
nu~nberof people to be served;

quantity of water can be calculated by taking atleast 15-20 litres per person
per day for needs like drinking, cooking, personal liygiene etc.;
* qua1ity of avai lable water and level of contamination;
* availability of water in the nearest source.
a) Urban Water Supply Scheme: If the disaster has affected an urban centre
and a disruption t~ water supply scheme has taken place, the first priority
should be to put tlie system back into operation. Damaged portions must be
replaced 01. repaired and tlie supply must be quickly restored. In the
aftermath of the disaster, the water pressure and the chlorine concentration
must be increased to avoid any contaminatio~ifrom polluted water. In case
any of the portions of treat~nentplant gets affected by the disaster, it sllo~~ld
be repaired and proper disinfection nus st be db~a'eprior to putting it back into
operation.
Comniunity Health and b) Underground Source: Underground sources are usually free from disaster
Casualty Manmgcment
relaled contamination and may not require any treatment. When springs are
being used as a source after a disaster certain changes in the water quality
niay take place after earthquake or floods. Hence proper testing for water
quality is required before restoration of supplies. As far as wells as the
potential water sources are concerned, the location of these should be atleast
30 metres away from the potential source of conta~ninationlike latrines slid
sliould be at a liiglier elevation. Tlie wells rni~stbe properly covered. For
additional precaution, tlie drinking water from these sources must be boiled
or disinfected prior to use.
c) Surface Water: Tlie usage of surface water as a water supply source should
be the last option. Muddy, coloured, polluted water should not be consumed.
Tlie water from the surface sources should be treated to remove turbidity,
colour and other i~iipuritiesand sliould be disinfected. For this purpose
mobile water treatment plants as an adhoc measure coi~ldbe pressed into
service. Mobile plants are available mounted on a truck along with all
accessories wliicli include a centrifi~galpilmp run by an engine, a rapid sand
filter nit, clie~iiical solution tanks, clilorine solution tank and other
necessary accessories.
23.4.1 Water Storage in.Emergency Situation
E~nergencystorage of water can be done in canvas, rubber coated nylons and

plastic containers. Polyethylene containers erected in pits dug to size can also be
used as storage. The total storage capacity for water distribution should be eqi~al.
to tlie amount required for 24 hrs. Elevatecl water tanks must be erected using
drums. iron sheeting and wooden poles. For long term emergency camps, all the
storage tanks rnust be covered to protect from dust, and other contaminations.
Special attention must be paid to proper sanitation near these tanks.
I
23.4.2 Distribution of Water
In emergency situations water is usually distributed through tankers. The

individual families and local groups must be provided with water containers to
store water. Special care has to be taken in checking the quality of water prior to
transporting tlie water for distribution.
In long tern1 camps, distribution pipes witli com~nu~iity

taps must be installed for
water supply.
)
Check Your Progress I
Note: i) Use tlie space give11below for your answers.

1
ii) Check your answers witli those given at the elid of this Unit.
I 1) What are the different methods of water purification?

2) What are the different methods of disinfection for water?
23.5 LET US SUM UP
In tile aftermath of any disaster, there is an immediate need to restore drinking

water supply and also to ensure its purity. To ensure its purity, there is need to
have pretreatment of water, sedimentation aided wit11 coagi~lation,filtration and
disinfection, especially cl~lorination, The disrupted water supply has to be
restored and till that time alternative safe water supply Inearls have to be
arranged.
23.6 KEY WORDS
Colloidal Suspended in liquid

Coagulate Curdle, turn from liquid to somewhat solid like
curd.
Pathogen Any organism that causes disease.
Potable Fit for drinking
Pel+colation Filter down
Faecal Belonging to human excrement
Flocculated Turned into small wooly lumps
Turbidity Muddy, translucent

Guide to sinlple nzeasures for the control of enterie disasters, World Health
Organization (WHO), Geneva, 1974

EXERCISES
1) Your answers should include the following points:

Surface Sources: ponds, lakes, streams, rivers and reserveirs
Sub-Surface or Underground Sources: wells, tube wells, springs
2 ) Your, answers should include the following points:
0 Remedial measures for removing pollution from water sources vary for
different water sources
Colnlnut~ityHealth and e However, sanitary conservation of the area, covering the water storage if
Cas~~alty-Management possible, emergency chlorination at intake point and regulatory measures
are some of the common methods.
1 ) your answer'should include the following points:

o Pre-treatment or pre-disinfection
0 Sedimentatio~~
with coagulation
e Filtration
o Disinfection
2) Your answer should include the foljowing points:

Chlorillation
Q Boiling
Treatment with lime
rr Treatment with ozone gas
o Treatment with ultra violated rays
o Treatment with potassii~tnpermanganate
1
UNIT 24 FOOD AND NUTRITION
i Structure
I
24.0 Objectives
24.1 Introduction
j 14.2 Food Collection
24.3 Food Storage and Distribution
I
24.3.1 Warehousing
. 24.3.2 Family Food Stocks
24.3.3 Mcthods ol'Food Distribution
24.3.4 Food 1)istribution to the People
During Mtlss Feeding Services
24.3.5 Sanitalion Rcq~~ire~nents
14.4 Let Us Sum Up
24.5 Key Words
24.6 References and Flu-ther Readings
24.0 OBJECTIVES
A.lter studying this nit, you will be able to:
o explain the various components of balanced food;

highlight tlie impollance of nutritious food;
o describe tlie r~ietliodsof collection and storage of food;
o explain tlie neth hods for food distribution and
.* highliglit the sanitary eqnipments during Inass feeding in the wake of
disasters.
24.1 INTRODUCTION
[ood is lhe ~iecessityol' lil'e. It provides nutrition, sustenance and growth to

hurna~l body. Foods can be classified into ccreals, pulses, nuts and oilseeds,
vegelables. fiuits, milk and Inilk products arid flesh food. Food comprises
proreins, fats, ca~.boliydrates,vitamins, minerals salts and water. Most of tlie food
items contain all these in varying proportioris. Oils and ghee are exclusively fats
while sugarcane and starch contain liigl~amount of carbohydrates. Accordingly
rood items are termed as protein rich, vitamin rich, fat rich food etc.
Proteins, fats and ca~.boliydratesare usually termed as 'proximate principles'.

Along with water., whiclh is an important food element, proximate principles form
the main bulk food. These are burnt or oxidised in the body to provide energy for
the different activities of life. Conseq~~ently,
different age groups need different
food mix.
Vitamins and mineral salts do not supply energy but they play a very crucial role
in regularisation of various body firnctions. Sorne of tlie minerals are important
components of the body structure like bones and teeth.
When we talk about food in the contest of disasters, what becomes important is
the availability of nutritious food tl;e wake of disasters. In such situations, the
food served to the children in arms, pregnalit women and nursing mothers and
tlie aged needs special attention.
Community Healtl~and
Cnsunlty Management 24.2 FOOD COLLECTION
Specialists are required to assist and advise in surveying the availability of local
food and related s~lpplies and in supervising their collection, storage,
transportation and distl.ibution. This would involve collecting food from donors,
govelmnient controlled stocks or trade sources, moving it to the locations wliere
required, using val-ious agencies for its carriage and other related activities.
One agency whose co~itributionto disaster relief is often ignored is tlie effort put
in by tlie comniu~iityitself in taking care of the needs of the less forti~nateamong
them. The village elders representing the com~nunityoften organise tlieir own
relief and rescue operatiotls till oi~tsidehelp can reach them. In' this foodstuff is
their major contributioli where they pool in the available food and distribute it.
The formal and informal linkages that bind the community together are of great
help in such situations. However, over a period of time the role of community
participatio~i has come down in organising food collection and increased
dependence is visible on organised activity from government and NGO sources.
These organisations may send food as an emergency aid or they can pre-locate
tlie food for use wlien disaster occurs.
Government Food Stocks
Large amount of food stocks including some buffer stock is maintained by

government agencies like the Food Corporation of India. These are tlle primary
source from where tlie bulk of the food is collected, on instructio~is>f the
governlnent, by the local ad~ninistratio~i for use amongst the affected population.
It may be financed by eitlier central or state government, or partly by both. This
may be brought to the open market for sate to clieck against price rise and
shortages in retail outlets. Also, certain quantities may be distributed as o~~triglit
relief to the needy people or offered under "food for work" programmes.
The government administration monitors tlie overall food situation in its disaster
management strategy. A11 food brought or intended to be brought for tlie disaster
relief is co-ordinateti by the local administration. Otlier agencies assist the local
ailtl~orities in procuring suitable transportation, handling and storage
requirements.
'Food Security
Food sec~~rity iS an important issue in disaster lnanage~nentfor ensuring a

balanced and nutritional food. This implies that people have access to sufficie~it
quantities of food, wlie~lthey need it and at a price they can afford. Pri~icipal
conditions to be satisfied for achieving food security are:
a The supply of foodst~lffsshould be adequate to meet the demand.

Fluctuations in seasonal food supply should be ~ninimised,and reflected in
I-elativelystable seasonal food prices.
*I The ~opulationslloi~ldhave access to food supplies, eitlier through adequate
real,'income or, through targeted prog,rammes such as food for work
progralnmes.
The overall objectives of short tern1 relief rneasures should be to provide to the
people access to food by ensuring tlie availability of food in tlie affected area,
and protecting the entitlements of groups within the affected population. Some of
30 the principal measures for maintailling food security. include:
Price stabilisatio~i Food end Nutrition
Food subsidies
E~nploy~nent
generation programmes
General food distribution
Supplementary feeding programmes
Special progralnlnes for livestock and pastoral populations, e.g., fodder
banks. "Gaushalaas"
Complementary water programmes
Complementary liealtli programmes
Food security interventions in inany areas are being implemented as part of tlieir
general developnient and welfare programmes and are potentially capable of
expansion to serve as key components of a disaster relief strategy. How rapidly
such an expansion can be i~nple~ne~ited will in part reflect tlie aniount 01'
preparedness pla~iliingthat lias been carried out in advance.
Check Your Progress I
Note: i) Use tlie space given below for yoi~ranswers.

ii) Clieck YOLIKanswers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1 ) Wliat is tlie system of food collection during disasters?
- -
--
2) How call food security be ensured during disasters?
111tlie emergencies created by disaster, storage and distribution of food is one of

tlie esselitial and important aspects that need careful attention. Eve~yeffort
sliould be ~iiadeto niinimise dabnag&of foodsti~ffalready available in tlie affected
areas. Tlie proper storage and distribution of food in disaster siti~ationsrequire
tlie following:
24.3.1 Warehousing
Proper selection, supervision and control of warehouses and storage facilities

should be ensured. Wareliouses sliould be located centrally at key points in the
area they intend to serve. Always maintain buffer stocks to meet needs when the
system cannot keep u p with tlie demand. Regional warehouses provide greater
flexibility for field staff in timing the distribution to the beneficiaries and in
receiving additional supplies. Tlie storage and delivery system is very important.
Tlie logistics organisation responsible for receipt, storage and delivery of
supplies must implement a system for recording, reporting and monitoring the
flow of goods from receipt to final distribution. Significant losses can occur due
to poor planning. Protecting the goods against inclement weathers, and theft is
essential.
Warehouse Requirements
Tlie wareliouse sliould liave sufficient capacity to meet forecast requirements for
temporary or transit storage, reserve and buffer stocks. Following points should
be considered when selecting warehouses or storage accommodation.
1 . Wareliouses must provide proper storage in terms of tlieir capacity and the
preservation of tlie cluantity and quality of the items stored. C.ool and dry
storage facilities are preferred. War~iitliand dampness encourage infestation
and growth of micro organisms. ' ~ v e effortr ~ should be made to prevent
foodstuff from being exposed to sun, rain, humidity or high temperature.
2. Open storage areas should be avoided. In case it is unavoidable, necessary
precautions must be talten for covering tlie food items.
3. Tlie capacity of wareliouse to be selected depends ~lporitlie number of people
to be served and the quantity to be stored. Provision for anticipated reserve
and buffer stoclts S I I O L I I ~ be made, but ordering and holding contingency
supplies for indeterminate future needs must be avoided. Co~~sumption rates
and shelf life liave to be considered. Supplies sliould be procured and stored
in manageable cluantities.
4. Warehouse buildings should be conveniently located with access from
transportation system ancl provide protection fro111 rain, flash floods,
dampness, solar heating, rodents, insects and birds. A single large bililding is
better than several slriall ones. Tlie warehouse must be provided \vith
.adequate fencing, ligliting, fire protection and security system. Tlie area
surrounding the wareliouse sliould, have good drainage and easy access; with
areas for parking and turning the vehicles.
Good Storage Practices
1. Each storage facility requires a storage plan, to allocate sufficient space for
goods before the consignment arrives. Ideally, tlie floor of tlie wareliouse is
laid out in a grid pattern, and stacks of items designated to different areas. A
chart of ,the storaie plan showing supplies location and available space
should also be maintained.
2. Goods must not be stored against walls, pipes, pillars, roof trusses or
partitions. One metre wide aisles sliould separate stacks. Foodstuff should be
segregated from other supplies to avoid contamination.
3. Supplies and.food commodities sliould be stacked neatly on pallets placed on
the floor. Different consignlnents and items should preferably be stacked
separately.
4. Easy accessibility to stacks placed earlier at tlie rear should be ensured. Food and Nutrition
5. Ventilation and good air circulation aloiig with natural or electrical lighting
must be ensured.
6 . Lilnit stack height to prevent excessive floor loading causing structural
darnage to the warellouse or pressure damage to the packaging or the
contents.
7. Individual stack dimensions at the floor should not exceed six metres so as to
facilitate ilispectioli and cleaning.
8. Stack packages in tlieir upright position, especially those containing cans or
bottles.
9. Stack damaged goods separately, repair 01- re-pack and issue them earliest.
The following details should be available for all tlie stored itenis:
o Type of supply. with expiry dates, if any

Intended beneficiaries
Quantities received with dates
Source of supply
Place where supply is received
Mode of transport .
All related costs
Any losses and their reasolis
Issue details (date, quantity and to wliom issued)
24.3.2 Family Food Stocks

Families ]nay have some stocks of foodstuff, and these may be stored at home
but liave to be shifted to safer areas during evacuation at the time of a disaster
where there may also be a shortage of fuel and cooking utensils for the families.
A systeni has to be identified and devised where the entire com~nunitylnay have
common storage of food and arsalige for its security, as part of community effort.
i
24.3.3 Methods of Food Distribution
Food must be delivered to the beneficiaries wlio are often located in remote and
inaccessible geograpliical areas. Locnl transportation and communication
infrastructures may liave to be reinforced and tlie process of control and
information feedback introduced, lo ensure thal the supplies from the source
reach thc beneficiaries at the destination, in tlie quantity and quality prescribed.
-.
Distribution ofYood is an important activity in disaster management, especially
during relief and recovery philse. Due to hostile weatlier and disruption of
communications after a disaster, food cannot immediately reacli tlie affected
people. All possible means like l~clicoptersand boats may be etnployed for this
purpose.
Transportatioli may becollie a problem as cerlairi areas may be cut off. This may
require pre-positioning of supplies, air dropping, carriage by boats or other
suitable means depending on tlie situation. To overcome disruption, alternate
routes or transport methods should be explored. Groups may also be organised
lo repair bridges or roads so that supplies call come in from outside. Personriel
are 13equi,red to monitor this system by conducting cliecks and in~'~ections,
(.:omlnunity Heelth i~ntl manage and supervise ol~erationsat key control points. When food is procured
C:asl~altyManagement locally, suppliers s[lo~llddeliver it to the control point nearest to the location
where it will be needed. Distribution reports are necessary to confirm that
supplies have been ilsed for intended purpose.
Transportation of Food Stuff
Generally relieragencies lnay not have sufficient transport of thElr own and will
have to hire available transp01.tfor moving bulky food s~~pplies.
a) Road Transport. When moving s~~pplies inland, trucks provide greater

flexibility than other Ineans in terms of capacity, scheduling and routing. If
destinations can be reached by road, appropriate vehicle selection is
determined by:
0 Tlie condition of terrain or weather, which will be, e~icount$reden-route. .
The nature and quantity of goods to be transpo~ted.
The time frame and frequency of each trip and tlie duration of tlle supply
requirement at partic~~lar
destinations.
Tlie availability of fi~el,spares and servicing facilities. '
Tlie carrier sliould checlc their load care.fully to ensure that the quantities and
condition of the cargo coincide exactly with the informatioil on the despatch
challan, wliich sliould also be acknowledged by tlie receiver of tlie consignment.
b) Rail Transport.
fi
/
If an adequate rail network exists and is fi~nclionalbetween the place of' origi~k.
and near the disaster site, rail is us~~ally
tlie cheapest alternative, especially for
transpolatinglarge, bulky consign~neutsof food. As comparecl to the t r ~ ~ c krail
s,
freight is ~~sually
fixed for a given period and is fairly stable. Railways, being a
public service, i~sually reduce or waive freight cliarges on goods being
transported for use in tlie disaster area.
c) River Transport
River transportation depends upon:
a Availability of navigable waterways
Availability of ship, ferry or boat service on sucll waterways.
Availability of cargo-carrying boats in good condition, with adequate
capacity and in required number.
I Availability of personnel to handle boats.

Docking facilities with persoll~lelon both ends Sor handling, storing and
trallsporti~igthe cargo.
I Constraints and seasonal considerations.
I Costs and contractual options.
d) Air Transport
Aircraft are tlie fastest and most reliable means of transporting foodstuff, but it is
expensive and sho~lld011ly be considered as a last resol-t, when supplies are
urgeni.ly needed in an area where no other trallsport is feasible. In emergencies,
airlifting may be an initial response to the situatioll, but Funds are better spent by -
moving supplies using ather modes of transport.
, . . A
,b,t the receiving and transhipment points, supplies must be storecl properly to Footl'antl Nutrition
their quality, protection from pilferage or thel't and lcecping track of
their location. Each locatio~l sllould have sufficient capacity with suitable
facilities for handlilig and stockipg.
0'
24.3.4 Food Distribution to the People

: Ultimately the food is to be distributecl among tlse disaster affected population.
food dish-ibution to the communities can be done in two ways i,e. dry rations
;jncI wet. rations or cooked food distribution.
a ) Dry Ration Distribution

Dry food distribution methocl allows the fanlilies to prepare their food as they
lil,e ancl permits them to continue to eat together as a ilnit. This mctllod is more
acceptahlc cultu~.allyand socially in case of emergencies. 'The people must be
Pluvidetl, if thcy do not possess, the i~tensils,fuel and containers to protect and
store food rations. Dist~.ibutionmay be done at 7 or 14 days intervals.
In this method, the food has to be given i n the ready-to-eat or cooked for~n,
especially in the relief camps. This method recluires centralised kitchens with
atlequate ~~tcnsils, water etc. and trained healthy personnel for cooking, packing
ancl distributing it in hygienic manner. At lcast two meals must be provided per
day. The qi~alityand quantity must be disc~~ssed regularly with the affected
population and complaints must be taken care 01'. In this method, it is very
important to chech that Soocl is being propcrly distributed and i~tilisedat family
le\/el. If ihe [bod is providecl by the contractors, inspection ant1 checks r n ~ ~be
st
made.
Distribution of rclicf b o d must be done alter a survey oftlle affected population
so illat the meagre resources are best utilised. In this case, cnsds or coupons may
. be issuecl to those requiring food ;lid and can come to the distribution point. Care
I sI10~1ldOC t:il,cn to cnsurc Illat most vi~lnerableand poor segmcnts like the
women, agcd, childrcn ancl sick are not left out in preference to other stro~igcl.or
n1ol.c l~rivilegeclpeople.
In~mcdiatelyafier a disaster, only cookcd food would hc required, as the people
I
eve11 if thcy havc not lost thcir coolcing i~tcnsils, will bc in a state of
psychological S I I O C I ~ ancl require assistance. I-Iowever, thcy must be encoirraged
to colnlnence cooking for themselves, as it will also help in restoring normalcy.
Mobile distribution points will bc requirecl so that the people car1 collect food
fsoni reasonable distance from their locations. If thcre are large number of
persons to be given rood, care will have to be taken to maintain law and order.
To ensure employment opportunities to the victims of a disaster rendered

~lnelnl~loyed or witlloi~tlivelihood, particularly in drought prone areas, the local
- ' government implements food for worlc schentes. Here some development project
is started where the wages are given in kind in the .form of grains or ,food. This
has the advantage of developing assets and ensuring gainful employment in the
area preventing people to migrate to di.fferent areas. This also helps in
maintaining the self-respect of the disaster-affected people as they have the
satisfaction of earning their food and not depending on charity.
24.3.5 Sanitation Requirements during Mass Feeding Services

'
'dJnless proper sanitary measures are applied to the storage, preparation and
distribution of food under el1iergency conclitions, mass feecling programme will
Co~n~nunity Health and be under constant danger to health. Various services connected with the food
C H S I I AManagement
~~Y preparation and protection i.e, water supply and waste disposal require special
attention. The various measures that can be applied in order to ensure good
I sanitation include.
m quality coiltrol of incoming food in order to check spoilage and
contamination.
quality control for food preparing centres.
m ' cooking staff and food handling persons to be free from infections and
should observe proper hygiene.
0 control of insects and rodents in stores, Icitchens and feeding centres.
o proper storage of cooked food '
proper disposal of kitchen waste and food waste

m proper washing of utensils '
0 cleanliness of premises where food is prepared and served.

I ) What are the essentials of safe food storage system in disasters?
2) What are the methods of food distribution.
24.4 LET US SUM UP
Food and nutrition are essential to life but they assunie an i~nportantrole when an
emergency situation is created by any disaster. While performing the exercise of
food collection and distribution, the basic tenet of nutritious and balanced diet is
to be kept in mind. Also, hygiene and sanitation measures have to be taken and ;'
duly maintained, which otherwise may worsen the already bad conditions in a
disaster. Food security becomes impel-tant, Adequate stocks need to be
. maintained in properly managed warehouses. Food distribution has to be very
4~iclcand this can be ensured by the most feasible and available mode of
transpo1-t such as road, rail or air. Likewise a fair distributiori practice has to be
adopted for the vi~l~ierable population and adequate sanitary measures have to be
adopted during mass feeding programmes.
24.5 KEY WORDS
Aisle Passage between rows

Docking Berthing of a ship or boat for loading or unloading
Logistics Process of transpol-ting and supplying
Pallets Woodeli planlts on wliicli goods can be stacked
Navigable : River or canal iii wliich sliips or boats call ply
Trusses Supporting structure
Waterways : Rivers or Canals
Bull, Ross "Discrster Econonzics ", Disaster Management Training Programme,

United Nations Department of Hu~na~iitaria~i Affairs, Geneva.
Kotze, Astrid v o ~ i and Ilollowayy Alisa "Reducirzg Risk", International
Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent and Department of Adult and \
Community Education, University of Natal.

Stephenson, R.S. "Logistics ", Disaster Management Training Programme,
United Nations Depal-tment of Humanitarian Affairs, Geneva.
Aykroyd, W.R. (et. al.),"The Value of Indian Food and the Planning of
I
Satisfactory Diets", Illdial1 Council for Medical Research, 1963.
1 24.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
1) Your answer should include'the following points:

Food collectioli can be in the forrn of:
Government stocks
Loans, aids and grants from NGOs
Community Collection
2) Your answer sl~ouldinclude tlie following points:

Price stabil isation
Food subsidies
General food distribution
* Employment creation programlnes
Special programnles for livestock (cattle)
.--
Community Health and Check Your Progress 2
Casunlty Management

0 Proper warehousing
o Good storage practices
2) Your answer should i~icludethe following points:

o Road transport
e Rail transport
Q River transport
* Air transport .
UNIT 25 HYGIENE AND SANITATION
Structure
Obje2lives
Introduction
Importance of Proper Sa~iitation
M_e;ulsand Methods of Adequate Sanitation
25.3.1 Sanilalion Oplions
Hygiene and Sanitatioli in Post-Disaster Situations
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Answers to Clieclc Your Progress Exercises.
A f er stuclying this Unit, yo11will be able to:
* tlescribe tlic iniportance of sanitation and liygienc during and alter clisaster
sit~~alion;
* liighliglit the ~netliodsensuring proper hygiene and sanitation: a n d
explain the ways to provide proper hygiene and sanitation aftel- disaster
situation.
: Sanitation refers to all conditions Illat create ~~nliealtliy conditions, especially

wit11 regarc1 to dirt ancl infection and specifically to tlie drainage and disposal for
sewage and refi~se.fro111 lio~~ses. "rlie World I-Iealtli Orgsuiisation (WI.10) defines
sanitation as the means of collecting and dispositig of excreta and c o ~ n ~ i i ~ ~ ~ i i t y
liquid wastes in a hygienic way so as not to endanger tlie liealtli of individuals
and tlie community as a whole. 'J'lius the basic objective of all the sanitation
l~~ograrnmes should be disposill of human excreta arid community wastages
witlio~~t endangering the p ~ ~ b l ilife.
c 'I'lie problem of proper hygiene and
1
sanitation has increased manifold due to higher rates of population growth
leacling to insanitary conditions. T1ie.otIier limitations in providing tlie adequate
sanitation. condition are lack of fun&; lack of trained personnel and lack of
knowledge a b o ~ ~acceptable
t alternilive technologies. All these factors
contribute to lowering tlic satisfactory sa~i'itatiati,service level.
Disasters worsen tlie already inadequate sakitation situation. Certain special

measures must be adopted to improve the sanitation condition and to check any
spread of epidemic in the aftermath of tlie disasters like flood, cyclone,
eal-tliquake etc. This unit deals with the available sanitation means and how to
improve tlie hygienic a11Bsanitary conditions in tlie emergency situations.
25.2 IMPORTANCE OF PROPER SANITATION
During tlie planning of sanitation nieasllres for any community, safe disposal of
excreta is of great importance for health and welfare of the concer~iedpopulation.
Sanitation is tlie liigliest priority for the local governments over tlie years now to
ensure basic health of the communities. There is a direct relation between better
provision of sanitation facilities, safe drinking water supply and health care at the
local level. Thus improved sanitation and safe drinking water s ~ ~ p p should
ly be
C o ~ n m u n i t yI-lealth and tlie highest priority areas to achieve tlie target of improved health in the urban
Casualty Managetnent and rural areas of the country. Keeping all these factors in mind sanitation must
be given tlie highest importance by according it tlie status of basic hutnan need
like food, housing, health etc.
Tlie urban areas are increasing at a very fast rate. These urban centres attract a
large chunk of poor population from countryside. Majority of these people do not
have a d e q ~ ~ aresources
te to take care tlie housing needs. Thus majority of this type
of population give rise to slums and squatter or unautliorised settlements at the
pcripliery of towns and cities. In all s ~ ~ clocalities,
li health risks are at peak.
f-Iiglier density levels of population give rise to airborne respiralo~yinfection and
diseases due to unhygienic conditions. Maln~~trition witli in the co~nmunitymakes
it liiglily susceptible for water borne diseases. since' proper water supply is
insufiicient in most of tlie cases, the water borne disease can spread widely within
the community. T ~ L adeq~~ate
IS sanitation is of prime importance for tlie well being
of the communities in general and in tlie afte1.11iathof disasters in partic~~lar.
25.3 MEANS AND METHODS OF ADEQUATE

SANITATION
A large number of sanitation technologies are available. Tlie selection of most

suitable option must be done after carefill analysis of all factors including cost,
acceptability, operation and maintenance and locally available resources. Various
factors call affect tlie selection of tlie most suitable sanitation option as discussed in
tlie following paragraphs:
i) Water Supply Levels

The a~iiountof water supply available to an individual liolds the key in proper
selection of sanitation option.
Options like tlie Ve~itilatedImproved Pit (VIP) Latrines are available where no
water is ~.equiredexcept for toilet hygiene. This type of options must be utilised
when water supply is insuficient. (say 20-25 litres per capitaldaily).
If tlie water supply is LIIIto 50 litres per capita daily I lie options like pour tlusli and
vault toilets are tlie better options. Si~iiilarly,if there are no constraints on water
supply, cistern flus11 toilets witli conventional sewerage or septic tank options are
Inore suitable.
ii) Soil Coliclitions
Local soil co~iditio~ls play a very i~iiportantrole in deter~niningtlie sanitation
option except for those options, wliich are co~npletelycontained over tlie ground
like vault toilets and bucket latrines. Soil stability and permeability are tlie two soil
cliaracleristics, which determine the tecli~iologyselection. The i~i~perliieable soil
conditions are least appropriate for a majority of the optio~isavailable. In case of
istab table soil, tlie bases of pits must be lined as in case of Ventilated l~nprovedPit
and Pour Flusli toilet options. Rocky soils are tlie most i~nwantedsoil type for ally
type of sanitation option. In case tlie ground water table is witliin 1 metre below
the ground surface, various toilet options, wliicli require pits, are not possible at all.
iii) Population Density
Tlie population density-is also a very iniportant factor in deter~ni~iirig
tlie sanitation
option. In highly dense areas, VIP latri~iesare not possible and pour flush toilets
and septic tanks with soakways are feasible only under favourable conditions.
Conventional sewerage pourtlusli systenis ancl vault toilets are feasible for these
areas.
ill) Other factors Hygiene and Sanitation
Various factors including costs, reuse potential, en+ironmental factors and

institutional constraints must be given due consideration prior to finalising the
option for a particular locality.
25.3.1 Sanitation Options
i) Open Defecation: Open defecation is a vely common sight in the rural areas
of the country. People generally defecate over the places like rubbish heaps,
manure heaps, and in the fields. This encourages flies, which may spread
various diseases. Other type of infections also develops due to this practice.
This is the no st undesi~.ablemeans and must be avoided in the vicinity of
human habitation.
ii) Shallow Pits: 'I'liis method comprises the digging of a shallow hole and
covering the faeces with soil. Pits dug once can be i~tilisedfor longer
durations also. The ekcavated soil is heaped beside the pit and some portion
of it is pill over thc faeces after each use. Decomposition of faeces is quite
rapid. Thc method costs nothing and is a good source of fertilizer to the
farmers. Idowever, this method creates a lot of fly nuisance and leads to
spread of hookworm la~vaeover the ground, if the pit is not dug unto one-
metes depth.
iii) Simple Pit Latrines: This type of latrine consists of a slab over a pit, which
may be 2m or Inore in depth. The lavatory has a squatting hole or a seat so
that excreta fall down in the pit directly. Tlie slab is firmly supported on all
sidcs and raised over the gro~indto prevent the water entry into the pit. 'This
is a low cost technique, hhich requires 110 water. This type of latrine gives a
bad smell and may creqte fly and mosquito nuisance, if the tight titting cover
over tlie squatting hole/is not provitled. When the pit is full up to half, a new
pit has to be dug.
iv) Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines: The ventilated improved pit (VIP)
latsines are tlie imfiroved version of simple pit latrines, where the pit. is
provided with a vent pipe exte~idi~ig above the latrine root.. The inside of the
super structure is kept dark. 'The vent pipe is provided with a netting to
prevent flies ancl ~nosquitoes.This type of sanitation system is hygienic, low
cost method, which requires no water. The system controls the fly and
mosquito nuisance with ~nini~nal requirement of user care and involvement.
The other advantage is the smell control. However, this type of latrine is
higlily uns~~itable for high-density areas and may pollute ground water.
Ventilated improved double pit latrine is another latrine of this type, but with
two pits. One pit would be used until full and then sealed while second pit is
in use. l'hc first pit is emptied after filling up of the second pit and used
again.
v) Pour Flush Latrine: Pour flush latrines have a trap providing water seal
beneath the squatting plate. The water seal is cleared of faeces by pouring
sufficient q ~ ~ a ~ i t i tofi ewater
s to wash the solids into the pit. The water seal
prevents the flies, mosquitoes and smell reaching the latrine from the pit.
The pit is usually connected with the latrine through a short length pipe. It is
convenient to have two pits instead of one pit. Both of these pits can be
utilised alternatively. This type of latrine is a low cost sanitation measure,
which also controls the odour, fly and mosquitoes. This type of latrine can
be upgraded by connecting it to sewer, when sewerage becomes available.
The only drawback is that this system requires large quantity of water.
Cornposting Latrines: In tlie composting latrines, excreta 1811 illto a
watertight tank to wliicli inorganic materials like ash o r vegetable waste is
added. A carefill control over moisture conte~itand chemical balance
decomposes tlie excreta into good manure, wliicli can be utilised as fertilizer.
Tlie pathogens get killed during tlie decomposition process. Tlie composting
latrines are of two types. First is tlie continuous composting while tlie
second one is with two co~ilainersused to do tlie composting in batches. Tlie
tnetliod requires vely small quantity of water and produces safe and stable
Ii~~rnus.The teclinique is not for high population density areas and requires
good qi~antitiesof inorganic biodegradable matter. For i~singthis ~iietliodall
extreniely high degree of user care and motivation is a must.
vii) Septic Tanl< Latrines: A septic tank is a rectangular watertight settling

chamber, locatecl below tlie ground level. The septic tank receives both
excreta and flusli \vatel. from flusli latrines ancl tlie raw sewerage from tlie
other household activities. Tlie retention time in tlie tank is ilsually 1-3 day,
during wliicli tlie solid particles settle down to tlie bottom, where they get
digested ancl a tliicli layer 01-scum is formed over tlie surface. The effluent
from tlie septic tanks is ~ ~ s i ~ adischarged
lly to soaltways or leaching fields.
Tliis system works very effectively in tlie permeable soil conditions and in
tlie areas free fro111 tlooding and waterlogging. Now a day tlie septic tanks
with two compartments are commonly used. The septic tanks are usually
used for tlie ~ndividualIiouseliold but can also be ~isedat small co~nlnunity
level. Tlie septic tanks require large areas, higher costs and high level of
user attention.
viii) Aqua-P~.ivy: Aqua privy lias a watertight tank immediately under the
scll~attinghole. Tlie excreta drops down into tlie ta~ilitliroi~gha pipe. 'I'he
bottorii of tlie pipe is submerged into the water in tlie tank thus preventing
tlie smell, flies and mosquitoes entering tlie latrine. The tank f~unctionslike a
septic tanlt. Tlie effluent usually drains out throi~glia soak pit. A vent pipe
is also provided for ventilation. Tlie water level nus st be ~iiaintnined by
adding sufficient quantities of water a f e r cvery use to clieclc tlie losses due
to evaporation ancl lealtage. 'I'he sludge so formed nwst be removed
regulal-ly. This syste~iiis less expensive Llian tlie septic tanlcs and there is no
need for piped water supply. Tlie technique is applicable it1 permeable soils
to dispose of tlie effluent and dislodging requires careful handling by
~ni~~ricipality staff. A significant amoilnt of water is also needed.
ix) Overliung latrines: In tliis type of latrine, tlie excreta drops directly illto a
water body like river, sea etc. Tlie strong current of water takes away tlie
excreta. The local communities must be aware about the higher level for
health risks associatetl with tliis type of latrine and must take t.lie pl.eventive
measures. Tliis is a very cheap optio~iof sanitation but leads to pollution of
riverlsea.
Bucket Latrines: Tliis type of latrine contains a bucket or other container

located imnlediately below the squatting hole for collection of excreta.
These buclcets are periodically removed for treatment 01.disposal by a night
soil labourer cal led scavenger. This system requires vely low initial cost but
lias a very high health risk for those who collect tlie night soil. It is also
against huniati dignity and has been given up in most places.
xi) Vault and Cartage Systems: Tlie vault latrines consist of a watertigllt tank
to store thd excreta until a vacuum tanker removes them. The vaults are
emptied on regular intervals, when they arc nearly full. Tlie perforniance
requires an efficient service alongwith an efficient infrastructure. Irregular
collection can lead t o tank overflow and may create u~~liygienic conditions.
Tliis is not a conimonly used method.
xii) Sewerage System: The sewerage system is designed to transport a rni?;tul.e flygie~ieand Sanitation
of excreta and waste water from households to the central treatment pla~lt
through a networlc of ~~nderground pipes. The system provides Iiighest level
of user convenience for all type of waste water disposal. involving no Iiealth
risks and a very minimal maintenance. Tlie treated water can be ~ltilisedfor
irrigation purposes. The major hurdle is the very high initial cost, skilled
labourer, larger amount of water requirerncnts making the system more
urbanised and water intensive. If discharged into a water body it requires
adequate pre-treatment.
Note: i) lJse tlie space given below for your answers.

ii) Checlc your answers wi1:li those given at tlie end ofthe [init.
I ) What do you ~lnderstandby sanitation? Describe the importance of tlie same.
=
, -
t,
2) What .factorsare kept in mind for selection of appropriate sanitation options.
( - 3) List the acceptable sanitatioo options.
25.4 HYGIENE AND SANITATION IN POST-DISASTER

SITUATIONS
Communicable diseases or epidemics need not occur in the post-disaster siluation

~llilesslarge number of peoples are evacuated or clisplaced from their liornes and
placed in the crowded and insanitary camps. Tlie sanitary deficiencies in these
calnps may expose the habitants of the camps to serious health hazard during their
I stay over there: Propet:,disposal of excreta and solid waste and vector control are
Community Health and of primary importance and require immediate attention. We sliall discuss here
Casualty Management
some of the hygienic ways of maliagilig public conveniences i n post-disaster
situations.
i) Excreta Disposal: Unsatisfactory disposal of excreta is common after natural

disasters. In the absence of proper sanitation measures any of the following
may result:
e more flies and more breeding places

a unpleasant s~nells
underground and ground water contamination
e food contamination by flies
e increase in disease incidences
a) Existing Sewerage System: l'he sewerage system and treatment plant

may be put out of service due to natural disasters. Eartliquake may destroy
the sewerage network, p~~mping station or treatment plants. Similarly,
floods may block the sewerage system and inundate the treatment plant.
Immediately after any disaster situation, a detailed survey must be carried
out and a damage report lllust be prepared. Based on tliis report various
measures can be taken on high priority:
e rapid repair of sewers, with temporary arrangements to bypass

damaged section,
e cleaning blocked sewers,
* disinfecting the treatment plant after dewatering format and making it
operational;
temporary arrangements for discharging sewage.
b) Temporary Shelter and Camps: For temporary shelters the appropriate

sanitation measures are necessary. The choice is usually between shared
and individual facilities. Individual family facilities are always preferred,
as the satisfactory maintenance of shared facilities is always a problem.
But most of the time, individual family facilities are not possible and only
shared facilities can be provided for relief camps.
During the identification and development of the camp, the first priority
must be to designate a specific area for people to excrete. The method
requires a very careful supervision and management to keep pollution at a
minimum. Men, women and children must be encouraged to use it and
prevented from defecating in the open. This area m~lstbe fenced and must
be kept clean by regular removal of excreta from the site and use of
disinfections.
Open surface defecation, if it has to be resorted to, can be improved by

digging shallow or deep trenches into which people can excrete directly.
In this method the faeces can be covered with fresh soil on daily basis to
get better sanitation.
Other methods recommended for post-disaster sanitation. are aqua privy,

mobile latrines and separate urinals.
ii) Solid Disposal: The aqcumulation of refuse or rubbish in a camp can

constitute a health risk. The rubbish either is buried, burnt or removed from
the camp site. To expedite the disposal of refuse, separate containers(for
storing and collection of organic and inorganic wastes must be utilised. The Hygiene and Sanitatior~
refuse thus collected must be disposed off either through sanitary landfill,
incineration or burial.
111the rural areas special care must be taken for the collection and disposal of
animal dung. The best method of disposal is to bury it into trenches.
Another serious problem in post-disaster stage is tlie disposal of dead animals.
Burial is the only solution for big anilnals while burning is feasible for small
animals like cats and dogs. When carcasses me large, it is not possible to bury
all of them without heavy excavation equipments. The carcasses awaiting
burial should be sprinkled with kerosene to protect them from the predatory
animals.
The waste water from make shift hospitals, water points, mass feeding centres
and milk distribution centres nus st be disposed off properly. The usual way is
to drain away this water into a soak pit.
iii) Vector Control: The post-disaster sit~~ations are most favourable for rapid
increase in the population of insccts and rodents. These can create a health
risk and spoil and destroy large quantities of food items, which are already
scarce in disaster emergencies. The vector problem generally develops in
densely crowded conclitions where sanitation conditions are inadequate. Flies,
fleas, lice, mites, mosrl~~itoes
and bedbugs are disease vectors that develop in
~~ncontrolled environments. Vector control must follow a definite plan and
programme. Special teams must be organised to control various types of
vectors. The team Icader must have adequate knowledge and experience in
combating this type of situation.

1) Wliat effective steps can be taken for restoring excreta disposal system in post-
' disaster situation?
2) Apart from efficient management of human exc'rete disposal, what are the
otlier important steps to ensure good hygiene and sanitation in relief camps in
post-disaster situation?
\
Curnm~~nity
Health a ~ l d
Casualty Management 25.5 LET US SUM UP
Hygiene and sanitatio~i assulne great importance in health management in

disaster situations. Sanitation can be described as the means of collecting and
disposing of excreta and community wastes in a hygienic way. Keeping i n mind
the different areas, their water supply levels, soil conditions and population
density, a proper planning of sanitary system should be done. Adopting any
sanitation option should be guided by these conditions, as this will greatly
minimize tlie probleni of likely epidemics during or after disasters. However,
wheu the existing sanitation system gets disrupted, rapid repair should be done
and temporary arrangements for discharging s e w a g should be made. Adequate
precaution and sanita~ynieasures should be taken in the temporary shelters and
re1ief cam ps.
25.6 KEY WORDS
Biodegradable Capable of being auton~aticallyreduced to lower

organic level; capable of getting slowly reduced
to notliing by natural processes.
Effluent Out flow from sewage tank
Humus Soil after decomposition of leaves etc.
Leaching fields Fields for percolating water
Sludge Thick sewage or slushy sediment
I
Soil Permeability : Capacity of soil for penetration of water

Toilet Hygiene Proper washing up oneself after toilet
Vector Insect carrier of disease
Assas, M. Guide to Sanitation in Natr~ral Disasters. Geneva, World Health

I
Organisation, 197 1 I
Australian Institute of Environme~italHealth: Emergency Management Training 4
Course. Notes
I
Foege, W H: Public Health Aspects of Disaster Management. Public Health and
Preventive Medicine 1986. Nonvalk, Connecticut: Appleton-Centilry Croft, Last
JM (ed)
Pan American Health Organisation: Emergency Vector Control after Natural
Disasters. 1982
25.8 . ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
1) Your answer shoi~ldinclude the following points:

Emphasis upon the definitions of sanitation
o Repeat the importance of.sanitation'bY'~nentioningthe points as what will
happen in case sanitation is not maintained. See sec. 25.1 and 25.2
1
2 ) Your answer should include tlie following points: Hygiene and Sanitatio~l
0 water supply levels;

o soil conditions;
o pop~lationdensity and
0 other factors SLICII as cost considerations, reuse potential and
environmental factors.
j) Your answer should include the following points:

Based 011the amount of available water supply, soil conditions and population
density, the .following are tlie acceptable sanitary options
o simple pit latrines
ventilated irnproved pit latrines
o pour flus11 latrines
cotnpositing latrines
0 septic tank latrine
0 sewerage system

0 rapid repair of the damaged excreta disposal system;
o appropriate measures for providing excreta in ternporilry shelters and
camps.
2) Y O Lanswer
I~ should include the following points:
0 disposal of garbage;
9 disposal of dead animals;
o control of disease carrying agents/vector like flies, fleas, lice, mites, and
. mosquitoes.
LTNIT 26 REHABILITATION: SOCIAL AND
ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Structure
26.0 Objectives
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Rehabilitation : Concept, Factors and Significance
26.3 Rehabilitation : Social Aspects
26.3.1 Healthcare Facilities and Infrastructure
26.3.2 Resurrection of Educational Activities in the Disaster Affected Region
26.3.3 Rehabilitation of Wome~land Children Affected by Disasters
26.4 Rehabilitation : Economic Aspects
26.4.1 Agricultural Rehabilitation of Disaster Affected Areas
' 26.4.2 Rehabilitation of Artisans and Small Business~nenAffected due to Disasters
26.4.3 ~ehabilitatidnof Anirnal Husbandry Affected due to Disasters
26.5 Let Us Sum Up
26.6 Key Words
26.10 OBJECTIVES
Afttjr studying this unit, you should be able to :

a explain the meaning and concept of rehabilitation,
a appreciate the significance of rehabilitation,
a ,discuss the social aspects of rehabilitation,
highlight the economic aspects of rehabilitation; and
describe the various activities for ensuring social. and econon~ic
rehabilitation.
26.1 INTRODUCTION
Bqcause of the peculiar geography and geology of the area, the Ilidiaii
sub-continent in general and India in particular are visited by a number of
disasters, year after year. Most of the major types of natural disasters like
floods, cyclones, earthquakes, droughts, landslides etc. occur frequently and
hence the people of the country are familiar with them. Due to periodic
disastrous situations, a major portion of the limited resources of the nation, are
required to be diverted into various activities related to disaster management,
including the distribution of relief and arrangement of rehabilitation of the
affected communities. This puts severe strain on the developing economy of the
country. Thus, it becomes utmost necessary for the decision makers, policx
plannbrs and the local communities to utilize the available resources in
appropriate manner to strengthen the ability of the community to face such
onslaughts and to mitigate their adverse effects.
Disaster management activity for any type of disaster can be divided basically
into the following three stages :
1. Pre-disaster stage
2. Emergency stage or during disaster stage; and
3. Lotlg-term post-disaster stage.
I
I
Reconstruction and The bre-disaster stage activities include the preparedness and mitigation
Rehabilitation'
aspects for facing the disaster in a planned and coordinated manner. The next
phase, just after the occurrence of disaster involves the rescue and relief
operations. During this stage, when survival is the prime goal, we have to
rescue the affected population and to provide immediate relief. The most
important phase of disaster management starts with the passing of the
emergency phase and concerns the rehabilitation of the affected communities
with the long-term objective of Protection against such events. These phases are
interconnected and interdependent.
26.2 REHABILITATION: CONCEPT, FACTORS AND

SIGNIFICANCE
The most important aspect of any post-disaster effort is the rehabilitation of the
affected 'communities. This envisages resetting of the disturbed communities
through rebuilding of the affected communities in terms of social and economic
aspects as well as rebuildinglretrofitting of the damaged houses. The main
objective of any rehabilitation package should be to bring back the affected
regions/communities to normalcy and to provide the opportunity to the affected
conlmunity to restart their socio-economic and cultural life as early as possible.
The rehabilitation package should not be an exercise merely of providing help
either financially or of rebuildinglrepairinglretrofitting the damaged houses.
Any rehabilitation programme should be focused on the redevelopment of
the affected communities/regions rath r than merely on the provision of
i"
facilities. The basic concept behind any rehabilitation package should be
to bring back the affected communities/areas to at least its original state that
existed prior to the disaster. Efforts should be made to incorporate
developmental aspects in the rehabilitation process taking care of the fact that
this does not delay the process unduly. Besides, the package should also aim at
strengthening the existing infrastructural facilities to face possible future
disasters in a far better manner.
The rehabilitation package offered after any disaster may be classified into the
following categories:
1. Housing and Infrastructure Redevelopment

2. social Rehabilitation Programmes
3. Economic Rehabilitation Programmes
4. Other Related Programmes and Activities.
The housing and infrastructural part should cover the requirements and other
necessary details pertaining to housing, civic, amenities, roads, bridges,
electric power supply network, communication network, water supply
schemes, irrigation and related structures, public buildings etc. The social
rehabilitation programmes should cover health, education, and special
programmes for children and women. The economic rehabilitation package
should cover the special programmes for rehabilitating agricultural farmers,
labourers, artisans, animal husbandry, special training programmes,-soda1
forestry and also programmes to provide immediate employment such as Food
for Work Programme, Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, and Pradhan Mantri Rozgar .
Yojana. The package on other related programmes and activities should include
all remaining portions of the rehabilitation package like development of better
environment in the area by creatiqg green belts and repairing public buildings .
and monuments.
Rehabilitation: Social and
26.3 REHABILITATION : SOCIAL ASPECTS Econoniic Aspects
As mentioned above, the social rehabilitation package may include the following
compo~ients:
1. &engthening/restrengthening of existing health facilities and infrastructure

2. Rehabilitation of educational activities within the disaster affected region
3 . Rehabilitation of women and children affected by the disaster.
26.311 Healthcare Facilities and Infrastructure
Due to any disaster like earthquake, cyclone, floods or landslide etc., many
people lose their lives. A large number of people receive in.juries of varying
degrees, thus requiring immediate medical attention. At the same time, large
number of health institutions in the affected areas become inoperational due to
the damages that occur in the aftermath of the disaster. So, the need for
improved health facilities is felt within the emergency period itself.
In case of earthqqakes, majority of injured people may sustain fractures of

various types (bon4s of the extremities, pelvic, etc.); head illjuries and other
internal injuries. Fbr all these; necessary surgical treatment must be provided
within the shortest possible time. For this purpose, the authorities in the affected
areas must, if need be, take the help of defence forces within the emergency
period itself. The defence personnel are well-versed to handle this Qje_-of
situation and could even quickly establish temporary hospitals at the affected
sites.
For proEr information exchange and coordination of medical support, control

\
r o o ~ i s&st be establisl~d at various important points. Information exchange
9
must be done among the various state level health departments, including
the directorate of health services, directorate of medical education, district
hospitals and rural hospitals within the affected areas. jhese control rooms
may play a very vital role in the overall management of emergency period and
the rehabilitation of the healthcare infrastructure within the affected area. They
may also be utilised for collection and storage of immediate medical supplies
received from national and international agencies. The supplies may comprise
infusion fluids, antibiotics, surgical equipments, dressing materials, field
dispensary units, emergency medical kits along with chlorine tablets and
insecticides, which are in urgent demand and require immediate distribution
among the affected communities.
After any disaster, the most important task for the authorities would be to
check the outbreak of any disease or the spread of any epidemic. For this
purpose, anti-epidemic measures, in the form of disinfection of water,
insecticide spray and disease surveillance must be started in the first instance.
The following are some of the important points, which could be the key for a
successful health care operation after any disaster :
i) A very prompt and quick coordinated response from all aonoerned including
the NGOs.
ii) Quick evacuation of seriously injured cases just after the calamity, for
minimising the mortality among the disaster affected people.
iii) Appropriate and efficient management of hospitalised cases.
Reconstruction and iv) Prompt and effective anticipatory, anti-epidemic measures to prevent the
Rehabilitation outbreak of any epidemic in the aftermath of the disaster.
v) Effective and safe logistic support for essential items including the
medicines, e.g., maintaining the old chain wherever essential.
During any disaster situation, the various . state, national and even
international agencies whethel. governmental or non-governmental, seem full of
enthusiasm and also respond overwhelmingly to the situation. But, the
following are some factors, which may hamper the smooth functioning of the
health sector infrastructure unless all efforts are well-coordinated:
i) Lack of con~municationbetween various functionaries, hospitals and even

among the concerned officials.
ii) Shortage of sufficient accommodation for indoor activities for different
operations related to efficient discharge of health facilities and even to
store the medicines properly.
iii) An additional demand for different types of equipment and related
materials from within the disaster-affected area.
iv) Improper and inefficient facilities for necessary electric power supply to
carry out the necessary tasks related to health facilities.
.v) Lack of trained staff to handle the mental health or trauma cases
effectively.
vi) Lack of trained manpower to help in the rehabilitation services in
the form of physiotherapy and occupational therapy.
vii) Lack of efforts and coordination related to sustainable disaster
management; and
viii) Lack of overall training in handling disaster healthcare in a professional
manner.
The only effective solution to overcome these shortcomings lies in adequate

preparedness and pre-disaster planning and training. If the health sector .
, personnel are trained in handling the situation likely to arise due to a disaster, it
will definitely reduce the pressure at the time of actual crisis situation. For
proper management of the situation, the health sector requires a well-defined
preparedness plan. To make the plan efficient and workable, additional facilities
within the existing hospitals are also required.
a) Objectives of the Preparedness Plan for Health Sector Infrastructure
The following points should be considered while preparing the health

sector to take up the challenges posed by any disaster:
i) Since the occurrence of disasters cannot be prevented, the

improvement in the ability of the masses at local level, to meet the
challenges posed by such calamities is one effective way for providing
proper and adequate response to the calamity.
ii) Just after disaster, there are grave dangers of outbreak of an epidemic.
Effective preventive measures must be set up in motion by involving the
existing network of rural health centres, public dispensaries and even
through the representative bodies 1ike.panchayats at village level and zilla
parishads at diqtrict level. The sole aim of the exercise must be to prevent
the outbreak of the epidemic. The rehabilitation plan must
concentrate on ,strengthening and upgrading the preventive measures.
iii) In order to develop a mechanism to monitor and sustain recovery efforts Rehabilitation: Social and
throughout the disaster management phase, we have to: Econon~icAspects
o Ilnprove the communication network at various levels.

e Increase the capacity of the existing facilities (e.g. addition of
beds in the hospitals etc.)
a Equip the hospitals to support the additional work load in case of an
emergency.
e Create and operationalise rehabilitation and mental Iiealtli aspccts within
the existing healthcare centres.
b) Creation of ~ d d i t i o n aFacilities
l within the Existiug Health Institutiorls
Facilities for housing the ill-jured patients is critically important for effective
management and care after any calamity. The shortage of proper space for
accominodating the patients, ~neinbersof the medical teams and proper storage
places for medicines and related equipment is usually felt. This situation
results in the shifting of the patients either to the far off places or to make-shift
hospitals. Both the situations are undesirable and should better be
avoided. The ideal solution is the conceptualization of these proble~nsduring
the rehabilitation planning phase by providing additional infrastructure.
After any disaster, a large number of victims need to be hospitalised for

treatment. Most of them are discharged soon after first aid, but these people
are likely to require physiotherapy and/or occupational therapy. These types
of facilities generally do not exist in most of the primary health centres; rural
hospitals or even in some cases at district hospitals. An attempt must be made to
provide the trained staff in these two types of therapies for better and quick
rehabilitation of the affected communities.
For effective rehabilitation of the persons affected by the post-disaster ,

trauma, we require the service of psychiatrists, which is generally not
available in most of the hospitals. Proper attention must be paid to this aspect
also and an attempt must be made to provide the specialist psychiatrist at least at
the district hospitals. At the . einergency stage itself, we require the help of
psychiatrists. For this purpose, we should try to arrange mobile trauma care
units. The members of these units can visit the affected area frequently and
assist the health officials.
During any type of disasters, electric supply network becomes a major

casualty. The damage to these facilities may hamper the effective utilisation
of healthcare facilities: Thus, alternative arrangements for power supply must
be made. For this purpose, electric generators may be provided to the
hospitals and other health care institutions. Another type of breakdown that
takes place during the disaster situation is the communication network. This
also affects the overall efforts of rescue, relief and rehabilitation. There is a
need for alternative arrangements to be provided during disaster situations.
For this purpose, amateur HAM-radio network may be encouraged to assist
the various health sector institutions aIso.
26.3.2 Resurrection of Educational Activities in the Disaster

Affected Region
Most of the disasters including earthquakes, cyclones, floods etc., leave behind
in their w ~ k ewidespread destruction, which includes educational buildings
and equipment. The immediate
.. task before the Department of ducati ion and
Reconstructio~iand the authorities is to restart the educational activities at all levels. This ensures
Reliabilitation not only a continuity in the education process but also help the cornmunib,
especially the young among them, by diverting their agention from the negative
and depressing thoughts resulting from the disaster. For this purpose,
educational equipment, text-books, writing materials etc., must be provided at
the first instance. Any rehabilitation programme must include the rebuilding
of the fully damaged buildings and repair/retrofitting of the partially
damaged buildings. Classes may have to start in the open or in tents to begin
with. Teachers may have t~xhouldermore teaching load.
For proper restoration of education activities, the teachers and the children of
the disaster tiffected areas require counselling. .These people require
someone to share their sorrow and grief. They also require encouragement and
rnotivatiofi to start their life once again. For this purpose, the help of local
voluntary groups may be sought. The responsibilities assigned to these local
groups may include the following:
i) counselling and encouraging the children to attend the schools regularly

ii) assisting the administration in providing the writing materials, work
books etc. to the children
iii) helping the school ad~ninistration for ensuring the participation and
cooperation of the children in all activities of the school
iv) developing an atmosphere for students to seek I<~~owledge
and
information
v) inculcating conducive attitudes among the students to play a positive role in
self-development
vi) establishing village level education committees for properly r u ~ ~ n i nthe
g
schools within the villages, and
vii) arranging for volunteer teachers wherever the disaster has resulted in
shortage of teachers. I
For achieving good results in restarting the education activities in the disaster
affected areas, a participatory approach is necessary. At the district level,
the Zilla Parishad officers along with District Inspector of School ean-identify a
few local groups to take up this challenge and conduct the orielltation
programmes for these groups. The objective of these orientation
programmes lnust be to train the group members in identification of target
groups, methodology to be adopted and carrying out of the various educational
activities within the affected villageslareas.. In carrying out these tasks, the
role of the voluntary organisations must be facilitative and supbortive.
26.3.3 Rehabilitation of Women and Children Affected by

Disasters
The most vulnerable group due to any .disaster in physical, emotional andlor
economic terms is women and children. The rehabilitation of this group must
be a major component within any rehabilitation package. The emphasis of any
rehabilitation programme for women and children must include the following :
i) Women and Children should, as far as possible, be resettledlrehabilitated in

familiar environs.
ii) An attempt must be made to rehabilitate the widows and orphans within
their extended family or in a foster family in case of orphans.
iii) 'The mental health of such affected groups must be strengthened through Rehabilitation: Social nnd
Economic Aspects
programmes of regular counsel ling.
iv) The economic independence of widows must be ensured with the help of
suitable programmes.
v) The Proper health, nutrition and hygiene aspects must be taken care of
within the long-term rehabilitation of the women and children groups.
a) Development of Pllysical Infrastructure for Women and Cliildre~l
i') Anganwadis : The anganwadis must be activatedlreactivated (as the case

may be), within the shortest possible time, after any disaster. The
anganwadis may act as day care centres for the children, besides providing
nutritional diet to them and to expecting and lactating mothers. The
anganwadi 'workers are very efrective in providing counselli~igto the
affected community. In fact, experience has shown that the anganwadi
workers are tlie opinion leaders among the village women folk.
ii) Community Centres : During rehabilitation process, at least one multi-
purpose community centre per village must be set up. These centres would
serve as tlie meeting places for women, counselling centres and even
training and recreational points for the women folk within the village
itself. Another function, these centres can play is to act as creches for
c;hildretl of women who are working or engaged in social activities like
training etc.
iii) Female Children Home : The girl child is most vulnerable and suffers the
most in any type of calamity. To take care of the young and single girls, a
provision for residential female children homes can be made at least at block
level as a iong-term measure. These homes call provide proper
educationltraining etc., to make these girls self-reliant and economically
independent.
I
b) b e v e ~ o ~ m e noft Economic Activities for Women and Children
1 i) Vocational training for improving the skills of the women and children
groups is a must. The vocational training must be provided through the
existing network of ITIs (Industrial Training Institutes). At least, one
Industrial Training Institute must be available within a district. Besides
providing the training to this group in the traditional trades like tailoring,
embroidery work etc., some non-traditional trades like Radio,
i
' T.V.Repair, can also be identified for providing training to the group
1
members.
I
)I ii) Self-help groups can be created. A rehabilitation package must emphasise
I
the need for organising the self-help groups of women. These groups must
I provide the counselling and .training to the women folk to effectively
I
create and handle the economic assets. These groups may be very effective
I in making the disaster affected women economically independent.
I
1 The entire rehabilitation programme for women is based on intensive
counselling, interaction as well as training. For the effective implementation
of socio-e~nomicrehabilitation pfogramme for women, a large number of
training prbgrammes must be started for NGO workers, anganwadi workers
3
\
1
, and other vjllage level government function ries.
4
I I .
Reconstruction and As of today, many of the NGOs have an expertise in organising effective
Rehabilitation
rescue and relief operations but they require training in the long-term
rehabilitation effprts. To fulfil the greater need of training, a training of
trainers centre cbuld be developed at the district level, within the disaster
affectedlprone rekion.

1) What do y ~ uunderstand by the rehabilitation of disaster-affected

communities?:
2) What are the essential components of a rehabilitation package for the benefit
of a community affected by a disaster?
3) What are the main programmes under the Social Rehabilitation Plan?
26.4 REHABILITATION: ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Generally speaking, the concept behind the economic rehabilitation of the

disaster affected area is to reattain the same level of economic status of the I
entire region as in the pre-disaster stage. In the situation arising due to a

disaster, a large number of people lose their close relatives, physical property,
means of livelihood and remain under the traumatic conditioqs for quite' some
I I
. time. The main purpose of the entire package of economic rehabilitation is fq'
'P 'bring the affected community irito the mqinstream again,
The economic rehabilitation of any disaster affected area may include the Rehabilitation: Social a n d
following colnponents : Economic Aspects
e Agricultural rehabilitation of disaster affected area;

e Rehabilitation of a~tisans and marginal businessmen affected due to
the disaster, and
I e Rel~abilitationof animal husbandry in the area affected due to the disaster.
26.4.1 Agricultural Rehabilitation of Disaster Affected Areas

During any disaster, a large number of farmer families suffer losses of lives
and property. The losses to crops, livestock, poultry, seeds and other
agriculture inputs, farm implements and equipments are some of the hardhitting
after effects. Besides, a large number of families suffer from various types of
irl+juries/diseasesand require treatment in the hospitals. Those families which
1
survive the wrath of nature during the calamity, remain mentally and
psychologically depressed and are riot i n the p~.opdrmood to carry out tlie
different normal operations of farming.
Loss of farm i~nplementsand equipme~~tsrequired to carry out far~ning

operations and loss and/or damage to the seed and fertilizer stocl<sstorecl make
I . it impossible for the farmers to ~u~ldertake various activities related to
! faming including primary tillage, sowing/l~arvestingof crops and related ,
activities. In view of this, it becomes necessary to take up the
agricultural rehabilitation in the disaster affected. region urgently. This
entire programme can be divided into:
' a) Short-term Measures for Agricultural Rehabilitation

I b) Long-term Measures for Agricultural Rehabilitation
Short-term Measures for Agricultural Rel~abilitatios
The short-term measures for agricultural rehabilitation include the sowing of the
next crop after the disaster and harvesting of the remai~aingportio~~ of the
crops affected by the disasters. Due to the losses caused by the disaster, the
farmers remain unable to restart the farm activities. It is thus necessary to
provide assistance to tlle affected fanners in carrying out the different
operations necessary for sowing/harvesting. Most of l.hese activities are
labour intensive and require large number of agricultural labourers. Tlie
agriculti~rallabourers can be Hired from the neighbouring areas, which are not
affected by the disaster but they will have to be paid wages, whicli shoot up
during the disaster relief work. Therefore, some cash grant or loan will be
'
needed to be made available to the farmers.
Another immediate requirement of the disaster rehabilitation package is to

provide fertilizers to the affected farmer families. Most of the farmer
families suffer losses and remain finallcially unable to purcliase necessary seeds
and fertilizers in disaster situations. It then becomes important on the part of the
government or voluntary groups to provide requisite quantity. of seeds and
fertilizers to carry out the necessary agricultural activities.
Long-term Measures for Agricultural Rehabilitation
In the aftermath of disasters, a large number of agricultural implements and

equipment are either damaged or lost along with the agricultural inputs.
Hence, in addition to the provisioll of free fertilizers and seeds, the necessary
eqoiprnent /tools must also be provided to them, besides providing these to the
landless agricultural labourers on freelsubsidised rates.
Reconstruction and The farm implement kits to be distributed to the farmers lnust include the.
Rehabilitation ,
tools necessary for sowing and harvesting depending on the season. The tool
kits for farm labourers must include the s~nallequipment necessary for
s~~pportoperations in farming like "l<hurpies"and sickles.
In the severely disaster affected areas, the loss of bullocks and other farm
animals hamper different farm operations like ploughing, sowirlg and
harvesting of crops, etc. It may be necessary to provide bullocks to the affected
families partic~~larly
marginal farmers to restart all those activities once again.
After any type of natural disaster, a majority of irrigation wells and

pump sets as also irrigationldistrib~itionsystem get damaged. A proper
and scientific survey must be carried out to quickly assess the actual
situationlcondition of these structures after which adequate urgent
rehabilitation of these structi~resand systems should be the first priority.
26.4.2 Rehabilitation of.Artisans and Small Businessmen

Affected due to Disasters
In most of the disaster affected areas, a large number of artisans along with the
small businessme'n lose their livelihood. For a large nu~nbeiof people under
this catego~y, the disaster results in loss of a ~narket place for thc final
products or raw materials. Due to the decentralised nature of working of
artisanslcraftmen, it becomes necessary to provide them with s~nallwork sheds,
necessary tool kits and soft loans to enable them to secure raw materials and
to market the finallfinished products. Another way is to rehabilitate the affected
people under this category by starting the rural industrial units at the block
level within disaster affected areas. Within these .units, various identified
artisans like carpenters, black-smiths, gold-smiths, tailors, potters, machines,
cycle/rickshaw repairers, etc., may be provided basic infrastructural facilities
like working sheds, internal roads, electricity and water supply. However,
experience has shown that such artisans or small shopkeepers prefer to restart
their work at their original places and do not like to relocate theniselves in a
separate business area scheduled from the residential area. Therefore,
ascertaining the wishes of the community is essential. Re11:tbilitation process
should not disturb their traditional customs or life styles.
A large number of small businessmen like small shopkeepers, tea stall

owners, flour mill owners, etc., might have suffered damage to their respective
units. The rehabilitation of all such affected people under this category should
also have the provision of monetary loans on easy terms apart from some cash as
outright grant.
26.4.3 Rehabilitation of Animal Husbandry Affected due to

Disasters
Animal Husbandry is an important and integral part of village life. It is a
useful resource and serves as a means of livelihood for farmers particularly
in the agricultural system of the country. It therefore becomes necess$$
..
I
to rehabilitate the farmers by replacing the lost livestock, by providing fodder

during emergency period and by constructing the damaged cattle sheds. After
any disaster, the trained animal husbandry people should take up the rescue
and relief work of trapped animals under debris, removal and disposal of
dead bodies, treatment of injured animals, vaccination against any
epidemic, and establishment of cattle camps. Proper care in terms of I~ealth,
provision of fodder, water, housing and proper sheds must be taken up. Any
livestock rehabilitation package should include the following:
c replacen~entof the dead tnilch cattle- to the affected farmers. Rehnbilitntion: Social and
Economic Aspects
a free cattle feed for about 2 to 3 ~nonths.
e preventive medication for entire livestock to check the spread of any
disease among the surviving cattles.
Note: i) Use the space given below for.your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the i~nit.
1) What are the main features of the economic rehabilitation of disaster affected
areas?
1 2) What are the maill components of the rehabilitation package for artisans and
small businessmen affected due to disasters?
3) What are the main features of,jhe rehabilitation of animal liusbandry

I ' affected due to disasters?
/li 26.5 LETUSSUMUP
4 Since disasters like floods, droughts and earthquakes occur quite frequently in
1 our country and our scarce resources have tr, be diverted to relief and
1
ii
rehabilitation work, this unit has laid emphasis on the basic concept behind any
rehabilitation package in order to bring back the affected communities and areas
to their original state that existed prior to the disaster. It has also discussed the
rehabilitation package offered after any disaster, whicl~has been classified into
infrastructure redevelopment, social rehabilitation and econo~nicrehabilitation
1
I
Rcconstr~~ction and . programmes. The unit has paid special attention on the rehabilitation of
Rcllitbilitation educational activities, agricultural rehabilitation as well as rehabilitation of
women and children in the aftermath of a disaster.
26.6 KEY W O m S
Artisan: A skilled manual worker, a handicraftsman, a mechanic.

Infusion Fluids:' Medicinal liquids that are injected into the body ofthe patient,
e.g., injections, glucose and saline solutions
Social Forestry: Growing of plantations for the use of villagers' basic needs
preferably with their participation in the process.
Occupational Therapy: Treatment of patients by providing a creative
occupaiion or hobby.
Misra Girish K, and G.C. Mathur eds., Natural Disaster Reduction, Reliance,
New Delhi, 1993.
Vinod K. Sharma ed., Disaster Management, NCDM, I.I.P.A. New Delhi, 1994.
1 26.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
1) Your answer should cover the following points:
o Rehabilitation envisages resettling of the disturbed communities
, This is achieved through (a) Rebuilding and retrofitting the damaged
buildings including houses, and (b) Restoring the socio-economic status
of the community
Repair, retrofitting, redevelopment of housing and infrastructure
0' Social rehabilitation programme
Economic rehabilitation programme
o Other related programmes such as environmental improvement in the
area
3) Your answer should include the following points: .
o Strengthening or restrengthening the healthcare facilities in the disaster-
affected area
o Rehabilitation of activities related with rehabilitation of women in the
area
Resurrection of educational activities affected by the disaster in the area
L, Agricultural rehabilitation of the disaster affected area
0 Rehabilitation of artisans and marginal businessm'en
.16 e Rehabilitation of livestock
2) Your answer should include the following points: Rehabilitation: Social and
Economic Aspects
e They should be helped in the repair of their damaged place of work or
should be provide# alternate workplace if their original shop is destroyed
beyond repair j
o They should be piovided with basic tools for their craft or trade
I e
They should be provided small loans on easy terms to restart their work
In the process of rehabilitation, the artisans and small businessmen
should not be forced to abandon their traditional area of work, customs
or lifestyles.
i1 3) Your answer sl~ouldinclude the points:

c
0
Replacement of the dead milch cattle to farmers
Preventive medi,cation to cattle against spread of diseases.
UNIT 27 RECONSTRUCTION AND
REHABILLITATION AS MEANS OF
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
27.0 Objectives
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Disasters and Development
27.3 Reconstruction and Rehabilitation as Means of Development
27.3.1 Social Development
27.3.2 Econornic Rehabilitation
27.3.3 Afforestation
27.4 Let Us Sum Up
27.5 Key Words
27.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exel-cises
27.6) OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
0 understand and explain the interconnection between disaster management

activity and develop~ne~ltactivity
discuss how rehabilitatioll can be incorporated as part of development
planning
+ describe the different elements of reconstruction and rehabilitation as a '
'
means of development.
27.1 INTRODUCTION
In areas where in spite of best mitigation efforts, disasters do take place and
cause serious damages should also be viewed as opportunities to reconstruct and
rebuild the entire socio-economic as well as physical structures to match new
requirements. Post-disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation need not be viewed
merely as a disaster management activity, but also as a development activity.
This approach is also applicable to pre-disaster situations, where the preparatory
disaster mitigation activities may be incorporated as a part of the overall
development plan for the area. The prime objective of such an approach is to
integrate the rehabilitation process with the overall development process and
to seek out opportunities even in threat situations.
The action that follows an occurrence of a disaster is usually two-pronged. As

an immediate succour to the affected community, relief operations may be
commenced providing for food, healthcare and temporary shelter. If, however,
the damage is very high and the disaster is likely to recur, a long-term
rehabilitation strategy may be launched as a part of the overall development *of
the area.
27.2 DISASTERS AND DEVELOPMENT
The housing especially in rural and semi-urban regions in India varies

.
considerably according to varying climatic factors and environmental constraints
of disasters such as earthquakes, cyclones and floods. This diversity also reflects
18 the cultural identities of local communities.
During rehabilitation and reconstruction, it is important to stress upon the Reconstruction and
building standards, materials, tecllnologies and planning apart from Rehabilitation ns Means of
Develooment
arcllitectural guidelines that permit local artisans and households to build
fullctionally efficient housing in response to their own needs, affordability
and creativity combined with adequate resistance to withstand destabilizing
forces during disasters.
Specialised building codes and planning guideli~lesshou Id be prepared for

housing in areas that are disaster psone. Since in most cases, the damage to
jlouses occurs in remote rural areas where settlements are small consisting of
poor population; and the houses ase built with traditional locally available
biomass based materials. The strategy should be to maintain a continuing
system o r developing appropriate teclinology, imparting education and training,
creating awareness for inducting improved tech~lologiesand upgrading the skills
of local artisans and building infrastructure. While devising structural as well
as non-structural mitigation strategies, it is necessary to recognise and
integrate the positive ele~nents of indigenous technology/locally available
materials and the cost-effective traditional coping mechanisms of the people
residing in risk prone areas. During reconstruction and rehabilitation, the' first
issue thal comes into picture is to provide housing for all the survivors of a
natural disaster.
a) Housing
Location : The first and the most important issue is the location on which the
houses will be built up. The relocation on non-agricultural piece of land will
be preferred. But if such a location is far off, it will not be practical,
' since the people would like to be relocated nearby. 111 such a case, if use of
agricultural land is necessary, this would fill-ther arfect them economically.
' While selecting a house site, the following points should be considered
depending upon the vulnerability of the area to the particular disaster(s).
I i) Earthquakes:
I
a) The nature of the soil should be taken into consideration while designing
the foundation of the building.
b) Avoid narrow ridges, steep slopes, narrow valleys and sites near cliffs or
large gullies.
c) Prefer sites with hard bedrock at or near the surrace.
d) Prefer sites where landslide are unknown in the surroundiilg area.
e) Prefer sites where there is no sign of active "faulting " and avoid areas
near ponds or swamps or deep or long cracks in the ground.
ii) Cyclones:
Cycloi~esare characterized by heavy rains, very strong winds and storm

, surges. Therefore, prefer a site away from seacoast, flood plains and
lakesides to avoid flooding risks. Hence the following types of lands are to
be avoided: ' .
I
1
a) land at a low elevation relative to Iago,on, river or surrounding lands.
I
b) Ihnd which lacks natural outlet to discharge the very large volume of
water; and
I
L c) land at the foot of slopes, which will receive direct surface run-off.
1
Reconstruction and iii) Landslides:

Rehabilitation
a) Avoid a site near an unstable slope, at the fdothill of the slope or in an
area with known history of landslides.
b) Local geographical conditions will indicate severity of rislc
c) Avoid an area near a place where quarrying is being done or has been
done.
d) Avoid a deforested area in the mountains
iv) Flash Floods:
a) Avoid low lying areas, wetlands and lagoon mouths.

b) Avoid edges of inland lakes.
c) Avoid flood plains and particularly the flood ways.
d) Avoid housing in narrow defile or gorge.
e) Avoid downstream banks and flow ways below dams; and
f) Provide protective Iiieasures such as channelisation, ponding areas
and flood walls, wherever feasible.
v) Snow Avalanches: '\
a) A v ~ i dareas of heavy snow or rain in hilly areas. I-Ieavy snowfall can be

associated with heavy rain.
b) ~ r e b sites
r where avalanches are unknown in surrounding area.
c) void formation of snow pockets on roof and on site.
d) Desi$n roofs with slopes greater than 50 degree to dislodge the Snow
load.
e) Snow load may be assumed to be 2.5 kg/sqm./cm. in depth.
After deciding the location, the housing component is broken up into the
following sub-components:
1) Acquisition of Land fgr Relocation Sites along with the Compensation
After the location is finally decided, if it falls up in the Government land,
4
the process of acq tisition becomes easy as the Gbvernment is itself the
owner of the land. ut if that piece of land is owned by somebody else,
then the Governmelit will have to pay due compensation to the owners.
Often it becomes very difficult to~acquireland but as a charitable cause the
owners often agrek tp it. Still, the compensation has to be given by the
Government. Often due to lack of funds and coordination, and delays in
receiving the funds, the process is slowed down. This leads to imbalance
and confusion among the people. ThereKore, immediate funds must be raised
in order to help people and no beneficiaries should be included during
this process.
2) Landuse
Developing a policy .framework for landuse on the basis of an analytical

study of potential hazard areas is very necessary. Many of the disasters
can be avoided by proper planning and avoiding habitations in the areas
prone to natural hazards.
3) Reconstruction of the Mouses Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation as Me;rns of
Develonnient
This involves the reconstruction of the damaged houses, which is based
upon the number of survivors or the disaster affected people. During
reconstruction, the following aspects should be considered:
In-site Reconstruction: After the disaster is over, people are generally given
relief funds, in order to reconstruct their houses. Most people, in the aftermath
of a disaster or even after the disaster is over, opt to stick to that very land
and try to rebuild on that piece of land. This happens lnostly because the people
are elnotionally attached to that land.
Repair and Strengthening:

I
Many existing buildings do not meet the strength requirements against disasters,
especially non-engineered residential buildings. This is partly so, because of
original striictural inadequacies, material degradations or unsafe alterations
carried out over a period of time. The vely purpose of strengthening of SLICII
structures is to upgrade their resistance to disasters or in case of structures
damaged due to a disaster, to make them safer under future occurrences. Most
of the time, the relative cost of reconstruction as against repair and strengthening
becomes a deciding factor in the selection of the appropriate alternative.
Pilot Strengthening of Undamaged Houses:

i
I
This operation could be undertaken by the house-owners at their cost and at
their own pace. A pilot progralnlue sllould be organised in order to select
I the houses so that they could be strengthened. Qualified c o ~ ~ ~ ~ l l tcould
a i l t s be
1 employed to develop technical solutions and cost estimates for such pilot
, houses. Apart froin this, publicity through the various media for strengthening
their llouses could also be made use of. Training the local skilled workers
should also be carried out through the suitably located building centres. The
Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) has taken a
praisewortlly initiative to establish numerous building centres in the cou~itry
where local masons and other artisans are trained.
Construction of Model Houses
Model houses and buildings should be constructed to demonstrate cost-efficient

1 building techniques, the use of loeal materials, and incorporati011 of disaster
resistant constri~ction features. The objective of this exercise would be to
improve traditional building techniques, and generate confidence arnnng
residents about the use of appropriate constructioll material such as stone,
and its by-products.
b) Infrastructure
The second important issue after housing is the provisioll of the infrastructure
facilities. This component is hrther classified into the following components:
1 i) Upgradation of the Transit Shelters:
I The activities undertaken are:
a) kgproving flooring
b) Providing bathrooms
Reconstruction and c) Strengthining the sheds
Rehabilitation
d) Improving ventilation
e) Improving drainage.'and internal ioads
ii) Infrastructure and Amenities in Relocated Areas:
This sub-component is tied to the housing constr~~ctionprogramme in

the relocated areas. Administrative approval for the sanction of funds
should be provided for the construction of the access roads to the
relocated areas.
iii) Roads and Bridges:
Often when the disaster occurs, roads and bridges are disruptcd. So, it
becomes very important to constructlrepair the roads and bridges in order
to have smooth and quick transport network. This will not only help the
people in the post-disaster period to come back to their normal life and pace
but will also help in forming connections with the entire region.
iv) Public Buildings:
RepairIReconstruction of the public buildings eg. admiliistl-ative buildings,

health centres etc., should be done so that the people are benefited. 1.T.1.'~
(training centers) should be established in order to train the skilled, local
artisans, who can then use the modem techniquks along with the traditional
ones to construct the houses and other buildings keeping in view ,
adequate safety measures.
v) Repair and Strengthening of Historic Monuments:
The required fund should be sanctioned by the Government so that the

historic monuments of national importance are preserved. As such, the
structures are normally old structures, and therefore vulnerible to be
affected during disasters. .

1) While selecting a house site, what factors must be kept in mind?

2 ) What type of infrastructural facilities need to be provided in a disaster Reconstruction and
affected area? Reliabilitation as Means uf
Develooment
27.3 RECONSTRUCTION AND REHABILITATION AS

MEANS OF DEVELOPMENT
27.3.1 Social Develop~nent
The consequences of disasters are pat-ticulasly adverse on certain vulnerable

groups sucli as those below poverty levels with poor perception of risk and no
institutional supporl. Records of past disasters suggest that the following
groups of people are particularly at risk and require special attention:
e Single parent families;

e Women, particularly when pregnant or lactating;
; a Mentally and physically handicapped people;

e Children; and
I
,
I 6 the Elderly .
I
I
People living or working in remote areas and seasonal migrant labour groups
may also be at risk and pose special problems for both relief and mitigation.
j
If people are aware of potential hazards, their nature and their likely impact, and
understand what actions need to be taken to reduce risks, then they become
'
less vulnerable. This is where illiteracy and lack of infor~nationcreate serious
handicaps in disaster management. Risk perceptions of various groups need to
be assessed and awareness progranunes need to be initiated. Poverty levels
are iinpoitant because the poorer the people are, the more they suffer when
exposed to severe disasters. They are, in fact, exposed to risks everyday. Risk
perception also relates directly to the level of awareness and perception of risk.
In sum, if there are groups whose livelihoods are at risk, living or working in
densely populated areas, with low perception of risk, and without institutional
support, the cumulative effect would be high social vulnerability. Apart
from all this, the social development is also affected by the life styles, living
habits, occupation and cultural patterns.
I11 rural areas, normally the housing pattern is according to the traditional
patterns and beliefs of the people. In some cases, during the development stage,
these create a set of obstructions as well. For example, in villages, it is see11 that
in the past, the whole village used to develop according to the caste system
with some living inside the village, according to their domination and the others
outside the village. For rel~abilitation/reconstruction,it becon1es.very difficult
, for the Gover~l~nent to plan and provide for this kind of traditional social
Reconstr~rctionand structure as they normally design according to the number of liouses required.
Ret~abilitation
However, the position has progressively changed and the social order has
accepted restructuring. In some pockets, there coilld be some resistance, which
can be broken only through education and increased social interaction.
27.3.2 Economic Rehabilitation
For economic rehabilitation, apart from making the economic loss

assessment, it becomes necessary to ~nobilizefunds. Most of the funding is
provided by the government at the state and central levels. As far as tlie central
governmcnt is concerned, the scheme of financing the relief expenditure arising
out of natural calamities came into force w.e.f.lst April, 1990, consequent upon
the acceptance of tlie recornmendatio~i of the Ninth Finance Corn~~~ission.
These Finance Com~i~issions are appointed by tlie Government of India every
five years and nlake recomn1endations for a five year period.
The Eleventh Finance Commission has already recommended the financial

arrangements for 2000-2005. Apart from the Government sources, help in the
form of both relief measures and funds is 'sometimes received from
international agencies and through voluntary organisatio~is. The monetary
assistance from such organizations, especially the international ones, is assigned
to the Prime Minister's National Relief Fund.
Economic rehabilitation generally comprises tlie following sub-components:
i) Provision of safe drinking water to ensure healthcare

ii) Provisioil of roads to facilitate transportation of persons and goods
iii) Clearing drainage coiigestion to avoid floods and water logging
iv) Creating local opportunities for income generation by value addition to local .
produce, and encouraging new products based on local raw material
v) Education and training to create awareness on disasters and steps to mitigate
the averse impacts
vi) Replacement of agricultural implements, cattle, small shops etc., lost in
disasters
vii) Creation of healthcare facilities especially for the elderly, handicapped and
the sick.
27.3.3 Afforestation
Forests play a crucial role in enviroiunental equilibrium apart from

providing food, fuel, fodder and timbe; for sustenance of the people. Looking
upon these as a cheap and renewable source of energy, construction nlaterial and
wooden articles for homes and offices have led to extensive deforestation
with adverse consequences for human, plant and animal life.
The Report of the National Commission on Agriculture appreciated the

productive and protective functions of forests and recommended proper
investment in social forestry to meet fuelwood and sinall timber needs of the
rural people. As a result, the programmes for social forestry and farm forestry ,
24 gained momentum.
I
,%
1 -
Check Your Progress 2 Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation as Means of
Develooment
1) Which sections of people should receive special attention while planning ,r

social rehabilitation package?
2) Throw light on the different sub-components of economic rehabilitation.
27.4 LET US SLTM UP

Reconstruction and rehabilitation should be viewed basically as developmental
activities to be taken up in extreme demand conditions such as in the aftermath of
disasters. Therefore, the approach to such programmes should be positive with
stress on building new socio-economic and physical structures. This unit has laid
emphasis on the need to view disaster management activity as a development
activity while devising structural as well as non-structural mitigation strategies.
It has stressed the point that it is necessary to recognize and integrate the positive
elements of indigenous technology, locally available material and traditional
cost-effective coping mechanism of the people residing in risk prone areas. The'
unit has thrown Light on the prime areas of social and economic development by
drawing attention on construction of houses, infrastructure development and
rehabilitation of vulnerable groups such as women, handicapped, children and
elderly through adequate financing schemes and promotion of job opportunities.
27.5 KEY WORDS
Avalanche: Large mass of rock debris or snow that moves rapidly down a
mountain slope, sweeping and grinding everything in its path.
Defile: A na&ow long pass or passage between hills - so narrow that persons
can march only in a file.
Faulting: A fracture or crack in the earth's surface.
Lagoon: A shallow lake formed at the mouth of a river or near the sea, but
% p a r a from it by a sand,mound.
R e c o n s t r u c l i o ~and
~
Rel~abilitstion
G.C. Mathur, Housing in Disaster Prone Areas, National Buildings Organisation
and UN Regions[ Housing Centre, ESCAI', New Delhi,.1986.
Girish I<. Misra and G.C. Mathur eds., Natural Disaster Reduction, Reliance,
New Dellii, 1993.
Vinod K. Sharma ed., Disaster munagenzent, NCDM, IIPA, New Dellii, 1994.

EXPERSZSES
e Location-keeping in view of the ili~pactof the likely disaster
e Preference of hard bed rock sites
Avoidance of land which lacks natural outlet for water flow or which
receives direct surface run-off
e Avoidance of low lying area, flood plains, edges of iriland takes,
downstreain banks etc.
e Acquisition of land for relocation
2) Your answer should incli~dethe following points
Upgradation of transit shelters
Provision of amenities in relocated areas
0 . Recotlstruction of roads and bridges
r Repair and reconstruction of public buildings
o Repair and strengthening of historical monuments
1) Your answer should include the following points.
o People below poverty level
0 People with poor risk perception
People with no institutional support
Single parent families
e Women and children
9 Aged and handicapped
2) Your answer should include the following points
Provision of safe drinking water
Provisioll of roads
Clearing drainage congestion
Creation of local job opportunities
o Education and training
Replacement of implements, farm cattle, small shops.- etc. lost in disaster
e Creation of healthcare facilities specially for the elderly, handicapped
and the sick.
Structure
28.0 Objectives
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Damage Caused to Agriculture and Irrigation by Natural Disasters
28.3 Measures to Combat the Losses Caused to Agriculture and Irrigation
28.3.1 Alternative Cropping Pattern
28.3.2 Watershed Management
28.3.3 Water Ilarvesting in Small Catchments
28.3.4 Canal Irrigation
28.4 Development of Pasture Lands, Livestock, Falam Forestry and other Relief
Schemes
28.5 Let Us Sum Up
28.6 Key Words
28.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you sllould be able to:
a discuss how natural disasters can damage agriculture and irrigation systems,
a throw light on the nature of losses to agriculture and irrigation system in
cases of droughts, floods and cyclones, and
explain the nature of rehabilitation measures to restore agricultural
activities.
Agricultural activity is often adversely affected in any unforeseen weather

changes or variations in physical conditions. This gets further accentuated in
case of natural hazards ad the impact is much more severe and large-scale. Three
types of natural disasters cause maximum crop loss. Cyclones, which are
prevalent in coastal areas and are accompanied by high speed winds from surge
and heavy rain; Floods, especially river water floods, which may inundate vast
areas of agricultural land pubmerging all crops; and Droughts, which may make
it impossible to grow crops due to lack of moisture and the resultant dryness.
In areas where natural raiyfall is insufficient or not well-distributed, successful

agriculture becomes heaJily dependent on irrigation systems; natural disasters
may also cause damage to the irrigation systems thus crippling agricultural
1
activity. Both man-made 'rrigation and natural irrigation systems get altered
depending on the nature an severity of the natural disaster. Adverse effects on
k
irrigation system have long- erm impact on agricultural activity. The immediate
impact on agriculture is th loss of crop and income to the farmers, depending
on the severity of the damage, while the loss felt by the community may be
long-term or short-term.
Reconstruction and rehabilitation of agriculture and irrigation activity is usually

two-pronged. As a short-term measure, relief may be provided to the affected
community by distribution of essential food items (e.g. through the Public
Distribution System) or by provision of alternate employment, As a long-term
measure, rehabilitation may be provided through the provision of improvement
af irrigation systems. Sometimes when the existing system is damaged due to
natural disaster, the community itself may be asked to help in restoring the
irrigation through participation. Other measures may include, alternate cropping
Reconstruction and and soil conservation practices, watershed management, and afforestation. All
Rehabilitation these can provide sufficient protection against future crisis. This unit will try to
familiarize the learners with techniques to combat losses caused to agriculture
and irrigation.
28.2 DAMAGE CAUSED TO AGRICULTURE AND

ImIGATION BY NATUML DISASTERS
Agriculture and related infrastructure get severely affected by cyclones, which

are accompanied by torrential rains, hurricane winds and stor~nsurge. The
torrential rains cause river water levels to rise in a very s1io1-ttime causing flash
floods. When high storm surge enters inland, there is a flood like situation with
high amount o f salt intrusion on the top soil of the land. The timing of cyclone is
also significant. It means if a cyclone occurs when the crop is ready for harvest,
very high wind speeds can cause great damage. The damage caused by floods to
agriculture, in any area, is determined by the severity of the flood, the extent of
area affected, the duration of the flood, the speed of the flood currents; and the
nature of crops grown in the area. Here too, the timing of floods is an important
factor. If floods come at a time when there are no standing crops in the fields,
there will be no loss of crop, and the fertilising silt depositecl and moisture left
may even be a boon to the farmers. Floods, which come early in the cropping
season are likely to cause nominal damage as the affected area can be resown or
replanted after the disaster. However, floods coming late in the cropping season
may cause considerable damage depending upon how severe they are.
Another important aspect is the cropping pattern and crop varieties followed in'
the flood prone area at the time of floods. A crop like paddy suffers less as
compared to other crops like maize, jowar and bajra. In fact, paddy can easily
tolerate mild submergence for a few days. A study of flood affected districts of
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar made by the National Flood Commission bears this out.
A year of severe floods in 1971 in Uttar Pradesh and 1974 in Bihar had been
selected for both the states, and the districts selected in each state were those,
which had been more severely affected by floods as determined by the
percentage of crop area submerged. It has been found that the decline in
production in the Uttar Pradesh districts was as high as 85 per cent in maize and
65 per cent in the case of both Jowar and Bajra, while in Bihar districts,
production and yield of maize crops suffered by about 26 per cent. The paddy
crop, on the other hand showed little or no decline in production in the seledted
districts of either of the states.
Assessment of Crop Damages
General
The assessment of ecoi~ornicloss due to natural disasters is done by assigning

monetary value to all losses including food production. The assessment of crop
damage inay be done with the help of crop-wise information on:
a areas completely damaged, partially damaged and resown; and

0 yield under normal, partially damaged and resown conditions
The farmers have to be well-adapted for regular flood conditions and should
keep seedlings of rice ready for replanting. The gross crop area affected by
floods is the total area submerged. The crops are completely damaged with no
production in some areas, whereas the damage is partial in the remaining areas.
Some of the areas where damage is complete are resowu. Therefore, such areas Agriculture and Irrigatiort
are not counLed along with co~npletelydamaged areas. Rice is the most suitable
crop for replanting purposes under flood-affected conditions. An important point
to note is that the agency making the assessment of damages and its purpose
behind such gssessment plays a notable role in the accurhcy of such assessments.
Therefore, the method and the process have to be transgarent and ~~nbiased in
order to be cqedible.
Damage by Flodds
The practice follbwed in India to estimate damages in agriculture due to floods

is based in terms of loss of potential output. It is seen that this may result in
overestimation 05 damages if the land is resown or 1.ep1anted as may happen if
floods come early in the cropping season. Here, the damage assessment in terrns
of loss of inputs pould be more realistic. Such assessment requires information
on crop areas con~pletelydestroyed and areas replanted or resown; and norms of
input loss in case of areas completely destroyed. Danlages have to be
determined with reference to the stage of the crop at the time of the floods.
When floods come quite late in the cropping season so as to eliminate any
possibility of resowing or replanting, then the damage should be ~neasuredin
terms of loss of potential output. Quantification of this loss would raise
questions like how to determine the yield of the affected crop and what prices to
use for finding their monetary value .
Beneficial Effects of Fvods on Ag~*iculture
So far, we have considered the unfavourable consequences of floods on

agriculture. However, there are several favourable or beneficial effects also,
though these are not counted or well-known. The most important and well-
known of these is the effect of fertilising silt deposited in the flood plains. Most
of the flood plains which are known for their fertility such as the Indo-Gangetic
Plain, the Godavari Plains in India, the Nile Valley in Egypt, and the Yangtze in
China, owe their origin to deposition of silt for millions of years. Flood plains
have, therefore, fostered great civilisations. There is a general acceptance that
silt brought by flood has a fertilising value which results in bumper crops.
Inundation of flood plains is also known to wipe out soil borne pests like rodents.
Similarly, prolonged in'undation inhibits weed growth. The residual moisture
content after the flood may enable farmers to raise a good rabi crop; for the same
reason, crop yields lodated on high lands may increase. Floods also help in
removing dirt and filth ,and flushing out pools of stagnant water.
Damage by Droughts
Droughts have always had a direct and significant effect on agriculture activity.
The level of impact is related to the severity and nature of drought on the one
hand and the social gild economic status of the community on the other.
Succinctly put, drought proneness is said to arise oht of "the juxtaposition of and
interaction between W o distinct types of sub-systems: an ecological system
characterised by scarqkty of water resources and an uncertain and variable,
rainfall pattern, and a s importantly, a socio-economic sub-system charactcrised
by the virtual absenck or insignificance of non-agricultural incomes for an
overwhelming majority of the population".
The case of Kalahandi and Bolangir Districts (0rissa)needs to be noted. Paddy

is grown under' rainfed conditions, which is a good 1000 mm and above, but
Reconstruction and unaided by artificial irrigation, any failure of rains at the time of maturity in
Rehabilitation September, results in the failure of the crop. In an area, which is predominantly
inhabited by backward tribes and is already at low subsistence level, the impact
is alnlost immediate, recurrent and very severe.
Damage to Irrigation
Water is essential for human beings, animals, plants and microbes. If you ever
visit a river after the withdrawal of monsoon, you will find people growing
various crops including vegetables on the banlts of the river. Thus, the plants,
which will grow here will send roots to the water front so that they don't get
desiccated. It is a well-known fact that the water content in parts of a plant
varies from about 50 per cent to 90 per cent. Traditionally, agriculture in the
Indian sub-continent has depended on the annual rainfall cycle. As about 80 per
cent of the annual rainfall on an average is received during the four month
monsoon season, there is a large depenhence of agriculture o n the monsoon
season. However, such dependence ~n natural systems has restricted the
increase in agricultural yields. This is because about 60 per cent of the arable
area in the country is rain-fed and depends on rain only. Lack of rainfall, has
often led to crop failure and drought conditions. Also, it has not been possible
for sowi~lgcrops during non-monsoon seasons due to lack of supply of water. In
such situations, artificial means of irrigation have considerably helped in
maintaining sustained and increased yields. ;But, irrigation systems need large
funds and time to build. Moreover, these bre often opposed by environment
activists.
Often irrigation systems also suffer damage and dislocation due to natural
disasters. Floods, for example, can cause canal systems to overflow or cause
breaches in embankments not only damaging the irrigation system but also crops,
life and property. Even the natural drainage systems get altered by floods and
vast tracts o f land may be rendered unsuitable for agriculture. Quite often hill
torrents emerging from the foot-hills into plains keep changing their course as a
result of which a wide area goes under the river bed and is rendered unsuitable
for cultivation. For example, the river Chenab in the state of Jammu and
Kashmir spread over a large width of 10 to 12 kilometres near Akhnoor and the
Kosi river in Bihar, (before it was embanked) is reported to have changed their
course springing over a vast area rendering large tracts uncultivable. As no crop
is grown in such areas, these do not figure in the calculation of damages
associated with floods.
Check Your P~.ogress1

1) What do you understand by assessment of crop damages?

2) What are the beneficial effects of floods on agriculture? Agriculture and Irrigation
28.3 MEASURES TO COMBAT THE LOSSES CAUSED

TO AGRICLTLTURE AND IRRIGATION
28.3.1 Alternative Cropping Pattern

Tlie worst feature of tlie damage inflicted by a natural disaster is its itnpact on the
of crops and consequent uneniployment of agricultural labourers. A
flood or a cyclone can inflict a very severe damage to crops as we1 l ils human life
and property, but its effect is quite often localised and the areas, which are not
affected usually elljoy tlie benefit of niore rainfall. The overall consequence of
floods on tlie production and rural employment situation, therefore, is mucli less
intense than that of a drought, which not only covers a much larger area but also
lingers on for months and in some cases upto a couple of years. Tliis, therefore,
underscores the importance of adopting crop stabilisation strategy. Tliis strategy
in a situation of drought i~ivolvesvarious techniques:
Crop Stabilization Strategies
Crop Life Savirlg Technique:
'The essence of Crop Life Saving Technique lies in water harvesting and moisture
stress alleviating practices. Subject to the dynamics of weather conditions, a plan
of operation of alternative crops may be kept ready with a provisioli of choice
between alter~iativecropping strategies to suit different weather conditions. The
new high yielding varieties particularly wheat and rice are highly sensitive to
timely availability of adequate doses of water. Some other crops like bajra and
jowar can even survive during periods of soil moisture stress. Therefore,
cropping panern in such a coiiti~igencyshould be tilted in favour of these crops.
Compensatory Cropping Programme:
Another technique in tlie crop stabilisation strategy is tlie compensatory cropping

programme. This has two dimensions; one is to try to compensate the crop loss
in the most seriously affected areas by intensifying production programme; and
to increase the yield in most favourable areas where there has been good rainfall
or where irrigation facilities are available. The secoiid is to make up for the crop
loss in the same area by sowing cash crops or pulses or fodder or rabi groundnut
or rabi jowar etc. as tlie case may be as soon as the season changes and some
rainfall is available.
Intermixed Cropping:
Effects of short drought periods of a few deeks can be overcorne by adopting

correct agrononlical practices like deep tillage, deep furrow and mulching, which
improve availability of soil moisture. Each year the choice of crops depends
upon tlie commencement of the rainy season- its early start. This can vary by as
much as 30 days, helice alternative seed packages have to be kept ready as a
Reconstruction and measure of contingency planning. One of the effective \ways of' reducing tlic
Relinbilitation i~npactof' variability in the precipitation process is to have a system oi'
intermixed cropping. The agriculturist who is suppol-ting himself li.0111ciryla~ld
farming will always be better off over a series of years by growing a nix o f 2 or
3 crop varieties siniultaneously, each having a different period of ger~nination
and growth. Short duration crops like grams, mustard and p ~ ~ l s ecan
s be very
well intermixed with others like ssrghum and wheat.
It will be desirable to provide a strdnger scientific base to such pl.acticcs because

there are natural limitations on the irrigation facilities that can be provided to the
drought prone areas. In the Deccan plateau, inore than half of the d r o ~ ~ g h t
prone region has to still depend on the dryland farming practices, qfter having
developed the water resources of this area fully. The crops that are very sensitive
to moisture stress should not be encouraged in the drought a f f ~ c t e darqas.
28.3.2 Watershed Mariagerner~t

Significant proportion of rain water drains away even in watet scarce drought
prone areas. Much of this water can be harnessed through appropriate s l r ~ ~ c t ~ ~ r a l
measures lilce construction of check-dams, contour-bunding, and, nala plugging.
These can be supplemented by providing vegetative cover wherever reasible and
economical. This strategy is useful because it has shorter gestation period, better
environmental effects and greater amenability to local level decentralised
planning. While allocating water for irrigation purpose, thc nceds of small and
marginal farmers should receive preferential treatment and water *should be
equitably distributed. The use of water should be restricted to growing of those
crops, which require less water per hectarc for their optimuln growth and yield.
There should also be a provision of water for common grazing grounds or fields
which grow fodder.
28.3.3 Water Harvesting in Small Catchments

In order to,ensure effective irrigation, a two-pronged strategy may be aclopted at
a macro-scale through large projects or at micro-scale througli water harvesting
in small catchments. Large reservoir projects have niany advantages and benefits
therefrom. They are also impressive but often have several financial,
administrative, political, social, envi~.onmental and operational problems.
Several changes could occur during the long gestatio~iperiod that sueli projects
take for completion. Meanwhile, the crops and varieties, managenlent practices
and market structure could undergo a considerable change.
Whenever irrigation is introduced in high rainfall areas, a way has to be found to

use up or remove the water stored in the reservoir. This will either involve
drawing out of excess water through a well-organised drainage system or letting
the water evaporate into the atmosphere. It is the first alternative, which is often
discussed. However, it is a very costly alternative, which the slope of the terrain
may not always permit to operate. Usually, we require 1,000 - 1,500 mm of rain
water to obtain 6 tonnes or more of rice, and about 300-350 mm to obtain 3-4
tonnes of wheat. However, in order to achieve these yields, additional inputs
such as fertilisers, pesticides, mechanisation and other management practices are
essential.
Ifthe underground water table starts rising, efforts will need t o be made to ensure
that there will be no consequential waterlogging, rise of water table and salinity.
In most of the semi-arid regions of ~ n d i a , where dry farming is practiced, the
annual rainfall is 600-1000 inm or so. But this.rainfall is erratic and confined to
a short duration. Consequently, despite total water availability, there is a
deficiency of water for crops. The time-tested old practice has always been of
conserving natural run off in tanks, ponds and lakes. The water so stored is used
for drinking, for life saving and irrigation of crops, 01. even as a pre-sawing
irrigation method for a rabi crop. In recent years, efforts have been made to Agrictllture ant1 Irrigation
revive tlie practice. The provision of traditional mode of irrigation tliro~~gh
small storages calls for a carefully planned management of the scarce rain water.
~nte~.estingly,the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
'rropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, has rediscovered the utility of farm tanks as an
innovation for South India, and has advocated water harvesting and tank
construction as a major activity for serui-arid regions.
28.3.4 Canal Irrigation

Canal Irrigation is one of tlie ways to cornpensqte the losses caused to agriculture
in case of disasters. Larger canal systems enayle to transfer the water from one
region to another, which has many advantages. For instance, a region sufferink
from drought or low rainfall could receive water from another region, which has
had better or abundant rainfall. It is based @I a source of water supply not
subjected to tlie floods or drought in another ~iegion. As a result, the regions
could benefit from tlie coniplementarity. Largeiscale canal irrigation is ilsually
linked to a storage reservoir or a barrage in a rivcr. Iiowever, large projects and
canal irrigation are not without problems. It w o ~ ~ suffice
ld for our purpose here
to note that each has its own role in rendering irrigation benefits and enhancing
agricultural production.
Development of ground water, particula~+ly that is based on deep tube wells has a
significant rolc in irrigation and agricult~ire. such grou~idwater facilities would
enable coii~junctiveuse of surface and ground waters as well. However, they
liave relatively high recurring running changes and are dependent on tlie vagaries
of sources of power for running engineslpumps, Furtl~ern~ore, care has to be
'taken to avoid overuse or waste of ground water.
28.4 DEVELOPMENT OF PASTUW LANDS,

LIVESTOCK, FARM FORESTRY AND OTHER
RELIEF SCNEVES
t
There are various other steps that can be taken to combat losses caused to
agriculture and irrigation in disaster-affected areas. Some of tlie areas where
attention needs to be paid relate to afforestation with special emphasis on social
and farm forestry, develop~iient of pasturelands, development of sheep
husbandry, livestock developnient, dairy development etc. Tliougli these areas
are already a part of tlie centrally sponsored Drought Prone Area Development
Programme, they constantly require a special focus. Both forestry and
horticulture, once these have gone tlirougl~initial stages, need less water than
food crops. With tlie help of judicious plan~iiiig,it is possible to take up one
small area after another where water from available irrigation sources can be
assured on priority basis to plants while they arc young.
Livestock need pastures and fodder crops, which in turn need less water than
food crops. Therefore, there is scope for growth of livestock provided other
conditions needed for it like veterinary facilities; arrangements for marketing of
milk and milk products are adequately met. Livestock helps agriculture as it
provides bullock for farming and transportation and dung cake for manure and
bio- gas plants. Other relief schemes could be suspension and remission of land
revenue, provision of temporary employment to affected persons, strengthening
of public distribution system, and development of village industries.

ii) Check your answers with ihose given at the end of the unit.
Reconstruction and 1) Which are the different crop stabilisation techniques that can be adopted in
Rehabilitation disaster prone areas?
2) What are the different steps other than watershed management, canal irrigation
and alternative cropping pattern that can be taken to combat losses caused to
agriculture and irrigation in disaster affected areas?
28.5 LET US SUM UP
Agriculture and irrigation are severely affected by natural disasters. Floods,

cyclones and droughts cause maximum damage to irrigation and as a result to
agricultural production. This unit has analysed the nature of damage caused to
agriculti~reand irrigation by natural disasters. It has focused on some beneficial
effects of floods on agriculture. To combat the losses caused to agriculture and
irrigation, it is essential that damages in terms of money as well ad potential
output are properly assessed and appropriate crop stabilisation tecl~niquesare
adopted. Many practices such as alternative cropping pattern, watershed
management, water harvesting in small catchments and canal irrigation could be
adopted with advantage. The disaster affected areas can benefit from innovative
employment and technical upgradation schemes. Public distribution system,
village industries and marketing facilities need to be strengthened in order to
provide relief in disaster affected areas. This unit has also thrown light on
these aspects in some detail.
28.6 .KEY WORDS
Conjunctive: Combined, connecting ,
Deep Furrow: Furrow is a narrow field ditch, excavated between rows of plants
for carrying the irrigation water through. Spacing of furrow is determined by the
proper spacing of the plants. The size of furrow may vary from 8-10 cm deep
and as much as 400 rq long.
Desiccated: Dried or devoid of moisture
Dryland Farming: Farming in a region characterized by low availability of
water, mostly depending only on rainwater.
,Juxtaposition: Placing side by side.
Agl.iculture and Irrigation
28.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS I
I
I
G iris11 K. Misra and G.C.Mathur. eds., Natural Disaster Reduction,Reliance,
New Dellii, 1993.
Kamta Pleasad and B.D.S ingh, Drought Disaster and Development: Profile,
Pe~forniancearid Potential. Mittal, New Delhi, 1994.
R.K. Gurjar. ed. Drought Planning in India, Printwell, Jaipur, 1994.
Vinod K. Sliarma. ed. Disuster Management, NCFDM, IIPA, New Delhi, 1994.
Report of the Irrigation Commission, Ministry of -Energy and Irrigation,
Government of India, 1972.
Report of the National Flood Commission, Ministry of Enerby and Irrigation,
Government of India, 1980.
--
EXERCISES
1 ) Your atiswer should include the following points:

e The assessment of economic losses due to natirral disasters is done by
assigning monetary value to all production losses.
0 Loss is calculated on tlie basis of crop-wise information
e Partially darnaged areas are not counted with totally damaged areas
e Damage on agriculture due to floods is based in terms of loss of potential
output and also in terms of loss of inputs.
e Norms of input loss have to be determined on the basis of stage of tlie
crop at the time of floods.

Silt deposited in the flood plains acts as good natural fertilizer
Prolonged inundation retards weed growth
Soil affected by pests is wiped out
Stagnant water is flushed out thus removing dirt and filth.

Crop Life Saving Technique
Compensatory Cropping Programme
System of Intermixed Cropping

Water harvesting in small catcl~ments
Afforestation
* Development of pasture lands and sheep husbandary.
Livestock and dairy development
Reconstruction nnd o Suspension and remission of \land revenue
Rehabilitation
o Adoption of traditional mode of irrigation through small storages
o Strengthening of public distribution system
e Conservation of rain or runoff in tanks, ponds or lakes
o Canal irrigation
UNIT 29 MOUSING TO RESIST DISASTERS
INCLUDING RELOCATION
Structure
29.0 Objectives
29.1 ~ntroduction
29.2 Earthquakes
29.2.1 Damage to Houses by Earthquakes
29.2.2 Earthquake Resistant House Construction
29.3 Cyclones
29.3.1 Damage to Houses by Cyclones
29.3.2 Cyclone Resistant House Construction
29.4 Floods
29.4.1 Damage to Houses by Floods
29.4.2 Flood Prone Area Planning
29.4.3 Flood Resistant House Construction
29.5 Let Us Sum Up
29.6 Key Words
29.0 OBJECTIVES
explain the necessary features to resist earthquake farces;

describe planning and designing for cyclone resistant constr~~ction;and
discuss the requirements necessary for safe housing in flood prone areas.
29.1 INTRODUCTION
~ a t i r a ldisasters are a common feature of in the country. All major nat~~ral

calamities including floods, cyclones and earthquakes cause,a large-scale damage
to houses year after year in different parts of the country. The thickly
populated states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assa~nand West Bengal are under
threat from more than one type of natural disasters. The northern, central
and eastern parts of the country are susceptible to higher flood damages.
The cyclonic storms pose major problems in the various coastal districts of
most parts of the country, especially Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal,
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. The northern and north-eastern parts of the country
I
are under the seismic zone of moderate to severe intensity.
I
I
The intensity of natural disasters can be reduced considerably by proper
/
,
planning and- designing of houses. Since the majority of houses in rural
areas of the country are being built by the local semi-skilled masons,
the improvement in the skills of thew' building construction workers
j through training can reduce major losses to houses. This unit will help in
1
1
I
understanding some of the basic principles to be followed to build disaster
resistant houses.
Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation
29.2 EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are considered to be one of the most dangerous and destructive

natural disasters. The impact of this phenomenon is sudden with no warning
and therein lies its damage potential. The maximum damage in case of an
earthquake is due to the collapse of poorly constr~lctedbuildings and failure of
infrastructural facilities. The building types can broadly be divided, from
earthquake point of view, into (i) engineered buildings and (ii) non-engineered
buildings.
The engineered buildings are those, which are structurally designed by

qualified engineers and architects taking into consideration the specified
loads including earthqualte and wind loads etc., as per tlie codal provision. For
example the R.C.C. frame and shear wall buildings, steel buildings with rigid
joints are engineered buildings.
The non-engineered buildings are those, which are constructed by people

through local semi-skilled masons and petty contractors etc. Almost all the rural
and most semi-urban and urban Ilonses fall under this categoly, which are weak
from the seismic point of view. We will therefore discuss the problems
related to non-engineered construction.
29.2.1 Damage to Houses by Earthquakes
During an earthquake, the whole structure including its contents and fixtures,
whether resting on floor or attached to the walls, are shaken from their position
of rest. The supporting members, wall piers and columns, which would carry
the vertical load without earthquake or wind are subjected to horizontal
bending and over-turning effects. The nature and extent of damage depends
upon the type of structure and its capacity to withstand the co~nplexvibrations
generated by the earthquake. The behaviour of buildings during earthquake and
type ofdamages of the most commonly used structural system are discussed
in the following paragraphs:
a) Earthen Buildings
The performance of earthen houses during earthquakes is generaly poor.

The occurrence of wide cracks in the walls, separation of walls at the
corners and complete collapse of wal Is and roofs are very common. The
heavy mass of debris results in major losses after tlie collapse.
b) Brick Buildings
The performance of the brick buildings during an earthquake depends on

the type of roof, mortar used and overall quality of construction. The
performance of buildings under this category has been observed to be poor
with pitched roofs with no firm binding effect with the walls, poorer with
- m u d o r weak mortarsand still poorer with poor quality of
construction. Buildings having rigid roof slabs constructed in cement
mo_rtar, generally behave better than others. Cracking is a common feature
of these types of houses. Cross cracks are formed in the masonry piers
between openings, vertical cracks near the corner leading to the separation
of walls through the joints. The separatioll of roof slab over the walls and
failure of parabet walls and staircases are also very common features after
the quake. I
c ) Stone Masonry Buildings Housing to Resist Disasters
inclucling Relocation
Tlie performance of stone masonry buildings during an earthquake is most
disastrous, resulting in cornpletc collapse of the structure. The stone
buildings constructed with dressed stones witli cement mortar are able to
withstand tlie earthquake forces.
d) Wooden Buildings
The earthquake performance of wooden buildings is generally good. Tlie

buildings with wooden frame and cladding with sheeting, boarding, 'ikra'
walling, bamboo matting etc., give excellent performance during an
earthquake.
29.2.2 Earthquake Resistant House Construction

a) Location and Siting
The choice of site for a building from tlie seismic point of view is mainly
concerned witli tlie extent of stability of the ground during ea~-tlicluake
tremors. Different types of grounds behave differently as discussed below.
e Stability of Slope: t-lill-side slopes liable to slide during an earthquake

should be avoided and only stable slopes should be chosen for
building location. It should be preferal~leto have several blocks 011
terraces than have one large block witli footings at different
elevations. A site subjected to tlie danger of rock falls should be
avoided.
a Loose Sa~itlsor Sensitive Clays: These two types of soils are liable to
be destroyed by the earthquake so much as to lose the original structure
and thereby undergo compaction. This would result in large
unequal settlements and damage to tlie building. If the loose
cohesion-less soils are saturated with water, they are apt to lose their
sheer resistance altogether during tlie~sliakingand become liquified.
A site with sufficient load bearing capacity and free from defects should always
be cliosen and its drainage conditions improved so that no water accumulates
and saturates the ground.
Tlie layout of the liouse/houses sliould have:
Symmetry: The building as a wliole or its various blocks should be

kept almost sylnmetrical about both the' axes. Syrnnietry is also
desirable in the placing and sizing of doors and window openings.
Asymmetry leads to torsion during ea~-tliquakesand should always be
avoided.
Rectangolarity: Simple rectangular sliapes behave better in an
earthquake than shapes with many projections. It is desirable to restrict
the length qf a block to three times its width, If longer lengths are
required, twoseparate blocks with sufficient~eparation in
between should beprovided.
Separation of Blocks: Separation of a large buildin@ into several
blocks [nay be required so as to obtain symmetry and rectangularity of
each block. For preventing hammering or ~oundingdarnage between
the blocks, a physical separation of 3-4 cm. throughout the height above
the plinth level will be adequate as well as practical.
..
Reconstruction and o Simplicity: Simplicity is the best approach for earthquake resistant
Rehabilitation design. Ornamentation involving large cornices, vertical or horizontal
cantilever projections etc., are dangerous and undesirable from the
seisrnic point of view. Where this type of work is unavoidable, it '
should be reinforced with steel, properly embedded into the main

structure of the building and securely fastened internally.
c Enclosed Area: It is advisable to have separate enclosed rooms rather
than one long room. A small building enclosure, with properly
interconnected walls acts like a rigid box against the earthquake
strength.
c) Design Aspects
9 Earthen. Houses: For resisting the earthquake forces and better

performance during the quake, following points must be taken care o f :
i) Restricting length of rooms to about 4 m. maximum and storey

height to about 2.8 m.
ii) Using symmetrical rectangular house plan, and arranging
openings symmetrically.
iii) Restricting the width of openings to one-third of the wall-length
and placing these away from the corners by about three times the
wall thickness.
iv) Using clay soil with about 10 per cent clay and adequate fibrous
admixtures, both for adobe units as well as for mortar.
v) Using adequate bond beams on all outer and inner walls with full
continuity at junctions. The bond beam could be of R.C.C., wood
. or bamboo.
vi) Selecting a roof of minimum weight as far as possible.
0 Brick Buildings: For earthquake resistance, the following measures

have been effective not oilly in preventing collapse but controlling
, the propagation and widening of cracks:
i) Symmetry and rectangularity to be kept in building plan.

i i) Symmetry to, be
,'
kept in location ofopenings.
iii) Simplicity in elevation is needed, which means avoidance of all
ornamental work etc. .
iv) Intersectjng internal walls in good number are desirable so as
to divide the total plan in square enclosures of not more than 6
m, side each.
Total width of opening in a wall to be not more than 50 per cent
of wall length in one and two storey houses and not more than 40
per cent in three storey buildings.
Width of piers between openings or from opening to wall corner
to be not less than half the height of the opening.
>'
vii) ,Use of steel or wooden dowels going into walls meeting at corners
or T-junctions desired to provide effective bonding between
them:
viii) Use of R.C.C. ba~ld at plinth level, lintel level and roof level.
This is the one single feature, which is most effective ensuring
the integrity of the enclosure like a rigid box.
s Stone Builclings: For stone masonry buildings, all the protective Housing to Resist Disasters
measures as for brick buildings are ~iseful. For random rubble and including R e l o c a t i o ~ ~
half-dressed stone masonry, thc following additional measures are

necessary :
i) Provision of 'through' stones or bonding elements along the

wall thickr~essat regular intervals of about one elernent per sq. m.of
wall.
ii) Restriction of the thickness to not more than 45 cm., since larger
thicl<ness encourages undesirable filling materials inside, adding to
mass and strength reduction.

1) What type of darilages do you expect in a building in case of an

earthqualte?
2) Suggest some methods needed for earthquake resistant constri~ction.
29.3 CYCLONES
Severe cyclonic storms are responsible for large casuaIties and considerable
daniage to property and agriculture. The destruction due to this type of
natural disaster is confined to coastal areas only. The principal dangers in case
of a cyclone are from :
i) Gales and very strong winds

ii) Torrential rain; and
iii) Storm surges or high tidal waves.
In a cyclonic storm, ~ n a x i ~ n udamage

~n is caused due to coastal inundation by
storm surges. The rnaxi~numpenetration from a severe cyclonic storm surge
varies from 10 to 20 km. inland from the coast. Heavy rainfall and the
. Reconstruction and resulting floods come next in order of devastation. Very strong winds of tile
Rehabilitatioo
order of 100-200 bmph complete the destruction.
'The destruction of l ite and property, collapse of buildings, felling trees.

flying debris, electrocution, rail and aircraft accidents and disease from
contaminated food and water during post-cyclone period also contribute to loss
of life and destri~ctionof property.
29.3.1 Damage to Hotlses by Cyclones

The damage pattern due to a cyclone slio~~ld
be considered under three
different categories of str~~cturcs
:
i) Engineered Str~~ctures
ii) Marginally Engineered Structures; and
iii) Non-engineered Structures
Fully-engineered structures are those'that havc been designed and built veiy
carefully taking illto account the wind forces generated due to a storm.
Such structures include multi-storey buildings, steel towers, industrial '
buildings, etc. Non-engineered structures are those that have been built
without ally guidance fi-om a qualified engiileeriilg professiollal and
generally consist of oneltwo storey residential buildings ctc. Marginally-
engineered structures are those where oilly llominal engineering attention
is provided during coilstruclion and design details as also the coda1
requireinellts are usually ignored. Tlie damage pattern in these types of
buildings is summarised below:
i) Engineered Structures
0 Overturning of bridges
1
Damage to bridges due to liigh water waves I
0 Collapse of high steel towers and chimneys
e Blowing off doors and windows including breaking of glass and total
collapse; and
0 Blowing off of roofing materials fioln truss roofed industrial buildings
ii) Marginally-engineered Structures
Severe darnage to such buildings due to lack of proper connection

between walls and roof and improper strenb%hof the structure .
0 Blowing off of railing and parapet walls
e Improper consolidation leading to failure of foundation in the elevated
situations
Twisting of transinission towers including electric and telephone poles.
iii) Non-engineered Structures
0 Weak connections among valViouselelnents of the building leads to total

failure of the structure
0 Failure of roofs including blowing off of the coveri~igmaterial
Failure of walls due to liigh wind pressure
i
!
I e Blowi~igoff of the projections over the openings Housirlg to Rcsist Disasters
includir~gRelocation
e Buildings with flat roofs (except 1I.C.C. slab roofs) suffer higher
dam ages.
e Buildings witli mud mortar construction collapse due to tidal waves.
29.3.2 Cyclone Resistant House Construction
A study of damaging effects of cyclonic forces on va~.ious types of

structures gives rise to certain measures for cyclone resistant construction,
With the help of these measures, we can reduce tlie damages to structures
~~llsiderably.The followiiig are a few guidelines for proper construction in the
cyclone-prone areas :
a) Location and Siting
i) Tlie building sites, wliicl~offer sllielding from Iiigll winds, sucli as tlie
- main landward side of a hill range are preferable.
ii) The building site sI10~1ldbe cliose~~at a ground level above tlie
probable maxinium tide level, or tlie ground sliould be raised to that
level.
iii) The foundation s h o ~ ~ be
l d taken up to a natural firm level, so that tlie
resistance under tlie footing may not be lost due to floocling. Piles
sliould be usecl if site considerations require so, fiom bearing
capacity or scouring point of view.
iv) The water retreating to tlie sea applies substantial scouring action.
Pitching of slopes will be therefore desirable.
l d avoided. Protrucling
v) Sites, which lead to wind concentrations s h o ~ ~be
ledges on hill slopes lnay be such locations.
b) Layout
In case of prevailing strong winds, the orientation of building should be with

n~inimumexposure to tlie wind. The buildings sliould be shaped in s ~ ~ ac hway
that tlie wind pressure on it is reduced. It is desirable to place the s~iiallestface
of the building across the prevailing high wind direction.
. \.!,
' I.
Tliere may be a considerable blocking of wind by erecting wind breaks on tlie
windward sides of the buildings. In the layout plan of settlement, if successive
rows of buildings are spaced apart at less than seven times their l~eights,the
wind movemelit will be reduced. The solid wind breaks like walls cause eddies
ov,er the top, which reduce their utilities. Barriers like belts of trees are more
effective because they offer a greater depth of protection. Such barriers produce
significant results for the first 5 to 10 times or so of their heights in horizontal
distance. The optimum porosity of the barriers is in the range of 30-50 per cent.
A lower figure will cause a greater reduction in windspeed, but an open '
barrier will be more effective for a greater distance.
c) Design Aspects
i) Roofs: Flat roof arrangement should be avoided, since it results in higher

negative pressure (suctions) compared to that on inclined roofs. R.C.C.
slab roofs are, however, suitable in view of their weight and rigidity.
Reconstruction and..
Rchiibilitatiol~ o The span of the sheeting, connections of the sheeting to purlins and
purlins to trusses, roofs overhangs at eaves level and the roof anchors
with walls should be designed for appropriate pressure. Bolts for
sheeting connections should invariably be used with washers so as to
avoid punching through under wind sections. ,
e Roofs arid their anchors with the walls should be properly designed.
o The purlins sliould be adequately anchored to the gable ends and
diagonal 'bracing installed in the plane of the roof using pirrlins as the
stri~tsSO as to provide stiffness against the failure of gables.
ii) Pro.jections
0 The projecting elements like antennas and tall cliimneys above the roof
should be avoided as far as possible. If necessary, they sho~rldbe
kept low and adequately anchored to the structure.
o The horizontal projections such as eave projections, sunshacles etc., are
subjected to very high uplift force due to strong winds during a
cyclone. The projection lengths should be kept to a minirnum
and designed for pressures as per the recornmendations of the building
code.
iii) Walls and Supporting Frames
o To avoid collapse of the walls inwards on windward side or outwards

on the ot!~erfaces, they should be adequately designed for
appropriate design wind pressures. Where necessary, the walls should
be reinforced with vertical steel reinforcement or buttressed.
0 Providing a reinforced concrete band (sing beam on all external and
internal load bearing walls) will greatly improve their individual
stability as well as integral box like action and increase the stability of
the buildings to make them cyclone resistant to a great extent.
Joint reinforcement should alternatively be provided at wall
junctions, for instance, in every fourth layer.
e Adequate diagonal bracing must be provided in frame type'.
constr~tions,both in the vertical and horizontal planes and along
both the principal axes of the building.
0 In-fill walls, par-titularly on external faces, should be properly secured
to the columns.
Reinforced lnasonly (brick walls, hollows, concrete block masonry,
sandwich walls etc.) should be encouraged in cyclone-prone areas.
iv) Door and Window Openings in Walls
Large sheets of glass in windows or doors com~notllyshatter because

' they are too thin to withstand the local wind pressure. Quite
colnmon is also their breakage when struck by wind borne missiles.
I Ways to combat this danger are:
a) to reduce large areas of glass by glazing bars or mullions, and
I
'
:
44 b) to use wired andlor thicker plate glass.
\
Use of smaller glass panes will be econo~nicalinitially and easy to replace later Hoosing to Resist I)ihnstet +
when brolcen. Additional advantage of avoiding breakage of glass by inrlutlilig Rcloc:rtion
reducing the size or strengthening large window areas is that this reduces the
chances of sudden entry of violent wind into the building, which is a major
cause of uplifting of roofs.
0 Door and window fiames should be anchored to the walls or

columns adequately thl-ougll hold-fasts.
e The bolting or locking device of the door and window shutters
should be simple and strong so that they could bc used quickly i n
order to resist the cyclonic wind pressure adequately and keep the
shutters closed.

I) What are the main dangers in a cyclonic stol.m?
2) Explain the damage that can be caused to builclings in a cyclone.
3) Suggest a few steps for cyclone resistant house construction.
29.4 FLOODS
Floods cause large-scale--human suffering and loss of assets. Every year, a

large number of people lose their lives and property due to this type of
~iaturaldisaster. 'Hie econo~nicall~ weaker sections of societty are tlic worst
Reconstruction and suffet.ers as their dwelling units get damaged or washed away by high flood
Rel~abilitatiol~ water currents More so, .because these are often located in areas vulnerable to
floods such as river banks or flood plains. Floods also cause widespread
damages and loss of various Icincls of pruper-ties like crops, livestock,
communicatio~iand isrigation systems etc.
Floods ar-e one of the ma-jor problems faced by our country every year.
Occurrence of floods is a vesy colnnion phenomenon in many states, causing
widespread damages to agriculture system, which is tlie backbone of the
economy. Apart from agricultural losses, floods disrupt the entire life of the
affected area by damaging tlie co~nmunicationsystems, transportation network,
houses and buildings. arid otlicl. infrastructural facilities. It is estimated by the
Ministry of Agriculture that over one million houscs are damaged annually on an
average.
29.4.1 Damage to Houses by Floods

Due to increasing population pressure and economic compulsions, a large
number of people are shifting to the flood- prone areas and taking up
building activities, thus obstructing the natural function of flood plains of
carrying away tlie excess water during tlie flood situation. All this results in
increasing vulnerability of houses and buildings due to floods, Tlie extent of
damage to the houses depends upon tlie pal-ticular type of flood they are
exposed to. Different types of damages due to floods can be explained as :
a) Severe Damage to Houses: F-Io~~ses sub.jected to n large mass of water

striking them with force can collapse totally. This is typical of storm
surge that accompanies cyclone. Tlie sea waves may reach several
meters above sea level and strike the structure witli a great force. Flash
floods also bring upon sudden pressure on the structures due to strong
force of water and cause coniplete destruction. Even buildings
constructecl with R.C.C. may get damaged. 'Kutcha' structures made up
of tliatcli, ~ i i ~etc.
~ d ,are wiped out completely. In locations, where the
houses are built on loose soil, when severe inundation takes place,
complete collapse of the structure is likely.
b) Partial Damage to Houses: Riverine floods are cliaracterised by low
speed and long duration. Prolonged inundation can be expectcd from
riverine floods, wliich give rise to the following catcgories of house
damage:
i) Tlie soil gets softened leading to tlie sinking of foundations. This
may result in uneven sagging of roof, resulting in tlie damage of roof
covering and suppol-ting systems, cracks in the walls, sinking of
floors and scouring of foundation by a slow and steady flow of
water.
ii) The standing water causes deterioration of f~~rnisliing,
painting,
distempering and plastering. A11 the timberworlc of ]louse gets
soalted leading lo decay.
c) Other Effeds on Houses: Floods can also have a devastating effect on
land by eroding the upper strata leaving behind a rugged surface, which
is unsuitable for co~istruction. The 'reverse process is also a common
phenomenon wliere the flood water brings with it large voluines of fine
..
silt, sand or otlier materials and deposits on an existing settlement either
burying it or bloclcing it. This phenomenon is very cornlnon with flash
- floods, wliich have the requisite n~onientum to carry soil and other
46 ~~iaterial\coming in their way.
29.4.2 Flood Prone Area ~ " ( a n n i n ~ Housir~gto Resist Disasters
inclutling Relocrtion
a) Urban and Rural Land Use: Tlie rural areas traclitio~ially liave a large
amount of vegetation and afforestation resulting in reduced ri~noffin small
watersheds. Thus, the chances of occurrence of flash tloods due to heavy
railifalls in such sn~allcatcli~nentsare i~nlikely. Changes in tlie land use
pattern liave a great impact on the overall flood disaster situatio~i. l'lie
changes in land use, from rural to i~rbaii,Jiave an adverse impact on tlie
hydrology of the region and thus increase the flood potential uf tlie
catchment areas. Tlie i11-ba11
areas liave a lot of paved surfaces in terms of
roads, residential areas etc., giving rise to Ilasli floods situation. While
planning for the urban areas, tliese aspects milst be given due
consideration.
b) Floocl Plair~ Zoning: It is a well-known fact tliat tlie Ilood 1iazar.d~reduce
as the distance from river or water channel increases on account of
increase in tlie elevation of land surface. The rcgular encroaclinient of
floocl plains has forced 11sto exercise some controls on builclings in si~cli
areas. Tnliing into account tlie variability of'tlie flood hazard, zorics
are demarcated depending i~pon.tliedegree of risk and potential damages.
Based on the floocl plain zoning concept, tlie flood plains can be dividccl
into tlie following.
i) Prohibited Zone, where chalices of inundation are Iiigli ancl l?recluent
ii) liestrictecl Zone, where there coi~ldbe flooding but less frequent arid
less vigorous than in tlie prohibited zone. 'l~'lierelbre, some constri~ction
activity (non-resiclent id) coi~ldbe allowed.
iii) Warning Zone wlicre floodi~igcoi~ldoccur occasionally but there will be
sufficient time to warn and to evacuate, if necessary.
29.4.3 Flood Resistant House Constrl~ctiorl
Damage to individual buildings and structures may be prcvcnted to some

estent by incorporating in tlicir design, tlic ability to withsland inu~idationand
tlie strong forcc of vcry I'ast flowing water. Tlie following are some measures
which may be lielpfi~lin reducing tlie lloocl damagc to liouscs considerably :
i) Location and Siting: 'The construction of tlie 1io11seslioi~ldbe

restricted to tlie zones involving least risk. Tlie development of any
kind in the prohibited zone sliould be totally disallowed to avoid the
damage to property and to avoid flood situation ilpstreani, causing
threats to set.tlements there. A li~nited bui lcling activity and
planned agricultural activities could be take11 up in the restricted zone.
111this area, minimum ground floor level, flood proofing arrangements
etc., sliouId be provided in the buildings, if any.
People wishing to settle down i n tlie warning zone must be warned and
advised about the risks involved. The building s h o ~ ~ bel d constructed
on tlie best bearing soil and on tlie highest ground available locally.
ii) Layout: Layout of the settlement should be such tliat it does not block
the free flow o f water. Ground drainage and escape lanes sliould
be incorporated in the settlement layout. Growing of vegetation and
afforestatio~iin the catcliment areas and along tlie river banks
should be promoted. A thick plantation around the individual
house should be grown. Special care should be taken up to protect
the adjacent buildings from damages due to collapse of buildi?gs.
H ~ c c J ~ ~ sand
~~uc~~oII iii) Design Aspects: The houses, if built should be made on raised mounds,
Rehabilitatiol) wliicli should be thoroughly conipacted and made of locally available
soil. When houses are built on silt, they should have a rigid framework
constructio~i or S I I O L I I ~ be adequately braced to reduce the risk of
damage of overturn in case of floods. Houses constructed with mud
are highly vulnerable. and must be given water-proofing treatment.
The roof levels should be sufficiently liigh above the danger level i11
order to provide emergency protection. Tlie clloice of roof type and
area should be such that it gives protection for a ~ninirnum period of
one day to tlie people who take shelter over there till they could be
.... evacuated.
, Check Your Progress 3

I
I

ii) Check your answers with tl~osegiven at the end of tlie unit.
, 1) Describe the various categories of house damage due to floods.
2) What do you understand by the term flood plain zoning?
3) What are the ways of constructing a flood resistant buildi~~g?
29.5 LETUSSUMUP - '
Tliough not much can be done to prevent natural disasters, the intensity of their
impact could be reduced co~~siderably tlirough adequate planning and desigrii~igof
disaster resistant houses and other structures. This unit has discussed the fact that
~iiostof the damage to housing occurs during earthquakes, floods and cyclones and
, -??
<
r
is c a ~ ~ s edue
d lo tlie poor quality conslruction and unsafe locations. Foci~shas to Housing to Resist Disasters
he on safe location and sitting of building, psoper layout and engineered design, i~~cludingRelocation
which are essential for housing to withslancl thc wrath of an} type of natural
disaster.
29.6 KEY WORDS
Atlobe: Reclangulal- shapecl bricks and bloclts used for construction

Cantilever Projections: Pro.jeclions that are supported at only one end. These
do not have columns to support the111on all sides.
Cornices: The end edges of the sloping wall
Cladclings: Material such as slate, stone etc., put on the roof or wall.
Eaves Level: Starting point of sloping roof
Fibrous Aclmixtures: Material such as straw, hair, cow dung etc, mixed with
soil for the purpose of house construction
Gable Enc!s: R o o f s corner joints or ends to support the wall
Lintel Level: Top of the door or window
Mollions: These are iron bars or rods used to provide support to enlarged
windows or doors
Piintli Level: Llppcrmost level of the foundation at which damp proofing is
~ ~ s u a lclone
ly
I4.C.C: Reinforced Cement Concrete
Scouring Action: Clearing out channel or harbour by heavy flow of water
Trosses: These are made of wood/steel, they hqve a rectangular protile to
provide suppost to long srancls
Wall Piers: Material that provides support to the wall
Dowels: Long thiclc pieces of wood or iron that are inserted into the walls at the
corners to provide suppost to the roof before it is set.
G.C. Mathur, IjOilsi~igiu,Disaster Prone Aveus, National Suilditlgs Organisation

and U.N. Regional ~ o u s / Centre,
n~ ESCAP, New Delhi, 1986.
Girish K. Misra and G.C. Mathur eds., Natural Disaster Reduction, Reliance,
New Delhi, 1993.
Vinod K. Sharma ed., Disaster Management, NCDM, IIPA, New Delhi, 1994.

EXERCISES
Check Your Progl-ess 1

Complete collapse of walls and roofs in case of earthen buildings
Severe damage to brick buildings using mud or weak mortars
8 Formation o f cross cracks in the masonary piers, vertical cracks near tlie
corners in brick buildings
Reconstruction and e Failure of parapet walls and staircases in brick buildings
Rehabilitation
0 Co~npletecollapse of stone masonary buildings
2) Your answer should irlclude the following points:
Proper location and siting
e Symmetrical and simple layout of l~ouses
Engineered design
r Loss of life and damage to property
Collapse of buildings
e Fellingoftrees
Overt~~rning
of bridges
0 Collapse of towers
e Twisting of transmission Lowers
e Failure of walls
Blowing off of the projections over openirlgs
Electrocution
0 Rail and aircraft accidents
0 Disease and spread of epidemic
0 Blowing off of doors
Blowing off of railing and parapet walls
* Failure of roofs
Failure of building walls
e Total collapse of buildings under combined onslaught of torrential rain
, and very strong winds
3) Your answer: s h o ~ ~include
ld tlie following points:
Safe location and siting
Proper layout
Engineered design
Check Your ~ h g r e s 3s
I ) Your answer should inelude the following points
Complete destruction of houses
0 Partial damage to houses
* Soil erosion, bringing in silt and debris -
e Prohibited zone
Restricted zone
Warning zone
3) Y O Lanswer
I~ sliould include the following points: Housing to Resist Disasters
including Relocation
Construction aspects related to:
0 Safe location and siting
e Proper layout; and
e Engineered design
UNIT 30 RETROFITTING, REPAIRING AND 1
STRENGTHENING OF HOUSES -
Structures
I
Objectives
Introduction
Traditional Methods of Construction of Buildings
Modern Techniques of Constr~~ction of Buildings
Repair and Retrofitting of Buildings
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
30.8 Answers to Check your Progress Exercises
30.0 OBJECTIVES
0 throw light on the prevalent traditional methods used for the construction of
buildings
9 discuss the modern techniques for construction of buildings and important
features to resist the forces generated due to disasters; and
lliglllight the methods used for repair and retrofitting of buildings
- - - -- - - -- - -
In the wake of a natural disaster, widespread damages to buildings and other ,

man-made structures are the usual occurrence. Most of tlie damaged buildings ,
include mud, stone or brick houses in general and R.C.C. building to a less .
extent. The damage pattern after any disaster is of varying degrees like few of ,
the buildings may suffer only such damages, whose repair is possible and
economical in colnparison to reconst~~~~ction of tlie building. In any disaster
rehabilitation project, repair and restoration of buildings is a major compo~ient.
This task must be started at the earliest. Besides the repair of buildings after the
disaster situations, the most imporlalit building activity is to provide necessary
strength in the existing building in order to ilnprove their resistance to the violent
forces of disasters like earthquake and cyclones. The provision of additional
strength in the existing structures is termed as 'retrofitting'. A large number of . ,
houses in the country are in rural areas, constructed in the traditional manner, I
using locally available materials. Tliese houses usually do not have any of tlie
necessary features to resist the disaster phenomena. Thus additional strength
must be provided in these structures, particularly in tlie areas vulnerable to higher
degree of disaster occurrence. In the present unit, some of the basic concepts
related to repair and retrofitting are discussed.
-
30.2 TRADITlONAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
OF BUIDLINGS
The traditional methods construction of buildings are those techniques, which

have merged over a long periOhf time. These techniques are the outcome of
physic$l, climatic and psychological needs of human beings and have been
evolved over decades arid centuries tlirough trial and error. Many of the
MONITORING
3 1.0 Objectives
3 1.1 Introduction
3 1.2 Monitoring: Concept and Significance
3 1.3 Role of Monitoring i n Disaster Managenlent Programme
3 1.4 Monitoring Metliodology, Techniques and Proble~ns
3 1.4 L,ct IJs Sum Up
3 1.5 Key Words
3 1.6 References and Further Readings
3 1.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
31.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to
a explain the concept and significance of monitoring

a discuss various metliods and techniques for effective monitoring of a disaster
management related programme; and
e I~ighlightthe proble~nsin the process of monitoring.
3 . INTRODUCTION
There are various programmes related to different aspects of disaster

management such .as prevention, preparedness, mitigation, response,
rehabilitation and recovery. For any sucl~programme, info~.mationabout the
progress and effectiveness of the programme is required. Monitoring is the
process by which all such information about the programme is generated and
critically analysed. Monitoring provides feedback to the programme
manager or administrator as to whether the means and resources of the
programme are being utilised and implemented and whether the desired
objectives are being achieved. Programme Monitoring is basically an
appraisal of the following aspects: ,
1 ) The extent to which the target population (affected coll~munity)is being

served.
2) The quantity and quality of staff performance; if these are satisfactory and
could lead to the achievement of the goals or objectives of the
programme.
3) ' The peoples' perception about the designed progrsunlne and method of irs
implementation.
4) The acceptance of the programme methodology and technology by t l ~ epeople
concerned in the local community.
5) Whether progr.ess and imple~nentationcoinply with preclesigrlated
standards, laws and regillations imposed on the agency by internal or
external fi~ndingsources, regulatory agencies, professional bodies, experts
and others.
6) Short-term and long-term gains ofthe programme in ec~nomicterms. 5
31.2 MONITORING: CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE
First of all we should understand the concept and importallce of ionit it or in^
in a project and the stage at which it can be started. Monitoring can be started
riglit from the beginning after the planning objectives have been clearly spelt
out. The first and forelnost job is to identify tlie following clearly and
unambiguously.
a) goals and objectives of the programme or project

b) target group
involved
c) n~ethodology/tecli~~ology
d) staff required and their experience, interest and training in tlie area
C) available resources
Monitoring starts with the delineation of performance standards consistent with

the planning objectives. Tlie next step will be tlie systematic collection of
inforn~ation on regular basis on perfor~llance,based on designated standards.
With this information, one can find out and make a judgement about the extent
to which deviations exist between the actual performance and the expectations
from the programme.
Monitoring provides information to the decision maker about tile gap between
actual and expected perfo~.mance of the programme so that appropriate
administrative decisions can be made as to whether the programme operation,
its methodology etc., should be changed or modified sligt~tly or abandoned.
Further significance of monitoring lies in obtaining peoples' response and
developing pub1ic relations as well as help in reporting programme
activities to the sponsors/donors. The format of information to be collected
about the programnie operatio~ls is ~lormallydesigned to assess performance
standards as mentioned earlier and to analyse whether project is on course.
This information may then become tlie basis for annual reports to sponsors
gelierating documents for public infor~nation and publicity and so on.
Monitoring is more significant in the projects in which it is difficult to get any
direct quantitative measures of the programme's effectiveness. For example, in
most of tlie rehabilitation projects, tlie progralnlne is not according to tlie needs
and expectatio~isof the target group. In case it was monitored on a regular
basis from the beginning changes or modifications could have been made to
cater to tlie needs of tlie affected people. Otlienvise not much can be
acl~ievedif such knowledge becomes available ollly towards the end of tlie
programme. Tn areas in which effective and reliable tech~lologieshave been
developed, monitoring is required to measure tlie effectiveness and help in the
evaluation of the programnie. For example, in flood affected areas, for
monitoring cholera vaccination programme, all that would be necessary is
knowledge whether the whole target population has been vaccinated and
wliether ~nedically appropriate performance sta~idardshave been ]net by the
staff.
Monitoring for Administrative Decisions
Tlie pri~iiary purpose of monitoring is to enable 'the admillistrator to make

rational and illformed decisions about progralnlne operations. If. the officer
concerned follows a 'Management by Objectives' approach in whicli tlie
objectives are clearly and rigorously specified, lie would like to use monitoring
6 -
i~ifol-mationfor even minor corrections in tlie programme and will modify it Monitoring
accordingly. The officer concerned has an accountability of the
prograinme towards various groups such as fitnding agencies, tlie co~nmunity
(target group), professionals and others. Monitoring generates necessary
i~lformation to assist in appropriate administrative decisions as discussed
below:
1) Staff allocation - Wlietlier to reallocate staff to different progralnmes or to

various activities of the same progra~n~ne.This can result in increase or
decrease of staff according to the needlreqi~irement.
2) Funding - Sponsors may be asked for an increase in tlie operational budget
for a modified programme or some activity within the programme. Other
f i ~ ~ i d iagencies
~ig or potential sources also could be approaclled -if the
sponsors are not in a position to increase fitnding.
3) Modify programme objectives - In the face of budget cutbacks,
existing activities rnay be reduced or restructured and programme may
be modified accordingly.
4) Legal requirements - In case tlie programme is deviating froni the legal
requirements of the state or central government, policies and practices call
be suitably modified to co~nplywith legal requirements. .
5) Quality and extent of services - The administrator has responsibility for

many other decisions that bear on tlie quality and extent of services or work
delivered to tlie sponsors or client organisation. Monitoring provides
inputs to revise programme where necessary, select, train and supervise
staff, devise patterns of staff organisation and development, manage tlie
fiscal activities of the programme with adequate and established accounting
and auditing procedures, reporting to the sponsors about tlie periodic
progress in tlie project, and make budget requests accordingly.
I
I n brief, it can be concluded that tlie administrator and his staff who are
responsible for the overall implementation of tlie programme are benefitled the
reviewing of tlie progratnnle operations, through monitoring procedures
and for enabling right decisions based on systematic, reliable and valid
monitoring information.
31.3 ROLE OF MONITORING IN DISASTER

MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME
Mo~iitoringhas an important role to play in all tlie three phases of disaster

management as is explained below:
A) Pre-disaster phase: This is tlie phase in whicli the administrator, voluntary

ol.ganisations and the community are involved in the programmes related to
prevention and preparedness pertaining to the occurrence of disasters, These
are planned activities and monitoring of such projects is very n~ucli
needed for their successful implementation. For example, tlie Gover~lnient
and Non-Gover~iment organisations constructed of large number of
cyclo~ic shelters on the east coast in Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Tamil
Nadu. These are to provide temporary shelters to the affected co~n~nunity
at the time of cyclones, If we critically examine the type of shelters
constructed 20 years back and now, there is a lot of difference in structure,
locatian and use of these shelters. Gradually tlie'se shelters, made only
for emergency habitat. were modified into multipurpose buildings so that
these structures can be utilised by the coln~nunityin the normal siti~ation
as well and thereby ensure proper upkeep and. maintenance. Proper
Skill Assessment monitoring and evaluation of projects/programme had made it much inore
ilsefill for the colnniunity than it was planned by the
authorities/organisations.
B) Disaster Situation: Rescue, evacuation and relief as we1 l as telnporary
resettlement and rehabilitation are some of the important activities I
i~ndertaken at the time of disaster. Monitoring is very i ~ s e i i ~tol the 1I

decision makers in this siti~ationalso and will help make the operations
quick, effective and acceptable to the communities. 1
I
C) Post - disaster Situation: Relief and recovery are some of the important II
post-disaster activities. Monitoring can make these more effective and help I
the administrator in taking appropriate decisions. Monitoring helps in I
seeing the progress of the project successfillly to its final completion. For
instance, in 1993 Lati~r eartliquake occu~.red in which 20 villages were
badly affected. The first and foremost post-disaster work was to provide
! I
temporary shelter to 60,000 affected people with in the shortest period of I

time. Providing food, drinlting water and ensuring sanitary conditions 1
were important tasks for the adtninistrators. Monitoring played an
important role in the timely and effective colnpletion of the prqject.
\

1) What is meant by Monitoring especially with reference to any programme? I
2) Comlnerlt on the significance of monitoring.
3) How is monitoring i~iiportantat various stages of disaster management?

-
Monitoring
311.4 MONITORING METHODOLOGY, TECHNIQUES
AND PROBLEMS
As mentionecl earlier, there cannot be a single method or technique for

monitoring. It will vary from project to project and would depend on the goals
and objectives of the project. There may be a few personal interviews;
g r o ~ ~discussions
p might be sufficient for the purpose or it may require a large
survey with a set questionnaire and proper sampling technique. It would also
depend on tlie size of tlie project or target population. In a disaster situation,
when tlie affected community is large, it is important to know how to collect
infor~nationldata,analyse and interpret the same to achieve useful results.
Tlie niost important problem in monitoring is collection of data. In the

process of monitoring, data is gathered for three main purposes, viz.,
a) description
b) explanation
c) prediction
TIio~lgIi,these three pilrposes cannot be exclusively separated but there is a

logical progress from description to explanation and then to prediction.
Description is tlic first step towards explaining tlie nature, underlying causes,
relationship and context of a phenomenon or process.
Descriptive data would answer questions of WHO will be involved in thc

project, WI-IEN it will be started and WHERE it will be started and
implemented but it will not be able to explaili HOW and WHY it will be
implemented and the methodology part is mostly not covered in tlie
descriptive data. Tlie data generated Tor physical and financial monitoring
are typical examples of descriptive data. Although this type of data record the
progress, describe tlie relationship between expenditure and achievement of
physical targets, and identify possible deviations from the planned course;-they
would not explain tlie reasoris for shortcomings or bottlenecks in tlie progress.
Most of tlie data secured f1.on-1beneficiary are also descriptive.
I n a project, where we would like to find out reasons for its success or failure,
wliich is more a diagnostic study, nor~nallysome explanation is required. For
example, when project staff are trying to find out why t l ~ ebeneficiaries are not
responding properly to a technically sound package of rehabilitation, which
has proved highly successful in another part of the country or elsewhere in the
world, they are searching for local factors and conditions wliich could possibly
explain the cause of this i~nexpectedplienomenon. They are seeking to answer
tlie question of "why".
Prediction is based on an i~nderstalidingof tlie causes like description and

explanation, ancl project the scene in tlie ruture that will affect the overall
design, scope and modes of data collection and the analysis.
Data gathering is one of tlie most important aspects of lnonitoring and

evaluation. There are two types of data collection as follows :
1) Qualitative Datil - result in information which can best be described in words.

2) Qupntitative Data - produce numerical data.
In the context of disaster management, the qualitative data describe the

situations, events, people, their participation, interactions and observed
beliaviour of people, direct quotations from affected people or media or from
Skill Asscssrner~t prepared documents or reports, state memorandums, correspondence
between district-state-central governments, official records and case studies.
Qualitative data nlainly focus on the signs and s y ~ i l b ~ l tliat
s decode the
reality seen by the target population. For instance, during any rehabilitation
programme, in case a nu~nberof persons respond in tlie same manner,-the
investigator will become more cautious and will also seelc to cxa~ninetile
context and manlier in which they have responded or spoken. An attempt will
be ~iiadeto see if they all nieant the same. Both vcrbal and non-verbal
behaviour are exanlined in qualitative studies in order to u~iderstanclthe views,
attitudes, and perspectives of tlie respondents. Tlie qi~alitativeniethod is
retractive and tlicre is an ongoing opportunity to revise interview or observe
records as tlic study progresses so tliat new facts can be brought to light.
Quantitative data is normally gathered by a st~.ucturedsurvey, with a sct of

questionnaire to a sample of respondents at one set of time or at various time
intervals. In this type of method, iteration is not common. The investigator is
not usually expected to aslc additional questions even if tlicy feel tliat these
questions will be ~1sefi11 in the project review. Nor can the investigator discard
an interview even if tlie respondent did not give candid answers. The
advantage of tlie st~uctured surveys are tliat tlie interview mode and
construction of questions can be standardized on tlie basis of experience so
tliat bias introduced by either the enumerator style or tlie respondent's
misunderstanding is controlled. This type of survey can be used to coliipare tlie
standard of living of the target group population before atid after the disaster
or to see tlie nutritional status of tlie population. Tlie quantitative data is
often obtainable from tlie records of project agencies and other institutions.
Tlie statistical officer at tlie district or state level [nay have extensive data on
his files which can be recorded, aggregated, disaggrcgated and reanalysed for
diagnostic studies and impact evaluations.
Qualitative data call be collected by tlie followi~igways:
0 indeptli interviews witli individuals respondents. Tlie flow of ideas is

more fi.equent in such conversations.
group interviews such as (a) community meetings and (b) focused group
discussions after sufficient notice and advertise~iient liacl bee11 made for
ensuring good attendance. In such meetings two to three intel-viewers are
better than a single investigator. Focusecl group discussions are good with
small nu~iiberof invited participants. The intcrviewer should just introduce
tlie subject and initiate tlie discussion and keep it focused on tlie desired
topic as often, this type of discussion tends to deviate from tlie main topic.
tliird method is participants observation. This involves direct, extensive
observation of an activity, behaviour or relationship. Participant
observation can also inclitde qualitative interviews with the
. informants.
Most of tlie projects, of some development activity or disaster management

require both quantitative and qualitative data. Both have their strengths
and weaknesses. Choosing tlie right and appropriate method for monitoring
will be tlie responsibility of tlie monitoring staff.
Problems of Data Collection Ir

Tlie most important constraint for collection of data is the extent of available
resources. It is i~selessto design a data coilectio~ioperation to reach a widely
dispersed satnple of population or respondents witli tlie use of questionnaires
and in depth interviewing techniques if neither tlie logistic resources to Monitoring
manage such an operation nor the skills to collect and observe accurate data are
available. Another important constraint will be tlie availability or otlieiwise of
the time witliin which tlie complete data is to be collected and analysed.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Froln tlie foregoing description, the importance of proper data collection is

clear. Accurate data processing, analysis and interpretation are equally
ilnportant parts of monitoring for effective decision making. It has often been
see11 that even important data collected by researchers does not get irrterpreted.
I n recent years with the lielp of computers, a large amount of data can be
handled easily and quickly. Tliere is a need to discuss the objectives and goals
of the research with the programmer so that the riglit software could be used for
data analysis. Colnputerisation should be considered carefully during
project preparation stage itself as part of designing of the information system.
In case of lnonitoring of disaster management projects, if an existing and well

tested ~ n a n ~ ~system
al works efficiently and no extensive data gathering is
required, computerisation will not be an immediate concern. ow ever, in
the report preparation, in view of tlie many revisions of tlie draft fro111 time to
time, we can use word processing capability. Computers are helpful in
handling survey data particularly if large number of variables are used in a
survey.
Interpretations, based on proper data analysis can provide useful information

to the decision maker such as about tlle following:
staff performance
a tinie frame for the project
a people's perception about tlie programme
a proper utilisation of funds
a further requirement of financial resources and manpower
* selection of activity measures
major or minor changes required in the activities or programme as a whole.
Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers

1 ) Wliat is the main purpose of data collection?

2) What are the types ofdata collected for monitoring?
3) How are data analysis and interpretation important in monitoring?
,
31.5 LETUSSUMUP
Monitoring is tlie process by which information about progranilne operation
is generated and critically analysed. Monitoring provides feedback to
tlie adniinistrator as to how tlie programmes' nieans and resources are being
utilised and implemented. By monitoring, the decision makers get an idea
about the extent the target group is being served as well as tlie quality and
quantity of work done by the staff. Monitoring gives an idea about the
acceptance of tlie programme by tlie people and the need for changes or
~nodificatio~ls in the activities.
Monitoring can be started right Trom the beginning of the programme just after
tlie identification of goals and objectives, target group,
~netliodology/tecliniqueinvolved, and available resources. Monitoring
generates information .enabling administrative decisions regarding staff
allocation, fit~iding, need for modification or change in objectives,
legal requirenients as well as quality and quantity of services.
There are several methodsltecliniqi~es for monitoring, depending on the

project programme. There may be personal interviews, group discussions,
brief silrveys or large surveys, wliere considerable extent of clata is required. It I
is important to identify tlie correct nietliodology for a project and proper
collection, analysis and interpretation of data. 1
Data may be gathered for three main purposes - description, explanation
and prediction. Si~nilarlydata may be of'two types (i) Qualitative data, which
result in info~mation which can best be described in words and (ii)
Quantitative data - which produce numerical data. The available resources and
time are the two major constraints for the data collection.
Accurate data processing, a~ialysisand interpretation are equally i~nportantparts

of monitoring for effective decision-making. Use of co~nputersis very common
in data processing now-a-days, as they call handle a large amount of data,
particularly if there are more variables. But data should be Iiandled and
processed by skilled, experienced persons to get correct results. I
31.6 KEY WORDS
by Objectives : I t is a process whereiti pilrposes and
goals are stated clearly before resources
are spent, effo11 expended and work
done. It defines each individual's major
areas of responsibi lity in terms of resi~Its
expected.
Retractive Where a revision is permitted.
Sampling It is the task of selection of a small part
of some thing for examination or
analysis in order to estimate the quality
or nature of the whole.
Patton, Michel Q., Qualitative Evaluation Methods, Beverly Hills, Calif. Sage
Publication,l980
Mills, Matliew B. and A.Micliael Huberman Qualitative Data Analysis : A
Source Book of New Metliods, Beverly Iiills, Calif, Sagc Publication,1984
Stanford, Labovitz and Robert Hagedorn, Introduction to Social I<esearcli,
New York : Mc Graw Hill Publication,l971

EXERCISES

0 Monitoring is basically tlie task of appraisal of various aspects relating to a
progralnme or activity.
0 With regard to programme monitoring, it i~ivolvesappraisal of thc extent
to which tlie affected community is being served, appraisal or staff
perfol-mancc, pcoples perception about tlie programme and its
implementation of policies with certain designed standards. laws,
regulation and the short-term and long-term going of the programme in
economic terms.
0 Monitoring ensures that tlie specified standards and legal requirements
are being followed.

0 Monitoring provides necessary information to the decision maker about
tlie gap between the actual and expected performance of programme so
tliat appropriate correction measures can be taken i n timc.
It obtains peoples' response and help in developing pllblic acceplance.
It facilitates reporting activities of programme to the sponsors/donors.
It enables the adlniliistrator to make rational and infoniled decisions
about prograin~neoperations.
It generates specific information about any aspect like staff al location,
funding, quality and extent of services etc. tliat facilitates appropriate
administrative decisions.
Skill Assessment 3) Your answer should include the following points:
e During Pre-disaster phase, monitoring enables timely completion of
programmes and projects. ,
e During Disasters, monitoring helps to maintain a clear picture of the
situation and to take additional decisions as the situation demands.
e During the post-disaster scenario, monitoring helps in effective and
timely use of resources in the programmes for relief and recovery of the
affected community.
e The main purpose of data collection is to gather information for (a)
describing the 'underlying causes, relationship and context of a
phenomenon or process. (b) explaining reasons for its success or failure;
(c) predicting the scene in the future.

e
k
There are two I ain types of data collected for monitoring. They include
(a) Qualitative ata which result in information that can be described (b)
Quantitative data that produces numerical data.
\
3) Your answer should include the followi~lgpoints:

Data analysis and interpretation provide useful information to the decision
maker about the following and are thus important in monitoring.
Staff performance
e Tiine frame for the project
e People's perception about the programme
e Proper utilisation of funds
e Further requirements of financial resources and manpower
e Selection of activity measures
I
e Any major or minor changes required in the activities or performance as
a whole.
UNIT 32 EVALUATION
Structure
32.0 Objectives
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Evaluation: Components and Significance
32.3 Types of Evaluation
32.4 Designs for Effective Evaluation
32.5 Let Us Suln Up
32.6 Key Words
32.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exet*cises
32.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to :
o explain tlie meaning and significance of evaluation;

describe methods and techniques for effective evaluation; and
discuss problems in evali~ationof a project;
32.3. INTRODUCTION
Monitoring and Evaluatio~~are tlie most important parts of prograinme
assessment. There is a very thin line separating the two. Programme
~uonitoringtells us the extent to which programme operations follow
, specilications, whereas evaluation is tlie process by which programme
effectiveness and efficiency are assessed. For example, in a programme of
providing vocational courses for women in a drought-affected area, ~nonitoririg
' tells thc administrator whether there are sufficient staff and technical
resources, and they are correctly implen~entingthe programme's strategy for
imparting appropriate skills. Evaluation shall on the other hand provide
information regarding how the wornen participants have improved their skills.
In other words, evaluation tells 11sIIOW effective tlie programme has been.
%
,
32.2 EVALUATION: COMPONENTS AND

SIGNIFICANCE
Evaluation has two significant components, as follows:
a) Effectiveness
Assess~nentof effectiveness as part of the evaluation process will answer

questiolls like how successful the programme is. For example, in a vocational
rehabilitation programme, how rnaliy people secured and sustained job
place~nents. In temporary shelters of flood affected people, how effective tlie
social hygiene programme was in reducing cases of co~nmr~nicable diseases. In
coordi~latingrelief, how the distribution within the given co~n~nu~iity
was and
whether there was unnecessaly duplication of services.
b) Programme Efficiency
Efficiency is the ratio of programme effectiveness to programme efforts.

Efficiency is mainly related with the cost, in terms of money, time, and
mallpower (stafY) resource. This will help the decision maker to vary his
programme strategies to achieve the desired goals and objectives more
efficiently. This is a very important and useful exercise for administrative
decision-making.
Effectiveriess and efficiency are tlie two essential aspects of evaluation but they
do not necessarily go hand in hand. There are many examples where programme
is very much effective but requires large sums of money, time and staff input.
On the other hand, there are others that are I~iglilyefficient but are limited
in their accomplisliments. Even then, ideally, an efficient and resporisible
administrator attempts to niaxi~niseboth effectiveness and efficiency
through programme evaluation.
32.3 TYPES OF EVALUATION
There are two types of evaluations, viz.
a) Summative Evaluation I
b) Formative Evaluation
Tlie administrator or ilie manager of a programme lias to decide about the

required type of evaluatio~i - whether a Si~~iilnative or Formative type of
evaluation. In Sirrnliiative evaluation, an experimental model is employed.
In a target population, representative sample is selected tlirougli probability
salnpling technique. The sample populatioll is divided into experimental groups
(one group is minimum), which receive a specified and highly standardised
programme intervention, and at least one control group (which receives no
intervention). Measurements prior to intervention are taken on both
experimental and control groups. Similar parameters are noted after the
intervention to determine whetlier changes have taken place that can be attributed
to the prograinme intervention. This type of model requires a lot of statistical
knowledge or consultation, because it raises many technical, practical and ethical
problems for the evaluator. In case this model is used properly, it can explain
about the programme policy and its impact. Research co~isultants~nostlyprefer
this type of evaluation, whereas administrators, who do not want to generate
generalised knowledge 01. do not liave adequate tqclinical or material resources to
implement such model, prefer formative evaluatidn.
1
In formative evaluation, programme objectives and interventions are specified
and translated into measurable indices. Tlie data collected and analysed in this I
evaluation is relatively simple and logical. The formative evaluation is less
costly, requires less expertise and time and has minimum of practical and ethical I
problems. It provides immediate feedback of results, Formative evaluations do I
not generate k~iowledge that can easily be applied to other programmes. 1
They make possible inferences which elaborate cause-effect relatio~idii~s. I
1
Evaluation provides information to tlie administrator to take decisions about
the expansion, reduction (contraction), or modification of any social programme I
during or in the post-disaster situation. There are many decisions such as i

service delivery, staff allocation, intervention strategies and budgetary 1
I
priorities, where evaluation is very 'useful.
i

4
1.
1
-
-
1 ) Wliat do you understand by evaluation? Evaluation
2) Distinguish between monitoriiig and evaluation cvitli examples.
3) Wliat are tlie types of evaluation?
32.4 DESIGNS FOR EFFECTIVE EVALUATION '
, Most of the evaluation strategies are based on research and usually need full titile
staff for implementation. However, in projects of disaster management, self-
evaluation with minimal reliance on research work or dependence on pelmanent
research staff has to be resorted to.
There are six designs that can be used by tlie administrators in lbrmative
evaluation:
(i) The 'After-only' Design - This attempts to measure the results of

programme intervention just after it has taken place. No data are collected
before, the only one measurement is just after the progralnlne intervention.
As a result, it is not possible to determine whether the changes seen in the
recipient community is due to the programme interventions and whether it
can sustain and that too for how long.
\
(ii) Pre-testlpost-test design - In this design, one measurement is taken before
and one after tlie prograrnlne intervention. This design can give correct idea
of changes in the target coinlnilnity after the programme interventions.
Both tlie above designs do not tabe adequate account of internal validity.
I '
iii) Interrupted Time Series' Design - I11 this design, a ' series of
rneasurelnents are taken before the intervention which functions, as
Skill Assessment baseline data and similarly a series of measure~nents taken after the ' ,
intervention, to determine whether changes attributed to tlie programme are
sustainable and stable over a period of time. This design is also not perfect
and controls all factors affecting i~iter~ialvalidity, and not produce
completely undisputable findings which can be generalised for other
projects. But it generates information, whicl~is-highlyinformative about a
specific programme. This design is mainly to study the effectiveness Afthe
programme.
Implementation of Interrupted Time Series Design
There are certain principles for tlie Interrupted Time Series Design, given as
below:
a) Framing Objectives - Identifying the programme objectives to evaluate

the effectiveness of a programme in specific and concrete terms is tlie
first principle. Role clarity that WI-I0 in the programme are expected to
do WHAT to WHOM, WHERE and WHEN. These questions will
help in answering the extent to which objectives are achieved. , ,
The programme objective should be operatio~iallydefined.

b) Intervention Strategy -This should be specified. A complete and
behaviourally specific description of intervention strategy is necessary to
determine whether tlie staff or people involved are providing tlie
required or intended intervention. The specification of intervention
strategy is important for implementing new pkogramme based on
evaluation of previous effectiveness studies. For example, in cholera
vaccination in .te~iiporaryshelters, officyrs claim that the programme
was highly effective and checked tlie epidemic, but if we do not bother to
specify rigorously what medical and paramedical staff did, the evaluation
will not be of any use for any new programme.
c) Baseline Measurements - Variables for measuring effectiveness should
be identified and ieries of nieasurements should be take11 at regular and
appropriate intervals. The measurement conditibns should be
standardised and applied consistently for baseline 4s well as post
intervention measurement.
The baseline data should be represented grapl-jically. Separate
graph for each effective variable is ideal.
d) Programme Implementation - After baseline data, programme
strategy should be introduced and iriterventions shou(d be standardised
so that the target group gets equallsame servichs or treatment.
Immediate, complete and standardised interventions provide clearer
interpretation of the impact of the programme.
' e) Post-intervention Measurements - This should be on tlie same lines as
in collection of baseline information, using the same time intervals, ,
standardised procedures and effective measures. A series of post-
intervention measurements, taken throughout the period of intervention
provide correct comparison of programme effectiveness.
f) Comparing Pre and Post-intervention Patterns - If we make a graph
of the baseline and post-intervention data, trend lines can be compared.
In case tliere is no definite visual trend, means of information or other
statistical methods (correlation, regression etc.) call be applied to
compare the two.
Interrupted Time Series studies nor~nally conducted before new

18 prqirammes, policies or intervention stategies are implemented.
A
iv) Replicated Cross-Sectional Survey Design Evaluation
This type of survey is mainly used to generate infor~nationabout perceptions,

attitudes, beliefs and behaviour of clients who are at various stages of
prograinme processing and imple~iientation. This type of survey design is only
applicable to programmes that are cyclic and continuous and that process
relatively large number of persons. In pro-jects of disaster management, it can be
elnployed in training programmes, counselling programmes and treatment
progranilnes.
Following pri~iciplesfor i~nple~nentation

of Replicated Cross-Sectional Survey
design are important.
a) Identification of Programme Stages if the programme is cyclic.

Sequence of stages more should be determined. These stages will be
sampling stages. A sampling point should be located at the end of each
pre-stage. There should be at least three sampling points - prior to the
programme entry, after interve~itionbegins and after intervention ends.
b) Specifying programme objectives and selection of variables for
measuring effectiveness.
c) Listing of Interventions to be evaluated.
d) Describing the persons at each sampling point and drawing samples.
e) Compare tlie background characteristics of persons at various stages of
tlie programme.
f) Calculation of scores for effectiveness for time sampled groups.
g) Data analysis and interpretation.
v) Comparative Experimental Design
The next design, whicli is mostly used for assessing the relative effectiveness and
efficiency of alter~iativeprogramme interventions is known as " ~ o m ~ a r a t h e
Experimental Design". It measures the impact of interventio~i~s compared to
lion-intervention, This design is most useful when administrator want$ to know
what kind of personnel are most effective in providing services, how much of a
pa~licularservice is most effective and which services are most effective and
efficient.
in disaster situation, when administrative decisions have to be made regarding

services to be provided to the affected community, this technique can be applied.
For comparative experimental design, following principles are taken into
consideration:
a) Identification of programme objectives - components of the

programme and factors, which will be manipulated and compared,
should be carefillly identified with operational definition.
b) Specifying target population and sample.
c) Developi~ignorms for ~noliitoringcosts of programme variations.
d) Allocation of programme recipients in experimelital groups.
e) Taking effectiveness scores prior to intervention.
f) Implementation of intarvention strategies.
g) Measuring effectivenebs after intervention.
h) Data collection, analysis and interpretation.
Skill Assessment After the effectivenes~data is analysed, relative effeCtiveness, costs of the
various interventions and finally cost-effectiveness ratios can be computed for
each intervention. This relativc effectiveness and relative efficiency
information can be used for deciding future programme interventions.
vi) Crossover Comparative Designs
Crossover comparative experimental designs are used to compare the relative

i~npacts of different interventions strategies without denyi~ig any of the
interventions to any of the experi~nental groups, The name itself indicates
that in this evaluation, colnparable groups of clients are given different
inte~.ventions,impact is ~neasured and Illen the ltiids of interventions received
by experimental groups are switched (crossed over) and impacts are again
measured. This way, the effectiveness of every intervention strategy on every
experimental groi~p is assessed. This will provide a greater number of
co~npariso~isthan in lion-crossovel. designs.
Chccli Your Progress 2

ii) check you[ answers with those given at the end of this Unit.
1 ) List the important types of designs used for evaluation.
2) What are the principles of interrupted time series designs?
3) Where is the 'Replicated Cross-Sectional Survey Design' generally used?

Evaluation
,325 LET US SUM UP
Evaluation is the process by which progranime effectiveness and

efficiency are assessed. Effectiveness is the rate of success of programme,
whereas efficiency is the ratio of programlne effectiveriess to programme
efforts. Efficiency is mainly related with the cost, in terms of money, tirne,
I1~11nan resource etc. This helps the decision maker in finding out the relative
costs of varioi~sprogramme strategies to achieve tile same goals and objectives.
Many a times effectiveness and efficiency do not go together. A most
cll'cctivc programme may rec-loire more financial resources, time and manpower.
But ideally, an administrator shou Id take both tlie componc~its into
consideration.
E
There are two basic types of evaluation - Formative and Son~rnative
evaluation.
l'lie selection of design for evaluation is thc most important part. It varies From
p r i ~ i ~to
c t project and depends on evaluation objectives.
Eviluation provides information to thc administrator to take decisions about

the espansion, reduction or tinicly modification of a programme. l'hcre are
decisions such as service delivery, staiT allocation, intervention strategies,
budgetary priorities where evaluation is extremely useful.
32.6 KEY WORDS
lnterve~~lio~~ Progra~nmc or project dealing with a

co~nmunity.
A ~noclelof the population or a subset of the
population that is used to gain infomation about
tlie entirc population.
Ralldomisation By chance; not accorcling to any series or
scheme.
v
Score Points made in an evaluation
Patton, Michel Q., 1980, Qualitative Evaluation Methods. Beverly Hills, Calif.
Sage Publication.
Rossi, P.H. and W.Williams (eds), 1972, Evaluating Social Programmes. New
York : Seminar Press, pp.5-49.
Tripodi, Tony, Phillip Fcl lin and Irwin Epstein, 1971, Social Programme
Evaluation. ltasca 111: F.E.Peacock, pp. 41 -60.
Weiss, Carol H.1972, Evaluation Research. Engle Wood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-
Hall, pp 1-23. ,
Campbell, D.T. and J.C. Stanley, 1963, Experimeuital atid Quasi-
experimental Desig~lsfor Research in N.L. Cage (ed) Handbook of Educational
'
Research, New Yqrk : Rand Mc Nally.
EXERCISES
Chcck Your Progress 1
1 ) Your answer should include the i'ollowing points:

0 Evaluation is !he process by which tlie effectiveness and eficie~icyoi-
programmes are asscssecl.

e Monitoring is the activity that appraises tlie euccution of a progrn~ii~iie
according to the given specifications. For example in a programlne ol
providing vocatio~inl coursc for women in a clrought afrected area.
nio~iitoringinvolves exanlining wheiher these are sufkicient staff and
technical rcsour-ces, tlie progl.amme is iniparting appropsiatc sltills to the
women etc.
a Evali~ationis the process h a t assesses the progrnrnnie cflicie~icyand
effectiveness. Through this activity, it can be cvaluated a5 to 11o\~1iia11y
women have improved their vocational skills ant1 to \vIi:lt cxtcnl.

o Summative Evaluatio~i,wl~ichrec1uil.e~statistical linowledgc a n d it saises
many technical, p~.acticalancl etllical problems.
a For~liative Evaluation, the data collected tllrougll lliis are relatively
simple, logical, requiring less expertise, time and has mini~ilurn of
practical and ethical problems.
Check Yolir Progress 2
1) Your answer slibuld include the following points:

The after-only desigri.
r Pre-testlpost-test design
Interrupted time series design
Replicated cross-sectional survcy clesign
Comparative experimental design
e Crossover comparative designs.
2) Your answer shoulcl include the following points:

Framing objeclives
Intervention strategy
Baseline measul-emcnts
r Programme imple~ilcntation
Comparing the pre and post-interventio~~

patterns.
3 ) Your answer should i~lcludethe I'ollnwing points:

e The replicated cross-sectional survey design is mainly i~sedto generate
information about perceptions, attitudes, beliefs and behaviour ol'clients
wlio are at various stakes of programme processing and implementation.
5 ,
It is applicable to programme that is cyclic and continuous and involve Evaluation
relatively large number of persons.
8 In disaster ~nanagelment projects, it can be e~nployed in training,
counsellit~gand treatment progralillnes.
UNIT 33
Structure
33.0 Objectives
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Understanding Disasters
33.3 Preparedness and Mitigation Techniques
33.4 Relief and Rehabilitation
33.5 Report Writing : Area-based Approach
33.6 Let Us' Sum Up
33.7 Key Words
33.9 Answers to Clieclc Your P~.ogressExercises
33.0 OBJECTIVES
This is the last unit of this course on disaster management. After studying this
unit you sliould be able to:
explain in an overall manner about disaster management;

a highlight the importance of preparedness and ~nitigatio~iin disaster
management;
a discuss the urgency for timely relief and rehabilitation;
describe report writing on the post-disaster scene bringing out relevant
important aspects of information for area- based approach; and
draw lessons from a disaster to handle any likely future event with greater
confidence.
33.1 INTRODUCTION
As you comrnence the study of this unit, you have already gone through the
various aspects relating to disaster ~nanagernentthat are considered necessary for
a basic ilnderstanding of the subject, at the certificate level. This should have,
Iiopefully, awakened a desire in you to seek a more advanced level of
~lnderstandiligfor the benefit of not only yourself but also the colnrn~~nity in
- which you live.
Every post-disaster review in the wake of a calamity should serve the important
purpose of identifying the immediate and long-term needs of the affected
community. Even more importantly, it should enable tlie policy makers and
pla~i~iersto draw appropriate lessons that will enable a likely future disaster to be
handled with greater efficiency, lesser loss of lives and property. We shall
briefly discuss these issues in this unit.
33.2 UNDERSTANDING DISASTERS
The history of tlie world has recorded tlptt all along, natural disasters have
resulted in a very heavy toll of death, destruction and human suffering. Recently
compiled statistics reveal that during tlie period 1971 to 1955, on an average,
disasters killed over 1.2 lnkh .people
.
and affected more than 135.5 mil lion people
every year. Asia and Africa account for inore than 90 per cent of the above. In
India, on an average, 4728 deaths were reported per annum in this period (1971-
95) due to disasters, wliicli affected over 63 million people each year. Table I
gives broad details.
1 T,4RIJE1 : A\c~.:~gcAIIII~:II T o l l t l u c to Disasters (1971-95)
--- -- - - -- .--- - - -- --
I 1
.
ot. t i l e W ~ I - I ~ I
~<c>gioll ] NO. o f tlc:ltiia ~ t ' f c c t c cp~c o p ~ c
S~I[LII.:I~clixr\~c~.,h11cIi :I> [ l ~ o s edire 1 0 c ~ c l o r ~ c(;~ri(I

c i i r ~ I i c ~ ~ r : ~ l l:i~~il\liclcs.
,c~. s
o ~ l i c l~i i,$ l ~\ \ ~ I I L1. I ~
Iloocls. [ i t l i i l \\ ii\,cs. \ olc:~iiic e ~ . ~ i p ~ i o\\r i~l i\l. Iir,ch. ctc. ; i r ~~ l ~ c
ill 1.1iis SILICI!01' o111.s. C'l;ishil'iccl ill [ c r ~ \ i s01'
iliu[[cr..; ol' co11c~i.11 ~ i ~ ~ r i i \01'> c r
1.11~
irlciclcrlts ~ I ' t l i s a ~ r e aritl

r s hy rhc r~ pc 01' ilarL~r.al~liaas[cr..t l u r i r ~ gtlic saiilc ~>cr.ioil
1071-05 ('I';IIJIc 3 ) ; ~ l n i ~ ) hsisr!
l per' ccrir 01'tlisasrci.s asoiiliil rhc \\or.IiI arc clue to
I i s I I l o l ' I ' \ \ r ) siiitl;lc ir1ciclcrlr.s \vcr.c rcspoi~siblc1ii1 . lo55 ol'
[llc
o \ c r a clirarlcr m i l lioii people cacli. 111 the 1 i \ ~ 1 o clcc:lcIcs. Ilic pl.operry 105s clue
lo clis;lstc~'s \\;IS
II;I~LII.;L~ C S ~ ~ I ~ I LO
~ I LIIC
Cbcl\vecu
(I l1.S. $35- I 0 0 hill ioli. 'l'lic Lo~:il
I11s.ses\\oirlcl he c \ c ~Iiiglics
~ allel ilicsc ;ire r,cllcc[i\.c 01'tlic sli;lrre~.c~l
cctirioiiiics
ailel ~ l i s t ~ u l ~social
l c t l s11.~1c[~il-c
1Iiii1 occur. in Ilic \\nl\c ol'clisastcrs.
I TA13LlS 2: W o r l t l w i t l r N a l u i * a l 1)is:lstcl-s (1071-95)
I ...
Silurcc: I)isaslcr-\\;i~cl)."I)O\VN '1'0 I:AR 1.1 I". -3 l Oclohc~~.

1907
_ I .: __I
I 01' \*:lluilblc libcs. Ii~rriinnant1 cntlle. and ~ l i clieavy losscs at 1.11~liancls of

(I\\
Ilnlrill.c arc ccsIairil) no[ incvilablc. 1 l liiay bc true lI1:1l i t may 1101 be ( ~ o s s i b l cto
OI.C\ criL l l i c occur.l.criccs 01' cslrenic ~ i a t ~ r r a
pl1cnc)nicna.
l i n tlic Ii)~.riiol' Iia~arcl:,
like cyclone o r car~licli~nl,c.~ L I L rhc clisnsrcrs llic) r.csull i n can i n o ~ oftcri
l be
1111ligalcd and ~ l i csc\ crit! ol' cl'li.cl blunLctl.
Skill. Assess~nent The world possesses adequate knowledge, which if properly applied, can lead to
saving of lives and mitigation of the destructive impact of natural disasters, 111
fact, SLICII concerted global efforts to reduce the destructive impact of natural
disasters were launched in 1989 when the United Nations General Asselnbly
proclaimed tlie 1990s as the ''ll.~ternational Decade for Nattrral Disaster
Reduction" (IDNDR). The overall primary objective was to rcduce loss of life,
property, damage and economic ancl social disr~tptioncailsed by natiu-al disasters.
After the year 2000 when lDNDR was completed, the UN decicled to continue
disaster reduction programmes under a new programme titled "International
Stratcgy for Disaster Reduction" (ISDR).
The important thing to kccp in mind is that the occurrence of an extreme natural
phenomena (flood, cyclone, etc.) is not a disaster in itself. What leads to a
disaster is the impact of that upon a community that is vi~lnerable to it.
Understanding the natural force is necessary but even more important is the focus
on the people and the infrastructure s~ibjectedto its force.
Every time a disaster takes place and in the wake of the large economic
disrilption caused by it, an analysis of the post-disaster scene takes place
invariably. Worksliops and seminars are held to discuss the varioits aspects of
the tragedy. Invariably one significant conclusion cornes out that the
effectiveness of pre-disaster preventive measures in the mitigation of adverse
effects is high and is achieved at ~nucliless cost as compared to tlle post-disaster
relief and rehabilitation. Most often one of the conclusions drawn after such
discussions is to tlie effect that the main thrust of disaster management should be
shifted from disaster relief to disaster preparedness and disaster mitigation.

1) What is the new U.N. Programme after the completion of IDNDR?
2) What is the main basis for the present day conclusion that the main thrust of
disaster management should be shifted from disaster relief t o disaster
preparediless? -
Review
33.3 PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION
TECHNIQUES
Generally mitigation process is described in four basic steps viz, risk analysis,
plan formulation, preparation for i~nplementation, and implementation and
ma intenance.
I<isl; analysis provides a basis for different options of planned interventions to

reduce tlie risks from natural hazards on settlements and for tlie preparation of
risk profile of a settlement. area or region. This process consists of
s~lccessivesteps of hazard assessment, vulnerability analysis, risk assessment and
risk appraisal.
Plan forni~~lation is to i~nprovetlie risk of profile or a settlement. It does not

limit itscll' to physical planning measures only but extends lo engineering,
filnctio~laland adaptation of inslitutional measures as well. Disnstcr mitigation
planning needs to be comprehensive and will have to review a range of
alternative strategies against clearly laid down criteria so that tlie ob-jectives can
bc met and performance evaluated. Tlie selection of the plan for implenientation
is a policy deciaion and requires the involvement of decision makers.
The preparation of tlie imple~nentationpliasc is the next step. Tlie instruments

for implementation are identified and attuned to the plan proposals and tlie local
conditions. These may relate to legal, Iinancial, land tenure and community
participation aspects oftlie plan implementation.
The final step is i~iiplementatio~land maintenance. This applies itsell'to details

of pro-ject management, phasing, resources, mainte~iance aspects etc. 'The
disaster mitigation process is an iterative one, running through successive steps,
somewhat on the lines of the flow diagram in figure I below.
--I) Scenario
PI Formulalion
<> Selection
lml~lernentation
Preoarntion
Select
Instruments
Irn~~lcmentation
& Maintenance
Figure I - DISASTER MITIGATION PROCESS A(* UNDRO Manual)

Skill Assessment You have already studied the specific ~nannc-rof deal~ngwit11 tlie different types
of natural disasters SLICI~ as floods, eal-tliquakes etc. and all tliese tilitigation
options and processes are applicable to them. An important point to keep in view
is that it will not be always possible to make a clear distinction bctween pre-
disaster planning and post-disaster planning. Post disaster planning loolcs back in
the light of what lias happened, tlie darnage that has occurred etc., to mitigate the
effects, not only this timc, but also in fi~turesimilar situations. Pre-disaster
planning, on the other hand, looks into tlie future, anticipating an event wit11 the
intention of mitigating its consequences. Certain actions are not possible in
certain types of situations. Prevention co~nprises steps tliat are taken to fillly
protect lives arld property. IFor example, a storage dam upstream that is designed
to co~npletelystore tlie flood water or a carefillly i~nplenientedbypass channel
that reduces tlie originally anticipated high flood in a downstream location.
Mitigation makes the disastei. less severe, but may not totally nullify its effects.
In tlie post-disaster oriented approach, preparedness colnprises several types of
warning systems such as correct and timely cyclone warnings. Later the relief
phase takes care of evacuation, supply oCreIieCarlicles, sheltcr, social care etc.
Eve~ydisaster becomes an educative tool to reflect on the inadequacies in the

existing method of ~iianagingdisasters, and if we are able to draw the riglit
lessons there from, it will enable improved disaster manage~nentin the future. It .
will be WOI-lliwhileto study some case studies of this type, international and
national, in this context.
The Tangshan earthquake in China in 1976 was one wIiicli caused huge loss of
life and property. All kinds of structures were severely damaged. 60% of
highway bridges and 40% of railway bridges suffered damage. After the
earthquake, exteiisive field observations and investigations were carried out by
many professional teams. Many lessons were learnt.
While hundreds of multistoried brick buildings collapsed, those few tliat did not
collapse liad reinforced concrete columns, connected witli closed ring beanis at
each floor at the junction of longitudinal and transverse walls. This led to tlie
important less011 tliat tlle above measures could delay the shear cracks and
increase the capability of preventing collapse. It was also found tliat roof
structures fell down due to breaking of columns at tlie bottom or at points of
cross-sectional change. Also weakness of bracing systems between roof frames
and between columns caused longitudinal collapses.
No collapse occurred in industrial buildings witli strong columns, light weight

roofs and perfect bracing systems, as well as in buildings with folded plate roofs.
Nearly all of the ten thousand chimneys in Tangslian were destroyed but brick
cliinineys with vertical reinforcements anchored to ring beams were intact.
Chimneys witli vertical and circumferential steel angles, or straps, by way of
strengthening proved to be effective.
A number of buildings, which liad been strengthened after an earthquake in

Tialijin in 1975, suffered little daiiiagc in tlie 1976 quake. For instance over
60,000 sq. meters of buildings of Tianjin power plant had beeti strengthened
before tlie Tangslian quake and none,of these collapsed in the 1976 shock.
As a result of tliese tlie building design code for Industrial and civil buildings
earlier pub1 islied in 1974 was revised after the 1 976 slioclc. Similar design codes
for liydraulic structures, roads and bridges etc. were also undertaken.
Each destructive disaster is to be taken gs the nature's way of testing on a large

scale of our structures, equipments and disaster mitigation capability and of tlie
ability to draw timely lessons from nature.
The recent Indian experience in ter~iisof the Uttarlcaslii ea~-lIiqualteof October Review
1991 has bcen disc~~ssed in the earlier units. Similarly tlie manner of tlie disaster
mitigation resortcd to the Latur qualie of September 1993 and the lessons learnt
(liere from was also discussed earlier. Lessons are still being drawn from the
Bli~!j (Gijarat) ~a~-tIiqualce
of J a n ~ ~ a26,
r y 2001 described in an earlier Unit.
~ o s damaged
t liouses in Uttarkaslii were of poor quality, built in fieldstone
Llsiligclay in place of mortar. Tlie buildings in Uttarkaslii were classifiable
ill [our broad types and each performed differently in tliis qualte. Over 20,000
houses were fi~llydestroyed and three to four times tliat number partially
cla~iiaged.Tlie lessons learnt in this qualie were:
1) Tlie rural stone houses were one to two-storeyed witli average ~,lintIisize
2.4m x 4m floor area, witli intermediate tloor being wooden declc type and
pitched roofs consisting of slates resting on woodcn purlins and round wood
rafters. Random stone walls were dry packed or set in mi~dmortar. All sucli
liouses were destroyed.
2) In Uttarlcaslii town also ~iiaximuniclamage occurred to old stone masonry
houses. Buildings constructed in cement, mortar :~ncl tliosc witli scis~nic
bands suf'ered only minor damages.
3) Buildings in tlie Irrigation colony at Mancry \vcrc mostly two-stolaeyedusing
cement concrctc solid bloclis in cemcnt mo~-tarwitli reinl'ol.ced cement
concrete slab floor and pitched roof on \voode~i rafters and CGI roof
cove~.i~ig.Tliey did not have seismic bands hut mere having vertical steel
bars at corners. None of these collapsecl, tlic)~~pli
located within I0 km froni
the epicenter, but sonie of them had serious damage to walls in the first
storey.
4) 'The liouses in Ilie Indo-Tibetan Border Force colony at Maliitanda built by
CPWD to coda1 specifications including a seismic band as per Indian
Standards were generally of single or double storey witli cement concrete
blocks in cement mortar. Roofs were either sloping RCC slabs or CGI sheet
on wooden purlins. 'There was no damage to them except for some minor
cracking.
These revealed structural weaknesses, planning defects and construction and

maintenance defects. Based on tliis experience, appropriate rec~mmendations
had been made for the type of safe constr~~ction tliat should be encouraged in
SLICII areas as also the manner of retrofitting nceded.
We have studied here in some detail, what lessons were learnt from past disasters
triggered by eartliqualces. Similar literature exists about the lessons learnt from
past cyclone and flood havocs wliich had enabled a better planning for managing
tlic likely future disasters of similar types. It is worth reiterating tliat a review of
the details of how a disaster situation was managed and with what results is an
important necessity to enable appropriate lessons being drawn there from. These
alone will enable improved planning and implementation of disaster mitigation in
tlie future.
33.4 RELIEF AND REHABILITATION

I
Relief and rehabilitation come immediately after tlie disaster. Tlie basic
difference between them is tliat relief relates to tlie immediate days and weelcs
after tlie disaster when attempts are made to provide basic needs like food,
clothing, shelter, medicine, etc. to tlie victims. Reliabilitation relates to the work
undertalcen in tlie following weeks and niontlis, for the restoration of basic
services to enable the pop~~latiolito return to nor~iialcy.
Skill Asscssmelit We have already studied the various aspects of these activities in the earlier ~units.
The policy on disaster management, as at present in vogue, seeks to provide
relief and arouse tlie energies of social groups, NGOs etc. in the total organised
effort to ensure the least darnage to tlie affected population due to the natural
calamity. Lives must be saved and deterioration and destitution of people
prevented. It also aims at, co~nrnunityeffort and shaping the infrastructure of
society s~rclithat recurrence of scarcities and other calamities are minilnised.
The approach of moving away from crisis management to risk nianagemetit

initiated some two decades back and thereafter to integrated disaster
preparedness involving reliable early warnings, carefully planned emergency
response and better community preparedness has also been found to be highly
rewarding in as much as notable success was achieved in reaching ti~uelyrelief
in recent years.
A comparison of the major cyclones which resulted in disasters in 1977 and

again in 1990 in Andhra Pradesh underlined tlie beneficial role of disaster-
preparedness strategy. While both had similar destructive potentials, the loss of
lives was drastically reduced from 10,000 in 1977 to 91 0 in.1990. Similarly the,
loss of cattle came down from 230,000 in 1977 to 27,000 in 1990.
Sin~ilarlyin the wake of ~~nprecedented floods in August 1984 in the Godavari

river in Andlira Pradesli (A.P.) based on Central Water Commission's timely and
accurate flood-forecasts and war~iings,the A.P. Govt. was able to niove over one
million people who were living within 10 km of flood banks to places of safety.
There are many more instances to show tlie preparedness approach as superior in
dealing with relief and rehabilitation. This also points to the importance of
preparing a detailed, factual and documented account of every disaster and the
manner in which relief and reliabilitation were handled and tlie results thereof in
a comprehe~lsivemanner. Each disaster situation must thereafter be reviewed to
draw appropriate lessons for the future. Unfortunately, such detailed records are
not available for most disasters of tlie past in the requisite details. Another
matter of importance is the need to avoid exaggerated or inadequate
docunientation of the effects of a disaster. Most often, in recent decades, there
had been a tendency to exaggerate liigllly tlie adverse effects and damages
allegedly suffered in order to arouse sympathies or to obtain greater relief grants.
-
This tendency needs to be eschewed.
The National Flood Commission in its report (1980) had drawn pointed attention
to this aspect as under:
-
"It may be stated at the outset that the available data, which we have used, suffer
from many deficiencies. These generally stem from factors like inability of the
primary reporting agencies to assess the magnitude of the ilood damages
objectively, human bias in reporting, arbitrary methods adopted in estimating
yields and crop values, absence of a suitable mechaliism for supervision,
checking and lack of coordination at the lower levels between concer~led
departments of the Govt. Possibility of deliberate distortion of these statistics
with a view to gaining some governmental assistalice and concessions in some
areas also cannot be ruled out.. . .."
In-depth disaster case studies should be prepared as soon as possible after the
event. Further, these should be archived and disseminated widely and may be
put on INTERNET as well. These case studies need to be multi-disciplinary and
multi-functional. There can be no rigid format for all places or all types of
events. However, a certain basic format has evolved over the years and the past
' 30 cases reported will serve as some guide.
As a result of National Workshops on 'Building up of National Capability to Review
cope with Disasters' held only a few years back, another important dimension of
the two distinct components of Disaster mitigation viz. preparedness and relief
was pointedly focused upon. Even though communities and .their administration
plari and execute policies and strategies appropriate to the req~~ire~nents
of both
tllese domains, there is a subtle difference. Disaster relief involves adequate
illfrastructural set LIP and quick response on tlie part of the entire system,
primarily dealt with by governments and institutions. On the other hand, disaster
peparedness is a conti~iuousprocess which has to illvolve all sections of society.
This points out the important role of local communities and local institutions,
wIlicli need to create and sustain disaster preparedness.
33.5 REPORT WRITING: AREA-BASED APPROACH
No place in India seems to be free from the likelihood of occurrence of disaster

of one type or the other. Some states or regions suffer repeatedly and others now
and then. it becornes obvious that an area sliould be prepared to face the
different types of disaster situation that it is likely to face. Hence, an area-based
npproacli to disaster proneness and disaster mitigation is essential.
For any area, detailed knowledge sbould be generated and tlie following aspects
require focused attention:
A chronological and spatial study of affected areas in their pl~ysical

environment
Inventoried details of individual disasters that had struck the area
Evaluative study of the rehabilitation measures
Detailed study of various relief measures at the local, regional and national
levels
Availability and adaptability of new technology to help local situations and
possible dissemination patterns
Study of infrastructure development in the affected areas
Study of socio-economic profile of the area and changes therein
Such other specific aspects to suit o,ne type of disaster or other

1 ) List tlie four basic steps in the Disaster Mitigation process.

Sltill Assessment 2) List the i t e m on which detailed knowledge should be generated in writing to
enable adoption of an area-based approach in reporl writing.
33.6 LET US SUM UP
We have now reached tlie end of the course. The overall ob-jective in Disaster
Management is to reduce loss of livcs, properly dalnagc and economic and social
disruption ca~isedby natural disasters. Our attempt presenl.ly is to reorient the
approach to pre-disaster planning and preparedness even sustaining and further
improving post-disaster relief and management capabilities. Tlie public attitude
which was so far accustomed to passive acceptance of the coliseqLlences of
disasters should be turned towards disaster mitigation, i~tilisingthe opportunities
of pre-planning, prevention, warning, preparedness and increased application of
science, technology and research. Cooperation of NGOs and involvement of
communities are essential atid sliould be ensured.
Every past disaster is a text book case st~tdyto enable tlie co~nrnunityto face a
future likely disaster situation with greater ability and better management. The
preparation of actual case studies should be realistic, factual, accurate and cover
all relevant aspects eschewing bias to achieve some hidden agenda. These need
to be reviewed competently to draw lessons for the future.
33.7 KEYWORDS
Natnral Hazard An extreme natural phenomenon capable

of causing a disaster.
Hilznrd Assessmcnt The process of identifying tlie probability
of occurrence of a hazard of a given
intensity in a specified area based on an
analysis of natural processes and site
conditions,
Risk The probability of an expected loss in a
given area triggered by a natural hazard to
an infrastructure system and tlie people.
Risk Appraisal The process of identifying risks in specific
areas or specific infrastructure system and
quantifying the risk in social and
economic terms.
I
Disaster Preparedness The reduction of disaster impact by
requisite anticipatory planning and action.
Disaster Management Tlie efficient use of resources to
coordinate tlie process of relief, recovery
and reconstruction.
Mitigation Actions talcen to reduce tlie risk to lives
and property and disruption from a natural
hazard.
Review
Raslitriya Barli Ayog (National Flood Commission) Report Vol. I & 11,
Government of India, Ministry of Energy and Irrigation, March 1980.
I~idu.Prakash, Disaster Management, Rashtriya Prahari I'rakaslian, 1994.
Vinod K. Sharma (ed), Disaster Marzagenzent, Indian Institute of Public
Administration, Reprint 1995.
UNDRO, Disuster A4itigution: A Manual for Plunners, Policy M~zkersund
Cot~znzunities1988.
Nattiral Disaster Reduction - (eds.), Reliance
G.K. Mislira and G.C. Matli~~r,
P~~blisliing
House and IIPA, New Dellii 1995.
Ye Yao xian and Liu xiliui, Experience in Engineering from Earthquake in
Tangslian and Urban Control of Eartliqual<eDisaster, 1979.
Centre for Regional Development, Proceedings of tlie International Seniinar on
Regional Development Planning for Disaster Mitigation - UN, Japan, 1986.
Proceedings of CAPART workshops on strengthening of community
~~articipation
in disaster reduction, 1995.

EXERCISES
Check Uour Progress 1
1 . Your answer S I I O L I I ~ include tlie following points.
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)
2. Your answer slio~~ld
include the following points.
0 Effectiveness of tlie pre-disaster preparedness and preventive nieasures is
high and visible as compared to post-disaster relief measures.
Tlie pre-disaster preparedness measures are achieved at much lesser cost.
Clieck Uour Progress 2
1. Your answer sliould include tlie following points.
Risk A~ialysis
0 Plan formulati011
Preparation for implementatioti
? ,'
Implc~nentationand maintenance
2. Your answer slio~~ld
include tlie following points.
A chro~idogjcaland spatial study of the affected area.
0 Inventoried details of individual disasters that struck tlie area in the past.
Evaluative st~ldyof the rehabilitation measures that were taken.
Detailed account of various relief measures at the local, regional and
national levels. ,
Availability and adaptability of new technology.
0 Study of the infi-astr~~cture
develop~nentin the affected area.
0 Study of socio-economic profile of tlie area and changes therein.

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CDM-01 Foundation Course in Disaster

U N I FD~ISASTER :MEANING, FACTORS

discuss the meaning, definitions and types of disasters,

1.2 MEANING OF DISASTERS

1 ) Disaster is a sudden or great ~nisfortune,calamity. (Concise Oxford

Tlie severity of a disaster situation is usually recltoned in ternis of loss of life or

1.2.2 Distinction Between Hazard and Disaster

A liazard is a potential for a disaster. A liazard becomes a disaster when it hits an

1.2.3 Distinction Between Natural and Man Made Disasters

Disasters are classified ~ ~ n d various

i) Wind related - Storm, Cyclone, Tornado, Storm surge, Tidal waves,

1.3 NATURE OF DISASTERS

In this approach, vulnerability and impacts are cotisidered in terms of patterns of

4) Developmental Studies Approach

It considers problems of providing aid and relief, migration management, health

5) Disaster Medicine and Epidemiology

It focuses on the management of mass casualties, the treatment of severe physical

Clleclt Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers,

1) What do you meall by hazard and clisastel-'?

2) Discuss briefly the niajor types of tlie natural disasters.

3) Briefly describe any four approaches regarding nature of disaste~.~.

1.4 AGGRAVATING FACTORS OF DISASTERS

Tlie severity of tlie in~pactsof each disaster is recltoned in terms of deaths,

increased by the fol lowing aggravating factors.

Transitions in Cultural Practices

1 Many disasters are either caused or aggravated by environmental degradation.

Drought conditions may be intensified by deforestation, overgrpzing, the stripping

Lack of awareness and proper infol.rnation usually coriverts a liazard into a

War alirl Civil Strife

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE AND REPERCUSSIONS

results in ma-jor setbaclts to thc

In local terms, tlie requirements of the communi~yneed realistic assess~nenttaking

Checli Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

1 ) Discuss briefly tlie aggravating factors of disasters.

3 ) Discuss some irnpol-tant areas of the significance and repcl.cussion of disaster

1.7 KEY WORDS

Anthropological: Related to sti~dyof liuman beings with regard to the e+olution of

1.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Carter, W.Nick, 1991. Di.scrsier Mclnuge/net?l: A Di.scr.stcv M L I I I L . ~ fI~m~/boo/c,

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1 ) Your answer should include tlie following points:

After studying this Unit, you sliould be able to: ,

e discuss disasters i n the global context

3.1 INTRODUCTION '

3.2 DISASTERS: GLOBAL AND REGIONAL

3.2.2 Regional Context

Landslides are an increasingly comnlon occurrence in the hilly areas of the

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

2) Discuss disasters in tlie GlobaI context.

3) Briefly describe tlie disasters i n the regional context of South Asia.

I 3.3 EFFORTS TO MITIGATE DISASTERS

T l ~ emost sig~iificantglobal effort made in recent times to mitigate tlie effects of

The objective of IDNDR was to reduce through concerted international action,

1, comprehensive national assessnients of risks from natural hazards, and

The major conference of the IDNDR programme held in Yokohama (Japan) in

Continuing tile efforts lo increase awareness,

Monitoring and Hazard Assessment of Seismic Disturbances

Though eartliquakes are as yet unpredictable hazards, monito~.ingof seis1n.i~

Checlc Yonr Progress 2

Note: i) 1Jse the space give11 bclow for your answcrs.