Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Proceedings
First Conference on
Ground Control
Problems in the
Illinois Coal Basin
Editors
Yoginder P. Chugh and A. Van Besien
.SYMPOSIUM SPONSORED BY
June, 1980
FOREWORD
J4U. ~~ ,"___
June 1980 Yoginder P. Chug
Conference Co-Ch person
Department of Mining Engineering
Southern Illinois University at Carbondale
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD . . . . ii
SESSION I
SESSION II
"The Loss of Natural Moisture Content and Its Effect on the Mechanical
Properties of Some Pennsylvanian Shales from the Illinois Basin" by
Robert A. Bauer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
SESSION III
ARTIFICIAL SUPPORTS
Page
SESSION IV
LONGWALL MINING
... "Rock Mechanics Studies at the Old Ben Coal Company Mine 24" by Leroy
P. Kettren and Kerry A. Johnston . . . . . . . . . . . 208
SESSION V
SUBSIDENCE
Session Co-Chairpersons:
Mr. A. Van Besien, C~rbondale Mining Technology Center
U.S. Department of Energy
M. E. Hopkins
Consulting Geologist
Harry Williamson, Inc.
Benton, Illinois
Illinois-65.7 billion tons (81% deep) For the No. 6 and No. 5 coals, and
Western Kentucky-12.6 billion tons probably for others as well, the
(69% deep) thickest deposits are found in belts
Indiana-10.6 billion tons (84% deep) several miles wide on either side of
prominent drainage courses, now
Room-and-pillar mining has been the mappable as extensive coal cutouts as
method employed in most of the mines, shown for Illinois (Figs. 1 and 2). The
and recovery seldom exceeds 50 percent No. 6 Coal (Fig. 1) has wider develop-
over the area of the mine. Where sur- ment of thicker coal (7 feet or more)
face subsidence rights are controlled, than the No. 5 (Fig. 2). The channel
this percentage can be increased. system with the No. 6 Coal is also
Longwall mining, after several unsuc- wider, indicating a larger, or more
cessful attempts, is increasing, but long lasting, stream system, than is
its application will generally be con- the case for No. 5 Coal. (The major
fined to those areas where surface ea~t-west sandstone c::ut.out in southern
subsidence rights are, or can be, Illinois, portrayed on Fig. 1, which
controlled by the operating company. shows no relation to coal.thickness, is
filled with Anvil Rock Sandstone, a unit
Mining Conditions stratigraphically much ~onnger than the
prominent north-south Walshville
The most important characteristics of Channel, the channel system associated
the Illinois Basin coals which make for with thicker coal, gray shale roof and
the well-known high mine productivity low-sulfur coal.)
are: persistence of thick, relatively
parting-free coals; gentle dips; rela- Depth of Mining
tively dry conditions; low methane
liberation; and generally good roof The deepest large mine ever to have
conditions. The only widespread un- operated in the basin is currently ac-
desirable 'characteristic, as compared tive; the shaft is about 950 feet deep.
to other mining areas, is the relatively The deepest known was a small mine
soft floor, a condition resulting from operating many years ago at a depth of
the almost universal presence of poorly more than 1,000 feet. The greatest
consolidated underclay (or "fireclay") depth that the No. 5 CoAl attains over
immediately beneath the coal. Most of a substantial area is slightly less
the mining problems in areas charac- than 1,300 feet (about 1,250 feet for
terized by coal of adequate thickness the No. 6). This is in the large
results from variations in the quality relatively fl~t-hottom central part of
of roof strata. the basin in Jasper County, Illinois.
(Locally, greater depths, up to at least
Thickness 1,800 feet, are found in down-dropped
fault blocks in western Kentucky.)
Coals presently being mined by under- Most of the present underground mining
ground methods in the Illinois Basin is in areas where the No. 6 Coal is
vary from about 4 feet up to about 8 300 to 500 feet deep but several large
feet, with the average being at least mines are in the 600- to 800-foot range.
6 feet. In order for the 4- to 5-foot Serious mining problems related to depth
coals to be competitive, market or are not to be expected in the major
transportation factors must be parti- coals, which do not exceed the 1,300
cularly favorable, such as shipping by foot depth as mentioned above for the
river barge or being a part of a large No. 5 Coal.
complex which includes strip mines
(such as a mine with portals driven off Mining problems do result from shallow
of a strip highwall). It is expected in depths. Where shallow mining occurs
the future that the average thickness under valleys, or under glacial drift-
will gradually decline, as the thicker filled bedrock valleys, poor roof and/or
coals are exploited at a faster rate. wet conditions may cause ground control
3
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and/or water problems. The glacial sulfur, for the most part, is con-
drift, composed of unconsolidated clays, sidered as a product of marine con-
silts or sands, has very little strength ditions occurring immediately after
and acts primarily as a "dead load." coal accumulation.
Also, the silts and sands (and occa-
sional gravels) are commonly good Black Shale/Limestone Areas
aquifers. Any breaks in the roof may
become avenues for water movement into Stratigraphic variation in the
the mine. Generally speaking, 100(+) immediate roof of the coal is the most
feet of bedrock is desirable, but good important factor in affecting the roof
conditions are known to occur with less quality. This has been most often
overburden if competent rocks such as documented in the case of the No. 6
limestone are present in the roof Coal in Illinois. Local depositional
sequence. conditions resulted in lenticular
occurrences of the Brereton Limestone
Roof Conditions as illustrated in Fig. 5. Here the
Brereton Limestone has pinched out and
Relative to the general nature of the the Anna (black) Shale has thinned.
rocks overlying the Herrin (No. 6) and
Springfield-Harrisburg (No. 5) coals, ___ Th.e much weaker Lawson Shale,
there are two general types (Figs. 3 char~cterized by poor bedding and
and 4). Over most of the basin, the abundant slickensides, has much more
coals are overlain immediately and influence on the roof quality over the
abruptly by up to 5 feet of hard, central mine entry. A roof fall might
black, "slaty" shale which is, in turn, occur as shown by the arched configura-
overlain by a limestone unit of similar tion of th~ dashed line. In this case
thickness in the case of No. 6 Coal and roofbolt holes have been drilled into a
generally less than 2 feet in case of lense of Anvil Rock Sandstone, the
the No. 5. Both of these units contain localization of which may have been
marine fossils. In places, especially determined by the thinner interval
with the No. 6 Coal, the black shale between it and the top of the coal.
pinches out and the limestone consti- Although not a good aquifer, this
tutes the immediate roof. This black sandstone has been observed to be a
shale/limestone roof condition is source of water leaking into the mine.
characteristic of the typical ''high- A roof fall would also expose more
sulfur" Illinois Basin coals. sandstone, thus increasing its water
yield.
The second general roof type is
silty gray shale which may be as Appropriate control might prevent a
much as 60 feet (occasionally 100 feet) roof fall in the case of Figure 5.
thick. This shale, more localized than Extra long bolts (extending into the
the black shale/limestone roof type, competent Bankston Fork Limestone),
occurs stratigraphically between the epoxy-grouted bolts, rail bars, or
coal and the black shale/limestone. other techniques, might provide
It is associated with a large fluvial/ successful control. Normal conditions,
deltaic complex which is characterized where the limestone and black shale are
by extensive channel sandstone deposits, both present are found in the two out-
split coal, and "wash-outs." Marine side entries and roof quality should be
fossils are generally rare with land good. There are also extensive areas
plants being the dominant fossil form. where the Brereton Limestone is the
The stream complex existed during and immediate roof and here, roof conditions
~fter coal accumulation. are usually excellent.
Normally, the coals under these gray These variations discussed above have
shales are much lower in sulfur than the been observed in many mines throughout
same coal in adjacent black shale/ Illinois and have also been identified
limestone roof areas. The increase in in drilling for potential new mining.
6
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Fig. 4. Generalized roof-character of the Springfield-Harrisburg (No. 5) Coal.
Isopachs show thickness of Dykersburg (gray) Shale. Areas with more
than 20 feet of Dykersburg are hachured.
o s to J=T.
I I I I ~
0 \ Z 3 M.
~OR 12.. 4 V~RT.
5C.ALJ;:
Sh oo
Fig. 5. Generalized section of strata over No. 6 Coal in area of black shale/limestone
roof type. Potential roof fall in middle entry where the Brereton Limestone
has pinched out.
9
BA~KSTO~
. A ~V\ L. : RO.C.K. .
55." C. w.iw~~L .
-
Fig. 6. Cross section showing mining in No. 6 Coal in area of Anvil Rock
channel~ which interrupts the normal black shale/limestone continuity.
VE:RI\LAL
J:'T. M.
WOR\ZO~TAL
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Bibliography
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
, . - / Subcrop
Walshville channel,
coal missing
- Coal eroded
1t Underground mine
~ Surface mine
0 50 km
I F3 F3 I
Figure 1. Distribution of the Herrin (No. 6) Coal in Illinois. (From Krausse et al.l2)
17
Modesto Fm.
of the
Mcleansboro Gr.
dale Fm.
Figure 2. Schematic section of the interval between the Herrin (No. 6) Coal and the Piasa Limestone
(from Krausse et a1.1,2 after a sketch by G. J. Allgaier).
but also in other areas (fig. 3). The medium-gray, poorly laminated shale,
second class of transitional roof is silty to nonsilty, and (3) areas of
the pod-type transitional roof, in sandstone and siltstone, often planar-
which Energy Shale occurs in pods that bedded, near the Walshville channel.
are from a few'tens of feet to a few Other rock types have also been ob-
hundred feet across, and vary in thick- served_ in mine roofs, but they are
ness from 2 to 10 feet. The pods of less common than those mentioned above.
gray shale are overlapped by the rock As we have noted, the Energy Shale
units comprising the black shale-lime- coarsens upward and toward the Walsh-
stone roof type. ville channel.
i !_., !
I l_ _____ !
j(;iluNov-1
j I !
1 r---------1
l ____ j :
I KANKAKEE !
i !
r-:-I iRoouo;s-----~
.
I
I,.
OC::::=====<=::::E==:!340 mi
/
I ,
./
" \.
( ,
'
\ MUNHUE
.
.._- ( '
'-,\ __ _
. -'1
. , .
.AtJ!J!j Walshville channel, coal missing'? .
~ .. \_'_"\. ... , /
d . ~
---Channels of Anvil Rock Sandstone :_
coal missing ' .. ~--;;ality rcle" j
;~J~ioN'- .L.._ JOHNSON-1,-P'oPi--T. HA'FioiN
I>:>:>:>:J Gray shale roof type \ .1 1 1
\ ! . ; -----'
ltff)f~I~fl Black shale-limestone ., I ! , J
roof type rt--!---i.-.(Miss~,, /
.. '+ (PULASKI L '
( "i ; .-- -...... , \
Wedge-type transitional \, ~ i / ,_____ .I i
roof : 1,..:-/ .... _j,'
'- ..... , .-
,) '\
~Pod-type transitional
roof
ISGS 1 80
Figure 3. Regional distribution of roof typesof the Herrin (No. 6) Coal in Illinois.
19
. . . . . . ......
Figure 4. Schematic section of lithologies and structures of gray shale roof type.
silt-free, poorly laminated shale or Mechanical bolts with anchors all set
mudstone, to a massive or faintly to the same height may exacerbate the
laminated siltstone. problem by placing all the weight on
a single bedding plane (fig. 6). Thus,
In general, the finer grained types it is not uncommon to see massive roof
of shale are more susceptible to falls in this siltstone or sandstone
moisture-slaking and fail more readily that propogate upwards after the
than the silty shales. Massive falls initial fall (fig. 7). Resin bolts,
are common in the softer mudstones, or mechanical bolts of varying length,
particularly in entries subjected to or trusses probably would provide
varying temperatures and humidity. better roof control in this kind of
Carbonaceous partings and streaks of planar-bedded rock.
coal ("riders") are also blamed for
many roof falls. In some mines, how- Additional problems appear when
ever, little trouble has been encoun- the sandstone contains water. Where
tered with the roof where wide areas water-bearing sandstone overlies gray
of the medium-gray shale exist. shale, the water may weaken the shale
below and cause severe roof instabil-
Siltstone and sandstone. Coarse- ity. Of course, the water creates
grained clastic rocks are not common unpleasant working conditions for
in the roofs of most mines except in miners, and may cause heaving of the
those close to the Walshville channel, underclay in the mine.
where such rocks may lie close to or
directly upon the coal (fig. 4). The Other features hampering mining
texture, composition, and stability of near the Walshville channel include
these clastic rocks vary considerably. split coal, steeply dipping coal,
Well-cemented, massive siltstones and large rolls, wash-outs, and compac-
sandstones make excellent roof materi- tional faults (fig. 4). MOre informa-
al, but they are relatively rare in tion on these features can be found in
the Energy Shale Member. Thinly Nelson 5 and Krausse et al.~ 2
laminated and planar-bedded siltstones
and sandstones, with abundant mica and Rolls. Characteristic structural
carbonaceous plant debris on the features of gray shale roof are rolls--
bedding surfaces, are more common in elongate protrusions of roof material
this member. This rock separates into the coal seam. They are generalzy
into slabs along partings, and is lens-s~aped in cross sections and are
notoriously difficult to support. separated from the main roof by one or
A B c D E F G H I
7
....
\.;~
Major roof fall
~ ,/ Symmetrical roll
--_
upper ponlon of Energy Shale
l-_;-----
1
A 8 c D E F G H I
Figure 5. Patchy distribution of dark- and medLum-gray shales and occurrence of.rolls in a. study area vdthin the gray shale
roof ~--'! (from Krausse et al.2).
21
,=---==-=-- Laminated
=---==-= siltstone--sandstone
Coal
1979
Figure 9. Large complex roll of sandstone and siltstone (from Krausse et al. 2 ).
Direction of striations
...----
--
Boundary between rock units
--- _,....
Boundary of shear body
A B c 0 E H I
Figure 10. Outline and major shear structures of the shear body in mine B (from Krausse et al. 2 ) Numerous roof failures are
almost entirely attributable to intensive shearing of rocks within the shear body (compare fig. 5).
24
thick, it rarely fails and provides a with dark-gray, carbonaceous shale and
solid stratum for anchoring roof bolts lenticular, shaly limestone with coal
(fig. 12). The best conditions are stringers. The coal and shale are a
where thick limestone directly over- weak zone in the succession and the
lies the coal, although slabbing of the roof may separate along them unless
basal shaly "clod" may still be a roof the Brereton Limestone is well devel~
hazard (fig. 15). oped (greater than 2 to 2~ feet thick).
calcareous fossiliferous shale. Shale and the Anvil Rock Sandstone have
Except in southwestern Illinois, the little effect on roof control.
Conant Limestone is thin (less than
1 foot thick) and adds only limited Clay dikes and clay-dike faults. Clay
strength to the roof succession. It dikes are irregular vertical or in-
is not a secure zone for anchoring clined intrusions of clay along fis-
roof bolts except in the rare instances sures in the coal and overlying strata.
where it exceeds 2 feet in thickness. Wherever clay-dikes are not vertical,
they are associated with faults and
Lawson Shale. The Lawson Shale is called clay-dike faults; 1,2 these clay-
generally 5 to 15 feet thick in west- dike faults often pass laterally into
central and southwestern Illinois west clay dikes.l,2,12,13,14
of the Du Quoin Monocline. East of the
monocline, the Lawson Shale is 30 to 50 Clay dikes and clay-dike faults are
feet thick, and usually consists of abundant in most mines with black
laminated medium- to dark-gray, often shale-limestone or pod-type transition-
silty shale and siltstone. Since the al roof. They are less frequent in the
Brereton Limestone is persistently gray shale and the transitional roof
thick and competent in this region, the types of southern Illinois. Clay dikes
Lawson Shale is rarely exposed in roof and clay-dike faults are common in the
falls. To the west, where the Lawson northwestern, west-central, and south-
Shale is thinner, it is commonly ex- western parts of the Illinois Basin
posed because of failure of the under- Coal Field, but are scarce in the
lying units. From St. Clair County southern and southeastern parts of the
northward, the usual lithology is dark- field.l2,13 Little is known of their
gray to greenish, mottled, poorly distribution outside of mined areas.
bedded shale or claystone. This is a
weak unit; it otten falls from the base Krausse et al. 1,2 documented that the
of the Bankston Fork Limestone (fig. local distribution and orientation of
16). In Randolph and Perry Counties, dikes and clay-dike faults is strongly
the Lawson Shale is well bedded, cal- influenced by lithologic patterns in
careous, and often interlayered with the immediate roof of the coal (fig.
limestone. This material is strong, 13). Clay-dike faults and dikes run
and falls are rare even where the subparallel with boundaries between
Brereton Limestone is thin or missing. rock types. Some large clay-dike
faults,such as the fault at H7 to H12
Anvil Rock Sandstone. The Anvil Rock t n figure 13 cut across lithologic
Sandstone is closely related to the boundaries; their distribution may be
Lawson Shale and usually overlies it controlled by larger scale variations
or interfingers it laterally. It of lithology that are unrecognizable
occupies a widespread system of by in-mine mapping.
channels that are locally eroded
through the Herrin Coal (figs. 1, 2, Clay-dike faults and clay dikes
and 3). A sheet sandstone facies may weaken the roof. They are not likely
be found adjacent to the channels. The to cause failure of limestone roof;
sheet sandstone facies typically is however, even several feet of lime-
thinly laminated, planar-bedded silt- stone have occasionally fallen where
stone or fine-grained sandstone-- penetrated by dikes or faults. Areas
lithologies that are similar to certain that bear ppecial watching are inter-
lithologies of the Energy Shale Member, sections t~at are crossed by dikes and
as described above. Like the sand- faults, headings with faults parallel
stones of the Energy Shale, the Anvil to the rib, or places where several
Rock Sandstone may contain water that dikes or faults meet in the roof.
can seep into mines. Both the Anvil
Rock Sandstone and the Lawson Shale
are overlain by the Bankston Fork Lime-
stone. Rock units above the Lawson
26
A 8 c F G H I
9 9
8 8
4 4
j:{{{:))J "Jomostown eo.l lntefWI"
A 8 c D E F G H I
Figure 13. Typical distribution of lithologies, cla~ dikes, and clay-dike faults in a study area of
black shale-limestone roof type (from Krausse et al. ).
27
Figure 14. Prominent joints i n lower fissile portion of Anna Shale (from Krausse et al. 2 ).
Figure 15. Thick Brereton Limestone forming stable roof in black shale-limestone roof type . A few
inches of soft flaky "clod" have fallen, except above header boards (from Krausse et al.2).
28
--r. -
---
D
F
---
G
Figure 16. Roof failure predominantly in weak mottled Lawson Shale (A and B). Note absence of Anna
Shale and lenticular, thin Brereton Limestone (E) . The Conant Limestone (C) did not provi de enough
strength to stabilize the roof below very weak, heavily mottled Lawson Shale (A). D ="Jamestown
Coal interval," F "clod," G Herrin Coal. (From Krausse et a1. 2 ).
Lawson Shale
Energy Shale
(medium -gray shale)- - -
---
Figure 17. Schematic section of lithologies and structures of wedge-t ype roof.
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES 102 p.
Abstracts of Papers, Ninth Internation- 23. Coulson, J. H., 1970, The effects
al Congress of Carboniferous Stratig- of surface roughness on the shear
raphy and Geology, (full paper to be strength of joints in rock: Ph.D.
published in IX-ICC Compte Rendu), thesis, University of Illinois,
P 111. Urbana.
15. Johnson, P.R., 1979, Petrology 24. Mesri, G., and R. Gibala, 1971,
and environments of deposition of the Engineering properties of a Pennsyl-
Herrin (No. 6) Coal Member, Carbondale vanian shale: Stability of rock
Formation, at the Old Ben Coal Company slopes: in Proceedings of 13th
Mine No. 24, Franklin County, Illinois: Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Urbana,
M.S. thesis, University of Illinois, IL, p. 57-75.
Urbana, 169 p.
25. Bauer, R. A., 1979, Loss of
16. DeMaris, Philip .J. , and Robert A. natural moisture content of Pennsyl-
Ba.uer, 1977, Geology of a longwall min- vanian shales and effect on physical
ing demonstration at Old Ben No. 24: properties: Illinois Mining Institute
Roof lithologies and c:;oal balls: Pro- Proceedings, p. 13-29.
~P.edings of the Illinois Mining Insti-
tute, 1977, p. 80-91. 26. Bauer, R. A., 1980, The lo~R of
natural moisture contQnt anri its
17. DeMaris, Philip J., William A. effect on the mechanical properties of
DiMichele, and W. John Nelson, 1979, A some Pennsylvanian shales from the
compression flora with channel-fill Illinois Basin, in Proceedings of
sediments above the Herrin (No. 6) Coal: First Conference on ~round Control
Abstracts of Papers, Ninth International Problems in the Illinois Coal Basin,
Congress of Carboniferous Stratigraphy Carbondale, (in preparation) .
and Geology, p. 50.
Abstract. Over the past five years studies and financial analysis.
the authors have conducted premining Subsidence control plans required
investigations for four virgin areas under the Federal Surface Mining and
and studied ground control problems in Land Reclamation Act, 1977, would
several operating coal mines in the further increase emphasis on premining
basin. Premining investigations investigations. Data on aquifers and
involved detailed geologic descriptions geotechnical properties of rocks over-
of 2-inch, 4-inch, or 6-inch diameter lying the coal seams will be required
cores and preparation of maps pertinent to preserve the quality and quantity of
from ground control point-of-view. ground water resources and anticipate
Specifically, facies changes in the subsidence.
immediate roof, interval to limestone The authors have been actively
bed, if any, thickness of limestone bed engaged in premining investigations in
and thickness and nature of shales the basin coal properties for the past
were mapped. Moisture sensitivity of five years with primary emphasis on
shales (slaking and swelling indices), planning ground control.
thickness and nature (chemical composi- This paper describes pYP.mining
tion) of underclays, presence of investigations, geologic and geotech-
channels, etc., were also considered nical evaluation of rock cores and
from ground control pui.nt-of-view. geologi~ mapping to evaluate ground
Based on geologic description and control problems. The rating scales for
physical property data on roof, coal, delineating areas with ground control
and floor rocks, the authors have problems were developed and are discuss-
developed rating scales for delineating ed.
areas with ground control problems
overlying Herrin seam. Core Drilling Programs
5 4
0 0 0 0
8
0 0 0 0
12 3 9
,.,
0 <
/
/
/
0
'
'
0 0
T
1 MILE
''
0 _L
0 0 0 0
, -r
13
1
J"-t-1 ~11 LE
LEGEND
Q PHASE 1 HOLES - 5
@ PHASE 2 HOLES - 8
0 PHASE 3 HOLES - 28
</''\AREA OF CORE INFLUENCE
' /
"' 640/2 = 320 AC/CORE
evaluating roof, coal, and floor vari- strongly recommended that each reserve
ability over virgin reserve areas. The area be adequately drilled for infor-
drilling program consists of three mation on coal reserves, coal quality,
phases. In Phase I, five (5) NX-cores geological disturbances, and ground
are drilled over a sixteen square mile control problems.
area. Additional eight (8) NX-size
holes are drilled in Phase II if Phase Analysis and Description of Rock Cores
I data are encouraging. After evalua-
tion of data in Phases I and II, either Colored photographs of NX-size cores
the program is terminated or Phase III in open boxes containing five 2-foot
is initiated to bring the area to sections permit good records. The
development status. If the area has cores should be wiped clean of drill
fairly consistent conditions, the 28 mud and photographed carefully so that
core holes in Phase III consist of fractures. natural bed separations.
NX-size cores and 5-5/8-inch cores for clay dikes and weak zones are easily
detailed geologic and geotechnical identifiable. Permanent core descrip-
evaluation. If conditions are fairly tions, photographs, and geophysical
variable, Phase III can be completed by logs are very valuable and may be
NX-size coring with supplemental six- useful in obtaining the OSM subsidence
inch cores drilled in Phase IV to evalu- control plan permit.
ate questionable areas. This is general- A columnar record of the core at a
ly necessary in southeastern portion of scale of 1"=1 or 2 feet has been found
Illinois basin where No. 5 seam is very helpful for evaluating ground
characterized by faults, seam splitting, control problems. Pertinent descrip-
seam thinning and highly variable roof tive data on the bed is presented on
strata due to contemporaneous and post the left and significant geotechnical
depositional channels. properties of each bed are presented
Small diameter cores (less than 3- on the right. Natural fractures, joint
inch) are generally not suited for geo- patterns, and changes in the lithology
technical studies where roof and floor of the bed are also shown on this
strata are friable and may deteriorate columnar record as shown in Figure 2.
with circulating fluid. Several coal
companies are not utilizing 5-5/8-inch Evaluation of Roof Strata
diameter cores for rock mechanics tests.
Such cores may be tested directly or Geologic Evaluation
smaller cores may be drilled in the -Assessment of the number and thick-
laboratory. Recent studies (Chugh, ness of individual roof beds in the
1978, 1979) using large diameter cores immediate roof is important. Thinly
have provided good data in evaluating bedded strata of diverse character
No. 6 seam in central and southern or interlaminated coals and shales
Illinois. are indicators of potential roof
The authors have utilized 25-30 feet control difficulties.
of core in the roof, core of coal seam, -Pronounced bedding planes are indica-
and 10-15 feet of core in the floor or tive of inherent weakness in both
to the first competent bed for rock No. 6 and No. 5 seam roof strata.
mechanics tests. Holland (1962) suggest- Such bedding planes generally occur
ed that all strata above and below a in roof strata affected by channel
coal bed for a distance of twice the facies.
entry width should be studied for geo- -Natural fractures, their inclination,
technical properties. It should be and fracture density should be care-
emphasized that roof, coal, and floor fully studied in the immediate roof
strata cores should be analyzed for strata as well as in the potential
planning ground control. anchor zone. Slickensided zones
There is a common myth in the basin should be carefully mapped.
that No. 6 and No. 5 coal seams have -Location and thickness of anomalous,
been adequately drilled and explored. thick, silty, or sandy shales and
This is a bad assumption and it is sandstone strata indicating the
SHALE
LHU~STONE
III I
LI~U~STONE i I
iI I
r-
. -
\-
SHALE
- -- C
0
= 7054 PSI
GRAY SHALE
4.8'
1-----
:-:=:___.- T
0
= 583 PST
C = 8870 PSI
---=- LT. GRAY SUALE - -- 0
376 PSI
.. . .
...
CRAY SHALE
ll. 5'
C = 4933 PSI
0 T
2.5' -
j_
---.--
T
T =
0
....... w = 3.8% T I
... LIMESTONE -' I I I
ANVIL 5.2' J I I C = 22435 PSI
LIMESTONE
... I T0 = 700 PSI
ROCK
0-!ANNEL ..... I I
I
l 5.9' _l
I
I
r. 0
68.3'
....
- w = 7.7%
BLACK ----
--- Tw== 83
4.9%
.l
I
T
.... .._
BLACK SHALE 1 .. 3' --_ ~=--
0
T = 91 PSI
2.8' ';
--- --- . :
=-
0
c = 2327 PSI
1----- C = 2370 PST
0 - --
0
COAL
=- COAL
-.
COALI COAL
6.4' 6.5' 7.5'
5.3
c = 1957 PSI
1---....:; 0 C = 3078 PSJ
0
Concluding Remarks
Interval to base >15 ft. 8-12 ft. 4-8 ft. 2-4 ft. 0-2 ft.
of limestone
Relative strength all weak - no alternating strong moderately strong moderately stroug strong
of beds strong beds and weak or strong lower 8,000-10,000 psi >10,000 psi
<3,000 psi 3,000-5,000 psi bed with weaker
intermediate beds
5,000-8,000 psi
Fractures or bedding highly fractured moderate fractures few fractures occasional fractures no fractures
in interval to or severe bedding or bed separation moderately strong difficult to no bedding
limestone separation on bedding separate on bedding separation
Projected bolt length no anchor lG-14 ft. 6-10 ft. 4-6 ft. 3-4 ft. min.
Table 2. Rating Table for Floor Cores - Illinois No. 6 Seam
Floor clay thickness >5 ft. 3-5 ft. 2-3 ft. l-2 ft. 0-1 ft.
Floor clay sensitivity highly sensitive sensitive moderately sensitive slightly sensitive insensitive
to water
Floor clay hardness very soft soft firm medium hard hard
or strength >100 psi 100-300 psi 300-700 psi 700-1500 psi >1500 psi
Interval base coal to >10 ft. >6 ft. 4-6 ft. 2-4 ft. <2 ft.
first competent strata
Composition of first none, reworked thin interbedded limestone nodules shales and shales, limestone,
competent strata clays, slickensided; strata, frac- 25-50% by volume limestone, nodules nodular lime
few lime nodules tured, <25% lime at least 5' thick 50-75% by volume 75% by volume
nodules in claystone in claystone at least 3' thick in claystone
nr mudstone matrix, matrix, moderate in claystone matrix
slickensided fracturing and matrix, few fractures
slickensides slickensides
Substrata below first all weak members strong beds with beds increase in moderately strong strong beds im-
competent bed weak beds below strength with depth beds below mediately below
nodular lime for at nodular lime
least 5 feet
Moisture content sub- >10% 8-10% 6-8% 5-6% <5%
strata below first
competent member
Session Co-Chairpersons:
The stability of any underground opening is a com- and excess horizontal stress.
plex function of numerous geotechnical parameters.
The in situ stress field is one of the basic parame- The excess horizontal stress is defined as
ters that has a direct effect on underground struc- the portion of the in situ horizontal stress
tural stability. A mine is like a bridge or any other field that is in excess of that gravitational
structure in that the integrity of the final product component
depends on the forces to which the system is sub-
jected. This system of underground forces, or the in
situ stress field, is, of course, partially due to the
gravity load of the overburden. In addition to the
Excess horizontal stress distributions have been
gravity load, an underground site may be acted upon by
determined to exist in a number of different mining
horizontal stresses that are in excess of those pro-
environments throughout the United States. A summary
duced by gravity loading. When a new underground mine
of stress measurement results that have been deter-
is developed, the underground stress distribution
mined by the Bureau of Mines can be found in the lit-
should be determined and taken into consideration in
erature (1). Experience has shown that the magnitude
the design of underground openings. This paper dis-
and orientation of the horizontal secondary principal
cusses the stress distributions that have been deter-
stresses at any particular location are closely re-
mined by the Bureau of Mines at several locations in
lated to the regional and the local geologic struc-
the United States and the effect that various types
ture. The reasons for the existence of excess hori-
of loadi.ng conditions can have on the stability of a
zontal stress in the earth's crust are not well
mine roof.
understood or agreed on in the scientific community.
The Stress Field Underground This understanding, however, is not required so long
as it is recognized that the earth is not a static,
The vertical stress underground is dependent on the gravity-loaded sphere and that, in order to be sta-
depth of overburden and the density of the overlying ble, an underground opening must support the actual,
strata. The gravitational component of the horizontal in situ stress distribution, not just the load of the
stress distribution is a function of Poisson's ratio overburden.
of the material and the vertical stress. The follow- An estimate of the vertical stress at any particu-
ing equations can be used to calculate the stresses lar location underground is roughly 1 psi for every
due to the gravity load of the overburden: foot of overburden. The horizontal stress due to
gravity load is on the order of one-third of the ver-
(a)
tical stress. The excess horizontal stress can have
(J p g h
v any magnitude from zero on up to several times larger
than the vertical stress.
a (-v-) (b) As an example of a coal mine located in an area
v 1 - v
that contains excess horizontal stress, we can look
at an underground coal mine in the Beckley seam in
where vertical normal stress,
southern West Virginia. The stress distribution was
horizontal normal stress
determined using the borehole deformation gage and
due to gravity load,
overcoring techniques developed by the Bureau of
p density of overburden,
Mines. The stress information was used as part of
g gravitational acceleration,
the input to the analysis of the severe ground con-
h depth of overburden,
trol problems that the mine was experiencing. The
and v = Poisson's ratio. compressive stresses in the horizontal plane were
determined to be 3,300 psi bearing N69E and 1;700
psi bearing N2l0W. The mine was laid out such that
the orientations of the main entries and the cross
* icist, Mine Structure Design, Denver Mining cuts were N25W and N65E respectively. Thus, the
Re ch Center, Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of N25W main entries were virtually perpendicular to
the Interior, Denver, Colorado the maximum horizontal compressive stress of 3,300
psi. This combination of mine layout and stress ori-
entation produced a variety of roof and floor
45
problems in the main entries. These ground control vertical stresses are shown in Figure 3. Again under
problems can be seen in Figure 1, which shows a por- these loading conditions the entire roof member, in-
tion of the developed area of the mine. cluding point A, is in compression.
The roof and floor problems that were occurring in If the horizontal stress is considerably less than
this mine are a direct result of the fact that the the vertical stress, as would be the case in a
horizontal stresses were by far the largest stresses gravity-loaded situation, the entire roof member i:
acting on the mine openings, and that these stresses not in compression. Maximum tension is in the cen
were not anticipated or allowed for in the mine de- of the roof span. Since the tensile strength of most
sign. The manner in which horizontal stresses affect rocks is quite low, the most probable ground control
stability will be discussed in detail in another sec- problem in a gravity-loaded situation would be a ver-
tion. tical tension crack in the center of the span, as
shown in Figure 4. This assumes that the tensile
Geologic Roof Structure stresses are larger than the tensile strength of the
material.
The response of the mine roof to the in situ load- If an entry is created in a mine that has a thin-
ing conditions depends on the particular type of roof bedded or laminated roof with weak bedding plane
involved. This discussion will be limited to two bonds, the r9of failure mechanism is quite different
general roof types. These are the massive roof and than that in a mine with a massive roof. The first
the thin-bedded, or laminated, roof. thing that happens to a mine roof when an entry is
StrRtified rocks are considered massive if they created is a release of stored vertical strain in the
nr.r.ur in thick ];>eds and are free of joints. For this immediate roof. This release of stored vertical
discussion, thick-bedded rocks are considered massive strain is aided by graVity sag of the lnuuedla Le ruuf
if the spacing between joints, partings, faults, etc. and produces a downward deflection of the roof member.
is comparable to, or larger than, the critical dimen- Mall:1mum de flee tion wlll u~cul at the center of the
sions of the opening (approximately one-half the roof span, as depicted by location A in Figure 5. The
opening width), or if the strength of the bond across deflection of the immediate roof member creates shear
partings or joints is comparable to the rock strength. stresses that cause the weak bedding plane bond be-
A thin-bedded or laminated roof differs from a mas- tween the first and 3econd roof mombun; to fail. Tho?
sive roof in that the bonds between the sedimentary failure of this bond will prevent the still competent
beds are weak, and these weak bonds form parallel upper roof from aiding in the support of the lower
planes of weakness. Also for this discussion, the member. Thus the immediate roof member can deform
classification of bedding in the roof as thick or independently of the upper portion of the roof.
thin depends on the width of the opening. A 2-foot- The horizontal stress in the immediate roof has
thick bed in the roof may be considered thick in an stored horizontal strain in the immediate roof member.
opening 10 feet wide, but thin in an opening that was This immediate roof member can now be looked at as a
60 feet wide. curved beam with a bending moment (produced by the
vertical deflection). The stored horizontal strain in
The Roof Failure Mechanism the immediate roof member will be relieved by contin--
ued bending into the entry. This situation is simi-
The following discussion is a general summary of lar to a long, coiled spring in axial compression.
the results obtained from detailed theoretical (1) Without lateral restrictions, the spring will bend and
and numerical (l) evaluations of specific ground-con- elongate to its uncompressed length with the appli-
Lrol problems in underground mines. cation of the slightest bending moment. An analysis
If a coal mi.ne entry with a massive roof is sub- of the roof member as a curved loaded column shows
jected to horizontal stresses truH are signiflcauLly tt.at tensile stresses develop at points B, B', and A.
larger than the vertical stress, and these compres- If the horizontal stress is high enough or if the
sive stresses are of sufficient magnitude Lu ~1udu~e tensile .!1 t:rc3::1 of the roof rna tlirial iii !01., ennngh,
shear stresses in the roof that exceed the shear failure will occur at points B, B', and A.
strength of the material, the most probable ground As the immediate roof member fails, the second roof
control problem is an arch-shaped shear failure in bed loses its lateral confinement and is free to fail
the roof. The shear failure starts near the corner into the entry in the same manner. This failure ~re
formed by the roof and the pillar. The height of the cess of the laminated roof members continues, as shown
arch, or the angle of propagation of the failure sur- in Figure 6, until a thicker member is reached or
face, depends on the relative magnitudes of the hori- until the failing roof es l:ablishes a stable geometry.
zontal and the vertical stress. If the horizontal The laminated roof fai].ure process that has been
stress is much larger than the verti~al stress, the described here has been identified as the floor heave
failure surface will be at a low angle (relative to failure mechanism in a coal mine with a thinly bedded,
the horizontal). Figure 2 represents the type of laminated floor (1).
failure produced by high horizontal stress in a mas-
sive roof. High horizontal stress loading conditions Design Recommendations
produce compression in the entire roof member. Even
the center of the roof span (point A) is in compr.es- The mine operator has very little control over the
sion. in situ stress distributions and the strengths of the
If the horizontal and vertical stresses that pro- various rock types encountered underground. The oper-
duce the failure depicted in Figure 2 become more ator can, however, vary such things as bolting pat-
nearly equal, then the failure surface will rotate terns, entry geometries, entry orientation, and pillar
toward the vertical and the arch will gain height. geometries in a manner that will minimize ground con-
If the horizontal and vertical stresses are equal and trol problems. The operator should not randomly in-
of sufficient magnitude to produce shear stresses itiate changes in the mine design to try to improve
that are higher than the shear strength of the roof ground control. Rather, the operator should have a
rock, then the most probable failure will be a verti- good understanding of the various conditions caus1
cal shear failure near the rib. This type of failure the problem(s) and a systematic plan that addresse
may be the so-called "cutter roof." The failures the particular failure mechanism(s) involved.
produced in a massive roof by equal horizontal and The most cost-effective mine design step that can
46
.. LEGEND
Roof sag .
- - Roof break
~ _Floor hea~e .
. - Floor break
Entry
0 2 4 6
I I I I
Figure 2. - Shear Failure in Massive Scale, feet
Roof Due to High Horizontal Stress.
-.-
f' l ...
Entry
0 2 4 6
- I I I I
Fig~ire 3. - Shear Failure in ?1assive Scale, feet
Roof Due to Equal Horizonta~ and
Vertical Stressess.
Massive Roof
Entry
0 2 4 6
Figure 4. - Tensile Failure in Uassive I I I I
Roof due to High Vertic.al Stress. Scale, feet
\J1
0
Entry
0 2 4 6
.I I I I
Scale, feet
' ..
Entry
0 2 4 6
. I I I I
Scale, feet
Summary
David L. Stritzel
SURFACE
--- ---..-
-----
--------
---
- SHALE
--
-
PROBLEM AREA
FIGURE NO. 1
The mine operator then chose to s.et pillars simply pushed into the under-
cribs and timbers in these entries to clay until the openings,were completely
try and support the roof, but to no sealed tight.
avail. However, the solution to this
problem was not to provide additional The load distribution across the
roof support, but rather to redesign section was indeterminate, but assuming
the mining plan to allow for larger that it was uniform, the forces on the
pillars, thus, supporting the bottoms. beams would be as depicted in Figure
It was now evident that unstable roof No. 2. As indicated, the cross section
was not the problem, but rather, the of each beam rotate about their own
entire section was being squeezed. In axis, thus causing slippage on the
this particular case however, it was plane between the two beams, which
too late for adjustments, the section explains the reason for the shearing
was lost. action of the planes experienced in
the strata. In addition, the excessive
What caused the squeeze was an under- loads caused by the glacial material
design of the pillar size. The glacial created a bending moment at each fixed
material acted as "dead weight" on the end of the beams. As the pillars
pillars since there is no strength to gradually sank into the underclay, the
unconsolidated material. The shale was forces of these bending moments became
bending under the excessive weight more evident as experienced by eventual
resulting in a fixed-beam effect and failure of the roof in the No. 1 and
eventually fractured in the No. 1 and No. 8 entries.
No. 8 entries. Once this occurred,
water seepage became evident and was
allowed to accumulate and penetrate
_.the underclay, thereby weakening it
further. Consequently, the small
55
l 1l l l l l l l-
t.:l
Originally, 4 foot resin bolts and
z
H
various lengths of conventional bolts
0
z ..... were used to support the roof.
w
(
~
.--__. - )
""""" occurring in areas where the strata
..... was of an anticline nature as shown in
1---
4---+
- Figure No. 3. The falls were steeply
pitching in that they seemed to break
vertically upward from the rib, and
the soft clay or mud vein was thicker
than usual, while the limestone was
FIGURE NO. 2 thinner than usual in these particular
roof fall areas. Conventional roof
bolts would rtot properly torqu~ and
therefore would not anchor securely in
CASE STUDY NO. 2 the soft clay or mud. Since the
distance from the limestone to the coal
The coal bed in this particular mine varied greatly, it was not practical
is covered by approximately 85 to 90 to try and anchor into the limestone.
feet of overburden which varied in For example, the limestone in some
thickness with the rolling surface ter- areas was as much as 20 feet or more
rain. The immediate roof consists of above the coal bed.
30 inches of firm shale, above which
is a soft clay or mud ranging in thick- Four foot resin bolts failed to
ness from 5 to 18 feet. Above this mud provide proper anchorage at all times
is a bed o limestone which ranges in because the resin would push into the
thickness from 6 inches to 2 feet, and soft strata, filling cracks and would
varies from 8 to 20 feet above the top therefore leave the space around the
of the coal bed. Kettlebottoms are rod void of resin.
common in the immediate roof, and the
coal bed tends to roll with the terrain,
as indicated by Figure No. 3.
::-..
FIGURE NO. 3
56
---
~ ~0 ?- :::=--=:=]~
<; -:::=-
-
_s \ ----s /""'\j s ~ -
<) J
0i0 ~ SHALE
---
-~ :a)-~~05 --
-- w
- -:-==:=
--
rt-~S~GL-
LONGWALL
~
~;lillli-lillll-
---=
--
4. Location of roof failure (e.g. above of the data, and a thorough analysis
nchorage zone, below anchorage zone:, of the results. Ignoring a roof control
~tc.) problem can be extremely costly in both
lives and money. Therefore, a profes-
5. Type of roof support used (resin sional approach to roof control problems
bolts, conventional bolts, trusses, etc) can result in improved mining conditions
in the Illinois Basin, thereby benefit-
6. Type of supplementary roof support ing all persons concerned. Basically,
used and effectiveness (e.g. timbers, it's just good mining practice.
crossbars, r.ails, cribs, etc.)
John D. Rockaway
Richard w. Stephenson
The study has been accomplished In coal mine stability studies, the
through an investigation of both the subcoal strata, coal pillar and roof
intact and insitu geotechnical prop- strata are a structural unit with
erties of the subcoal strata and varying relative strengths; therefore,
through the installation.of floor the failure of one component can
movement monitoring instrumentation. initiate the failure of the entire
The results of these studies have system. Such a condition may exist
indicated that both the shear strength when, as a result of increased depths
of the underclay and the stratigraphy of mining or increased extraction
of the subcoal strata must be consid- ratios, the stresses carried by the
ered in the analysis. The shear pillars and transmitted to the mine
strength was the major controlling floor exceed the stresses that the
factor determining the ultimate load mine floor can support. When this
carrying ability of the materials, occurs, the mine floor fails and the
but the thickness and stratigraphic subcoal material is displaced outward
position of the weak layers influenced and upward into the mined-out opening
the mechanism of the failure process. (Figure 1). This is accompanied by
a downward increment of the pillars,
The method of bearing capacity a redistribution of stress in the roof,
analysis developed by Vesic was used differential deflection and possible
60
however, will depend not only upon the floor buckles as a result of tension.
presence of the fractures and the
loads applied by the pillar, but also
upon the thickness of the weak layers GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
and the stratification of weak and firm
layers beneath the coal. There are . The geotechnical properties of the
apparently three distinct mechanisms underclay and other subcoal strata were
of floor movement that can develop, evaluated by both laboratory and insitu.
depending upon various relationships testing procedures. Intact samples for
among the subcoal strata. All laboratory analysis were obtained using
mechanisms, however, can be considered a portable, electrically operated core
as direct examples or modifications of drill capable of drilling more than 30
several forms of failure that are feet below the mine floor. Laboratory
described by classical bearing tests included Atterberg limits, clay
capacity theory. mineralogy, grain size distribution
and both unconfined and triaxial
One failure mode occurs when the strength. All tests were conducted
underclay is reasonably strong but the according to established ASTM
pillar is reduced in size by over- procedures.
mining to such an extent that the
loads applied by the pillar exceed the The selection of the samples for the
strength of the floor material. This specific tests was based to a certain
has been referred to as a general degree on lithologic variation, in
shear failure and the result will be that an attempt was made to test
the development of a failure surface specimens representative of all
and an extrusion effect from under a lithologic units. However, first
solid pillar and bulging of the mine priority was given to allocating
floor. pieces of core at least three inches
in length to triaxial or unconfined
A second form of failure occurs when compressive strength testing. Some
the floor material is relatively soft difficulty was encountered in this
or loses strength as a result of the respect for the underclay samples
presence of moisture. Under these however, since much of this core was
circumstances the pillar can punch into fissured to such an extent that it
the soft material without formation of was not suitable for laboratory
a full failure surface. When such testing. In addition, other initially
penetration of the pillars into the sound samples would, in a relatively
floor occurs, cracks are visible at short of period of time, open along
the pillar-mine floor junction and microfissures as a result of stress
ridges of displaced material build up relief and deteriorate too badly for
along these junctions parallel to the testing. As a result of these
rib. limiting conditions, the strength tests
were conducted only on intact samples
A third failure mode occurs when a that were relatively sound and could be
hard strata is located at a relatively prepared for testing, thus the data
shallow depth below the mine floor, is undoubtedly biased toward the
and is in turn underlain by a softer strong side. After failure in strength
strata. If the pillar loads, testing, the broken samples were
transmitted through the firm strata to submitted to testing of other physical
the weaker strata below, are sufficient properties ..
to cause failure of this material,
then a failure surface is developed The insitu evaluation program
and the softer materials are displaced consisted of two phases, one phase the
upward and outward from beneath the monitoring of the floor heave process,
pillars. When this occurs, the the other a series of plate-bearing
stresses act vertically upward on the tests to provide data for comparison
stronger layer of the floor until the of field strengths with laboratory-
63
FLOOR
POSITION 7-7-
INITIAL POSITION
12-17-715
NOTE
HORIZONTAL SCALE OF
INCLINOMETER DATA
EXAGGERATED 4 X SCALE
FIGURE 3 INCLINOMETER
DISPLACEMENT
SITE 5ZE-A
FLOOR
I
I
.............o.....o-----40 o-oc.------410 I
~0
o------~o o-------oo
NOTE a::
a:: w
w VERTICAL SCALE OF N .._.
l
.... ~ EXTENSOMETER DATA J, w
,..2
1 2 MEASURED IN INCHES .!. o __
~~ ::en
I z I Z
~w ~w
W...
N)(
W ...
N
)(
onW onW
0 0
14 12 19 8 I 6 4 I 2
4 3 2 I
DISTANCE FROM INSTRUMENTED PILLAR
11
FIGURE 4 EXTENSOMETER HORIZONTAL SCALE: 1 =20 Weeks
DISPLACEMENT
SITE 5ZE-A
65
those over 250 psi, were obtained from It is necessary to consider the
samples with the properties of a clay- sequence of subcoal strata, as well
stone or from those which contained as the relative thickness of the
limestone nodules in the matrix. individual strata in the bearing
capacity analysis for pillar support,
The potential relationships between since all of the members participate
triaxial strength and the other phys- in the distribution of stresses
ical properties tested were analyzed applied by the pillars.
using a multiple linear regression
model to identify and define the form The classical bearing capacity
and degree of association that existed equation, developed by Karl Terzaghi is:
among the data. Of these, the param-
eter that correlated most highly with
q = eN yDfN
triaxial strength was natural water
content, which had an inverse rela-
1.11 t r::
+
q
+
21 ByN
y (])
tionship and a correlation coefficient
of -0.70. As a general rule, the
underclays were characterized by where:q t= ultimate beari.ng capacity
111
relatively high water contents and low
strengths, whereas the claystones were N N and N = bearing capacity coef-
c, q y
associated with lower water contents, ficients
but higher strength values (Figure 5).
c= cohesion
Evaluation of the data from insitu
monitoring stations illustrated the y= unit weight of material
significance of the underclay strata
in the failure mechanism. In this
Of= depth of foundation
study all of the sites monitored had
a variable, but relatively thick B= dimension of foundation
strata of underclay, underlain by
firmer claystone and limestone. Under
However, the assumptions of an infi-
these conditions, the mode of failure
expected would be a general shear nitely thick bearing stratum and an
isotropic and homogeneous material
failure in which there is an extrusion
required for this equation obviously
effect from under the pillar,: 9ase and
a bulging of the mine floor.,: This were not applicable to the analysis
was indicated very clearly by'.,.the of T.Jndercl::~ys anrl subcoal strata, and
inclinometer and extensometer aata for therefore the equation had to be
modified.
these sites. As illustrated, (Figures
3 and 4), the magnitude of this upward
One approach to reduce the limi-
heave was more pronounced toward the
tations caused by these assumptions,
middle of the entryway and was of a
developed by Vesic (1975), evaluates
smaller magnitude near the coal pillar.
the influence of the bearing capacity
It is apparent from Figures 1, 2, 3,
of a soft soil which overlies a firm
and 4, also, that the direction of this
soil. For this purpose Vesic has
movement is upward and toward the
proposed the following equation:
center of the mined-out area, away
from the loaded pillars. In addition,
it may be observed from Figures 3 and
(2)
4, that most of this movement occurred
at relatively shallow depths and for
the most part, was confined to the where: c 1= undrained shear strength
strata immediately beneath the coal. of upper layer
LITHOLOGIC
lnChP.S
DESCRIPTION Below WATER CONTENT ("lo)
Cool 5 10 15 20
Coal
Underclay, slightly
calcareous of base
Claystone with
Limestone nodules
40
50
60
Limestone, massive
shear zone at 77
inches
80
Claystone with
. limestone nodules 110
g radatlonal change
below 12 3 inches
120
130
Underclay-like lutite, 140
no coal above,
becomes calcareous
at 158 Inches
160.
-a
170.
Claystone, well
indurated fractured
ISO
at 195 Inches
0 500 1000 1500 2000
STRENGTH (PSI)
Figure 5 Relationship between Water Content, Triaxial Strength
and Lithology. SITE 5ZE-A
67
REFERENCES
Abstract. Moisture has been known coal mine roof and floor. The varia-
to influence strata failures in coal tion in freqency of roof falls, cover-
mines for a long time. However, it is gence and roof bolt loads can be ac-
only in the last decade that research- counted for by seasonal humidity
ers have attempted to quantify this changes. The weathering of shale mine
effect. In the laboratory, attempts roofs so commonly observed in Illinois
have been made to study the effects of coal mines is due to low durability of
moisture on the strength of coal bear- shales in humid enviroments. Squeezing
ing rocks, moisture gain in shales as ground conditions observed in some
a function of time and pressures gen- areas of the basin may be related to
erated due to swelling, slaking and moisture absorption.in claystones.
swelling indices and their possible This paper presents results of the
correlation to strata control problems, past laboratory and field studies to
and effect of humidity variations on understand and evaluate the effects of
anchor creep and bearing plate perfor- moisture on strata control. Some
mance in conjunction with conventional measures to mitigate the effects of
bolts. In the field, researchers have moisture on strata control are then
attempted to correlate humidity varia- discussed.
tions with the incidence and frequency The discussion has been org.anized
of roof falls and roof convergence, and under the following sections:
effects of air tempering on reducing 1) evidence of moisture effects on
humidity variations in the mine. shales and roof stability, 2) varia-
A concise review of what is known tion of strength and deformation pro-
about effects of moisture on strata perties of shales as a function of
control with emphasis on the Illinois moisture content, 3) slaking and swel-
basin coal mines is presented in this ling properties of shales, 4) fielu
paper. Some approaches to mitigate studies on the effect of moisture on
the effects of moisture--leaving coal strata control in mines, and 5) meas-
in the roof, guniting and shotcreting, ures to reduce moisture effects in coal
application of sealants--are then mine ground control.
briefly discussed.
Evidence of Moisture on Strata
Introduction . Control
Ground failures (roof, face, sides The coal miners have long observed
and floor) account for about 50 percent the effects of changing seasons on
of the fatal and non-fatal, injuries in roof stability. The terms "summer
the U.S. coal mines. In addition these roof" and "winter roof" have resulted
failures cause substantial loss of pro- from these observations. Several re-
duction, poor image of the industry, searchers (Hartman and Greenwald, 1941;
and labor turnover. In Illinois alone, Parker, 1966, 1970; Haynes, 1975; Aug-
over 100 falls of roof, face, and sides henbaugh and Bruzewski, 1973; Stateham
are reported annually. and Radcliffe, 1976) observed correla-
Effects of environment (~oisture, tion between roof falls and environ-
barometric pressure, and temperature) mental conditions. Hartman et al
on strata control in coal mines have (1941). studied in the laboratory the
been studied in some depth in the past effects of moisture on shales over-
one decade.- Such effects become very lying Pittsburgh coal bed. Parker
important where shales, which are (1966) correlated monthly frequency
known to be sensitive to moisture, of roof falls with seasonal humidity
occur immediately above or below a coal changes in White Pine copper mine in
seam being mined as in the Illinois Michigan. He also observed relation-
coal basin. Several studies, Stateham ship between lateral extent of roof
and Radcliffe, 1976; Aughenbaugh and falls and fogginess (100% humidity) it
Bruzenwski, 1973; Haynes, 1975; Hart- a section. Stateham and Radcliffe
man and Greenwald, 1941 among others, (1976) have observed, based on four
have shown that moisture has a ~ignifi year data (1972-1975) on roof falls in
cant effect on shales and stability of the U. S. coal mines, that the frequen-
72
cy of roof falls follows the yearly ab- strength (C ) and modulus of elas-
solute humidity cycle, Figure 1, and ticity (E) 8ecrease with increasing
lags it by about 14 days. Aughenbaugh moisture content. Some of the data
and Bruzewski (1973) have shown that from different investigators are
the rate of convergence in Illinois compiled in Table 1 and are shown
coal mines follows the humidity cycle in Figures 2-3. The C values im-
and is high during the spring and sum- mersed in water or plaged in 100%
mer months and low during the fall and relative humidity (RH) for a per-
winter months. They also observed, iod of at least 24 hours is de-
based on roof bolt load studies, that creased 50-60 percent as compared
most roof bolt slipping occurred during to its natural moisture content.
high humidity months. Haynes (1975) The ratio of strength for oven dry
studied effects of moisture on roof to completely wet specimens ranges
shales in three Alabama coal mines and from 2-10.
found that moisture had an adverse ef- 2) Eeckhout and Peng, and Chugh observed
fect on roof stability. Both Haynes increased compliance (decrease in
and Hartman et al found that the tem- the value of E and increase in the
perature variations had negligible ef- value of Poisson's ratio (~). The
fect on strata stability as compared to rate change of compliance was lower
humidity variations. at low RH and increased sharply
Moisture gain and moisture loss in beyond 50% RH. The compliance
mine rock is related to seasonal across bedding plane at high RH
changes in absolute humidity of mine increased very rapidly as compared
air. In summer, absolute humidity of to compliance along the bedding
surface air is high and air temperature plane.
above those of rocks underground. When 3) Average sclerscope hardness and
the hot surface air, drawn into the fracture toughness decreased with
mine for ventilation, is cooled by increasing RH (Aughenbaugh and
rocks the air loses its moisture on Bruzewski, 1973)
rocks (sweating). In winter, surface 4) Moisture absorption in shales is a
air temperature and humidity are lower su~face phenom~gon and therefore
than rocks underground and air travel- depends upon the size and shape of
ing through the mine gains temperature specimens.
and humidity. This causes mine rocks 5) Moisture absorption rate is much
to lose moisture and thus has the dry- larger along the bedding planes than
ing effect. across the bedding planes. Thus if
the immediate roof is fractured,
Strength and Deformation Properties the moisture migration can occur
of Shales along the bedding planes increasing
the susceptibility of shale deteri-
Several investigators, Hartman and oration.
Greenwald, 1941; Haynes, 1975; Aughen- The effects of decreased strength
baugh and Bruzewski (1973, 1976), Chen- and deformation properties are to de-
evert (1970), Eeckhout and Peng (1975), crease safe mine opening span, increase
Parker (1966), Chugh (1977), Conroy roof convergence and decrease size of
(1973), Chugh, Okunola, Hall (1980), intersections.
have investigated the changes in the
mechanical behavior of shales as a Moisture Absorption in Shales
function of humidity and moisture con-
tent. These studies involved wetting The natural moisture content of
the shale specimens over a period of shales in the basin is highly variable
time, or placing specimens at different and some available data are summarized
humidities, or drying specimens to re- in Table 2. Shales gain or lose mois-
move natural moisture content. Some ture when placed in chambers with dif-
pertinent comments with regard to these ferent relative humidities. Moisture
studies follow here: gain occurs if the humidity is above
1) Without exception, the compressive their current level or lose moisture if
,.-...
["')
.j-)
lH
..........
0
N 15
::r:
~
til
!=:
r-i
co
!-<
10
bJ)
'--'
;::.-.
.j-)
rl
'lj 5
'
::r:
(J)
.j-)
~
0
.-(
0
rf) 1972 1S73 1974 1975
;@
Year
til
.-(
.-(
co
J:.!...
5
4-:
c
a
0
1.gure 1. A Comparison of Total Roof Falls and Absolute Hwnidi ty (Stateham and Radcliffe, 1976)
Table 1. Effects of Moisture on Strength and
Deformation Properties of Rocks
Grey Shale
-
Black Anna
Shale
Under Clay
r I I I
I I I I I
C , PSI
0
JIIIIIT Wet ~Dry
><
i--i 30
U1
P...
'--'
-= 25
.j..J
~
,....
~
.j..J 20
U1 0
(l)
0 0 0 0 0
>
.,....;
(f) 15 0
o o - - - - - - - - - _ J L_ _~o::
tfl
(!)
0 o 0
?-<
~
6
10 0 0
u
"0
(l)
.~...., 5
<..;...;
,....
6 0
.U
:
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Moisture Content (percent)
Figure 3. Effect of tvloisture Content on Compressive Strength of
Shale (Scott, 1969)
25
20
N
0
rl 0
><
!--<
U1
0...
151 ~ oa 0
.c
.j..J
<9 0 0 0
~
~ 10
(!)
!.....
r
.j..J
U1
(l)
rl
.,....; 5
l
(/)
~
(j)
E--
0 I
0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
i\loisture Content (percent)
Limestone and!
. Limey Shales
Above Herrin :Seam 1. 60 2. 3( 1. 99 0.39 6 Chugh, 1980
Underclay Below
Herrin Seam 7.10 13.73 8.93 1.:32 13 Chugh, 1980
Dykersburg Shale
above Harrisburg Seam 2.7 3.5 2.98 0.47 5 Conroy, 1973
Dykersburg Shale
above Harrisburg Seam 1.86 3.61 2. 35 0.6! 6 Chugh, 1980
the humidity is below their current (1980) observed during their tests in
level. Some of the data reported by environmental chambers that swelling
different investigators are summarized strain increased exponentially to a
in Table 3. Moisture~-gain as a func- relatively constant value after 7-10
tion of time takes the form of an ex- days. This would indicate that daily
ponential curve. Aughenbaugh and humidity changes should have samll ef-
Bruzewski (1976) found that all shales fect on roof shales but seasonal humid-
have a unique relative humidity index ity changes would have significant ef-
(slope of the percent changes in fect on roof stability.
weight vs. relative humidity curve) and Swelling strains have been observed
this index can be used as an indicator to be elastic or of plastic nature.
of the susceptibility of shales to The plastic or permanent strains gener-
moisture. They also concluded th~t ally occurred perpendicular to bedding
daily humidity changes influence mois- plane indicating some type of irrevers-
ture absorption or desorption in shales. ible physical (cracking) or chemical
The data are presented in Figure 4. process.
rhe gain or loss of moisture is a Parker (1966) studied the variation
surface related phenomenon and is of lateral swelling strain with dis-
therefore dependent upon size and shape tance from exposed surface. He ob-
of specimens. Moisture absorption is served that swelling strains mostly oc-
much higher along the bedding planes curred within two inches nearest the
than across the bedding planes. Hart- exposed surface.
man and Greenwald, Haynes, and Aughen-
baugh and Bruzewski further observed Induced Swelling Pressures
that the effect of varying temperature
on moisture absorption in mines was not If lateral swelling strains are not
significant since annual temperature permitted to occur (confined swelling
variations in a mine were relatively tests) as in a mine, lateral swelling
small. stresses are induced. Aughenbaugh and
Bruzewski, Haynes, Parker have studied
Slaking and Swelling Behavior of in the laboratory as well as in the
Shales field swelling pressures generated due
to moisture absorption in shales. The
Swelling Properties swelling pressures reported varied from
4200-14,000 psi; the higher values are
Shales increase in volume (swell) for Illinois basin shales while the
when they come in contact with moisture. lower values are for Alabama shales.
Swelling tests include placing speci- Such pressures can cause failure in
mens in environmental chambers with most shales. The failure of shale sam-
controlled temperature and humidity or ples from Illinois basin consisted of a
immersing specimens in water and meas- rim 1/4" wide and a central undisturbed
uring longitudinal and lateral strains. core. This was interpreted as expan-
Swelling strains parallel and perpendi- sive shearing of the rim and tensile
cular to bedding planes under' uncon- failure in the center. Chugh, Okunola
fined state have been studied by sever- and Hall (1980) have calculated swell-
al investigators and the results are ing pressures from observed swelling
summarized in Table 4. A typical plot strains and effective modulus of elas-
of strain perpendicular and parallel to ticity on specimens after swelling
bedding plane as a function of time af- tests. The swelling pressures were
ter immersing in water is shown in Fig- computed to be as high as 3900 psi.
ure 5. The plot is exponential and ul- Swelling is caused by absorption of
timate swelling strain of 4-10 percent water by clay minerals especially mont-
ms observed in the direction perpendi- morillonite, illite, and mixed-layer
:ular to the bedding plane. Only 1-2 clay minerals. Murray (1954) in his
percent swelling strain is observed studies of the shales from the Applach-
parallel to the bedding plane. Green- ian region as well as the Interior coal
wald and Hartman (1941) and Chugh et al. basin did not observe montmorillonite
1001 I I I I I I I I I I I ~
>.. 90
.j.J
r-1
'U
rl
~
80
:r:
Q)
>
r-1 70
.j.J
(1j
r-i
Q)
0::: 60
50
3.0
00
0
~ 2.0
r-1
(1j
CJ
Q)
I-<
;::l
.j.J
U'l
r-1
.Q
~
1.0
.j.J
~
u
I-<
Q)
0..
0.0
0 1 2 3 4
Time in Days
Limestone and
Limey Shales
above Herrin Southern Immersed
Seam Illinois 0.03 0.20 0.0 0.05 in Hater Chugh, 1980
Gray Shale
above Herrin Southern
Seam Illinois 0.60 6.4 0.2 2.40 Do Chugh, 1980
Southern
Black Anna Shale Illinois 0. 70 1. 90 0.0 0.3 Do Chugh, 1980
CXl
1-'
Southern
Dykersburg Shale Illinois 0.75 2.52 0.03 0.09 Do Chugh, 1980
Southern At 100%
Dykersburg Shale Illinois 0.48 Humidity Chugh, 1980
55
so 0 0 0 0
Perpendicular to Bedding
45
40
,.-..
trl
I 35
0
rl
X
s::
r-1
30
00
......... N
s::
r-1
'---'
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hours
Figure 5. Unconfined Slvelling Strains as a Ftmction of Tj me For Grey Shale (Chugh, 1980)
83
clay mineral. Illite was most abun- White (1954) in his studies indicat-
dant followed by kaolinite and chlorite. ed that Illinois basin shales containing
Conroy (1973), however, did observe kaolinite and crystalline Illite and
montmorillite and mixed-layer clays in Chlorite are associated with good mine
the Illinois basin shales overlying No. roof. Shales which contain montmorillo-
6 and No. 5 coal seams. nite and mixed-layer clays generally
Holland (1956) indicated that swell- form bad roof. Sandy shales are gener-
ing strains depended upon chemical com- ally good (Meyerton, 1956). Silty
position of clays, exchangeable ions, shales generally form poor roof. Roof
particle size, voids, internal structure shales are generally unsatisfactory if
of the shale, and nature and magnitude they contain more than a few tenths of
of the confining stress. Davidson a percent of iron sulfide. Some of the
(1949) indicated that swelling of mon- roof shales may contain appreciable
morrillonitic clay may re influenced by quantities of soluble salts. These may
certain chemicals such as water soluble chemically react with liquids and con-
cationic amine acetate. Similarly kao- tribute to roof failure.
linitic soil swelling is influenced by Laboratory tests, Franklin and Il-
fatty amine acetate (Davidson and Glab, linois slake tests (Aughenbaugh and
1949). Bruzewski, 1976) are available to
evaluate slake durability of shales.
Slaking Properties However, none of them give satisfactory
results. Some of the data developed by
Most shales disintegrate to some de- different investigators are given in
gree when they come in contact with Table 5.
moisture. This can result in severe
weathering problems leading to rashing Field Studies of Moisture Effects
of immediate roof and localized roof on Strata Control
falls in some cases. Holland (1956)
discussed at some length the effect of Humidity and Temperature Variations
mineral content of shales on weathering in Mines
of mine. roof.
Mielenz and King (1955) postulated Aughenbaugh and Bruzewski (1973) ob-
the mechanism of slaking in shales as served that large temperature and hu-
follows: 1) during drying, shrinkage midity fluctuations on the surface are
cracks are formed which are tilled with considerably dampened as the air tra-
air, 2) swelling of shale during read- ~els down the intake shaft and intake
sorption cycle causes air to be trapped airways. The velocity of air has
causing tensile stresses in shale, a significant effect on the distance re-
3) differential swelling pressures are quired for stabilization of air to near
set up during the readsorption cycle, constant humidity and temperature.
and 4) combination of tensile stresses Seasonal humidity variations are still
and differential swelling causes slak- experienced in the intake airways even
ing of shales. though amount of variation is consid-
Some shales contain from small to erably reduced. The seasonal humidity
large amounts of iron sulfides. In the variations on the return airways are
presence of moisture and oxygen these completely eliminated.
convert to FeSo 4 and H So~ (Burke and During summer, considerable water is
Downs, 1938). Ferrous2sulfate can ab- absorbed in the mine from mine air.
sorb water and swells considerably. Most of this is deposited on the rock
Swelling pressures could cause local- in the form of surface condensation; a
ized failures. The sulfuric acid can portion of this is absorbed in the rock
chemically react with feldspars, car- itself. This is indicated by contin-
bonates and some of the clay minerals uous gain of moisture by mine air in
to form new compounds which can shrink winter after the rock surface has
and swell causing differential swell- dried out. During winter, natural wa-
ing pressures and result in weathering ter content of rocks is considerably
of shales. lowered and this increases the suscep-
84
tibility of rocks to gain moisture dur- been recorded in the past (Oitto)
ing summer. At the face, the air is and Goode, 1972, Oitto et al., 1970).
fully saturated.
Several investigators, Aughenbaugh Measures to Deal With Moisture Effects
and Bruzewski, 1976; Haynes, 1975;
Scott, 1969; Parker, 1970 have studied The measures to deal with moisture
in the field the effects of moisture on effects can be subdivided under three
strata control in coal mines and mine sub-headings:
openings in shales. Some of the perti- 1) Control of humidity changes
nent observations made were: 2) Reducing moisture migration in
1) Compression type failures due to shales
swelling pressures are observed. 3) Rock reinforcement
In some cases swelling pressure may
.cause the whole structure to fail. Control of Humidity Changes
2) Progressive failure of roof layers
may cause slab type failures or Seasonal humidity variations in in-
plate type failures due to swelling take airways in the vicinity of a shaft
perpendicular to bedding planes. are quite large and most ground insta-
3) Shear movements occur along roof bility conditions due to moisture ef-
layers due to swelling parallel to fects are concentrated in these areas.
bedding planes. Controlling the humidity changes im-
4) Squeezing ground conditions may oc- plies that the surface air being circu-
cur in openings in shales which lated through the mine is conditioned '
are bentonitic or illitic. to reflect temperature and humidity
5) Moist air slaking can lead to se- equilibrium conditions in the mine.
vere weathering of immediate roof This may be achieved by 1) tempering
layers. chambers, 2) air conditioning, and
6) Time dependent failure nf shales 3) continuous wetting.
can lead to shear fractures along Tempering Chambers: These basically
ribs in a mine opening or at inter- consist of old worked out areas to con-
sections. dition the surface air before circula-
7) Rocks laminated with thin shale ting it through the mine. The length
layers containing expansive clay and number of entries in a tempering
may cuase shear fractures. chamber depend upon volume of air flow,
8) The convergence rate of roof shales surface air conditions and approximate
seems to follow changes in the hu- equilibrium temperature and absolute
midity cycle as shown in Figure 6. humidity for the mine. Entries in tem-
9) Deterioration of roof conditions is pering chambers are adequately support-
generally associated with large ed with wire mesh, wooden props, and
roof convergence. chocks. Tempering chambers represent
10) Slippage of roof bolts seems to additional resistance in the mine ve-
follow the humidity cycle. This tilation circuit.
can be explained due to overstress- Air Conditioning: Tempering of air may
ing caused by swelling pressures. be done by using mechanical means. It
11) Where moisture effects on strata is generally practiced in deep mines.
control are significant, height of Additional cost of air conditioning may
roof fall equals the length of roof not be justified.
bolts. This is due to moisture mi- Continuous Wetting: To reduce the ef-
gration along the hole to the an- fects of varying humidity levels, sev-
chor point. eral mines have attempted continuous
12) Moisture effects can have a signi- wettini of areas affected by varying
ficant effect on the efficiency of humidity effects. It is not very pop-
roof bolts. This could be due to ular.
degradation of anchor point, swell-
ing or shrinking pressures at the Reducing Moisture Migration
bearing plates. Bolt load drop or
increase of 2000-3000 lbs. have Moisture migration into shale occurs
Table 5. Franklin Slake Durability Index For_goal
Measure Rocks iE the Illinois .Coal Basin
Limestone and!
Limey Shales
overlying Herrin Southern
Seam Illinois 97.7 98.E. 98.3 0.78 3 Chugh, 1980
Grey Shale
overlying Southern
Herrin Seam Illinois 41.3 100.0 80.4 18.3 10 Chugh, 1980
Southern
Black Anna Shale Illinois 90.7 99.( 94.9 3.5 6 Chugh, 1980
00
V1
Underclay bebw Southern
Herrin Seam Illinois 10.5 50.Lj 29.0 17.8 4 Chugh, 1980
Southern
Dykersburg Shale Illinois 96.0 99.E 97.8 1.40 5 Chugh, 1980
Southern
Dykersburg Shale Illinois 96.9.6 98.29 97.7 0.60 6 Aughenbaugh and
Bruzewski (1976)
30
27
0.0
24
-.02
-.04 21
-.06 18
-. 08 15
,---,
lf)
<1.)
...c:: -.10
u 12
~
r-i
'----'
-.12
~
0
r-i
9
~ -.14
u
<1.)
rl 6
4-<
-.16
~
-.18 3
-.20 0
Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Ju1 Sep Nov Jan .Mar May
1972 1973 1974
8. Chugh, Y. P., "Geotechnical Inves- Conference orL Clays and Clay Miner-
tigations of a Virgin Property in als, Pub. 327, 1954, pp. 47-67.
Southern Illinois," Final Report to 20. Meyertons, Carl T., "Mineralogy of
Kerr-McGee Coal Corporation, April, Some Coal Mine Roof Shales," Mineral
1980. Industries Journal, Virginia Poly-
9. Chugh, Y.P., A. Okunola and M. Hall, technic Institute, Vol. 3, 1956,
"Moisture Absorption and Swelling pp. 1-5.
Behavior of the Dykersburg Shale," 21. Gitto, R., A. Zona and J. Stears,
SME Preprint No. 80-125, AIME Annual "How Bearing Plates Affect. Roof
Meeting, February, 1980. Bolt Performance," Coal Mining and
10. Conroy, P. J., "Investigation of Processing, Vol. 7, No. 12, 1970.
Roof Shales in Illinois Coal Mines," 22. Gitto, Richard H. and C. A. Goode,
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Missouri, "Recent Studies on Performance of
Rolla, 1973. Expansion Anchors," Presented at
11. Davidson, Donald T. , "Exploratory SME Fall Meeting, Birmingham, Ala-
Evaluation of Some Organic Cations bama, 1972.
as Soil Stabilizing Agents," Pro- 23. Parker, J., "How Moisture Affects
ceedings Highway Research Board, Mine Openings," Engineering and Min-
Vol. 29, 1949, pp. 531-537. ing Journal, November, 1966.
12. Davidson, Donald T. and J. E. Glab, 24. Parker, J., "Temperature and Humi-
"An Organic Compound as a Stabili- dity Affect Strength of Rock Struc-
zing Agent for Two Soil Aggregate ture at White Pine," Trans. AIME,
Mixtures," Proceedings Highway Re- June, 1970, p. 142.
search Board, Vol. 29, 1949, 25. Scott, James J., "Effects of Shale
pp. 537-543. on Roof Stability in Underground
13. Dwosh, D., "Experience and Use of Mining," SME Preprint No. 69-AM-48.,
Gypsum and Fiberglass as a Mine 1969.
Sealant," Transactions Society of 26. Stateham, R. M. and D. E. Radcliffe,
Mining Engineers, Vol 262, Septem- "Humidity: A Cycle Effect in Coal
ber, 1977, pp. 275-278. Mine Roof Stability," U. S. Bureau
14. Hartman, I. and H. P. Greenwald, of Mines, R.I. 8291, 1976.
"Effects of Changes in Moisture and 27. Van Eeckout, E. M. and S. S. Peng,
Temperature on Mine Rock," U.S. Bu- "The Effect of Humidity on the Com-
reau of Mines, R.L. 3588, 1941. pliance of Coal Mine Shales," Intl.
15. Haynes, Charles D., "Effect of J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., Vol. 12,
Temperature and Humidity Variations 1975, pp. 335-340.
on Coal Mine Roof Rock Stability," 28. White, Arthur W., "Properties of
First Symposium on Underground Min- Clay as Related to Coal Mining Prob-
ing, National Coal Association, Oct- lems," Proceedings Illinois Mining
ober, 1975. Institute, 1954, pp. 35-38.
16. Holland, C. T., "Mineral Content:
A Factor in Weathering of Mine
Roof," Mining Congress Journal, Vol.
42, No. 1, 1965, pp. 49-53.
17. Milenz, Richard C. and M. E. King,
"Physical-Chemical Properties and
Engineering Performance of Clays,"
Bulletin 169, Clay and Clay Tech-
-nology, 1955, pp. 196-254.
18. Mitchell, Donald W. and E. M. Mur-
phy, "Case Study of Mine Sealants,"
Presented at the 1975 Coal Conven-
tion of the American Mining Congress.,
Pittsburgh, PA
19. Murray, Hayden H.. , "Genesis of Clay
Minerals in Some Pennsylvanian
Shales of Indiana and Illinois,"
Proceedings of the Second National
89
Robert A. Bauer
10
9
I I I
0 Cores exposed at room
11 1 I I
atmosphere, 1 to 4 days ~ 0 Purington Shale
4 Cores with natural 10 & Farmington Shale -
;;; 8 u 4
X
~-
a.
....
....
0
7
o3
moisture content
;;;
9
0
.-
.
Energy Shale
02 a. 8
1- 6 fJ5Y
(!)
2 ...
0 0
.,.,
w 01 X 7
a:
1- 5 z &
0~
en
w
i
1-
.C!l
2
w
6
() 0
..
> a: 0
en 4
...
.
1- I 011"'\0
en en 5 ~
w w
a:
>
o-u ~ ~~ &
Q.. 3 (~ &
2 c;;
0
u
en
w
4
0 01. &
a:
2 8
a..
~
0
(..)
3
-
0 &
1 2
Jlt.~ &
0 & :
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
MOISTURE CONTENT, percentage of dry weight 0
151:;5 1070
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FIGURE 2. Increase in unconfined compres- MOISTURE CONTENT, percentage of dry weight
-------- ISGS 1079
sive strength due to moisture loss
FIGURE 3. Correlation of moisture content
with compressive strength of three gray
10 days. Both sets shmv that 70 percent shale members
of the natural moisture was lost by the
fourth day at room atmosphere. Figure 2 to characteristic plots of strength ver-
shows a corresponding increase in the sus moisture content of several shale
strength of the shale cores. During the members. Figure 3 shows the compressive
first day, the moisture content dropped strength versus moisture relationship
from 4 to 3 percent while the unconfined for three gray shale members. These
compressive strength increased from members are similar in clay mineralogy
4,600 PSI to 5,500 PSI. After only 4 and lithology, and all are found either
days of drying, the compressive strength immediately above a coal seam or just
of the shale had nearly doubled. above a black shale that rests on the
coal. A similar relationship of
Many authors have found similar strength versus moisture content is also
increases in strength for other types of being developed for black shale lithol-
rock: Colbach and Wiid (2) for quartz- ogies. As of this time, only a few
itic shale and sandstone; Brach (1) for black shale samples have been tested,
quartzdiorite, gabbro, and gneiss; Price and Figure 4 shows that they exhibit a
(6) for sandstone; Parker (3) for silt- trend similar to that of gray shale li-
stone and sandstone; and Van Eeckhout thologies. If similar relationships
(4) for shale. All showed that oven- could be shown for other shales, then
dried rocks were 2 to 3 times stronger moisture content determination could be
tan rocks saturated 100 percent. used as a valuable index property.
Besides moisture content determina-
Our rock mechanics testing of pro- tion, there are other strength tests
tected cores and cores that had been al- that show similar variations of strength
lowed to dry out to various degrees leQ with changing moisture contents. The
91
12
above the Danville (No. 7) Coal Member.
Tests indicate that a sharp drop-off of
11 all values occurs at 8 feet above the
10
Anna Shale
'
coal seam (Figure 10); yet there was
Lower Farmington Shale
o Above No. 5 Coal DIAMETRAL LOAD
~
9
'[ Above No. 2 Coal
0....
8
X
r.
1- 7
(!l
2
w
a: 6
~
til
w
> 5
4
3
.
2
-
~ .
0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8.
MOISTURE CONTENT, percentage of dry weight
ISGS 1879
~
(Figure 6) both show similar strength
relationships with changes in moisture
content (Figures 7 and 8). An increase
in the tangent modulus that occurred
with loss of moisture content (Figure 9)
was also found.
a:
0
0 In Figure 11 the same mechanical
.
1-
Cl) 5
oO results used for Figure 10 are plotted
w oo with the moisture content superimposed.
...J
Ci5 4
0
... This plotting shows that there is a sub-
2 ~
w 0 stantial increase in moisture content in
1-
1- 3
All>
......... ...... ..... the shale below the 8-foot mark. The
c~oft
(.)
... average moisture content 8 feet above
w
a: 0 0 0
the seam is 4.6 percent; below it is
0 2 "
2 ... ... about 7 percent. The strength indices
. 0
within this single roof unit in the
immediate 8 feet of roof rock are, on an
average, one third of those of the over-
0 lying material (Figures 10 and 11).
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Thus, a pre-mining evaluation using
MOISTURE CONTENT, percentage of dry wei!lht
ISGS 1979
11 1.1 le
~
0 o Purington Shale
10 1.0 4 Farmington Shale
o Purington Shale
.:
-5' 0
Energy Shale
0
9 Farmington Shale 0.9
~~ Energy Shale 0
0 0
~
a... 8 0.8
:E
~
~
0
0
0
0
0
x 7 0.7
w ~ 0 clo
a. 0 ;;;
c. 0
~(J).'
2 .. 0
0
ac(, 6
... ... X
0.6 ~
a. .:- !:>Dg
.... 5
~
w 0.5 0
0
<2. ...
.. 0~ ...
1-
2
0 4
0
of 0.4
0~ ...
11.
... ... 0 ...
~
0
....... ~
3
0 ... ... 0.3 ... ...
...
2
ID
0.2 - ~
0
... ...
.... ... ....
1- - ... 0.1
...
... I
0 0 !_
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 2 3 4 5 6 7
MOISTURE CONTENT, percentage of dry weight MOISTURE CONTENT, percentage of dry weight
ISGS 1979 ISGS 191'11
-------
FIGURE 8. Correlation of moisture content FIGURE 9. Correlation of percent moist~re
with point load index of three gray shale content with tangent modulus of three
members gray shale members
93
,/'J v b
0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 SUMMARY
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
I~Sl!ll9
20
6-6 Point load index
(psi x 1021
... ...
...... ! /
tents as those present in the natural
state of the rock, since initial mining
takes place in that state. Rock mechan-
0
w ics testing of material strength should
> 16 be accompanied by determination of the
g
<t
1-
moisture content to facilitate compari-
w
w
LL
12 sons among materials. -
~
u..
0 8
0
a:
w
REFERENCES
....
<
~
4
Cll
p l. Broch, E., 1974 1 The influence of
/
0
0 water on some rock properties, in Pro-
0 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 ceedings of the Third Congress of Inte
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH national Rock Mechanics, Denver,
OSGS>"9 p 33-38
o o
ARTIFICIAL SUPPORTS
Session Co-Chairpersons:
in the roof and the interaction of the a humidity drop in the fall. The
bolt <md roof material. winter atmosphere is cold and drv.
This paper discusses the inter- By monitoring the intake and
action that can take place benveen the exhaust air of several mines, the gross
expansive shell-type rock bolt and the effect of moisture interchanges between
roof rock when the roof consists of the mine rock and air was established.
shale or shale-like materials. The Figure 2, illustrates the absolute
authors found that certain shales, upon humidities at the intake and exhaust
exposure to the mine atmosphere, will air shafts over a two year period for
take on moisture which causes them to an Illinois coal mine.
expand and generate swelling pressures.
Laboratory investigations demonstrated 19 lntoltl
A Eahcust
these pressures are sufficient to
cause failure of the bolted roof.
After establishing that shales in mine
roofs can react to moisture changes
and that the humidity of the ventilat- ~ JX)9J ~
'15 000
~
tJt
s::Q) FIGURE 4 F~iled Swelling Test Sample
.t:1o.ooo of Shale
Ul
Q)
> All the samples tested generated
'Ul 5,000 swelling pressures in excess of 4,000
Ill
Q) psl. TI1e highest swelling pressures
1-l
recorded exceeded 14,000 psi.
~
0 100
u RElATI VE HUMI DITY When a shale gives up water, the
AT 75' F
dehydration causes a reduction in
volume. If a significant amount of
FIGURE 3 Changes in Unconfined Com- volume change takes place, shrinkage
pressive Strength with Relative Humid- cracks can develop. Even if cracking
ity For Two Shale Samples From is not evident to the unaided eye,
Illinois Coal Mine Roofs. microcracks may occur which will
weaken the rock and cause more accent-
uated deterioration when wetting
Shales that expand and disaggregate occurs. Therefore, some shale samples,
into a loose mass when immersed in a which are relatively durable to incr-
beaker of water is a good but extreme eased moisture conditions alone, will
example of this action. Under confin- deteriorate under cyclic wetting and
ed conditions the absorption of mois- drying in laboratory tests . . Each .
ture will generate swelling pressures cycle will have an accumulat1ve detr1-
capable of causing rupturing in mental effect.
adjoining rocks and failing the shale
itself. In a laboratory experiment, The absorption and loss of
samples of shales from mine roofs of moisture by a shale ~s a near-surface
Illinois coal mines were placed in a phenomenon and is a time-controlled
metal jacket to prevent lateral ex- process. When the humidity conditions
pansion and immersed in water. For in the air adjacent to an exposed
each test the apparatus was placed in shale surface change, an interaction
~ a loading machine and back loaded to begins between the moisture in the air
prevent axial expansion. In every and shale to bring the rock mass into
case, the experiment ended when the equilibrium w~th the new environmen~.
sample audibly broke. The load record- The moisture 1nterchange by absorpt1on
98
.
creases rapidly with time and will ....:z: 08
essentially equilize in 10 to 20 days. t!l
w 07
After 5 to 6 days over 80 percent of ~
3:
06 A
.
the total absorption will have taken w A
...
t!l
,, .
z 05
place. Figure 5, is a plot of the "'
"'u:z:
change of weight of shale samples with ....z
0 .4
.
....
time_in a laboratory test utilizing
w
u 03
a:
w
.
vary1ng relative humidities under 0.. 02 A
4 Specimen A Uncooted Face perpendicular lo beddii"'Q
_____
,,,......._ ----------~
0 .0
0
I
10
~
w
<.!>
Figure 6, are plots of the amOL.mt of
::;;: water absorbed with time of identical
:z::
<.j
,_ shale samples except in one case the
z
w
<.j
=
w 1 moisture was forced to penetrate
c...
perp~ndicular to the bedding, where-
as, m the other case, the moisture
was absorbed parallel to the bedding.
20 25 30 35 The specimen in which the moisture
TIME- DAYS was allowed to migrate parallel to the
bedding absorbed 50 percent more water
FIGURE 5 Rate of Absorption of than the specimen where the moisture
Moisture into Shale was forced to penetrate per~endicular
to the bedding.
Even though the amount of moisture
varies with humidity level , all the I11 a11other set of tests, a hole
curves have the same characteristic in was drilled in the sample with the
that they are very steep the first bedding perpendicular to the direct-
24 hours and level off with increasing ion of moisture absorption. This
time . sample took on approximately the same
amount of water as the sample with
Various laboratory studies have bedding parallel to the direction of
revealed the depth to which moisture moisture migration. These laboratory
~s absorbed by a shale is very shallow
tests indicat~d the depth and amount
1f no discontinuities or defects of moisture absorbed into an exposed
occur. In most cases, it is less than shale rock face is greatly increased
a qua:te: of an inch. In Figure 4, when fractures and holes are present
the d1st1nct narrow band circling the in the rock.
sample near the edge is the depth of
penetration by the moisture. IN SI1U ROOF BOJ .T S1UDY
Water however, can migrate rapid~ After establishing that some shales
and to great depths along discon-
tinuities such as bedding planes, are highly sensitive to moisture changes
fractures and holes. The net result and that roof bolt holes could be
~otential ~venues of moisture migratinn
is more moisture is absorbed by the
rock to greater depths causing a mto the mme roof, an in situ study
greater volume of the rock to be af- was set up to monitor the performance
fected by volume expansion, swelling of expansive shell-type roof bolts in
pressures and strength loss. an Illinois Coal mine.
99
...... .. .. .. .. ...... .
.... ... ....
.. . ....
...., i
...,
....,
,.,.,
-., E ~liM ftl .... A"' IMT ,_ -AA.Y N..IO S:r't OCT MOOt 00:
ttn "
14
TIM[ ~the)
FIGURE 9 Slow Slippage of A Rnnf . Bolt
The cyclic shortening and leng- FIGURE 11. Rashing Around a Roof
thening recorded at some pin stations,
Figure 10, is interpreted as extension Bolt
and contraction of the bolt itself in The location, thickness and rel-
response to the development and ative sensitivity of the shale strata
relaxation of swelling pressures. to moisture will determine the type
of instability and deterioration the
roof undergoes. If the exposed mat-
erial is moisture sensitive, rashing
~
:: .... . .. .. ...... . ..... ...........
i - .. . .. . ... . . . ...., and small roof falls will be common .
.........,..
;;
Sensitive shales above the roof will
not be affected by moisture migrating
.... from the mine air because the depth
of penetration is very shallow.
-~-~------- --~-- ----
1913 1974
TIME (Months)
197$
These non-exposed shales will be
affected only if fractures or other
FIGURE 10 Cyclic Movements of a discontinuities provide conduits for
Roof Bolt the water to them. Roof bolt holes
do provide an access route for humid-
In this case, the swelling pressures ity in the mine air to penetrate to
are not sufficient to fail the sensitive shales above the roof .
frictional bond between the expansion
shell and the adjoining roof rock. Beside the pin monitoring study,
other lines of evidence indicate
The investigation also revealed moisture is reaching sensitive shales
roof bolts can be rendered non- above the exposed roof via roof bolt
functional by the exposed roof rock holes. Some mines not bolted prior
rashing around the bolts. In the to federal law had stable roofs.
first stage the bolt plate may con- Upon initiating bolting, the roofs
tinue to contain some roof material became unstable. At one mine when
above as illustrated in Figure 11. examining a panel with very bad roof
However, this column of material will conditions, the senior author viewed
slough off leaving the bolt and plate an entry and several crosscuts that
dangling and isolated below the inadvertly had been left unbolted.
stoping roof. These unbolted areas were the only
stable roof in the entire panel. Some
mines have problems with dropped roof
bolts. Examination of these bolts
have revealed the threads are stripped
or the bolts have necked and broke.
Necking indicates tension strain ex-
ceeding the strength of steel. Fin-
102
CONCLUSIONS
Field and laboratory studies have
established humidity . changes in the
mine air can cause coal mine roof
instability in the Illinois Coal Basin
if the mines contain shales or shale-
like materials that arc sensitive
moisture variations. In mines with
moisture sensitive shales, the use of
the expansive, shell-type roof bolt
may compound roof stability problems
rather than correcting them. There-
fore it is important to evaluate and
design roof control not only for stress
and adverse geologic features but also
for the environmental condition of
humidity in the mine air. For those
mines or portions of a mine where
sensitive shales occur, roof control
methods other than the expansive shell
roof bolt should be used.
REFERENCES
1. Adam, Marvin E., "Ground Control
Evaluation of The Sahara No. 20
Mine, Marion, Illinois, "Unpub-
lished Master of Science Thesis,
University of Missouri-Rolla, 1975.
2. Bruzewski, R.R. &Aughenbaugh,N.B.,
"Effects of Weather on Mine
Ventilation, "Mining Congress
Journal, Vol. 63, No. 9, Sept.
1977.
103
Madan M. Singh
Engineers International, Inc.
Downers Grove, Illinois 60515
and
William J. Karwoski
Spokane Research Center
U.S. Bureau of Mines
Spokane, Washington 99207
DUE To NiriltiG
SHE/IRING
FORCE.
-~ 1-'
0
V1
3 2 1 1 2
~REAlER SHEARING
FOflCE .
COAL FACE ~------~------------- tlltiE EXCAVATION
(cion)
tEl
I
I
lEZ B-5
I $
I
I
l1
LEGEND
0 VERTICAL BOLf
o- INCLINED SOU
0 LOAD Cfll
o- !NCLINEO LOAO CELL
sou PtJLL rm
CONVERGENCE STATIOM
e BORESCOP ~OLE
() PHOTOELASTIC Cnt
-\
-\" - -,'--,---~
- 375
371 I
,. I
0 I II 1
, I
6' 0 \ \1\"' I f.,\))
~\I 1'1~/ lA' . - , - ' \
II
AIIIt..f
1 '" - \ cl
) hv / /,.. / "
- ....... \
I \I I
I
I
/
/
/
. - ..
,...... \ \ ~
\ \ I I 1
. - - I ~~ I I/ / ..- - './~
t\, /
1
I/_.> - '
\ f I
I
"' ..,. 1 1 1 ( 1 11 no \ I t
1 I I I I ... \ ... 634
I I \ Hoo. >11 \4111 I ,
\\I ' ' \ I
I I \ ' \ I. I (I I
,
I
\
\
\
\.
I)
,
\
\ 11
\ I I' 't I
I
' I , . \ 'J If I '
:\ I ~ . 6oo v ' ...., I
/3~0 <:;: ~ ~ /1/ <)10
;: I
I l
. .._
'"-&--
198
3061 !All(,
A/ 1/l
/
-90.11
--- / , I "' /
rv I ~' , / / 1 aoo ,..r
I ' - '&'<J/ I l/ / ;
I
I
351
'--- _.
.A346 /
241/
, / -
----.J>
/'
'732"7(}0/
/ /
... / J....J.
, "' -..sos .t ~- ,.. , -'..n4
EOu
I
\
'-
--...Jo '~'
/
I 300'
'")
_. "'
- ,&510
-
"' ........... ......
__ <::>"'--- ...... ... . . . . .
542
1
\
\ 623 / - - - - ,. . -
'"
/
/
/.,.....,
. / ./
~,
,-/
-~1.0\l"
_.. Q'<J
-~
~
.) .... ,---- 'I
()
..... (
......... ,-_
-----------soo...., ,__.,-::: -. , - , (&528 426
700 687
600-- -.---
_ _.., 1
_ ... -,/ 591
___ .,...
' I
I H61
431 \ 347 ', , __ _
------
500 ------- /
,/
I ' ... , 400- - - - - -
.....) ... \
'
_:_-:i j,n-::.-:: - 4o~ I
... 386 355 A365
400 345 - - - - ...
/" - - - \ 466
\~ I .
'\
----------~~----------------~'~--~,.- ,.-,
...-- ,' ,"' - , I .....
638 \
., I
I
1
\
~1.36 sl
'
'_, I
' ' \
\ 3-o \ f(
f' \ ~
~'
\
\ \ ' \ 490
I \ \ \'f'
.\ \
cro
\ \ 54 \
.> \
\ \
' \
\
~U' ~~ 0~ \ \
c::Q 1 \ , __I \
,.
\. '\
\ \\ 641
A\ l \A
350 I \ I
...0 657
0
Figure 3. Plan of Control and Test Sites Shewing Roof Sag Contours.
llO
i Sc .. "n eano
I
'\
\ .,
I
I 'l
~. st:.-ess ::lemenc
= pb 1 + sin -k
--~~'+':._. + 1
2A c cos ~
e
a'1
The term, cr- may be termed the load
1
improvement factor, and is a measure
Figure 6. Assumed Stress Distribution of the effectiveness of an inclined
Between Bolt Anchor and Collar.
112
t.:.o l. 40
.~
u
....._ ., Js
............ r. G .!0 psi g l. ')0
.._
~-........... ~bl5,000
....______ ----..-----
!!
11.20
P ~ .:.'lo
1nn (hil
e
'0
.
- - - - - - e:ooo
-----------------------~~~P~b~~S~,o~o~o~-------- .
------ 5
"' l.lO
1.00~-----+------~------T-----~~-----+------~- 1.00
2,500 ),tlOO l. 500 4,000 4.soo 5,000 2, 500 ),000 J. 500 4,000 4,500 5',000
I. 40
.,
') 1. JO
lu:1
0
"'lJc: I. 20
i;j
>
,..0
~
,:;
1.10
"'.
l.OO
2,500 J ,000 J, 500 4,000 4,500 5,000
an angle (8' + 8) to the vertical. (see Figure 9). The span of the roof
For determining the optimum angle for beam is the distance, ~. The roof
inclined bolting, the effects of the beam is suspended by three bolts, one
horizontal stress field should be placed at the beam center, the others
considered. For correspondingly placed at a distance, e, from the
increasing horizontal stress fields, rib-side. Each of the bolts are
the roof bolt should be more steeply pretensioned to a load, Pb. The rib-
inclined. side bolts are angled over the rib at
an angle, a, measured from the
Influence of Angle Bolts vertical. The roof beam is uniformly
on Beam Suspension loaded by its own weight per unit
length, w.
The suspension effect of bolting
is that of transferring a portion of
the weight of the immedtate roof beam
to deeper roof strata capable of
carrying this load. Thus the internal
loading of the immediate roof. beam,
the moments and the shears, are re-
duced, thereby decreasing the failure P ?eosa ?coso
V' is the maximum shear due to factors. This emphasizes the simplic-
angled rib-side bolts. ty of the current approach. Further
detailed analysis of this problem is
The analysis is performed, first, desirable.
by finding the fixed-end moments and
shears by superposition of the various
load conditions on the beam, and
second, by calculating the resultant Conclusions that maybe drawn from
moment and shear distribution through- the foregoing studies are:
out the beam.
1. If the primary function of
A selected range of beam and roof roof bolting is beam
bolt parameters were evaluated. The suspension;
beam loading, w, was assumed to be
1,000. lb/ft. Three pretension loads, a) use of low-angled bolt-
Pb, were take~ ~o be 5,000, 10,000 and ing (<150) would not
15,000 lb. Rib-side bolts were angled significantly influence
at 0 to 60 from the vertical, and this function,
were located 1, 2, and 3 ft. from the b) use of high-angled
rib. The width of the entry was taken bolting (>300) would
as 12 ft. significantly influence
this function.
The results are presented in Figure
10. The moment and shear suspension 2. If the primary function of
efficiencies are plotted versus the roof bolting is to prevent
rib-side bolt angles. 'l'he influent;e arching roof fAilures. roof
of bolt tension on the beam suspension suspension functions would
efficiencies is shown in Figure lOa not be overly compromised
and the influence of the rib distance unless the bolting angle
from rib-side bolts is shown in Figure exceeded 45.
lOb.
The results brought out by these
These plots indicate that as the simplified analyses are sufficiently
bolt angle is increased from the encouraging to warrant further inves-
vertical, the beam suspension effici- tigations that would more completely
encies are decreased. For small evaluate the influence of angled rib-
angles (<Is 0 ) these efficiencies are side bolts.
not affected significantly, but when
the angle becomes large (say 60), the CLOSURE
beam efficiencies are reduced markedly.
It is also evident from i:hese.graphs Inclined bolts are used for roof
that the greater the bolt tension, the control in various mines abroad
higher the efficiency of the bolts, and (e.g., in France) and in hard rock
the less it is affected by bolt angle. mines in this country. They were
commonly used in the United States
It should be noted, however, that coal mines at one time. It appears
if the beam weight, w, is increased that the only reason they went out of
somewhat, to say 1,500 lb/ft, failure favor here was because of the longer
occurs in shear immediately, even with time it took to install them thereby
vertical bolts. In practice, of increasing costs. No technical
curse, the beams are generally deficiencies contributing to their
bicker, but do not load the bolt disuse have been cited, to.the best of
system as such, because of friction,. the authors' knowledge. Hence, the
cohesion of strata and rock strength, utility of inclined bolts, especially
tendency to form an arch, and other under certain conditions, must not be
116
:r.
.....
>:
1.1
,.:
.
U
c
~
'1.., ,.
.~ "c
u
0.9
"
'J 0.8
"' ~
~
"'
0:: 'tJ
...
-~
l).!i
>
"'
c
.
u 0.7 ..
~
>
0.6
c
~
u"'
.0 0.~ ... 2 ft. Rib Distance
.2"
T.'.
ft. Rib Distance
'Jl
o.s 0.4L-----~------------~--~------~----~--
0 10. 20 JO so to 20 30 40 so 60
Bolt t.n<;~le (Oeg.J Bolt !\noll! ( Deq. l
!...l 1.0
?'
:0::
.. ;.
':r. 1. 0.
~ ~ ~~: Rib Distance
,.:
u.
.:: n.~r
I ;!"'
.~
u
0.8
~ .
.:!
.::! I .,.
~
0 .. P.t
.,."'
~
w
~
'" I c
O.fi
c"" o.;t
,"'
_., ...
u
:::..,
0.
o.s
r.t
I)
b~to.ooo
lO
lb,;
20 3() 40 ;o .;o
~.~
.,....
"
.c
.n o. 1
0
l-------'---,.---"-"---~----'------'-----
LO 20 30 40
""'~
so
aott Anqle (Oeg. l Bolt ll:nqle <Dea.J
discounted too lightly. Further in- Mech., Custer Park, SD, Sept. 17-19,
vestigations, both theoretical and in p 27-67.
the laboratory and field appear to be 8. Hugon, A. and Costes, A., (1959),
warranted. These may well help the Le Boulonnage des Roches en
industry solve ano.ther one of its roof Souterrain, Eyrolles, Paris (in
control problems. French).
9. Mallicoat, W.R., (1978), Truss
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Bolt:i,ng With Point Resin Anchorage,
Mng. Cong. Jour., v. 64, n. 6, June,
This work was done under U.S. Bureau p 47-50.
of Mines Contract No. J0275031. How- 10. Maroni, E.T., (1975), Personal
ever, all views and conclusions Communication to MMS.
expressed in this paper are those of 11. Schmuck, H.K., (1957), Theory and
the authors and do not represent the Practice of Rock Bolting, Colo. Sch.
official policies of the Bureau of of Mines Quart., v. 52, n. 3,
Mines, U.S. Department of the Interio~ p 233-263.
or the United States government. The 12. Schuermann, (1960), Richtlinien
authors would like to express their fur Ankerausbau, Gluckauf, v. 3,
appreciation to Peabody Coal Co., for Umsc~au, p 183-186 (in German).
their cooperation during the field 13. Singh, .M.M. and Chugh~ Y. P.,
investigations, and to Mr. J.D. Dixon (1968), Design Roof Bolt Installa-
for his assistance in the analyses. tions in Stratified Deposits, Mng.
and Min. Eng., v. 4, p 98-104.
REFERENCES 14. Thomas, E. (1962), Stabilization
of Rqck by Bolting, Rev. Eng. Geol.,
L Dixon, .J. n; and Mahtab~ M. A., Geol. Soc. Amer., v. 1, p257-279;
(1976), A Method for Computing Stabi- 15. Tincelin~ E. and Sinou,P.,
lization Pressures for Excavations in (1964), Control of Weak Strata in the
lncompetent Rock, U.S. BuMines, Rept. Iron Mines of Lorraine. Intl. Jour.
Inv~ 8128, p 5. Rock t-lech. and Mng. Sci. , "4 3,
~Gambrell, S.C. and Haynes, C.D., p 341-383.
(1969), In-Situ Roof Trusses vs. Angle 16. Van Ham, F. and Tsur-Lavie, Y.,
Roof.Bolts- A Photoelastic Compariso~ (1970), Reinforcement Effect and
Soc. Mng. Engrs., AlME, Preprint No. Action of Perpendicular and Inclined
69-AU-228, June," (1978), .14 p. Roof Bolts in Layered Rock Formation~
3. Grabsch, W., (1953), Neuere Proc. Second Congr. Intl. Soc. Rock
Erkenntni~se uber die Mech., Belgrade, Yugoslavia, Paper
Gebirgsbewegungen beim Ankerausbau in 4-11, p 457-467. .
Abbaustrecken, ~luckauf, v. 41/42, n.
89, Oct. 10 p 1037-1048 (in German).
4. Haas, C. J., Clarke, G.B., and
Nitzsche, R.N., (1974}, An Investiga-
tion of Rock and Types of Rock Bolts
for Selected Loading Conditions, U.S.
BuMirtes Contract H0122110, First Ann.
Rept., Feb.
5 . Haas, C.J., Shear. Resistance of
Rock Bolts, (1976), Trans.Soc . Mng.
Engrs., AIME, v. 260, Mar., p 32-41.
6. Harrell, M. V., (1975); Personal
Communication to MMS.
7. Heuz~, F.E. and Goodman, R.E.,
(1973), Finite Element and Physical
Model Studies of'Tunnel Reinforcement
in Rock, Proc. Fifteenth Symp. Rock
118
C. P. Ml.ngelsdorf
University of PittSburgh*
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
HIS'IORY
holes to form part of the 'horizontal
The device which White introduced in chord. In additio~ to the turnbuckle
1967 and patented in 1969 (1) was inten- which is required for initial tension-
ded to reinforce a main entry roof in ing of the truss, a "wedge box" gives
the same way that a queen's post truss sone adjustabili ty to the standard
reinforCes a beam. His original design, lengths of. the rod conponents in order
using two roochanically anchored bOlts to compensate for var~ations in hole
angled at 45 degrees up .over the ribs lengths and locations. The. bearing
and. connected by a horizontal chord con- blocks shown (dimpled steel plates are
sisting of a conbination of flat straps, now used) separate the horirontal chord
1 threaded rods and a turnbuckle, vas soon from the roof to facilitate tightening.
superceeded (2) by a system based entir-
ely on bolt stock, Figure L In this '!be truss, or truss bolt as it is
later and now standard system the in- SC>IOOtimes called, was hailed as a Imjor
clined bolts extend below the roof line breakthrough in supplemantal support and
and are bent over the collars of their was widely tried. throughout the coal
Point Anchor
Figure .1
*'!be author gratefully acknowledges the support. of the Bureau of Mines, Grant No.
00166088, in the work herein credited to him.
119
Two alternatives to the beam concept ring the tightening process the point
have been proposed by Cox and White (12) on the truss where the reaction ~ is
ili 1~77. One of these considers the shown must have a component of mo~ion
roof material below the pressure arch along the a.xls of the inclined chord
as pure rubble suspended by the truss. and away from the anchored end. This is
(In terms of composition, the roof over clearly possible if the collar of the
the Kentucky #9 seam would appear to fit hole moves due to sorre overall roof mo-
this description. ) The other concept is tion or if sorre small anount of rod
that the existence of the truss leads to slips out of the hole.
the formation of a low, reinforced rock
arch capable of supporting the material If the increase in inclined chord
between it and the natural pressure arch. tension, T, is to be related to the in-
In-as-much-as Cox will be describing crease in the horizontal chord tension,
these ideas elsewhere i.1 these proceed-'- H, sorre kind of motion must also be tak-
:ings, nothing- JTOre need be said here. ing place where the rod bends over the
bearing block. This can be acconpliffied
The author' s own work on trusses lRs if the rod slips over the block, if the
concentrated thus far on the behavior block slips ov~r the roof, if theblock
of the truss itself, and the role that begins to overturn or if th~ hlock
friction plays in that behavior (13). crushes.
Tb appreciate this role consider what
happens during the tightening process Without going into detail here (see
as the turnbuckle increases the tension Reference (13)), it can be shown that
in the horizontal chord, Figure l. No only slipping is capable of producing
increase in tension is experienced by the amount of motion necessary to pro-
the inclined chords untll their lower duce the increase in T required. Be-
extremities begin to move away from the cause there must be friction, it can
anchored ends. To help visualize these then be stated that during the tighten-
motions Figure 2 shows the detail ofthe ing process the ratio T/H will have a
truss in the region of the bearing block. minimum value less than one, corresporrl-
ing to impending slip. Once the slip;.;.;
ping occurs, T increases with a corres-
ponding decrease in H. 'Ill i R concept of
a lower bound of T/H during tightening
is depicted in Figure 3 where the slope
of 'the bound l::; le::;::; than 45 degrees.
. slipping
tightening\ \ -...2
T 1 _..'/_--
............
~
lower
Figure 2 bound
While Figure 2 is not a wholly true
or complete picture of what happens at
the junction of the chords of a truss, H
it is sufficiently accurate to allow
one to see the nature of the motions
required. In order for the tension in Figure 3
the inclined chord, T, to increase du-
121
Once the truss is fully tightened, The inportant point here is that the
if nothing changes, the ratio T/H will relative chord tension can, for-whatever
remain constant, but experience indi- reason, be anywhere within the bounds.
cates that there are many opportl.Ulities Once they reach one of these bol.Ulds ;how
for change. One change to consider is ever, and if the causes of change con-
the \\Orking of the roof such that IIDre tinue, the truss must begin to foiLlow
load comes down on the truss. 'lb:is: will the bol.Ulds. The implication of this
be reflected i.nlmdiately by an increase fact is, that if the chord tensions can
in T but without much change in H until be IIDni tored they will give an account
such tine as slipping occurs in the di- of what the roof is doing.
rection opposite to that associated with
initial tensioning. Such slipping ~ Another advantage in knowing the
plies the existence of an upper bol.Uld chord tensions is that the forces appli-
to T/H, at a slope of greater than 45 ed to the roof by the truss can be fOl.Uld.
degrees. In Figure 2 the equal and opposite reac-
tions of the forces on the truss appli-
Figure 4 shows both the upper and ed by the roof are shown. The SUIIJmtim
lower bounds indicated by U and L. of forces in the vertical and horizontal
Tightening is depicted by the path 0-1 directions permit one to calculate the
Roof working, as described above, fol- rm.gni tude and direction of the result-
lows the path 1-2-3. A typical change ant R. The line of action of' R rm.y be
frequently observed in trusses is a gen- shifted slightly from the intersection
eral relaxation due to a variety of of T and H, due to the possible exist-
small inelastic deformations occurring ance of small bending IIXXOOnts (not shown
at points of stress concentrations. 'Ibis in Figure 2) but it's rmgnitude_and di-
is shown by the path 1-4-5, which was rection will not be influenced by these--
observed in several trusses over a t\\0 IIXXOOnts. As the ratio T/ff variP..s~- OOw-
week period after installation. ever, the direction of R chan~s. Dur:ing
tightening, if TfH = 0. 9, for eXanple,
R makes an angle of alx>ut 60 degrees -:: :. :_
with the horizontal. ' :Fbr T/H = 1.3,:_. -.
this angle becooes about 85 d~giees.- .-.
u
Finally, by knowing all -t~~cliord
L tensions, one can predict the effeetive
stiffness or resistance which the truss
offers to the roof. :Fbr exanple, if the
truss is at point 1 in- Figure 4 and the
roof begins to come down, the resistanCe
to IIDt ion (in l.Uli ts of force per l.Uli t of
displacenElt) provided by the .truss is
T that supplied by the inclined chord alone.
On the other hand if the truss is at
points 2 or 3 the truss stiffness is
that of a length of rod that includes'
part or all of the horizontal clioni' as:
well as the inclined chord, a less stiff
condition. It should be noted that these.
differences are not related directly to
the force required to stretch a given
length of rod. Due to the curvature of
0 the rod and the crushing of material at
H the bends, the stiffness of the truss is
non-linear and -considel-ab"!y less than
for the rod alone.
Figure 4
122
The bounds depicted in Figure 4 are (the letter T in Figure 5 stands for
probably not straight (because friction tension in the horizontal chord, not th
is not constant) nor do. we lmow the nag- inclined chord). The observed data carr:.v
nitudes of typical bounds. Observations from strain gages and frequency measure-
on a few trusses underground suggest ments. The solid. line is predicted by
that the ratio TfH varies from about the fomula.
0. 9 to 1. 3 but many nnre trusses need
to be observed before any reasonable The error in predicted tension can
predictions of perfonnance can be rmde . be in either direction but is typically
not nnre than. about '506 pounds. Because
the slope of the field data follows the
IDNI'IORING fornula so closely and because the re-
solution of the frequency measuring de-
The nnst direct method of measuring vice is within a tenth of a cycle,
chord tensions is by means of electrical changes in chord tension of as little
strain gages attached to the chords. The as 100 pounds can be detected. Although
difficulty with the method is that it is the technique has only been perfected
expensive and tine conStnning and only a .for the horizontal chords its value in
few trusses can be observed. To eire~ checking installation tensions arid sub-
vent this difficulty the author (14) has sequent perfonnance is obvious.
developed a portable, battery operated
instrument which measures the natural
frequency of vibration of the horizontal
chord. From a calibrated fonnula it is
then possible to calculate the chord Work is presently underway to make
tension. similar measurements on the inclined
,chords.. The fact that these chords are
Figure 5 shows the results fran one anchored in the roof greatly cooplicates
of several trusses nnni tored underground the problem of exciting and measuring
their frequencies but laboratory meas-
15
urements with amplified signals suggest
I that the technique might still be app-
14
licable.
I
1/ In any event it will be necessary to
13
I
I observe a large number of trusses before
Tf; uss 5 1 the upper and lower bounds are defined
12 Well enough to be used for design pur-
L poses. But before truly rational design
Q/
can be executed rmre knowledge of the
" 1 interaction between roof and truss nrust
10
I be obtained.
I In an attempt to speed up the instal-
9
v lation process the Bureau is about to
fund the developnent of a rmchine which
/ e 1Ull P"" r...
should not only reduce drilling time,
8
v 1-- Prjfdi ~81 but decrease the number of manual oper-
ations involved in assanbling and tight-
~I ening trusses. A nunber of independent
attempts are also being made along this
J line. If and when this goal is achiev-
7 ed trusses can be installed in the
.' 30
20 25 cycle. At that point it will be feas-
ible to experiment with using trusses
f, cps as the pr:ilm.ry support system instead
Figure 5 o.f as a secondary one. With an enhanced
123
competitive edge, trusses may begin to 12. Cox, R.M. and White, C.C., "Design
-llay an eveh larger role in roof support and Application of the Mine Roof Truss
.n the Illinois coal basin and beyond. System," Proc. 6th Int. Strata Control
Coni. , Banff, Sept . , 1977. (Can. Centre
for 1\ITineral and Energy Tech. Ottowa) .
REFERENCES
13. Mangelsdorf, C.P., "Evaluation of
1. White, C. C. , ''Mine Roof Support Sys- Roof Trusses, Phase I" Part II, "The
tem," U.S. Patent No. 3,427 ,811. Wash. Role of Friction in Roof Truss Behavior,'
D.C., Feb. 18, 1969 Report to the Bureau of Mines on Grant
No. C~l66088, Feb., 1979, NTIS.
2. White, C.C., "Roof Support of Under-
ground Mines and Openings, " U.S .Patent 14. .Mangelsdorf, C .P. , "Frequency of
No. 3,505,824, Wash.D.C., Apr. 14,1970 Vibrations as a Means of Monitoring
(continuation of Patent No. 3,427,811) P.oof Trusses, '' submitted to Mining En-
.ginee1':ing, Oct . , 1978
3. Kegel, W. G. ''Roof Truss Installa-
tions, " Mining Cong. J. , July, 1969
pp. 22-27.
Fig. 1. The Roof Truss Conception. When the turnbuckle pulls-the steel
rods into tension, compression is produced in all of the shaded
areas. The upward and inward thrust provides positive roof sup-
port.
1 ~ 2
r
~' . :- 2
e 9
l'
J "' "
l
Fig. 2. Initial Roof Truss Installation Using Wire Rope Members. A - plan
of installation; B - cross-section of first truss; C - cross-section
of $econd truss; scale of drawing- one inch equals five feet
(1 em "" 60 em).
126
During the next three years numer- installation patterns (see Figure 6).
ous roof truss configurations were The choice of roof truss patterns for
developed that consisted of a variety intersection support is dependent on
of combinations of steel straps, steel the various combinations of mining
rods and roof bolt assemblies placed sequence, health and safety regulations,
in a variety of configurations (see material and supply logistics and local
Figure 3). The concept of .tensioning roof rock mechanics. These installa-
the truss assembly with a turnbuckle tions prove that the truss concept, if
was incorporated during this develop- properly applied, provides a positive
ment period. A major problem at this support method for fourway intersec-
time was the design and manufacture of tions in room and pillar mines.
a strong economical turnbuckle. Many
of these experimental truss systems By 1970 the concept of the roof
were installed in Illinois Basin coal truss system was definitely proven by
mines in West Kentucky to control the success of numerous installations
severe roof conditions. Incidentally, under a wide variety of mining con-
the first installation of a truss in ditions. The mechanical hardware had
a noncoal mine was made in the fluor- evolved into the standard 3/4 inch and
spar mine of the Minerva Oil Company one inch diameter rod systems as shown
near Cave-In-Rock, Illinois, in 1967. in Figure 7. It should be mentioned
These roof truss assemblies consisted in connection with this system of roof
of roof bolt anchorage members to support that several patents have been
which were connected 3" x ~~~ straps by issued in the United States and several
means of a pin connection at the lo- foreign countries.
cation of the roof bolt plates. These
truss systems were placed on four foot The next major advancement was the
centers in 12 foot wide entries to development of resin point anchorage
hold weak roof rock which previously for the standard roof truss assembly
had been unsupportable and thus allow- (see Figure 8). These developments were
ed the mining of the lower ore bench initially tested and refined in Illinois
in the area. Basin mines of Peabody Coal and Island
Creek beginning in 1975. In general at
During 1968 the truss assembly be- each test site a series of resin point
gan to evolve into the standard 3/4 anchor tests were conducted using 12
inch and one inch diameter rod systems. inch, 18 inch and 24 inch resin point
During this time the system was suc- anchors. The results of these tests
cessfully used to support 20 to 24 foot support the current recommendation that
wide entries in a number of coal mines 24 inch resin anchor points are suffi-
in Kentucky and Alabama. In addition, cient to ensure a stable anchor (great-
a compound truss was used to hold mine er than 14 tons) for the roof truss
roofs in 30 foot wide entries (see system.
Figure 4). Conceivably compound
trusses could also be used to support The resin point anchor development
wider openings. In 1968 the truss work resulted in a re-design of resin
system was also first applied to the point anchors, an~ the development of
problem of supplying positive support a new drilled and taped rebar anchor
for rock slope entries into the Che- that is standard for roof truss anchor-
topa Coal Mine in Alabama (see Figure age. The new resin point anchor is also
5). Such installations have since be- being adapted as an anchor for roof
come commonplace.for main mine entries bolting plans
and slop~s.
Current Development Work
The truss system was next applied
to the difficult problem of supporting The remaining problem that has re-
fourway intersections in room and stricted that use of the roof truss as
pillar coal mines using a variety of a primary roof support system has been
127
- ,..
,.
......
Fig 5. Roof Truss Support Plan. for Rock Slopes. A - centerline of track;
B - centerline of slope; C- centerline of belt.
128
-l,.;
u. .
~-. ~
-~- ~1.--
t
I I
Fig. 6.Roof Truss Support Plans for Four-way Intersections. A - standard
plan; B - cross plan; scale 1 inch equals 5 feet
Fig.8. Resin-anchored Roof Truss System; A - tva foot (30 gil) rebar-
resin anchor; B - coupling for length extension; C ~wedge box
for length adjustment; D - turnbuckle; E ~ support plate and
blocking.
-- -
the development of roof drills capable adequate roof rock reinforcement system.
of drilling the inclined holes nec-
essary for the correct installation The "suspension" theory adquately
of the truss system. Several proto- explains conditions encountered in bac
type drill machines have been devel- ground with weak roof rock and/or heavy
oped in recent years to drill the ground pressure, whereas the "reinforce-
angle holes and research and devel- ment" theory best explains the typical
opment work is currently being spon- mine roof conditions. The mine roof
sored by several private companies as truss system has proven to be a solu-
well as the U. S. Bureau of Mines. tion to both types of roof control
The goal of this research work is to problems. The truss system has been
speed the development of the drilling successfully used to support ~ine roofs
equipment necessary for efficient in areas heretofore considered unmine-
applications of the roof truss system able because of sevP.re. p,r01.md prQl;llems
a~ ~rlrnary support in th~ mechanical as well as being applied in numerous
mining cycle. min~i tg prnvirlr pnnit1~~ u~pQ~b fut
long life entries being supported in
Current tests are being conrlucted the reinforcement sense.
in Illinois basin coal mines of Pea-
body Coal, Island Creek and Old Ben _?uspension Analysis
to determine methods, equipment and
procedures for installing roof trusses The design of a roof support system
in the face cycle. by the suspension theory dictated that
the support system be of sufficient
Mechanics of Roof Truss Support System strength to support the total weight
of the potential roof failure. In the
Observations and study of numerous worst case the potential failure zone
mine roof failures in the basin indi- will extend vertically above the under-
cate that the typical coal mine roof ground opening, thus the weight to be
fails in an arch configuration, the supported can be determined by the
size and shape being dependent on: relationship:
the opening geometry, the enclosing
geologic structure and the in-situ W = whLb
ground forces, as altered by the
mining process (see Figure 9 ) . The where W is the rock load to be supported
stable ground arch remaining after a
roof failure is generally accepted as w is the unit weight of the rock,
the mechanism by which the major por-
tion of the overburden load is trans- L is the width of the opening,
ferred to the ribs of an underground
opening. The weight of the rock with- h is the height of the rock fall,
in the limits of the ground arch com-
prised the rock load that must be b is the spacing between supports.
supported to ensure opening stability.
Two schools of thought have been ad- The suspension support capacity of the
vanced to explain the mechanism of roof truss is:
roof failures and thus aid in the
development of a positive roof support S = 2T sin a
system. The ''suspension" school
assumes that in the worst case the where S is the support capacity,
support system must support the dead
weight of the rock within the poten- T is the installed tension,
tial failure zone; whereas the "rein-
forcement" school assumes that the a is the angle of inclination
immediate roof rock can be transformed
into a self supporting rock arch of the anchor-points (typically
structure by the addition of an 45).
131
Since the support capacity (S) must w is the height of the rock load,
balance the rock load (W) for effec-
tive support, a design relationship L is the width of the opening,
for determining the desired tension
(T) in a roof truss can be developed b is the support spacing
by combining the two previous equa-
tions: z is the rise of the rock arch
axis, typically 3/4 t,
T = whLb/2 sin a
t is the thickness of the arch.
The variables in the design equa-
tion should be determined by observa- The vertical reaction or shearing load
tion of previous roof falls and/or (V) acting at the abutments is equal
experience in similar conditions. The to one-half the rock load:
roof truss system is presently manu-
factured using 3/4 inch and one inch V = whLb/2
diameter rods of high strength steel
(50 ksi). Figure 10 depicts the The stability of the rock arch is
typical suspension support capacity dependent on four principle factors:
of these truss systems spaced at two
and four foot centers along the length (1) Arch unity
of an entry. The suspension criteria
have been used to design roof truss (2) compressive strength of the rock,
systems for both severe ground con-
ditions (weak rock and high falls), (3) shear strength at abutments, and
and draw rock problems in coal mine
entrie~ (one tu four feet thick). (4) deformation charactcristicc of
the rock.
Rock Arch Analysis
The rock arch may occasionally develop
It has long been recognized by naturally, but in most cases artificial
miners and engineers that the strength supports must be installed to hold t~e
of the support system (i.e. timbers, rock together to form a competent arch.
bolts or trusses) required to stabi- The principle supporting function of
lize a mine roof is typically much roof bolts (mechanical or resin) ~s
less than that required to support the thought to be the holding together of
roof by suspension alone. The success the roof rock to form a competent roof
of such installations can be explained rock arch. The roof truss performs
as the creation of a competent rein- the same function as roof bolts (hold-
forced rock arch within the immediate ing the rock together) as well as pro-
roof rock overlying the underground viding additional reactive support
opening (see Figure :9.:.). To effect- loads that significantly reduce both
ively analyze or design a competent the compression and shear loads that
self-supporting reinforced rock arch, must be resisted at the abutments of
the mechanics of the rock arch must the rock arch to ensure roof stability.
be examined. The loads and reactions
on a rock arch are shown in Figure 11. The additional forces superimposed
Since the rock is assumed to possess by the roof truss upon the rock arch
no tensile strength the horizontal are shown in Figure 11. The horizon-
reactions (H) at the abutment and tal reaction (H ) in a roof truss
crown of the arch can be determined reinforced rocktarch can be determined
by taking moments about point A (see by the equation:
Figure 13):
H = whL 2b/8z
where H is the horizontal reaction,
132
-------A
8
c
oL-~~~-,~,~-,~.-,~,~6--,~~D~-L~z--,~z~~--~2f~-2=,-,r..~et
.., r 7 8 aetero
Fig. 10. Supper~ Capacity of Roof ~russ in Pure Suspension. A - 3/4 inch
(18 em) truss at 4 foot (1.2 m) spacing; B - 3/4 inch (18 em)
truss at 2 (.6 m) spacing; C - 1 inch (25 em) truss at 4 foot
(1.2 m) spacing; D- 1 inch (25 CJn) truss at 2 foot (.6 m) spacing.
--
/
1
B
2
H
t
= whL
8Z
- 1._
bZ
f1
L? t-Z
sin a +(--2-)(1-cos
Installation Procedures
TABLE I
roof span (L) 20 ft. roof bolt tension (T) = 10,000 lbs.
height of rock load (b) = 6 ft. roof truss tension (t) = 20,000 lbs.
weight density of rock (~) = 160 pcf {3/4 tnch diameter)
rock arch thickness (_t) = 4 ft. for one inch diameter (_t) = 30,000 lbs.
rise of arch axis (Z) = 3 ft. supporting spacing (b) = 4 ft.
angle of inclination (a) = 45
135
TABLE II
2. Mark an X on the roof one-fifth the entry width from each pillar.
1. Drop an objecl from eal:h X on the roof and joint points with
straight line along bottom of entry.
3. Insert assembly into drill hole to full depth and tighten with
wrench to secure good anchorage.
4. Repeat above steps for other side.
5. Bend rods up against roof.
6. Connect the saw tooth rod with turnbuckle to threaded bolt
about one inch (2.5 m).
7. Place wedge box end first onto 1/2 head bolt and slide down over
saw tooth rod until it rests against the 1/2 head on bolt.
Note: The small end of the wedge box should always point toward
the center of the entry.
8. Place small end of wedge into large end of wedge box, push up on
rods to take up slack from assembly and tap wedge into place.
9. Place support plate on rods. within 12 inches (30 em) of each
hole. Place blocks on top of support plates.
10. Tension assembly by .tightening the turnbuckle.
136
as it is needed.
4. Pre-loads the rock in compression to increase stability.
5. Is a full-contact, fully tensioned device to resist rock
loads.
6. Minimizes the stress concentration effects inherent in any
interior support device.
7. Improves safety for the miner.
8. Is cheaper than a grouted system.
9. Offers the rock mechanics engineer an opportunity to design
in a fashion not before possible.
Split Sets are 1 1/2" outside diameter as manufactured and nor-
mally are put into 1 3/8" diameter borehole in rock. A Split Set
Stabilizer for a 1 1/4" diameter hole has been developed to serve the
Canadian Mining Industry where such holes are the standard. Depending
on the smoothness, diameter throughout its length, straightness of the
hole and frictional coefficient, an anchorage of 3/4 to 1 1/2 tons is
obtained per foot of borehole contact upon installation. Figure 1.
A theoretical analysis has shown the manner in which the Split
Set contacts the borehole.,l_ Figure 2 is a free body diagram of a
unit in the borehole. The ~ide opposite the slot is plastically de-
formed and contacts the sidewall over some angle "p". From the edge
of the slot to a point at the edge of the angle of contact the Split
Set acts similar to a curved beam and is loaded within its elastic
range and does not contact the hole surface. A line load is generated
at the edges of the slnt. This can be demonstrated practically by
placing a paper inside a cylindrical hole and holding it to the light
and the uncontacted area is readily seen. In the field, the actual
contact of the Split Set to the wall is increased substantially due to
roughness of the hole, rifling, scraping of the hole during insertion,
etc. Ih essence, the hole serves as a die and the Split Set is force-
fit to the borehole configuration.
The steel used in the fixtures is a high formability steel with
approximately a 70,000 psi yield Wall thickness is near 0-090 inch.
The stabilizer is tapered on the upper end for insertion into the bore
hole and on the other end, a ring is wel~ed t6-the unit as a retainer
for the roof plate.
FRICTION ROCK STABILIZER SUPPORT MECHANISM R
The Friction Rock Stabilizer, or Split Set , is a very simple
device with no moving parts. Upon installation it provides a yield~
able support and, with time, becomes more rigidly anchored in the rock
to provide the restraint necessary for long term stability.2 It is
a full contact system which pre-loads the rock in compression to
increase stability. Since the metal is in contact with the rock
throughout the circumferance of the hole over the leng~h of the device
there are no large stress concentrations to creep or .bleed bff wit~
time.
The yieldable aspects of the Split Set Stabilizers without loss
of restraint against the rock cannot be overemphasized. It is the
author's opinion that this feature is what has made the device so
ccessful in supporting ground under the worst geologic ~onditions.
so, the preload of the rock by the device during and after instal-
lation is very important. The preload acts in a plane perpendicular
to the axis of the device and also along the axis as it is driven in.
This combined effect produces a zone of triaxial compression around
138
o.o9o..
RETAINING RING-__.
FIGURE I
139
--X
FIGURE 2
140
the device3 and, when coupled with the pressure bulb which is present
in the rock from the plate, we end up with a unique pear shaped com-
pression zone around each device. When Split Set Stabilizers are
placed in pattern so that the base of the pear interlocks with the
adjacent one, stability is obtained even in very weak rock. With time
anchorage increases. This is due to such things as the diameter of
the borehole decreasing, changes in the frictional coefficient at the
metal-rock interface, and offsets in the borehole which deform the
stabilizer due to bedding plane slip or to shearing of the rock See
Figure 3.
ANCHORAGE TESTS
Field tests indicate that anchorage is greatest near the end of
the borehole and farthest from the collar. This is du~ to hole en-
largement due to lack of drill steel restraint which produces wobble
and hole enlargement and thus decreases the confinement at the collar.
Figure 4 shows the results obtained in holes drilled .6 ft. deep.4
The space between the two curves indicates the range of values to
expect for each Split Set length. The higher values obtained for the
4 ft., S ft. ann 6ft. length ar~ duQ to the increased anehor~ge near
the bottom end of the hole
COMPARISON OF INTERNAL ROCK REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS 5
Three devices are compared with Split Set Stabilizers in regard
to the manner in which they load the rock mass. The three units are:
The standard mechanical bolt, a resin bolt using a headed rebar, and
a resin bolt using a threaded bar with a nut for anchoring the roof
plate. These devices are compared with a Split Set Stabilizer in
Figure s. An explanation of the mechanism of each follows:
a. Standard Mechanical Torque Tensioned Roof Bolt
This is an active device in that it loads the rock at the
plate and at the anchor upon installation. Unfortunately, these
devices are susceptible to blast damage and to anchor creep. In a
properly installed unit, a pressure bulb compresses the rock to near
6000 lbs. unper the plate and there is a like 6000 lb reaction at
the anchor. The pressure bulb developed by ths anchor end is really
not fully understood Fracture of the rock at the anchor often occurs
Lang estimated rock stresses at mechanical anchors as high as 125,000
psi. 6
b A Resin Roof Bolt Using a Headed Rebar
This device is essentially a passive unit in that little
plate load is obtained during placement. The maximum plate load
possible is that which can be pushed against the plate with the in-
stalling machine. In the case of a mechanical roof bolter1 this is
probably near 1500 lbs. and in the case of an air leg, it is about
SOD lbs. There is no pre-stress radially outward from the resin.
c. Resin Roof Bolt Post-Tensioned With a Threaded Nut
This device provides a pressure bulb under the roof plate
in a manner somewhat similar to a good standard mechanical roof bolt.
The tension in the rebar will only extend up the bar for perhaps six
inches as this type of anchor system is quite rigid and can be clas-
sified as a high anchorage system. The whole system above this point
is essentially passive and plays no support role until the rock move
d Split SetR Stabilizer
This device is a fully active fixture. Plateloads,
measured with compression pads, of 3 tons are readily achieved and
radial loading exists along the length in all areas where the slot is
141
.
DETAIL OF SPLIT SET STABILIZER IN ROCK
il =rlf== ==-
ORIGINAL PRESTRES .
IN ROCK
RETAINING RING
FIGURE 3
142
SLIP LOAD
0
0
Cf)
z
0
...,_
I
Cl
<(
0
.....J
a.
-.....J
(/')
--'\I
.. I
l
-I
\
/
" /
I
I/
II
"
"'- \
\ \
I/
I I
/
II \ \ II
~~\ ''I
J
}s.ooo
.J
# \\\
'"
(a) Mechanical (b) Resin-Head Rebar (c) Resin-Thread Rebar (d) Split Set
Stabilizer
FIGURE 5
144
15
10
FAILURE
~-------------------------------------------------------------------c
FIGURE 6
HYPOTHETICAL MECHANICAL BOLT LOAD HISTORY
0
(/)
z
0
~
F:--------_J
c
TIME J
CI~IIDC 7
FIELD TEST RESULTS OF PULL TEST ON FRICTION RO.CK STASI ZERS .
IN VARIOUS GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS
15
(/)
c
z
0 A X COPPER MINE- SHALE
t-
B LEAD MINE- DOLOMITE
C 0 TRONA- SALT
5 D 6 URANIUM-WET SHALE
E 'V URANIUM- SANDSTONE
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
DAYS
FIGURE B
148
a direct function of how much support was needed; that is, the more
~ock movement, the higher the anchorage became.
A Original Geastress
G')
C\ ~
""'""
00
c ...
u
"" G
-
"0
4f 3~
- 0.
~ ~ ~
0 c D ""
!)
C"
0
_J
...0
1.!)
-:s
c
0
0
"0
0
a::
0
Supper t Reaction Curves
Radial Yield
REFERENCES
1. Haas, Charles J., et al, An Application of the Interaction of Rocr
and Types of Rock Bolts for Selected Loading Conditions, Third
Annual Report, USBM Contract Report {H0122110}, June 15, 1976.
2. Scott, James J., Friction Rock Stabilizers- A New Rock Reinforce-
ment Method. 17th Symposium on Rock Mechanics, 1976, Snowfird,
Utah.
3. Scott, James J., Friction Rock Stabilizers in Uranium Mininc ,
18th Symposium on Rock Mechanics, July, 1977, Keystone, Colorado.
4. Maher, Joe., Uniform Four Foot Length Split Set Roofbolts -vs-
Uniform Four Foot Length Fully Grouted Resin Roofbolts, USBM
Contract No. H0242029, Jan. 31, 1977.
5. Scott, James J., Friction Rock Stabilizers: How and Why They Work.
19th Symposium on Rock Mechanics, May 3, 1978, Reno, Nevada.
6. Lang, T. A., Rock Behavior and Rock Bolt Support in Large Excava-
tions, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York~ 1957, p-110
7. R. Stefanko and R. v. DelaCruz, Mechanisms of Load Loss in Roof
Bolts. Proc. 6th Symp. Rock Mechanics, University of Mo., Rolla,
Oct. 1964, pp 293-309
8. s. s. Peng. Complete Load History of Roof Bolts in an Underground
Coal Mine, Presented at SME Fall Meeting and Exhibit, Denver, Colo.
Sept. 1-3, 1976, Pre-print No. 76-AM-300. p. 16
9. H. Habenicht and J. J. Scott, The Influence of Shock Waves on the
Stability of Rock Bolt Anchorage~ presented at An~ual Meeting of
AIME, New York, Feb. 24 - March 3, 1966. Preprint No. 66-FM-17, p.l5
10. Lane, K. s., Field Test Sections Save Cost in Tunnel Support,
This work was funded by the National Science Foundation with
support of the American Society of Civil tngineers, 1975.
152
Seymour A. Bortz
1. Cement, damp sand (4-8% moisture), The length of hose used with shot-
and coarse aggregate are thoroughly creting is normally 50 to 150 ft. How-
mixed. Powdered fastsetting admix.,.. ever, greater lengths of up to 450 ft
ture (FSA) is introduced at this and, under exceptional conditions, up
stage (Fig. 2). to 1, 000 ft can b~ used if necessary.
The maximum vertical rise above the gun
2. The mixture is fed into a mechani- is 200 ft, but a much lower height than
cal feeder or gun (Figs. 3 and 4). this is desirable. The hose f o r de-
livering the cement-aggregate mixture
3. Material is carriedby compressed is normally 1-1/4 or 1-1/2 in. internal
air through the delivery hose to diameter and a 1/2 or 5/8 in. hose can
a nozzle. The nozzle is fitted be used to supply water.
with a perforated manifold through
which water is introduced under Operating pressures are normally be-
pressure and intimately mixed with tween 30 psi and 60 psi, depending on
154
hnlt
t1ry, no~
sl~kiog strata
sh~lc11ith
slkinq oot~ntial
storage
dry, non- hopper
s lkin9 strata
Figure 1
feed
bo;;i
Figure 2
lo~ter cone
valve
auxiliary
barrel or ~yl inder air valve
Figure 3
FEED WHEE~ SHOTCRETE MACHTNE
Figure 4
155
water
control
va 1vc
a. Stepped-balloon nozzle
water
control LIQUID ACCELERATOR DISPENSER
valve
Figure 6
material
hose
PLAN VIEW
shotc~te
~
carrying
shOtcrete
shatcrete
jur.~bO
r.~atertah
to storo11e:
STEPPED-BALLOON AND SMOOTH-BALLOON DRY-MIX hopper
SHOTCRETE NOZZLES
Figure 5
shotcrete
Figure 7
air
~~~-~- nozzle
to restore
to norrndl. shape
rollers
material
hose
material slug~
mixing paddles
discharge sump
pumpiny
tube
blades
Figure 8
SCHEMATIC DIAr.RAM OF SQUEEZE TYPE,
WET-MIX SHOTCRETE MACHINE
Figure 9
156
material
outlet
air pipe
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF PISTON TYPF., WET~MIX WET-MIX SHOTCRE'l'J:: NOZZLE FOR USE WITH LIQUID
SHOTCRETE MACHinE ACCELERATORS
Figure 10 Figure 11
.,
materia 1 hose
Table l rubber
nozz 1e
tip
OPERATIONAL FEATURES OF DR AND
WET MIX SHOTCRETE PROCESSES
~----::.:::~
air and dry accelerator
Dry Mix Process
the size of the gun. For long horizontal seepage in coal and rock seams , a~d to
lengths of hose and. for vertical lifts facilitate the placing of bulkheads to
higher pressures and a booster jet is seal off mine fires and control explo-
required, so that the. nozzle velocity sions. The required rapid set can be
of the material is not reduced. . Too obtained through the use of special rapid
high or too low pressure will adversely set cements. Fast set shotcrete proper-
affect the qu'ality of shotcrete and the ties and methods of application have con-
quantity of rebound produced. siderable advantages and potential for
use in underground mining:
The volume of fr.ee air required under
normal gunning conditions is 60-225 'ft3 / 1. It can be applied almost immedi-
min. The water supply to the nozzle should ately behind coal cutting opera-
be 15. psi above the air pressure. For tions. This will permit little
good even work, it is important that the movement of the roof prior t o
pressures selected be maintained at a receiving support.
steady value. (2) Table 2 provides back-
ground regarding the interrelations be- 2. It can act as a sealant which is
t w e en operating pressure, compressor important in the prevention of
capacity, hose diameter and nozzle size. swelling or sloughing of shales,
The coverage for a given quantity of one of the causes of room falls.
material cannot be given with precision,
but .a rough guide is given in Table 3. 3. It can also be used under wet
conditions.
The nozzle should be held 3 to 4 ft
from and perpendicular to the surface 4. It will limit gradual deteriora-
being sprayed and should be kept moving tion of pillars by crushing.
all the time or uneven work will result
(Figs. 14 and 15). 5. It provides continuous snppnrt.
Table 2 Table 3
COMPRESSOR CAPACITIES COVERAGE OF GUNITE FOR STATED
FOR NORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS QUANTITIES OF MATERIAL
3.
4.
5.
6.
45-60 em (18-24 in.)
7. 8-15 'em
(3-6 in.)
15-20 em
CORRECT (LEFT) AND INCORRECT (RIGHT) METHOD OF ENCASING
REINFORCING BAR WITH SHOrCRETE
(6-9 in '
F1gure 16
SHOTCRETE NOZZLE MOTION
Figure 15
. 159
., ;~$~~::
FIBER
-.; ..;11>
.,STEEL Fl BROUS
SHOTCRrn
Figure 19
usE OF A BLOW PIPE IN REMOVING REBOUND
'OR PROPER ENCASEMENT OF REINFORCING BARS
Figure 17
FIBROUS
SHOTCRElt
~~~
5 4 7 28,
- . . - - - HOURS OAYS --~
AGE OF SHcm:RETE CLOG SCALE!
ESTIMoUED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH-TIME RELATIONSHIPOF.REG-SET
SHOTCRETE
tROM: 1NIIIOYATIOMS lfl TUNMEL SUPPORTSY'STDIS"; H.VI'.AI\AKER,et aL, UNIVERSITY OF L1.JNOIS
REPOAT t1o. FAAtnJZ-17, MaY 18.71
with 1-2% fluorite (CaF2) addition as a lost in this way. The amount of rebound
mineralizer. In this way, and with heated depends on the water/cement ratio and the
mix water and/or addition of soda ash, direction of spray. It is less for higher
the setting timecan be controlled with water-cement ratios and more for vertical
reasonable precision. and overhead work than for horizontal and.
sloping surfaces. The rebounding material
Application consists of coarse sand particles and
aggregate and smaller amounts of cement.
The most essential component of good All rebound material should be cleaned
shotcrete application is a well-trained, off surfaces to be covered (Fig. 17), and
experienced crew who has the desire to the sequence of work should be such that
do a good job. Training and experience any reboun~ material will fall clear of
are more important to shotcrete work than surfaces to be covered. For this reason,
it is to cast-in-place concrete work for vertical surfaces should be shot from
two reasons. First, the shotcrete process the bottom up (Fig. 22).
contains more variables than the cast- in-
place concrete process. Second, there Rebound can be reduced if a pozzolan
are a greater number of human.decisions is added to make the mix more plastic
to be made in its placement. There is without adding water.(3) Also, rebound
anelement of art and a degree of skill can "be reduced i f the grading of the sand
involved in shotcrete which cannot be is not too coarse and the finest grading
overlooked. Many shotcrete failures can is within the limits set up in Table 4.
be traced to poor application practices.
These result mainly from the crew's lack A mix of one part of cement to 3~ parts
of knowledge or expertise. The nozzleman of aggregate gauged by loose dry volumes
in particular must be highly trained and is used for almost all purposes. F o r
he must possess the desire to do a good work under dry conditions or where great
job. He controls . the quality of the strength and impermeability are not re-
finished shotcrete product as well as in- quired, a 1 to 4 or 1 to 4~ mix may be
fluencing the economy of the job. High used. The mix proportions of the con-
quality and economy go hand in hand when crete, as deposited, will be slightly
proper application procedures are followed .richer than described due to rebound of
by the nozzleman and his crew (Eig. 21). sand and aggregate, and for this reason
a mix richer than 1 to 3 should not be
The first step in the shotcrete appli- used. A 1 to 3-1/2 mix may, after it is
cation p-r:ocess is the preparation of the deposited, become 1 to 3 or 1 to 3-1/4.
receiving surface. Earth, rock, concrete, Aggregate size normally will gange from
masonry, wood and steel may be coated with 1/4 to 3/4 in. in size. Suitable gradings
shotcrete. It is of prime importance that are shown in Table 4.
they be prepared properly i f good bond is
to be obtained. Surface preparation is The sand should not be absolutely dry
followed by the_mixing, shooting, trimming, but preferably will have a moisture con-
finishing and curing steps. All of these tent between 4% and 8%. The quantity of
9.re individually important and neglecting water added is controlled by a tap at the
any one can adversely affect the proper- nozzle and is determined by the .Judgment
ties of the finished shotcrete. Proper of the operator. Too much water will
attention to each of these will in:<;ure a cause the shotcrete to run down or slump
produce with all the bond, strength, and on vertical surfaces, or drop down from
durabil;Lty that is characteristic of well- overhead surfaces If the mixture is too
placed shotcrete. dry, it will be weak and will not adhere
properly. The correct quantity of water
Rebound and Coverage usually causes a sheen to appear on the
finished work.
The high velocity of the shotcrete at
the time of impact with the surface to be Strength tests on shotcrete sampies
covered causes a fair amount of rebound, are the most commen means for checking
and more than 50% of the material may be shotcrete quality. These tests give an
162
Goggles - - - - -
Table 4
GRADING OF AGGREGATE FOR USE
IN SHOTCRETE uauntiiiiS - - - - - - '
Watt~rc,oof
1ac~et ~-----
A. Fine Aggregate
B. Coarse Aggregate
--~---------~-------~
Percent Passing
Individual Sieves, './. /////
by weight
;0 INITIAL APA..ICATION
No. 8 No. 4 No. 4
Sieve Size,
U.S. standard
to tO
3/8 in. 1/2 in. 3/4 in.
'1:0
l
~quare mesh si.?.e size size I
Figure 22
163
compression
spring
hammer
impact
spring
impact plunger
shotcrete
ISc
rn
(JJ ,,.,,
r~
(l
I
I
IOc. I .
4 In, I ) ft
l
Zc (l/4-ln.)
tlllcll: piJWOod
L
1---,~:.,- 7S c UO tn.i
Alll!rNtr orlenttiOI'II
of flu~~:-1 SPKIns
LONGWALL MINING
Session Co-Chairpersons:
Ernest A. Curth
Mining Engineer
United States Department of Energy
Ptttsburgh Mining Technology Center
INTRODUCTION
The Illinois coal basin contains significant reserves and is one of the important
coal producing provinces in the United States in close proximity to the consumers.
Room-and-pillar methods are prevalent in Illinois with the result that the average
recovery of coal approximates 50 percent and roof control is difficult. The alter-
native is longwall mining with the potential of better ground control, generally
easier compliance with safety standards, improved productivity and higher resource
recovery. However, attempts at longwall mining the Herrin No. 6 coalbed were un-
successful in the past (1). If problems such as instability at the face and hazard-
ous ground control are solved, longwall mining could be reconsidered.
The Department of Energy's Coal Mining Research Program aims to lower the economic
and social cost of coal mining by developing full extraction systems such as longwall
m1n1ng. Problems in design and operation of safe and efficient faces are to be
solved by improved technology. In line with this objective the Department of Energy
became a partner in a cost-sharing endeavor with Old Ben Coal Company, to demonstrate
that the Herrin No. 6 coalbed can be mined safely by longwall methods.
The design of the Old Ben longwall operation emphasized risk reduction and per-
sonnel safety and included the following:
1. A premining study.
2. Choice of system.
3. Panel design.
4. Environmental aspects.,
5. Equipment selection.
Longwall m1n1ng was reintroduced to the Illinois coal basin in the Fall of 1976 and
now in 1979 four longwalls with roof shields are in operation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledges the permission granted him by Dr. D. S. Choi to use fig-
ures 11, 12, and 14 (15, 16); E. Jones to use figures 10 and 13 (13); J. Jansky to
use figures 3 and 4 (5); T. Gales to use figure 18 (21), Emory Ayers Associates to
use figures 7 and 8; P. Conroy to use figures 15 and 14 (18).
PREMINING INVESTIGATION
The investigation includes core drilling to provide data for developing coal
thickness maps and isopachs of various strata intervals and the overburden thickness
(fig. 1). Physical rock properties are determined either from the cores (2) or dir-
ectly by geophysical logging to obtain indicators of rock mass behavior. Estimates
of roof support mean load density requirements are made based on strata separation
and cantilever action in stiff strata.
Seismic techniques adapted from oil and gas exploration yield information on tec-
tonic structures (3,4) (fig. 2). Satellite image~ and aerial photography nrc used
to interpret linear ground features as viewed from satellites, Skylab and high al-
titude aircraft at distances from 570, 270, and 13 miles, respectively (5, 6).
These lineaments trace shear zones in fractured rock that reach down from the surface
through the strata and indicate unstable ground (figs. 3, 4).
Looking into the history of failure in past attempts at longwall m1n1ng, evaluating
photographs of damaged supports and performing stress analyses on salvaged roof sup-
ports can provide significant equipment selection criteria. For example, the select-
ion of shield-type roof supports would solve problems of instability caused by a
lateral thrust inferred from the failure pattern.
Such existing horizontal in situ field stresses at the level of the coalbed can be
determined by the borehole deformation method (7) or by hydraulic fracture techniques
adapted from the oil industry (8, 9, 10).
Where the underground site is accessible, roof and floor rock bearing capacity
tests can be performed to determine contact area requirements on roof supports and
cutting patterns (11) (fig. 5). For example, a soft underclay which fails at 300
psi when wet must be protected by leaving a sufficiently thick layer of coal to pre-
vent sinking of the supports. Conversely, soft friable roof material may be kept
from spalling by leaving a sufficiently thick layer of coal. Consequently, continu-
ous miners during the development work and the shearer-loader on the longwall face
leave floor or roof coal or both as the conditions require to maintain ground stab-
ility.
CHOICE OF SYSTEM
Standard longwall practice in the United States is retreat mining, while advanc-
ing longwalls are prevalent overseas. Reports from the West German mining industry
in 1977 indicate the share of production from retreating, advancing and Z-systems as
29.5, 54.3, and 16.2 percent, respectively. The tendency in Europe is toward in-
creasing the use of retreating longwalls. The main reasons why U.S. operators pre
retreating longwalls are:
Mine 21
Mine 24
umestone (Bankston Fork)
Shale
Limestone (Jamestown) 520 Shale
Shale Coal (Degraff)
Limestone (Herrin) hale
Shale --~......., Underclay
Siltstone .
hale
Coal (Danville NQ7)
Sandstone nderclay
iltstone
Shale
Coal
relay (with coal
...
-
......
Q)
Q)
band)
Limestone (Bankston)
:::c
1- .,
:::c
Shale 1-
Q. Q. 580
LLJ LLJ
c 620 c
tone
ale
600 iiiiiit:~oa I (Jamestown)
ale .
640
imestone
/16- inch coal hale
Shale hale
----------------- 620
No.6 coal seam No.6 coal seam
660 nderclay
Underclay
~~-Limestone
c:::x:::::>--L i me stone
Shale
640
e~.l/-7?
so a
w E
l'tH,.,M.u...i'nt numbers
Q.Q::- 58\-tocc
"'0z n
0 0
:;u
u :0
w 1"1
"'z n
-i
1"1
0
-i 1-'
0'\
~ ())
0
~
-<
..:.o.s -..
~
1"1
0
w z-
t- (/l
u 1"1
w n
a: 0
a: z
0 0
u (/l
.
+
'"
:
':
~ : ' . '
.'!..
LINEAR/FRACTURE ZONES
~--.
.PHOTO COVIiiRAma
Total Pictures
447
Number of Flights
72173 17417~ 176177
'; 91 2--
A&TBFIN RBCBICIN
INT&AIOR PROVINe
FIGURE 4 Overflight of Eastern ~
Region - Interior Prov.i~ce. 9-27n
Extension section with
detachable collar
Pressure
recorder
Floor penetration
~-++-r' scale
Sighting telescope
10,000 lb/sq in
gage Hand-
operated
hydrau I ic
. ' pump
Large steel plate
L - - - - - - - Floor strata --~------1
3. Face operation is not tied to roadway driving and, therefore, face end for-
mation is simplified (fig. 6).
There is only one advancing longwall currently operating in the western United
States in an are~ where difficult strata conditions and high methane liberation
preclude development by multiple entries (fig. 7). Plans for an advancing longwall
face in an eastern mine did not materialize (fig. 8).
Z-systems feature one existing gate road and the other gate road formed in con-
junction with the face (fig. 9). Such a system is in compliance with MSHA Mandatory
Standards when the ranging arm shearer can be used to profile the roadway in that
there is only one machine in a split of air. But the legal requirement of one in-
take, one return and a neutral belt entry to the face is not satisfied. The return
air from the face must be coursed through the belt entry. Such a ventilation system
calls for a special permit. Both advancing and Z-systems depend on the efficient
installation of packwalls placed by hydraulic or pneumatic means, a technology de-
veloped overseas during the last decade, but still in its infancy in the United
States.
PANEL DESIGN
The objective of panel design is to maintain ground stability in the gate roads
under the following considerations:
S = 1320 X W
46 /h" 66 X (1-e)f.1H
The extraction ratio e considers the whole area including longwall face and chain
pillars (fig. 10).
.,..
. '.,
tmCAJ. Y'OOid
yptiLATJOI! SISTII
GOB
.,c
<::;::::::J Long~wall panel -a
E
. Into ke airway I
----------- .a
~
0
~_,__Neutral
split
11
Divided Entry" System 7-24-79 L -16879
rr.clnu: 7 - Advancing longwall -
Divided Entry.
Mains
: .. ....-' . Barrier
. en
-c0 GOB .,
eI ,Return airway
.0
~
---------- ----------------------- -c0
C/) E
I
:::J Longwa~l panel .a
~
Return airwa~_._ __ C/)
-:- =-~ =-- .-==. ~~ ;-- ':-:.._.-.
c::::> . Direction of workinCJ ..
. ---Conveyor
--~--Roadside pack wall
--):-Ventilation ducting
''.
11 11
0ouble Entry System
FIGURE 8 - Advancing .1 ongwa11- 7-24-79 L-16876
Double Entry
Mains
Barrier
Longwa II panel
en
c
-c
:?!
I
! .Q
:::~
len
Return airway
c::=!> Direction of working
---Conveyor
Roadside packing
11
Z .. _ System
10-12-79 L-17083
FIGURE 9 - Z - system.
177
I : 1&\net.lon deeSMl
2. Choi, Dahl, and Von Sch8nfeld (15) recommend that the large chain pillars be
located at the head gate entry of a panel and that the small yield pillars be lo-
cated at the tailgate entry for the next panel. This configuration will provide
reduced deformation and improved stability around the tailgate; it should also in-
duce a cleaner break at the edge of the gob and impr.ove overall opening stability
by transferring a significant portion of the overburden weight to the gob. Figure
11 shows a finite element model designed to determine loads on the chain pillars.
Recently, Choi .and McCain (16) developed a chart for the Pittsburgh coalbed in
northern West Virginia for a coal with a support capability of 2,200 to 2,500 psi.
The chart shows the chain pillar width in terms of panel widths for sever.al over-
burden thicknesses (fig. 12).
3. The general design practice in the United States is to adopt the same time
proven panel geometry as that used in the room-and-pillar system in the individual
mines. Following simple example shows how a Safety Factor for ground support is
coruput:~d:
Under 650 feet of cover the weight of the original burden is distributed over s1
percent of the coal left in situ after first mining. Hence, the unit load on the
coal rises to 650/0.51 = 1,275 psi. Assuming the compressive strength of the coal
to be 2,000 psi, the Safety Factor is
s = 2;000/1,275 1.6
The minimum number of panel entries for longwall development to comply with MSHA
mandatory standards is three, except for some western mines where exceptions for
double entry and single entry (with appropriate dividers) development were approved.
Ventilation requirements may dictate a minimum of four development entries. ln
southern Illinois, the longwalls are developed by sets of 3 entries on 60 and 100
foot centers (fig. 13). The chairt pillar on 60 foot centers adjacent to the panel
is. mined along with the longwall face, thus adding to its length. This practice is
unique to longwall.mining and is designed to increase overall coalbed recovery. The
three gate roads leading to the face ar~ the headgate with the belt, the supply gate
for men and supply transportation, and the .tail gat~.
Case No. 1 in figure 15 shows the premining condition. Only minor insignificant
local fracture zones in brittle material are indicated. Case No. 2 shows the con-
dition during mining. The roo~ shields in the excavated panel area apply a maximu
support of 12S.psi = 9 tons/ft which is introduced as a boundary stress into the
model. A zone of fracturing slightly larger than in the premining setting appears
in the main gate rib adjacent to the mined panel. Although the underclay floor
Finite Element Mesh
600 .
500 .,
PANEL
WIDTH
IN 400 . f-'
00
0
FEET
300
200
100
. itlJ:.fli. . - .
140' 60'
Roof material
-. .- B~ . .
209' 91'
0 40,000
LEGEND I I . I I
f#NJJ Fractured zone STRESS, psi
~ Plastic deformation
CASE No.2
-+- Principal stresses / .... ~
/
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
~
r ...
:I
1'..
v
r-~
..... I::>..
~
-- ...... 1- - ~
7 Roof
yields to a.small extent, the integrity of the gate road in the model is not
threatened and near horizontal stresses in the roof even enhance the stability of
the openings.
Experience in the Illinois coal basin has shown that entries wider than about 15
feet cannot be maintained even when the roof is reinforced with resin bolts and
coated with a protective sealant. The belt entries or longwall head gates were orig-
inally driven 18 feet in width to accomodate the hydraulic powerpack and electrical
power center along the conveyor belt. However, falls occurred in the headgates dur-
ing retreat mining. Therefore, the belt entry width was reduced to 15 feet, and the
powerpacks and power centers were modified to fit into the narrower entry configur-
ation. The width of the stage loader, too, was reduced by relocating the drives.
Belt entry roof'support by resin anchored trusses has been introduced recently.
The pressure arch theory, developed in Britain to explain rock mass behavior, as-
sumes an arch of destressed material forms above the excavation and-relieves it from
the overburden pressure buildup at the ends of the arch which follows the outline of
the longwall panel"(19). Critical ground stresses may develop at the face ends
where abutment forces along the face combine with those along the gate roads. They
impose a heavy load on the roof support system while the longwall faces passes
through (fig. 16).
Single hydraulic props, by virtue of early bearing capability, are used to control
convergence in gate roads. They are set in addition to cribbing which relies on rock
deformation for building up support strength. The props are connected to the hy-
draulic face supply system and can extend.to exert a thrust of 30 tons, if properly
blocked. They yield at 44 tons (fig. 17).
PT
CURRENT PANEL
GOB
.....
00
VI
ORIGINAL STRESS
CURRENT PANEL GOB FUTURE
PANEL
TAILGATE FOR
FUTURE PANEL
YIELDING PILLAR
FIGURE 16 .- Abutment loads in SUP~LY ENTRY
longwall pa~el. CHAIN PILLAR REQUIRED TO LIMIT THE INFLUENCE OF
: CURRENT PANEL GOB ON MINING THE FUTURE PANEL
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Where
Lf face length, ft
Economic face lengths in the United States range from 450 feet in thick coalbeds
to 600 feet in thin coal beds. Obviously, larger blocks (face length times panel
length) mean the wasted resource including chain pillars, recovery stalls and bleeder
pillars will represent a smaller portion of the total coal developed and costly equip-
ment moves will be less frequent.
Surface effects
Local geology
Longwall panels in the United States average 3000 feet in length. A few exceed
5000 feet (23).
Several new coal mines have been developed for longwall mining with panel blocks
as large as limiting factors allow. They are projected to have two active longwall
faces and as many continuous mining units as are required for development and ex-
traction.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
fluid pressure, and aquifer permeability (24). Proposed Rules in the implementation
of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (PL.97-87) include buffer
zones for protection of public buildings, aquifers of the ground water supply and
water impoundments. In addition, the Act requires subsidence monitoring by the
Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSM) and advanced notice to
owners of surface property above or adjacent to planned mining operations (25).
This implies identification of surface premining damages prior to mining-induced
subsidence. Also, oil and gas wells may affect the panel design.
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
Based on data resulting from the premining investigation, selection criteria for
roof supports are developed. Shields are being preferred over chocks since they
have been introduced in America in 1975. Decisive factors for favoring shields over
chocks are:
\
1. A sheltered working space requiring minimum cleanup work.
2. Structural stability which allows advancing without delay even with brushing
roof contact.
Figure 20 shows how the support forces can be evaluated for two-legged caliper type
and lemniscate shields. The canopy tip of the caliper-type shield describes a cir-
cular arc when the shield is raised or lowered. Hence, the critical span between
canopy tip and face widens with increasing height of the shield unless compensated
by an extension. Caliper shields also develop a horizontal thrust towards the face
when yielding. On lemniscate shields the span between canopy tip and face barely
changes during vertical travel. The first shields introduced in the United States
and installed in mines in New Mexico and West Virginia in 1975 were caliper-type
units. The lemniscate shield was introduced first in Illinois in 1976.
Figure 21 shows the side view of such a lemniscate shield in the one-web-back
position with a shearer-loader and face conveyor. A side view o an advanced type
of shield installed in an Illinois mine in 1978 illustrates how the joint between
the gob end of the canopy and the gob shield has been redesigned to eliminate Llt~
dead corner where debris could accumulate (Fig. 22). Figure 23 shows a similar
shield with a large ram between the canopy and the gob shield for stabilizing the
joint. Figure 24 shows a four-legged shield of a type which is used in several
mines in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia. These shields provide a high tip
load.
5 2
MLD = (1 + L Cn) x 7h tons/ft (6)
n=1
.l . 1
1
A(u=Ol
A. A(u=0.3)
8. 1
6 1
1
c o \\ per Lemniscate
1
1
FIGURE .20 - S
h ie ld d ia g ra m
s. 1
1
I;'
--- --
_..;__ -+-
7
-,f.-L-Ifo-
i
- - I I
J: t-~ ~n.-~-
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; : I\ ~.
ji- .
........ !
i ! w !
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PGtl- 77
PARTIAL TOPVIEW S/7
OF BASE
FIGURE 21- Roof shield 6'/10'.
1 OSCtl
.SlCS
__ --- . ... .
.IOSCll
- - - "'X{c~-
('9~
rott'.l.
I 1019ll
-~iDcu_,.qq
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A
Lemniscate -2
FIGURE 23 - Lemniscate 2.
7-24-79 L-16878
Four-legged
FIGURE 24 Four-legged shield. 7-24-79 L-16881
C = magnification coefficients
n
Magnification coefficients are identified as hanging of immediate roof, local face
activity, bridging of immediate roof prior to first fall, main roof weight and ex-
tended downtime.
3. A short span of at least 12 inches between canopy tips and face before shearer
passes.
~
4. A canopy designed to maintain stable roof contact during the shield advance
hy the action of a ram which swings it against the roof and by having a ratio of the
front to the rear portion of the ~.:.e:u1opy rtot grl!uter tha, ?
5. Short length of shield canopies. Shields take fewer steps walking from gob
to face than chocks with longer canopies. This reduces the "trampel" effect.
German miners use this expression to describe roof deterioration above powered sup-
ports caused by frequent setting and lowering.
6. Upswept canopy extensions which provide close roof contact and, when retracted,
allow an immediate change from the one-web-back to the non-web-back mode if required
for roof control. The one-web-back operation provides more traveling space and im-
mediate forward roof support. A non-web-back mode minimizes roof exposure in ad-
vance of the front props.
8. A yield pressure not to exceed 7,000 psi for reliable yield valve function.
9. A safe travelway.
10. A divided base which allows each half of the support to be lifted individually
so that floor obstacles can be overcome and which is selfcleaning by allowing debris
to pass through into the gob.
11. Control of each shield from the adjacent unit to protect the shield operator.
12. Having the double-acting ram mounted in an inclined ~osit~on counteracts the
tendency of the shield to dig into the floor. The ram acts through reverse linkage
to raise the base slightly and to exert the full force of the piston end when the
shield is pulled up to the conveyor.
13. Automatic sprays mounted on the canopies to control dust originating from the
gob during shield advance and sealing of. the working space against dust by sideplates
fitted between the shields and kept tight by springs and hydraulic rams.
at one to three loading cycles, durability under pulsating loads, function and op-
eration mode of the canopy, protection against flushing, width and height of the
travelway, behavior of the shields on uneven floor and sideways mobility of double
acting ram.
Roof supports should be equipped with load indicators, gages and recorders to
trace the loading profile in the roof support systems by measuring hydraulic pres-
sures.
Recovery of longwall roof supports is always a difficult task and requires cir-
cumspect planning and execution. Shield recovery poses an. unusual problem because
part of the structure is under the caved rock. Therefore, during the last 10 passes
across the face, wire mesh is stretched over the top of the shields. A recovery
room is then driven by a continuous miner along the shield line (fig. 25). The
space is further secured by a movable bulkhead formed by two shields moving side by
side along the recovery room, while a shield is removed from the shield line and
taken off the face (fig. 26). This is an important safety feature. Another pre-
caution taken is to build cribs in place of a removed shield. A third precaution
taken is to advance shields from the line of supports under their own power. Under
these conditions, shields can be set against the roof quickly should immediate sup-
port be needed (fig. 27).
The shearer-loader is used predominantly on u.s. longwalls to cut and load coal.
Only 25 percent of the longwall faces were equipped with plows in 1977, though the
equipment is simple., the product is coarser and the operation is less dusty than
with shearers. Shearers are used in firm coalbeds that do not lend themselves to
plowing. The shearer operation also offers a better horizon control where the floor
is soft, although the manufacturer of a novel "Gleithobel" plow claims that adequate
horizon control and cutting performance in firm coal can now be achieved.
The double-ended ranging drum shearer provides face end formation without enter-
ing the gates. The machine frame is safely trapped by guide tubes on the gob side
of the panline and rides on rollers that run on the L-shaped ramp plates on the face
side. Novel in-seam shearers which ride on the floor ahead of the face conveyor
are designed to cut coal as low as 30 inches.
Shearer haulage chain tensioners are mounted on the head and tail terminals of
the conveyor and are connected to the hydraulic pressure system of the roof supports.
The tensioners compensate for the elastic stretch of the chain which may amount to
as much as 2.1 feet for a 470-foot face and a 26 millimeter chain. They provide
uniform chain loading regardless of the postion of the shearer along .the face.
Chainless haulages have recently been introduced and promise benefits in both safety
and efficiency.
Most shearer drums have two-start spiral vanes~ are 30 inches in width and cut a
27- to 28-inch web. A wider web is desirable where roof control can be maintained.
Each drum can be equipped with a cowl to clean ahead of the conveyor. Hollow drum
shaft ventilation is recommended where methane liberation is high. Water sprays are
integrated with the drums and also mounted on the machine frame. Fewer picks, slower
drum rotation and picks as long as 4 inches are favorable factors in dust control.
However, the control of respirable dust often constrains the production from high
capacity cutter-loaders. Additional methods available to allay respirable dust at
he source include water with wetting agents, the use of on-board scrubbers and
uomotropal ventilation modes where coal and air travel in the same direction to re-
duce the relative air velocity and, thus, prevent aerodynamic entrainment of res-
pirable dust.
4 x 12in plank
Hydraulic
prop ~of track. 7ft 3in
,,I
I
-
4ft 5ft 3in
Recovery area.
7-16-79 L-16873
FIGURE 25 - Recovery.
.e
//////
Shield line
---
~-=--- ~ -=---=-- = ==.-=--
2 40-lb rails at 42-in gage
High air velocities result from the restricted cross sectional area available
~ long a face equipped with powered ruoof supports. The ventilation cross sectional
~area, A, is a function of mining height according to an empirical formula developed
in Europe (28).
2
A 12.5 (M-1) . for chocks and four-legged shields, ft (4)
M mining height, tt
High capacity armored face conveyors have single center, double inboard or out-
board chains. Each standard pan is 59 inches (1.5 meter) long to accomodate one
shield so that the middle of the pan can be attached to the double-acting ram, there-
by minimizing the stress at the pan connections due to eccentric forces when pushing
the conveyor forward or pulling up the shield. The conveyor snaking procedure which
sumps the shearer into the face and involves about 12 pan lengths or 60 feet also
stresses the pan connections. Damage to pan ends can be avoided by having connectors
attached to the conveyor furniture rather than placing them on the pans (29). The
furniture includes ramp plates on the face side and spillplates with the guide tubes,
the cable handling trough and brackets for attaching the rods of the double-acting
shield rams on the gob side.
Standard conveyor chain speed is 181 feet per minute. Power at the terminals is
transmitted through fluid couplings and must be adequate to haul the coal away from
the cutter loader. The National Coal Board's Bulletin on "Heavy-Armored Flexible
Conveyor" offers power requirement calculations (30).
Stageloaders bridge the gap between the face conveyor and the panel belt by pro-
viding flexibility at both the receiving and delivery ends. The receiving end must
be designed to prevent spillage from being carried back under the return strand of
the face conveyor (29), where accumulation of debris can cause stoppage and chain
breakage. The delivery end rests on a swivel dolly which rides on the belt tail
piece. A lump breaker may be integrated into the stage loader.
To assure the safe performance and reliability of the shields and other face
equipment, components and entire assemblies should be subjected to a battery of
tests in an appropriate laboratory. In the United Kingdom, equipment to be used in
National Coal Board mines must meet rigorous tests of performance and durability at
their Bretby Rotary Laboratory and Swadlincote test site. Such tests also provide
data on the adequacy of their exports.
Coal clearance from the faces affects production directly. Therefore, the use of
Headgate Tailgate
~lb Ji~R~n
ntake a1r
~I Jl~~~
0
N
3
. -c ...
Section c-c
Conveyor one-web-back
tpd.#-?7
~
FIGURE 28 - Longwall mode of operation.
203
high capacity , 42-inch wide retractable sectional belt conveyors are common . They
are equipped with mobile tail pieces and have solid structures suspended from the
~oaf by chains . The combination of a sectional belt with main line track haulage
~as proven to be a very flexible system. In all-belt mines, the external belt
system often presents a bottleneck to face production . Insertion of bunkers into the
system can provide the needed flexibility . Such storage system are widely used in
European mines such as the Bevercotes mine in the United Kingdom and the Haus Aden
mine in Germany .
Remote monitoring and c ontrol can improve the availability of all belt systems.
The system includes three elements:
2. Transmission of signals.
3. A central control console for collecting, storing and displaying data and
issuing commands.
Monitoring by closed circuit television also has proven effective (31). The National
Coal Board in the United Kingdom has developed computer assisted Mine Operation
Systems (MINOS) (32) wherein an operator from his desk in the control room controls
conveyors and bunkers and can call on stored information to provide a performance
summary.
Track is installed in many mines solely to accomodate men and supply transport -
ation. Some newer mines designed for extraction by longwall have trackless services.
Power supply, 995 volt for face equipment where permitted by State law, must be ad-
equate to match production goals . Face communication systems consisting of paging
phones are placed along the full length of the shield line.
Face lighting systems must meet mandatory requirements and be approved by an MSHA
Statement of Test and Evaluation . The required minimum luminous intensity is 0 . 06
fL (foot Lambert). Incident photometers read the incident light in fc (foot candle) .
Each luminaire in a longwall sheds light on a space bounded by surfaces of the roof,
floor, coal face and the shield. The foot candle average of the photometer readings
must satsify the formula :
For example, to illuminate a longwall space having a roof span from face to gob of
8 feet , a floor span from face to back of 12 feet, a m1n1ng height of 7 feet, and
luminaire spacing of 10 feet, the area A to be lighted is: (10 x 8) + (10 x 12) +
(2 x 10 x 7) = 340 sq ft and minimum lumens rP.qnired are:
~s ystem with mercury vapor lamps has been developed and introduced at Illinois long-
~11 operations (33). It features a minimum of luminaires and electric cables, is
rugged and easily accessible , and the components including lamps, ballasts and power-
packs do not obstruct the travelway. The luminaires illuminate the total area but
do not cause glare to the miners.
204
Operational data extracted from shift, maintenance and supply records are com-
piled into monthly summaries. The type of delays and repairs required can be code<
for immediate computer input.
2. To evaluate the adequacy of the roof support system and to derive design
criteria for future longwall mining efforts.
1. Measuring convergence in gate roads and differential rock and floor strata
movement to detect bed separation.
3. Tracing the loading profile in the roof support system by measuring hydraulic
pressures with load indicators, gages and recorders (fig. 29).
The effect of mlnlng on the surface over the extraction area i s monitored by
surveys to measure vertical and horizontal surface movements, including tilting of
monuments. Surface strains between selected monuments are measured by extensometers
or strain gages. Automatic Data Acquisition Systems (ADAS) have not yet proven
fieldworthy (35). The shape of the subsidence trough and the angle of draw are to
be determined to indicate whether the mining will affect surface structures.
CONCLUSION
Mi ne design with risk reduction and personnel safety in mind has encouraged the
growth of longwall mining in the Illinois Coal Basin from one face to four in just
3 years. The low accident rate proves that the longwall system is safer than room-
and-pillar mining. The use of shields has been a major factor contributing to ad-
equate roof control. Short spans of exposed roof, quickly applied support, stab-
ility of structure, and full shelter for face crews are some of the significant ad-
vantages that led to the adoption of shields.
REFERENCES
26. Barry, A. J., 0. B. Nair, and J. S. Miller. Specifications for Selected Hy-
raulic-Powered Roof Supports. BuMines ID 8424, ]5 pp.
7. Wade, L. B. Longwall Support Load Predictions from Geological Information.
SME-AIME Fall Meeting, Denver, Colo., Sept. 1976, 14 -pp.
28. Flissel, W. and F. PBrtge. Methane Control byPlanning the Face Ventilation
(in German). Gllichauf, Oct. 1976, pp. 1172-1174.
29. Euler, W. J. How to Keep your Longwall Working. Coal Age, April 1978, pp.
72-81.
30. National Coal Board. Heavy Armored Flexible Conveyor Information Bulletin No.
64/248.
31. Curth, E. A. Causes and Prevention of Transportat1on Accidents in Bituminous
Coal Mines. BuMines IC 8506, 1971, 107 pp.
32. Massey, C. T. Computer Control of Conveyors and the Environment. The Mining
Engineer, Feb. 1978, pp. 325-335.
33. Janes J. and M O'Day. Shedding New Light on Longwall. Coal Mining and Pro-
cessing, April 1979, pp. 74-76.
34. Dames & Moore. Rock Mechanics Studies, U.S. BuMines Longwall Demonstration
at Old Ben No. 24, Phase II Report.
35. Schmechel, F., W. Eichfeld and W. Santy. Automated Data Acquisition for Sub-
sidence Characterization. SME-AIME Annual Meeting, New Orleans, La. Preprint 79-
132, 3 pp.
208
Leroy P. Kettren
Kerry A. Johnston
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SOIL
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211
3000-r-----r----.-----,-----~----.-----.-----.----,-----,----------------~
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,, .,_DIRECTION OF MINING
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extraction section and the unmined Dames & Moore, 1977, Rock mechanics
Panel 2. When Panel 2 was mined, studies, United States Bureau of
the overburden reflected the reduced Mines longwall demonstration, Old
support provided by the broken Ben Mine 24, Benton, Illinois,
strata over Panel 1~ Phase III Preliminary Report,
Panel 1.
3) Mining of Panel 1 produced
an initial major roof fall , 1979, Rock mechanics studies,
---:-::--
when the face had advanced United States Bureau of Mines
approximately 130 to 140 longwall demonstration, Old Ben
feet. The fall was accom- Mine 24, Benton, Illinois,
panied by temporary stress Phase III Supplementary Report,
relief on the bleeder Panel 2.
pillars and by floor heave
in the bleeders. On DeMaris, P.J., anq Bauer, R.A.,
Panel 2, there was no 1977, Geology of a longwall
observed initial major roof m~n~ng demonstration at Old Ben
fall. The immediate roof no. 24. Proceedings of the
broke early and easily. The Illinois Mining Institute,
more highly fractured strata vol. 85, pp. 80-91.
above Panel 2 may be the
result of the faulting Moroni, E.T., 1973, Longwall experi-
encountered in the panel and ences in the Herrin no. 6 coal
the effect of the subsidence seam. Proceedings of the
over Panel 1. Illinois Mining Institute,
pp. 28-34.
4) Stresses measured in
Panel 2, in adjacent pillars
and in the gob, commonly
were greater than those
measured on Panel 1. This
observation is consistent
with that reported by Carman
(1965), who stated that
abutment pressure increases
in successive adjacent
panels until a maximum is
reached and the pressure is
released.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Tadeusz Ryncarz
INTRODUCTION
Longwall m~n~ng is relatively new mining method in United States. Early trials
were not successful, mainly because the face supports did not have sufficient cap-
acity. At that time some cases were reported of supports beirig completely com-
pressed by the heavy roof.
In the late 1960's the longwall m~n~ng was successfully reintroduced when the
high capacity, self advancing powered supports were available. Since then the num-
ber of mines employing the longwall method has steadily increased. Contrary to
U.S.A. practice longwall mining is the predominant method in European coal mines.
ln the future longwall mining is certainly going to play a more substantial role
in underground coal mining in the United States, however for the successful employ-
ment of longwall systems to underground extraction of coal seams certain conditions
have to be fulfilled. To the most important conditions belong the proper assess-
ment of the interaction between the powered supports and surrounding rocks and the
appropriate evaluation of required support capacity.
Despite the large experience gained in European coal m~n~ng there still does not
exist a uniform and commonly accepted method for estimating support requirements.
It is known that a direct transfer of practical results from one mining region to
another characterized by different geologic conditions may lead to unexpected
failures. This precisely happened when the effort was made to introduce medium
load capacity supports, which performance was already well proved in European deep
coal mines, into shallow underground mines in United States. It has been found by
trial and error method that in the U.S. coal mines the required load capacity is
generally greater than the one applied in European deep coal mines.
Needless to say, that such statement must sound startling to the miners, who are
accustomed to the simple idea that the gravitational rock pressure increases with
the increase of depth and that the unit weight of rocks forming the coal measures
is almost the same in Europe and in United States. No satisfactory answer has, ab
yet, been found to the question why at much lower depths a much greater support
load capacity is needed and what factors are accounted for.
217
In this paper an attempt is being made to find certain explanation to the ques-
~ion posed above. It is based on ~ brief consideration of strata behavior a&ove
he longwall workings and on analysis of some met'hods predicting the load acting on
longwall supports.
Starting from a sufficient wide opening the longwall mining of a panel proceeds
toward the solid coal and the width of the empty gob.opening continues to widen.
Having lost their natural support the rock layers in the roof start to sag and sep-
arate (Fig. 1). If the open roof area exceeds a critical size the roof layers be-
gin to break and cave in the gob. The roof continues to cave as the longwall face
advances and the support units move fonvard (1).
---
Fl GURE 1_
Trying to asses the strata behavior above the longwall workings it is essential
to know how far in the roof does caving stop. The answer to this question is very
often based on the following assumption. Due to the breaking of solid rock the
rock volume increased by a substantial part. Thus the broken rock fills up the
void left by the extraction of the coal seam and provides support for the above
lying, still unbroken roof layers which ft:Jpm the, so called, main roof. This simple
assumption provides the possibility of expressing the height of the caving zone in
terms of the coal seam thickness and the bulking factor of broken rock.
m
h =-
c k-1 ( 2. :r)
Where h height of the caving zone
me - coal seam thickness
k - bulking factor of broken rock
Assuming, for instance, 50% volume increase, and this corresponds to the value k
equal 1.5, one gets the height of the caving zone equal twice the coal seam thick-
ness.
According to this concept the strata above the coal seam is divided into two dis-
tinctive parts: the immediate roof and the main roof. The rock layers of the im-
mediate roof cave in the gob area or rest on support units in the face area. The
main roof, remaining almost in its original position, is bridged between the solid
218
coal in front of the face and at some distance in the gob where caved fragments are
compacted enough to serve as its support.
!J ub.siolence
vert-(ca.l st-ra(rt
\
\
\
\
F'(GURE .:Z..
The lateral extent of the fractured zone (clastic zone) above the longwall work-
ing usually is determined by the angle of break (Fig.3). The angle of break is de-
fined as the angle between the veritcal and the line connecting the limit of exca-
vation with the points on the surface of maximum tensile strain (points A). This
line defines the plane of break inside the strata, although at large distances a-
bove the coal seam, near the surface, the strain may not be large enough to cause
fracture. For any given rock type this line is assumed to be straight although
there is some evidence to indicate that its slope increases with depth (5).
219
l=l GU~t::' 3.
It has been found by surveying measurements that the angle of break depends on
local geology, but first of all, on the type of rocks which. form the strata over-
lying the coal seam and on the location of major faults and fracture planes. The
angle of break is strictly related to the angle of draw, which. determines the later-
al extene of strata displacement due to coal seam extraction (points B). In gener-
al the angle of break increases with the increase of the angle of draw. It i.s
worth mentioning that the magnitude of the angle of draw may vary within a relative
large interval from 0 to 45 degrees depending on the local conditions of particular
coal fields. It has been found, for instance, that in the U.S. coal fields the
angle of draw usually is smaller than in the European ones.
Summarizing the brief considerations on the strata behavior above the longwall
workings, one has to point out the following main features of this behavior:
(a) Bedded rocks above the longwall workings behave like plates bend under the
load of its own weight and the weight of overlying strata.
(b) Depending on supporting conditions the respective rock layers in the roof may
break either right above the edge of the extracted coal seam or at some distance
in front of the face above the solid coal.
(c) In the case of longwall workings there is no main roof at the near distance
above the gob. It has been found experimentally that the caving process (clasti.c
failure) propagates upwards to a horizon which is located over the coal seam at a
distance equal approximately 35 to 50 times the mining height.
(d) The lateral extent of fractured zone above the longwall working is determined
by the angle of break.
Many methods have already been proposed for estimating the support requirements
in longwall workings. One of the best known and commonly used is the method pro-
sed by A.H. Wilson (6,7). It has been based on the assumption that the support
its are loaded only by the weight of rocks forming the immediate roof (Fig. 4).
220
--
mo.Ln roof
~I GURE 4-.
The thickness of immediate roof is determined from Eq (2.1), thus it depends only on
the assumed value of the bulking factor of broken rocks and on coal seam thickness.
In that case the mean denisty of the support load may be expressed by following
formula:
r:;= ~ m (3 .1)
z. ~ -1
where ('J-
'.) z. mean load density
k - bulking factor
Having in mind the objections presented above, I. Evans (8) made an effort to de-
rive a formula for mean load density assuming the broken strata in the roof of a
longwall working to be similar to granular material and in order to reach this goal
he applied the arching theory developed in soil mechanics by K. Terzaghi. According
to basic assumptions of this theory the local yield of the horizontal layer of rock
can be produced by gradually lowering a strip-shaped section of the support. Before
the strip starts to yield the vertical pressure on the horizontal support is equal
to the depth of the rock layer times its unit weight. However, a lowering of the
strip causes the rock located above the strip to follow. This movement is opposec
by frictional resistance along the vertical boundaries (Fig. 5). As a consequence
the total pressure on the yielding strip decreases by an amount equal to the compo-
nent of the shearing resistance which acts on the boundaries.
221
f"(GUl~E 5.
Having applied the static equilibrium principle and Coulomb's Law of shearing
resistance, Evans derived following formula for the mean load density on longwall
supports L (- 0 _ 2 C )
;) ~. .- ~,..i - e. p r 01-(3 .2)
1
~ X I - 2 I< L
-- .__,,......,-,--,-----::--- tan iP H.'
l..:lz- 21-< tan. ~ \
where ~=.- mean load density
1 - breadth of the face
3 - weight density of rock
cp - angle of internal friction
c - cohesion of rock
H - depth of the seam
K - ratio of horizontal stress to vertical stress
For broken rock c may be taken to be zero, and for relatively great depth (H~ -~)
Eq (3.2) takes a very simple form
(3.3)
Making use of Eq (3.3) for estimating the numerical value of required support capa-
city, Evans assumes the stress ratio K equal to unity. In the light of previous
considerations on the bedded rock mass behavior above the longwall working this
assumption seems to be, to great extent, unrealistic. In the roof strata above the
face area prevail horizontal tensile stresses which cause the fracturing of rock
layers. Under these circumstances the stress ratio K may assume values to be
closer to zero than to unity. In that case Eq (3.3) would provide infinitively
high values of mean density of the required support load. Thus, the determination
of the real K value forms a crucial problem in Evans' method and this problem can
' lrdly be solved empirically since it is very difficult to measure the stresses in
)Of layers above the face area.
For these reasons an attempt has been made to generalize Evans' method of esti-
mating the support load and to avoid mentioned difficulty. This generalization has
222
been based on the assumption, that the downward movement of the broken rock above
the face area is opposed by frictional resistance along inclines boundaries between
the moving and stationary mass of rock.
F"IG'URE 6.
These boundaries are formed by the planes of break and its position is deter-
mined by the angle of break (Fig 6). For these conditons the following formula
determining the mean load density has been derived.
,0.;-
l [ 3 LH + g H 2 tar._SJC- 2c H c.o.s ae] (3.4)
'_j.z- [ t -r 2. H tQn_ cc] :J.
.
~ - angle of break
c - cohesion of rocks
For broken rock c may be taken to be zero and then Eq (3.4) assumes a simpler form
L q H Ct +-I-f ton..d\:.] o.s)
G=
z. [ L + 2 H tOild\..] 2.
According to Eq (3.5) the mean load density on face supports increases with the
increase of the mining depth (Fig. 7) as well as with the increase of face breadth
(Fig. 8) while it sharply decreases with the increase of the angle of break (Fig.9).
4!
:I: _,
I ~ :t ~
~ 0
" ,, Ol
II ~~ 0"4
....
)
~
. .
00
I .
"
lU
(!
llJ
cr
0\
w
::> I 0!
C"')
N
N
..,:J (!) :::>
~
u. u..
I.&..
I
224
It is worth mentioning that all quantities occuring at the right side of Eq (3.5)
can easily be determined by appropriate measurements. The last formula may provide
certain answer to the question po~ed at the begin of these considerations why in
certain coal fields at lower depth a greater support capacity is needed. It is so
because in certain fields the angle of break is small due to mechanical properties
of roof rock layers or to specific geologic conditions of these mining fields.
This conclusion can be best illustrated by numerical. results of calculations which
have been carried out using Eq (3.5) for two very distinctive coal fields in respect
of mining depth and angle of draw, namely for Southern Illinois and Upper Silesian
(Poland) coal fields. For the sake of comparison there have also been calculated
the required support capacities according to Wilson's (Eq. 3.1) and Evans' (Eq.3.3)
theories. For both coal fields the same values of face breadth 1, mining height m,
weight density of rocks q, bulking factor~ and angle of interval friction~ have
been assumed. Thus only two factors differentiate the coal fields under considera-
tions the mining depth H and th~ angl~ of draw t~. For Southern Illinois coal field
an average value of the angle of draw equal 10 deg have been assumed (9). In Upper
Silesia the corresponding value has been found equal 28 deg. Making use of an ap-
proximate, empirical relationship between the angle of draw r
and angle of break~
in the form
the corresponding values of the angle of break have been calculated. All the assu-
med and calculated values are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
:
Upper
Silesia 13 0.071 6 1900 1.5 40 28 12 1.08 0.85 i 0.55
Poland
In columns 10-12 of this table the required support capacitites (in tons per square
foot of the roof to be supported) are shown which have been calculated from respec-
tive equations. It should be noticed that according to the new proposed Eq (3.5)
the load capacity of the supports in Illinois coal mines has to be almost three
times higher than this one in the deep Upper Silesian mines while Wilson's and Evans'
formulas provide the same values for the both coal fields.
225
CONCLUSION
The load of support units in the face area of longwall working depend mainly on
the behavior of rocks in the vicinity of the working as well as in more remote area.
This behavior is best expressed by subsidence pattern of the ground. The proper
methods of evaluating the required support capacity have to take these factors into
account. In this paper one of such method has been proposed in form of (Eq 3.5).
REFERENCES
1. Peny, S.S. "Coal Mine Ground Control," publ. by J. Willey and Sons, 1978.
2. Whitaker, B.N., Pye, T.H. "Design and Layout Aspects of Longwall Methods of Coal
Mining," Proc. 16th Symp. Rock Mech. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1975.
3. Davis, J.G., Krickovic, S. "Gob Degasification Research--A Case History in Meth-
ane Control in Eastern U.S. Coal Mines," U.S. Bureau of Mines, T.C. 8621, 1973.
4. Ryncarz, T., .Majcherczyk, T. "Model Investigations on the Influence of Roof
Strata Quality on the Load Exerted on Powered Support in Coal Longwall Mining" (in
Polish), Zeszyty Problemowe Gornictwa PAN Krakow, 1979.
5. Obert, L., Duvall, W.J. "Rock Mechanics and the Design of Structures in Rock,"
Publ. by Y. Willey and Sons, 1967.
6. Wilson, A.H., "Conclusions from Recent Strata Control Measurements Made by the
Mining Research Establishment," Mining Engineer, Apr. 1964.
7. Wilson, A.H., "Support Load Requirements on Longwall Faces," Mining Engineer,
June, 1975.
8. Evans, J., "Face Support Requirements-A Problem in Arching," Int, Journ. Rock
Mech. Min. Sc. Vol. 14, Jan. 1977.
9. Herbert, C.A., Rutledge, J.J. "Subsidence due to Coal Mining in Illinois," U.S.
Bureau of Mines, Bull. 238, 1972.
226
AUTOMATED LONC:.'WALL
S. C. Rybak
. '
227
Abstract This paper presents the results of a In longwall m~n~ng after coal is cut along the
study performed on the automation of longwall coal face the conveyor is pushed forward, in prepara-
mining system. The automated longwall system con- tion for the next cut, by the roof support system.
sists of a Vertical Control System (VCS), a Yaw A critical operational requirement is to maintain
Alignment System and a Roll Control System which the face "straight", i.e., the coal panel normal
together constitute the Face Advance System (FAS), to the head and tail gate entries. The function
and a Master Control Station (MCS). The initial of the yaw alignment system is to automatically
phase of the study is concerned with the modeling, advance the conveyor and roof supports in such a
analyses and simulation of candidate VCS and FAS manner that face "straightness" remains within
required to satisfactorily automate the longwall acceptable limits. The function of the roll con-
system. I t resulted in the specification of a trol system is to maintain the attitude of the
highly reliable and economically advantageous longwall shearer about its longitudinal (roll)
longwall system configuration. The second phase axis at a specific value regardless of the twists
of the study involved the preliminary electronic that may be in the conveyor track on which the
and mechanical design of the above specified sys- shearer is riding. This mode of control is neces-
tem. It included the definition of major elec- sary if the shearer is to be maintained perpendic-
tronic blocks, electronic packaging, MCS panel ular to the longwall panel being mined and hence
layout, various sensor deployment mechanisms and within the coal seam as repeated passes are made.
integration of mechanical/electrical components In the analytical portion of the study, a pro-
on the shearer including cable routing. cedure is needed by which the performance of var-
ious control system configurations could be com-
Introduction pared in order to determine which one is "best"
for a particular application. In order to accom-
Dwindling domestic and world oil and gas sup- plish this end, "baseline" system configurations
plies with the inevitable rise in the price of for all of the control subsystems required for
these fuels have generated deep concern within longwall automation were defined. The baseline
government, industry, and the general public as to definitions used the work performed by MSFC as a
how the energy needs of the country can reasonably starting point and were the "simplest" subsystem
and economically be met in the future. The in- configurations that would satisfactorily perform
creased use of coal, our most abundant fossil fuel a particular control function. It was against the
reserve, during the next quarter century will ne- performance achieved by the "baseline" systems
cessitate increasing the efficiency of under- that various other control system configurations
ground coal extraction. Longwall mining tech- /additions/modifications were compared.
niques have the potential of greatly increasing Proposed modifications/additions to baseline
the coal yield per acre and coal production per sytem definition were evaluated by considering the
man per shift since it is essentially a continuous improved performance realized versus the addi-
mining process. In addition, since longwall is a tional complexity and relative cost introduced by
continuous m~n~ng process employing continuous incorporation of the modification, and only those
haulage, it is extremely well suited for automa- modifications/additions to the base line sys terns
tion which is the subject of the present study. that were cost effective were incorporated. Fol-
Automating longwall coal extraction will not only lowing this procedure, a highly reliable and eco-
increase production but also minimize the amount nomically advantageous longwall system design
of foreign material taken along with the coal thus emerged.
reducing sorting time and cutter bit wear. More-
over, automating the longwall mining process will Vertical Control System
increase operator health and safety by removing
the miner from the shearer and thus from the haz- The function of the vertical control system
ards encountered in the immediate cutting area. (VCS) is to control the position of the shearing
The starting point of the reported results here drums so that their cut follows the coal/shale
is the work performed by Marshall Space Flight interface (CSI) on the top and the bottom of the
Center (MSFC)/NASA on the development of automated mine and leaves a prescribed amount of top and
longwall shearer [1) The objective of the pres- bottom coal. The VCS must also maintain the pres-
ent study is to specify the desired overall long- ent cut within a prescribed amount of the last cut
wall system configuration by doing the analysis made. The shearing drums are positioned by rais-
and simulation of candidate control systems re- ing and lowering the ranging arms on which they
quired to satisfactorily automate the longwall are mounted, using hydraulic actuators. The drums
system, and to perform preliminary design based on are controlled independently and are coupled only
the recommended system configuration. The auto- through the hydraulic system, where the pump flow
mated longwall system consists of a Vertical Con- is shared between the two ranging arm actuators.
trol System (VCS), and a Face Advance System (FAS) Commands to the hydraulic actuators are gener-
which in turn consists of a Yaw Alignment System ated from a complement of coal interface and drum
(YAS) and a Roll Control System (RCS). position sensors. The coal interface detectors or
The function of the VCS is to control the two CIDs are of two basic types: proportional sensors
cutting drums of the double-ended ranging arm which measure coal depth, and discrete sensors
shearer so that they remain within the coal seam. which indicate the presence of coal or rock. The
The VCS should be capable of taking all the coal proportional sensors are the nucleonic sensor
on the roof and floor or, if desired, leave a which measures depth by counting backscattered y
given amount (i.e., bias) of head and/ or floor radiation from a cesium source, and a natural ra-
coal while taking a minimum amount of rock. In diation sensor which measures depth by counting
addition, the distance between two successive cuts natural background radiation transmitted through
would have to remain within given limits in order the coal. Both these sensors can be mounted only
that the roof supports advance satisfactorily. behind the shearing drum. The discrete sensors
228
are a sensitized pick and a combination impact faces and those being projected for longwall min-
penetrometer-reflectometer. The sensitized pick ing.
measures forces exerted on instrumented cutting b. Even if a "worst case" profile could be
picks to determine rock presence, while the pene- defined, it would place extreme requirements on
trometer-reflectometer measures surface hardness the longwall system resulting in an unrealistic
and reflectance to sense rock. The pick is mount- and costly system design.
ed on the shearing drum while the penetrometer-
reflectometer is mounted behind the drum. The It was, therefore, decided to mode 1 typical
position sensors include a last cut follower (LCF) coal/shale interface profiles that one would com-
which indicates the shearing drum's position rela- monly encounter during longwall m1n1ng opera-
tive to the last cut made, and an actuator posi- tions. To accomplish this end, use was made of a
tion sensor which allows the position of the rang- survey [~ in which the coal/shale interface pro-
ing arms relative to the shearer body to be deter- files for six mines representing a variety of geo-
mined. logic conditions and seam heights were given.
The sensors are combined in a hierarchical man- Statistical analyses were performed on the twelve
ner to develop actuator commands. The LCF has the profiles (i.e., top and bottom) given and it was
highest priority and will never allow the present determinedthat all of the mine profiles were sta-
cut to differ by more than a prescribed amount tistically similar. This result certainly gives
from the last cut. The coal presence CID has the credence to the hypothesis that coal/shale inter-
next priority and will move the shearing drum away face profiles are more similar than different when
from the interface if rock is detected. The pro- going from mine to mine. Therefore, the York
portional CID is the lowest priority and will pro- Canyon profiles were chosen from the given data
vide the control for the cutting drum when it is set as representing typical (i.e., mean) coal/
within the coal seams and the commands are within shale interface profiles that would be encountered
the prescribed limits relative to the last cut. during in-mine operations and most performance
S1nce the shearer operates 1n either d1rect1on, runs were made with these profiles. ~ertormance
both drums must be capable of cutting either the evaluations made with other mine profiles had lit-
top or the bottom. The leading drum cuts the top tle effect on overall performance.
while the trailing drum cuts the bottom, and the
individual drum control laws are therefore changed VCS Performance Criteria
appropriately, depending on whether the drum is
leading or trailing. The control laws also To evaluate VCS performance and compare various
change, depending on the desired coal depth to be configurations with respect to each other, a mea-
maintained. If it is des ired to take all the sure of performance had to be defined. There are
coal, only the coal presence sensors are used for numerous performance measures that one can define
control. for the VCS, none of which will be an adequate
The following are identified as the constraints measure of performance for all operational condi-
within which the VCS analysis/design must be car- tions. The most commonly used criterion to char-
ried out: acterize the performance of a control system is
the RMS of the error between the desired and actu-
(i) Two successive cuts cannot deviate from al control achieved which, in our case, is the RMS
each other by more than +2 in. of the difference between the desired and actual
(ii) The amount of rock taken is to be mini- cuts achieved, or the cut error. Although this is
mum. generally an excellent measure of VCS performance,
(iii) The CID that measures the depth of coal it does not totally specify all aspects of VCS
on the roof, is to be mounted about 4 ft. behind performance. Other performance characteristics
the cutting drum. that are of interest are the amount of time spent
(iv) VCS should be capable of leaving from cutting rock, the volume of rock taken, the volume
zero to 6 in. of head coal reliably. of coal erroneously left, and the volume of coal
(v) The nominal shearer face traverse velo- erroneously taken. Therefore, in order to augment
city is 30 ft/min. the RMS cut error, a number of other performance
parameters were also determined which are: a)
In addition to the above, it is determined that percent of time spent in rock; b) volume of rock
a proportions l CID cannot be mounted to measure taken; c) volume of excess coal taken; d) volume
floor coal thickness due to the fact that loose of coal erroneously left; and e) the average of
coal, rock and water collect on the floor. the absolute value of the cut error. These per-
In order to analyze and design the VCS, a typ- formance parameters, in conjunction with the &~S
ical longwall shearer had to be chosen for com- cut error, adequately specify VCS performance over
puter simulation. The longwall shearer chosen was its designated range of operation.
the Joy LW 300 and all control system studies in-
volving the shearer were performed with this VCS Simulation Model
model. In addition, a reasonable representation
of the coal/shale interface that would be encoun- A block diagram of the VCS computer simulation
tered during in-mine operations had to be simu- is shown in Figure 1. The major features of the
lated. It became apparent that using artificial simulation are listed below:
"worst case" profiles would not be very satisfac-
tory from two viewpoints: a. Detailed modeling of the mine geometry in-
cluding actual interface profiles and techniques
a. It is very difficult if not impossible to for generating statistically similar coal/shale
define a "worst case" coal shale interface without interface profiles from a given initial profile
having access to the actual interface profiles in which is used to give realistic results when mul-
most or possibly all of the operational longwall tiple passes are made.
229
p . ..----oo:
INTERFACE
,...-------_, & CUT OJ\T 1\
t.
;t
; : : ; - - - - - - - - - - - i RANGING ARM . MII'JE
GEOMETRY fliODEL
c--.-~-----'
~
CONTROL a
LAW
RANGING AI1M
DYNAMICS
~~-a--J CH.ASSISw-1
lOCATION
ACTUATOR
b. Detailed geometrical model of shearer in- general, there was a significant degree of cor-
cluding its location along, and orientation with relation between the top and bottom which will be
respect to, the face. of some importance when drum slaving is consider-
c. Technique for determining the actual track ed. A procedure was also developed to generate
that would result when laying five foot conveyor random data with the same statistical and spatial
sections along a roughly cut bottom. correl-ations as the original surveyed data. Fig-
d. Detailed nonlinear representation of ure 3 shows a 3-D view of a 12.5 by 50 ft. section
shearer actuator dynamics including the hydraulic of simulated Robinson Run bottom.
coupling between the two ranging arms. Detailed description of each portion of the
e. Detailed representation of the nucleonic simulation model of Figure 1 can be found in [3] .
and natural radiation coal interface detectors in-
cluding the nonlinear calibration curves, Poisson Baseline VCS
distributed sensor noise, and air gaps.
f. Complete representation of coal/shale pre- The "baseline" system configuration for the VCS
sence sensors including probabilistic representa- consisted of the following:
tion of the sensors.
g. Complete representation of last and pres- a. An active nucleonic coal interface detec-
ent cut followers. tor (CID) for measuring coal thickness on the
h. Modular hierarchical control law algorithm roof.
that is able to accommodate a variety of sensor b. Sensitized picks incorporated into each of
complements and control law implementations. the two cutting drums in order to detect the pres-
i. The effect of drum filtering on the cut ence of coal or rock.
obtained. c. A last cut follower (LCF) mechanism in
order to measure the present cut relative to the
VCS Model Description: In Figure 1, the asterisks last one made.
indicate those portions of the figure which are d. The bottom cutting drum is slaved to the
part of the simulation, but are not part of the top one if a given amount of fioor coal is to be
actual shearer or control system. left. The reason for not using a CID for propor-
The chassis location module represents those tional fleer cutting drum control is that it is
calculations necessary to determine the position not feasible to mount such a detector on the floor
and orientation of the shearer chassis relative to given all the debris and water found there.
the mine. This includes keeping track of the e. Use presently obtained CID data in a mea-
chassis position along the face and the chassis sure and cut algorithm as opposed to optimal
pitch angle a. filtering/prediction algorithms which can be used
The ranging arm geometry calculations use the to compensate for CID noise and that the measure-
pitch angle ll and the arm angular position rela- ment point is some 4 feet behind the actual drum
tive to the chassis a to calculate the shearing cutting point.
drum position in the mine. The quantities comput- f. Use of the nonlinear hydraulic actuation
ed are the coal depth presently being cut, the system commonly found on longwall shearers.
drum height relative to the CID, P, and the drum
height relative to this last cut, Q. The CID Baseline System Parameter Determination: For the
module processes the coal depth measurements, baseline VCS defined, system parameters (i.e.,
introducing the appropriate errors to simulate the gains, sensor locations, sampling and averaging
various CID sensors. The coal depth output times, etc.) had to be determined in order to ob-
measurement is designated ~. tain an optimum performance. One of the first
The baseline control compares the measured coal parameters to be determined was the loop gain/com-
depth with the desired coal depth bias CB. This pensation to be used for the position loop closed
difference is summed with the drum position rela- around the actuators which control cutting drum
tive to the CID sensor, resulting in a command 6z, height. Various loop gains were investigated and
the desired change in height of the cutting drum. it was determined that a gain of 170 yielded best
This information, along with the last cut data and overall performance even though the actuator did
present actuator ram displacement XA' is used in have limit cycle at this gain value. The only
the control law computations. The result is XC' problem that can occur if the actuator is operated
the desired displacement of the hydraulic ram. in the limit cycle region is that it may heat
Actuator dynamics and ranging arm dynamics are excessively. Should that be the case, a heat ex-
modeled in some detail (Figure 2). The actuator changer could easily be designed which will main-
model includes the control valve with input tain temperatures within acceptable limits.
thresholds, check valves, and pump flow rates. Another parameter to be determined was the
Ranging arm dynamics are coupied with the actuator mounting location of CID sensors. It was seen
and develop the ranging arm angle a. The actuator that system performance improves as the CID is
is instrumented with a position sensor and used in moved closer to the cutting drum (and hence the
a closed loop so it can be position commanded. cutting point) since this minimizes the distance
To develop a mine model, several one pass mine between the point measured and the point being
surveys were digitized and analyzed to provide an controlled. Therefore, the CID's were located 4
information base with which to generate subsequent feet behind the cutting drum which was as close to
simulated mine data. The statistical data obtain- the cutting drum as the CID could be mounted with-
ed from these mines included seam slopes, coal out interference.
shale interface (CSI) variances and seam heights. Another critical parameter to be determined was
It can be seen from these data that, statistical- the CID output interval or averaging time, T. It
ly, there is a great de a 1 of similarity between was found that in the absence of CID measurement
the mines considered. The CSI variances and cor- noise, decreasing T imprcved the system perform-
relation data are quite similar. In addition, in ance. However, the effect of sensor noise was
~
I
Otr.c>
DA'JO
._____._..~
I
'------~ Ks ..o-------J
N
w
N
Figure l. 30 View of the Generated Bottom for the Robinson Run Mine
233
more pronounced as the output interval was shor- the actuator dynamics has the effect of introduc-
tened. Thus, there exists an optimal value for ing lag into the system and hence performance de-
the CID output interval and was found to be 0.25 grades. When the VCS is under CID control the
second for the active nucleonic CID, and 1 and 2 errors introduced by CID noise and its being
seconds, respectively, for 5 and 3 inch detection mounted behind the cutting drum overshadow the ef-
crystals in the case of natural radiation CID. fect of the actuator dynamics thus minimizing its
Base line VCS Performance Characteristics: The effect on overall system performance.
following observations are made as a result of the Effects of Varying VCS Traverse Speed Across
computer simulation of baseline VCS. the Face - The nominal traverse speed at which the
Effect of Nonlinear CID Calibration Curve - The baseline system was designed and its performance
CID calibration curves, which give the number of evaluated was 30 ft/min. Increasing this speed to
counts one expects for a given coal depth, are 50 ft/min or decreasing it to 20 ft/min had no
nonlinear and saturate as the thickness of coal effect on system performance. The reason for this
increases. Therefore, for the same CID measure- result is that a 0.25 second output interval is
ment noise, the error in the sensor measurement being used for the CID which is quite fast, and
would increase as the desired thickness of coal to within the speed range of 20-50 ft/min the shearer
be left approaches the saturation characteristics does not travel an appreciable distance between
of the sensor thus giving degraded system perform- CID information updates.
ance. Such an effect has been found and the sim-
ulation results indicate that reasonable perform- Modified VCS
ance is obtained when the des~red coal to be left
is 5 inches or less. Modifications/additions to the defined VCS
Effect of Adding Sensitized Pick and LCF to CID "baseline" considered are listed below.
- The effect of adding a sensitized pick and using
it in conjunction with the CID in a hierarchical 1. Use of optimal filtering/predictive con-
manner is to improve the cutting performance. The trol algorithms for cutting drum control.
technique that is used is to command the cutting 2. Use of an impact penetrometer/reflectom-
drums on the basis of CID information and, when eter for a coal/shale presence sensor.
the pick indicates that rock is being mined, to 3. Use of natural radiation GID.
override the CID command and depress the cutting 4. A number of bottom drum slaving techniques.
head a given amount. The improvement realized by
the addition of the sensitized pick is most pro- VCS Performance with Optimum Filtering/Predictive
nounced when at tempting to leave a small coal Algorithms: Since the CID is mounted behind the
thickness (i.e., between zero and 2 inches), since cutting drum it is not measuring the coal/shale
it is during this mode of operation that using CID interface at the cutting point. Using the measur-
iu[uLwaLiun uuly has a high probability ot com- ed depth or the eoal/Sha!e intertace at the CID
manding the drum to cut the roof due to CID location and saying that this is the depth at the
measurement errors. The addition of a last cut cutting drum location obviously is in error since
follower to the CID and sensitized pick and em- the coal/shale interface changes as one proceeds
ploying this sensor configuration in a hierarch- down the face. Therefore, one would suspect that
ical manner where the last cut follower is given using some form of filtering/predictive algorithm
highest priority with the CID having lowest prior- system performance could be improved, since a more
ity further improves cutting performance, the accurate estimate of the coal/shale interface both
reason being that LCF filters even further errors at the point of measurement and at the cutting
in the CID measurements since the present cut can- drum could be determined. At first glance one
not deviate more than a prescribed amount (i.e., would be tempted to make use of all or many past
+2 inches) from the previous cut. CID measurements in order to obtain a "best esti-
- VCS Performance with Sensitized Pick Only -When mate" of the coal/shale interface at the present
attempting to take all of the coal the VCS will be measurement location and cutting point. Implied
controlled by the sensitized pick only, or possi- in such a scheme would be a method by which all of
bly acting in conjunction with a last cut follow- the CID measurements could be referenced with re-
er. In this mode of operation the system cutting spect to each other through some common reference
performance degrades as the error in the pick in- frame. However, no such frame exists in the long-
formation increases, the reason being that when wall system and there doesn't appear to be any
the VCS is under pick control, errors in the pick reasonable way by which such a frame could be ob-
information cause an immediate error in the cut- tained. Therefore, measurement changes due to
ting drum command. It is, therefore, concluded floor undulations could not be differentiated from
that the sensitized pick should be between 80 to changes due to actual variations in the coal/shale
90 percent accurate to enable taking all of the interface height above the skid plane. Given this
coal, while maintaining the rock taken to a mini- s~tuat~on the filtering/predictive algorithms
mum. that will be considered for the longwall are those
Effects of Actuator Drqamics on VCS Performance which employ CID measurements in the immediate
- Inserting the nonlinear actuator dynamics into vicinity of the present measurement and cutting
the VCS control system had little effect on system points. These types of algorithms would require a
performance when a given amount of coal is to be priori knowledge of the coal/shale interface sta-
left, and hence a CID is employed. However, if tistics in terms of correlation function, mean and
all of the coal is to be taken, and the VCS is variance as well as a description of the sensor
under pick control, then the insertion of actuator noise in terms of its mean and variance. The
dynamics has a marked effect on the performance reason for this a prior knowledge requirement is
achieved with the Ri'1S cut error going from 0.68 that the statistics of the coal/shale interface
inches without actuators to 2.06 inches when the could not be derived from past CID measurements
effect of actuator dynamics is considered. Adding due to the lack of a common reference frame.
234
Two types of optimal filtering/predictive increased R}ffi cut error. When the impact penetro-
algorithms employing CID measurements in the im- meter/reflectometer is augmented by a last cut
mediate vicinity of the present measurement and follower, system limit cycles are limited by the
cutting points were formulated. One algorithm deviation allowed between the present and previous
(Scheme 2) uses the present CID measurements in cuts. If, as in our case, this value is set at !2
conjunction with CID data in the immediate vici- inches the resultant &~S cut error is essentially
nity of the present measurement to estimate and the &~ of a limit cycle ranging between !2 inch-
predict the coal/shale interface at the measure- es. Therefore, the conclusion of these studies is
ment point and cutting drum respectively. The that the impact penetrometer/reflectometer is not
other technique (Scheme 1) uses the present CID a very satisfactory coal presence sensor for the
measurement in conjunction with estimates of the longwall application being cons ide red, particu-
coal/shale interface in the immediate vicinity of larly when all the coal is to be taken, and hence
the present measurement point for estimation and is not recommended.
prediction. These two types of algorithms were Useof Natural Radiation CID for VCS Control: The
formulated in a one-dimensional sense using pres- use of natural radiation CID instead of an active
ent cut CID data/estimates, and in a two-dimen- nucleonic one was investigated. The prime dif-
sional sense using present and past cut CID data/ ference between these two sensors that affects
estimates yielding four different optimal filter- system performance is the number of counts per
ing algorithms for possible use in the VCS. unit time for a given coal thickness. The active
Analyses performed on these algorithms indi- nucleonic CID has many more counts per second (ap-
cated that both should give appreciable perform- proximately a factor of 20) for a given coal
ance improvement if the floor didn't undulate, thickness than a reasonably sized (i.e., 3 to 5
with Scheme 1 being better than Scheme 2. In inch detection crystal) natural radiation CID.
addition, it was shown that the algorithm employ- Therefore, the noise and hence the co a 1 depth
ing CIV measurements only would be less sensitive measurement uncertainty is worse with the natural
to the unmodeled floor undulations than the scheme radiation than with the active nucleonic CID, and
employing CID data in conjunction with coal/shale degraded system performance when using the nalural
interface estimates. These results were verified radiation CID should be expected. This indeed has
by simulation for the two one-dimensional algori- been verified by simulation with increased RMS
thms, and the data indicated that cutting perform- cutting error for the natural radiation sensor.
ance degraded due to floor undulations to the poi- However, there are drawbacks to the active nuc-
nt where it wasn't any better, and in most cases, leonic sensor ranging from sociological, (i.e.,
worse than that obtained with the baseline measure active radiation source) to technical (i.e., sen-
and cut algorithm. The degradation in performance sitivity to air gaps) to potentially severe inte-
due to floor undulations would be even worse for gration problems (i.e., sophisticated suspension
the two-dimensional version of these algorithms that must keep the sensor against roof with a min-
and hence were not simulated. Therefore, the con- imum of air gaps, deployment and stowage mechan-
clusion of this investigation was that there is no isms, etc.) that the natural radiation CID does
advantage to be gained by using optimal filtering not have. Thus with natural radiation CID, al-
and predictive algorithms for VCS control. Thus, though as pointed out above, the system cutting
the simple measure and cut control algorithm de- performance degrades to a degree, Lhe performance
fined in the baseline system should be used for achieved is still quite good when compared to what
cutting drum control. is presently being obtained manually. Moreover,
Use of Impact Penetrometer/Reflectometer for VCS all of the benefits with respect to the health and
Contro 1: Investigations were conducted into the safety that one gains by longwall automation would
use of an impact penetrometer/reflectometer as the remain intact. Hence, the natural radiation CID
coal/shale presence sensor, i.e., to replace the is recommended.
sensitized pick. The prime difference between the Slaving the Bottom Drum: Since it is not feasible
two types of coal presence sensors from an overall to mount a CID on the floor for controlling the
systems viewpoint is the manner in which they are drum cutting the bottom due to debris and water
integrated into the VCS. The sensitized pick, that will be there, an alternate technique of con-
which is mounted on the cutting drum measures trol for the bottom drum had to be devised for the
whether the drum is presently cutting coal or condition where a given amount of coal is to be
rock, while the impact penetrometer/reflectometer left on the bottom. (When all the coal is to be
is mounted at the approximate CID location, and taken the bottom cutting drum can be controlled by
hence can only measure whether the drum has cut a sensitized pick in the same manner that roof
coal or rock. The sensitized pick yielded excel- cutting drum control is achieved.) The technique
lent cutting performance (0.68 inch RMS) and VCS used was to slave the bottom cutting drum to the
seam following capability when used by i tse 1f top one by maintaining the instantaneous height of
since it does measure what the drum is cutting the cut constant. A number of ways of accomplish-
virtually instantaneously. However, the impact ing drum slaving was investigated. The first of
penetrometer/reflectometer being mounted some 2.5 these was to maintain the height between the two
feet behind the cutting drum cannot measure whet- cutting drums constant by using the readouts of
her the drum is cutting rock or coal until the the linear actuators controlling both drums. This
shearer has traversed 2.5 feet to the present drum implementation was quite sensitive to floor undu-
location, which at 30 ft/min shearer traverse lations and did not yield satisfactory system per-
speed takes 5 seconds. During this total time, if formance. Another implementation that was invest-
the impAct penetrometer/reflectometer is measur- igated was to use CID measurements to determine
ing rock, it is continuously depressing the cut- the height of the roof and command the bottom drum
ting drum or if it is measuring coal it is contin- to maintain the instantaneous cut height constant.
uously commanding the cutting drum to rise, thus This implementation, although better than main-
giving rise to severe system limit cycles and an taining the instantaneous height between the cut-
235
* MANUALLY ~PERATED N/A N/A ** 5.50 N/A N/A NOT KNOWN NOT KNOWN N
w
a.
'
SHEARER VELOCITY 30 FT/MIN
RESULTS ESSE!ITIALLY UNCHANGED AT 50 FT/MIN
AVERAGE TIME IN ROCK- 12.86%
AVERAGE ROCK TAKEN - 0.18%
237
simulation which evaluated the accuracy with which a 30 inch advance which can easily be achieved
the conveyor profile could be computed in the pre- with state-of-the-art instrumentation. There-
sence of measurement error. This was accomplished fore. it is seen that the expected system errors
by performing 500 measurement runs using particu- are within those allowable for stable face ad-
lar values of measurement errors and computing the vancement as determined via computer simulation,
conveyor profile for each run. The RMS error be- making the basic angle cart system a viable way of
tween the computed and actua 1 conveyor profiles implementing yaw face alignment.
was then computed and the average RMS error was The weighting and bias estimation algorithm for
determined for the 500 runs made. The average of determining the conveyor profile using the angle
the RMS error for the 500 runs made, called the cart measurements requires that the angle between
"mode of RMS", was used as the performance measure the conveyor sections on both ends be known with
of the measurement scheme being evaluated in the respect to a line. perpendicular to the headgate
presence of measurement error. A block diagram of and tailgate. Once these values are known the
this simulation is shown in Figure 4. algorithm makes use of the fact that the conveyor
The other simulation developed was the Yaw Ad- profile could be computed with the same set of
vance Simulation. This simulation actually made measurements proceeding from either end. There-
repeated advances of the conveyor in the presence fore, two coordinates could be determined for each
of system measurement, conveyor placement and roof joint of the conveyor which then could be combined
support pull-up errors, and yaw advancement sta- to obtain a minimum variance estimate of the con-
bility evaluated. In order to evaluate whether veyor profile. This technique yields better re-
yaw advancement is proceeding stably, twenty ad- sults than the basic angle cart measurement scheme
vancements of the conveyor were made in the pre- by allowing larger measurement errors, or, for the
sence of a particular set of system errors. Sys- same measurement errors yielding a more accurate
tem instability was defined when a particular roof determination of the conveyor profile. However,
support was commanded to move the conveyor back- in order to obtain any benefit from the bias and
wards, which is impossible, within the twenty ad- estimation algorithm the angle of the end conveyor
vances made. If this co[\di tion resulted for a sections with respect to the desired reference
particular set of system errors, the system error must be known to 0.2 or better. This would re-
vector was perturbated slightly and two more sets quire that specialized instrumentation be located
of twenty advances made. The average value of the in the headgate and tailgate to determine these
error vector for the set of three twenty advances angles to the required accuracy. Therefore, the
were then used to define the stability boundary. basic angle cart measurement scheme is the tech-
The yaw advancement simulation block diagram is nique recommended if the angle cart implementation
Ghown in Figure 5. is used for yaw alignment.
The basic angle cart measurement system uses In order to evaluate the performance of a di-
two sets of measurements made by the angle cart. rectional gyro implementation for yaw alignment
One set of measurements is taken when the angle and to specify the required gyro for satisfactory
cart is totally in a single conveyor section. system performance a directional gyro error model
These measurements are used to estimate the bias had to be formulated. In this model the errors
or constant error in the resolvers, and are used considered are:
in correcting the second set of measurements which
are the angles between contiguous conveyor sec- 1) Low frequency random walk error (white noise
tions. The angle that the first conveyor section through the integrator)
makes with the desired reference (i.e., line per- 2) Constant drift error
pendicular to headgate and tailgates) is computed 3) High frequency error (white noise through
via the relative angle measurements between the first order filter)
conveyor sections in conjunction with the knowl- 4) Gyro reference error
edge where the ends of the conveyor are with res-
pect to each other. This is obtained by measuring Various types of algorithms for processing the
the distance on both ends of the conveyor with directional gyro data in order to determine the
respect to surveyed points within the headgate and conveyor profile were investigated. The results
tailgate. of these investigations indicated that the best
The results with the basic measurement scheme algorithm for processing the directional gyro data
indicate that the mode of &~S increases linearly is one that used a single measurement as soon as
with increased measurement errors. From a s ta- the gyro is aligned in a particular-conveyor sec-
bility viewpoint the maximum allowable one sigma tion. The measurements thus obtained are then put
measurement error that can be tolerated in the through an optimum filtering scheme such that a
presence of a O.lft one sigma roof support pullup minimum variance estimate of the conveyor profile
error and a one sigma conveyor placement error of is obtained.
0.02ft is 0.03. These results remain unchanged Investigations into the allowable system er-
even if the angle between one conveyor section on rors using the above algorithm with a shearer
either end cannot be measured and hence assumed to traverse speed of 30 ft/min, indicated that -'7
be zero. spectral ~oise intensity of approximately 1 x 10
Conversations with mining personnel at Old Ben (rad/sec) /(rad/sec) could be tolerated in the
Mining Company where they are presently operating presence of gyro reference error of 0.2 degrees
longwall faces indicated that the roof support and a roof support pullup error of O.lft (1.2
pullback error does not exceed one inch. In ad- inch), for stable yaw advancement. This value of
dition, a ram placement error of 0.02ft (0.24 spectral noise intensity corresponds to a random
inch) represents approximately one part in 100 for drift error of approximately 0.6 deg/hr which is
MEASUREMENT
ERRORS
om
~
MEASURED
,.. YAW
GEOMETRY
... RMSOF
N
w
CXl
CONVEYOR YAW MODE
YAW
GEOMETRY
-
.,. PROFILE
ERROR
....,..
_ Y/l.W
PROFILE
,.
L
OF
RMS
;-t
ERROR
I J I I l I L ...I
-
I
Figure 5. Yaw Advancement Simulation
240
considered to be a good and relatively expensive straight - but not fully straight.
gyro. In order to increase the allowable random The results of the analyses and simulation
drift error that can be tolerated the gyro would studies conducted indicate that the one sigma ram
have to be towed along the conveyor at a greater placement error could not exceed 0.004ft. (0.048
speed than 30ft/min. This implies that the gyro inch) for stable yaw alignment system performance.
would have to be mounted on a separate cart which This is an extremely small error and great diffi-
would either have its own motive power or possibly culty would be encountered in designing a conveyor
be towed by the conveyor. In either case, the placement system of such accuracy. When placing
money saved by allowing the use of a cheaper gyro every second or third conveyor section ram place-
would have to go into the cost of manufacturing a ment error of O.lft one sigma has little effect on
separate gyro cart. In addition, the use of a system performance. In addition the roof support
separate gyro cart would introduce operational pullback error that could be tolerated is as much
problems with respect to integrating the measure- as 0.20ft one sigma which can be met by present
ment with standard longwall operations requiring longwall conveyor and roof support systems. In
additional time to make the required measurements, general, the results indicated that placing every
and would almost certainly preclude the measure- second or third roof support yielded similar al-
ment of the angles of the end conveyor sections lowable system errors (i.e. measurement, place-
due to interference with the shearer. Therefore, ment, and pull up errors) for stable yaw alignment
the recommended system implementation for yaw face system performance.
alignment is the angie cart system employing the The investigation info ehe various control
basic measurement scheme described above. algorithms listed above indicated that full
straightening yielded thH poorest system effi--
Recommended Yaw Alignment System Performance ciency where efficiency is defined as follows:
Actual Volume uf Coal Cut
The computer simulation results discussed Efficiency = Volume of Coal Cut with Full Advance
earlier indicated a sensitivity to roof support
and No Errors
pull back error. The results have shown that only
O.lft. one sigma of roof support pull back error For a one sigma roof support pull-up error of
could be tolerated for stable yaw alignment system 0.2ft. the system efficiency for full straighten-
performance defined to mean indefinite roof sup- ing on every pass was approximately 76 percent, 85
port advance without requiring manual interven- per cent for partial straightening on every pass
tion for face straightening. This value of roof and 85.5 per cent for periodic straightening.
support pull back error was judged as being too It can be seen that combining the periodic and
restrictive and higher fidelity and more detailed partial straightening control algorithms, i.e.,
mathematical and computer simulation models were partially straighten the conveyor periodically
generated to examine more precisely the allowable when it gets sufficiently out of alignment, in-
Yaw Alignment System errors. Various system con- creased yaw alignment system efficiency could be
figurations were studied which included: achieved. A simulation combining these two con-
trol algorithms was performed and system efficien-
a) Actively commanding every roof support cy increased to approximately 88 percent for a
b)Actively commanding every second roof sup- maximum sigma roof support pull up error of 0.2ft.
port Therefore, the recommended yaw alignment sys-
c) Actively commanding every third roof sup- tem configuration and control algorithm is to ac-
port tively place every third roof support with period-
ic partial otraight~ning.
When every roof support is commanded the hydraulic
rams attached to the conveyor are instructed to Roll Control System
implement a computed straightening command based
on angle cart measurements. When every second or The function of the roll control system (RCS)
third roof support is actively commanded, the is to provide an additional degree of control for
hydraulic rams attached to the conveyor for those the shearer. The shearer is equipped with hydrau-
supports that.are not commanded are unlocked. The lic actuators which allow it to be rotated about
rams for these supports are then allowed to float its longitudinal axis, thus tilting both of the
to whatever position they reach when those rams shearing drums relative to the coal seam. The
that are co111111anded execute their commands. For purpose of roll control is to provide the capabil-
each of the system configurations described above ity to correct for twists and undulations in con-
three types of control algorithms were examined: veyor. These twists can occur when coal or other
debris becomes lodged under the conveyor.
1) Full straightening The roll sensor used in the RCS is an inclino-
2) Periodic straightening meter. Since the system is intended to be active
3) Partial straightening during shearing operations, it will be subject to
vibrational disturbances which will affect its
Full straightening means that everytime the performance. The inclinometer relies on gravita-
conveyor is advanced the control will be so as to tional acceleration to detect roll angles and,
place it in a straight line perpendicular to both therefore, any vibrational accelerations along
headgate and tailgate. Periodic straightening is the sensitive axis of this device are interpreted
accomplished by advancing the conveyor without as roll signals and thus represent noise (referred
straightening for several advances and then to as the cross-axis acceleration) in the system.
straightening it. This can be done in several Two control loop implementations were investi-
ways. One way is to straighten it when it gets gated. One has the control loop closed around the
crooked by more than a specified amount. Partial inclinometer, i.e., the inclinometer is within the
straightening advances the conveyor so that it is closed loop. (Figure 6a). The advantage of this
b
+
t>~ ACTUATC~ SHEARER
ROLL .
e
~ M~T CS
b
+
CONTROL SHEARER e
NCLINOf1ETE GEO~IETRY ACTUATOR . ROLL
. "'.
{ OYNAi"l CS I
'1.:.) I
I
- I I
I I
Ii I
I . . . . . I
J
L--------------~---------------------.-------------
(b) CLOSED ACTUATOR LOOP
implementation is that there is no need to instru- implementation that closes a control loop around
ment the hydraulic ram. However, since the incli- the actuator being slightly better. However, sys-
nometer is within the closed loop any filtering tem performance for both implementations degrade
that might be added to eliminate the effects of significantly even when relatively small values of
cross-axis acceleration will affect overall con- cross-axis accelerations are introduced. The rea-
trol loop stability and hence is an added con- son for this sensitivity becomes clear when one
straint on the filter design. The other implemen- examines the value of RMS g represented by a 10
tation closes the control loop around the hydrau- percent error in tracking a 1. 77 degree (i.e.,
lic actuator with the inclinometer being external ~2.5 peak)_jnput signal. This value is approxi-
to this loop and furnishing what essentially can mately 3xl0 g RMS which means that if the sensed
be looked at as an update signal. (Figure 6b). accelerations are in error by approximately 3
This implementation has the advantage of elimi- milli g's a ten percent tracking error should be
nating the dependence of control loop stability on expected. Or alternately, if the cross-axis ac-
the filter charactertistics that may be used to celeration sensed by the inclinometer mounted on
eliminate the effects of cross-axis accelera- the shearer has an RMS level to approximately 3
tions, thus enabling the filter design to proceed milli g' s within the control loop bandwidth at
from these considerations only. However, this least a ten percent tracking error will result.
impiementation requires that the linear hydraulic In addition, it should be noted that if the cross
actuator be instrumented. axis RMS g levels within the control loop band-
A computer simulation for th~ roll control sys- width are in the order of three mi lli g' s or
te~ wAs neveloped and consisted of the following: greater, filtering of the inclinometer output will
not yield appreciably better perform~nce if the
a)Nonlinear model of the hydraulic actuation control loop bandwidth is to be maintained at 0.05
system. Hz. This result was verified by 3imulation when
b) Second order inclinometer dynamics. the inclinometer bandwidth was reduced from 2.4 to
c) Cross-axis accelerations due to the cutting 0.24 Hz to simulate the effect ot filtering.
forces and torques as the shearer proceeds along A number of alternate roll control system im-
the face. plementations were considered in addition to the
base line concept of a shearer mounted inclinom-
This simulation was used to evaluate the per- eter controlling in real time as the shearer
formance characteristics of the two roll control traverses the longwall face. These alternate roll
system implementations described. control systems implementations are listed below:
inary design of the Vertical Control System, Algorithms are also incorporated_to determine
the Face Advance System and the Master Control whether a particular measurement obtained from a
Station. (See [4) for details). sensor is reasonable. If the sensor measurement
is considered unreasonable then the last value of
the measurement is employed. Should a particular
VCS Electronic Design signal fail to pass the reasonable test criteria a
warning is flashed ~o the MCS operator.
The heart of the electronics for the automated The electronic design of the VCS assumed that
longwall system and hence the VCS is the Electron- an active nucleonic CID was employed for shearer
ic Control Module (ECM). The ECM accepts signals drum control although this is not the recommended
from all of the shearer mounted sensors, operates CID. The reason for this approach was the desire
on them and drives the appropriate control ele- to make the electronics accommodate both the pas-
ments (actuators) to achieve satisfactory auto- sive radiation and active nucleonic CIDs. The
mated system operation. The major electronic active nucleonic CID has a more.complex electronic
blocks comprising the ECM are signal conditioning, implementation, particularly with regard to the
communication subsystem, Input/Output (I/0), and requirement for radiation hazard monitoring, and
Central Processing Unit (CPU). An overall block the additional encoding needed for the two in-
diagram of the major blocks comprising the ECM and dependent suspensions. Therefore the electronic
the interfaces between them and the rest of the design that resulted can readily accommodate the
automated longwall system elements is shown in passive radiation CID by eliminating those func-
Figure 7. tions peculiar to the active nucleonic sensor.
There are three major electronic design consid-
erations: (i) Analog vs Digital System implementa- Face Advance System Electronic Design
tion, (ii) Multiplexing vs Direct routing of sen-
sor signals, and (iii) Microprocessor or Minicom- The Yaw Alignment System consists of the angle
puter implementation. cart, electronics in the Electronic Control Module
Due to the large electrical motors on the (ECM) and electronics mounted on each of the roof
shearer (i.e., drum cutter motors, shearer haulage supports along the face. The angle cart measure-
motor) face conveyor, stage loader, and panel con- ments, made as the shearer traverses the face are
veyor the potential for electromagnetic interfer- sent to the ECM. On the basis of these measure-
ence is high. Therefore digital electronics and ments the face (i.e., conveyor) alignment is com-
sensors were used wherever possible in order to puted and control signals generated for the ac-
minimize the effects of E&M interference. Next it tively controlled roof supports. These roof sup-
was necessary to establish whether the digital port advance commands are sent from the ECM via
sensor signals should be brought directly to the the communication link to the MCS and then to the
ECM via cab ling, thus maximizing the number of individual roof supports utilizing R time synchro-
lines in the cables employed, or to use serial or nous multiplexing technique. Once the commands
parallel digital multiplexing techniques that are received by the roof supports they are stored
would reduce the number of lines going to the ECM. and implemented at the properly prescribed time.
The result of the trade study performed indicated The electronics control box on the individual roof
that the electronic complexity and cost introduced supports control the roof support advance, monitor
by multiplexing and the loss of flexibility in the the sequencing and send a signal back to the main
manner data could be transmitted to the ECM out- processor in the ECM once the roof support advance
weighed the savings that could be realized by commands have been properly completed. The elec-
eliminating some lines in cables. Therefore, the tronic packages on all of the roof supports are
digital sensor data is brought directly to the ECM active, including those supports whose placement
without employing any multiplexing techniques. An rams are not actively commanded, since each of the
estimate of the storage capacity and computational roof supports must advance and hence its sequenc-
power required for the implementation of control ing must be monitored and controlled. The power
laws, resulted in a system size that could be for the roof support mounted electronics is furn-
handled in a very flexible and cost effective man- ished by the MCS power supply mounted on the
ner by present day microprocessors. Therefore, a stage loader.
microprocessor based system was decided upon for The electronics needed to affect roll control
the electronic design of the ECM. Moreover, CMOS is located in the ECM. The output of the incli-
technology was selected wherever possible to fur- nometer is fed to the ECM where the central com-
ther reduce the power requirements and to obtain puter processes the data and issues the approxi-
high noise immunity. The ~bove design decisions mate roll actuator commands to accomplish roll
has resulted in an intrinsically safe ECM. control.
System safety was a prime consideration in the
electronic design of the VCS. The status of the Master Control Station Electronic Design
various sensors mounted on the shearer are contin-
ually monitored. Should there be an indication The Master Control Station (MCS) located and
that current/voltage levels are exceeding nominal mounted on the stageloader is the primary man/
limits a warning is flashed to the MCS operator. machine interface and the central monitoring and
If the voltage/current limits exceed maximum al- command station of the Automated Longwall System.
lowable limits, power is removed from the affected Dedicated displays are furnished by which the con-
sensor and system operation is interrupted. In sole operator can monitor longwall sytem perform-
addition the manual controls on the shearer is ance during the alternating modes of operation.
safely interlocked with VCS electronics allowing Various malfunction indicators are present that
the automatic/remote modes of operation only if alert the console operator to minimal and poten-
the manual controls are in their proper (i.e., tially dangerous conditions. In addition the sta-
off) positions. tus of various other elements in the longwall min-
,------,I
,---- - - - - - -- ---,
ECM I SHEARER
SIGNAL
POWER COMMUNICATIONS -CONTROL
CONDITIONING 1---
SUPPLY I ACTIJATORS
:1
I
I
I SHEARER
I/9 -~ MOUNTED
I I -! SENSORS
I I
I i
I I
.,
ROOF SUPPORT
SENSORS &
I I 1-~ AC'I1JATORS
I I I
I I I
...------: - C.P.U. I L MASTER
CONTROL
l---:___._~--l
HCS - -ELECTRONIC
I
---- CONTROL MODULE (EC11)
- - ------ 1 STATION
POWER (HCS)
SUPPLY
ing system other than the automation equipment are Mechanical Design
also monitered. These included currents in the
pane 1 conveyor, two stage loader, and two face The mechanical design of the VCS that has
conveyor motors the status of which are critical evolved suspends the CID and present and last cut
if coal spillage is to be avoided if one of these followers from a parallelogram type mechanism
motors/conveyors are overloaded or fail. which follows the ranging arm through most of its
Appropriate controls and displays are furnish- travel (i.e., within 5 degrees from horizontal).
ed on the MCS to enable an operator to operate the The CID is mounted approximately four feet behind
Automated Longwall System remotely. the cutting drum for a 54" drum diameter and main-
The MCS has a digital address system (DAS) tains this distance constant throughout the design
through which virtually any sensed, computed, and travel of the parallelogram mechanism.
control variable can be called up and displayed on The present and last cut following mechanisms
its alphanumeric display. The DAS will be used are combined into one cut follower, and depending
extensively during system checkout, and malfunc- on shearer direction of motion, will index to fol-
tion/fault isolation to enable a fast and economi- low the last or present cut. The measurement of
cal means of performing these functions. The DAS cut height in either case is with respect to the
is also used to override numerous system holds drum centerline i.e., the height of the cut di-
that are included in the design to protect the rectly above the drum center of rotation. The cut
longwall from inadvertent damage. However there following arm is in such a position that when an
are system holds that cannot be overrided by DAS obstruction or void is encountered the follower
command, specifically those that would result in will be knocked out of the way without being dam-
hazardous situations. In addition provision is aged. Hydraulic damping is provided so that the
made for the connection of a portable recorder or CID will not spring back too quickly once the ob-
printer to the MCS and upon the proper DAS command struction is passed. The passive radiation CID is
the programs contained in the ECM and MCS micro- also loaded against the roof primarily to achieve
processors will be printed out in order to facil- self cleaning (if coal accumulates on the measur-
itate system debugging. It should be noted that a ing surface of the passive radiation CID a mea-
special key is required to be inserted in the MCS surement error results).
panel to enable remote system operation or to ac- The mechanical design for the VCS is compatible
tivate the DAS. This is done as a safety precau- with all the drum sizes manufactured for the Joy
tion to prevent inexperienced console operators lLSl-300 shearer which range from 42 to 62 inches
from operating the system remotely or commanding regardless of CID being employed. The design will
the system through the DAS. operate in seam heights of 62.8 inches and above
Another prime function of the MCS is to provide for both CIDs being considered.
the central microprocessor in the ECM with requir- Another design feature of the mechanical system
ed parametric data needed for satisfactory control is that all mechanisms will be locked in place
system operation. Since non-volatile memory is should a hydraulic failure occur. This will pre-
expensive, and using battery power on the face to vent the collapse of CID and cut follower suspen-
float the memory when power goes down is undesir- sions, and the mounting platform, which could pos-
able from permissibility considerations, a means sibly result in instrument and mechanism damage.
must be found to input parametric data needed for The CID's, cut followers, deployment/stowage
control that changes periodically as a function of mechanisms can be stowed manually by loosening the
mining conditions. To this end thumbwheel switch- proper hydraulic fittings.
es are provided on the MCS which are set to the
appropriate values for the parameters they repre- Acknowledgment
sent. The microprocessor routinely reads those
switches. Power interruption will not cause any The longwall system analyses and design des-
problems since once power is restored the needed cribed in this paper has been the result of the
parameters will be read by the microprocessor on combined effort and dedication of numerous people.
the next sampling cycle. The author would like to extend particular thanks
The method by which CID calibration and data to V. R. Karanam of BEETO for his help in editing
are presented to the microprocessor is to use a of the paper and the valuable contributions he
polynominal curve fit. Examination of the curve made in the area of optimal control of the VCS and
relating count rate to coal thickness indicates Yaw Control Loop; W. H. Gelbach of The Bendix
that a second and certainly a fourth order polyno- Engineering Development Center (BEDC) who made
mial is sufficient to characterize it. Assuming significant contribution to the VCS and Roll Con-
that a forth order polynomial would be employed trol loop designs and performed computer simula-
only five coefficients would vary as a function of tions of both; G. A. Cornell of BEDC who made sig-
CID calibration and would have to be presented to nificant contributions to the design of the Yaw
the microprocessor. This can easily be furnished Control loop, specification of the alternate roll
by thumbwheel switches on the MCS which is the way control loop contigurations and the computer sim-
it is configured. In addition the MCS micropro- ulation of both; T. Smith and H. E. Wells of BEETO
cessor will have the capability of computing the for their contribution to the electronic design of
coefficients required for the polynomical fit. the Automated Longwall System.
This will be accomplished by inserting measured
counts vs. known coal depth via the DAS and the References
MCS microprocessor would have the capability of
computing the required coefficients. These co- "The Development of Automated Longwall
efficients will then be read on the DAS alphanu- Shearer," Final Report on USBM Agreement No.
meric display and the thumbwheel switches on the H0155092, NASA RTOP No. 778-41-01, Marshall
MCS set appropriately. Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama Oct-
ober, 1976;
246
SUBSIDENCE
Session Co-Chairpersons:
William P. Santy
Mathematical Statistician
William F. Eichfeld
Civil Engineer
U. S. Department of Energy
Carbondale, Illinois
Robert J. McKelvey
Mining Engineer
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
In April of 1975, the Old Ben Coal The subsidence monitoring program
Company and the Bureau of Mines agreed was conducted in conjunction with the
to perform a Demonstration .of Longwall Rock Mechanics Study which was requir-
Mining in the Old Ben No. 24 Mine. The ed for the demonstration. The rock
government's contract adminstration mechanics work was undertaken in order
for the demonstration was assigned to to aid in evaluating the mining system
the Department of Energy in 1977. The and to provide a warning if overburden
mining of three panels was called for behavior indicates an unusual conditi-
in the agreement and two have been on. The subsidence work benefited not
completely mined at this time. Panel only the Rock Mechanics Study, by in-
#1 was started in September of 1276 creasing knowledge of the overburden
and completed in May of 1977. Panel behavior, but the field of subsidence
#2 was started in August of 1277 and research as well.
completed in January of 1972. Panel
#2 was started in April of 1979, and Two subsidence monitoring systems
is still being mined at this time. were employed for monitoring subsid-
ence over Panel #2. The reasons for
The subsidence monitoring program using two systems were (1) to show the
began in May of 1976 with the first feasibility of using a concentrated
complete survey of the original net- system for characterizing subsidence
work being finished the next month. and (~) to compare the results obtain-
Monitoring of this network is continu- ed from more traditional monitoring
ing at this time. A second monitoring techniques.
system was constructed at the site in
iy of 1978 and operated five months. One of the main objectives of sub-
description of each monitoring sys- sidence research is minimizing the
tem and a comparison of their results costs for mine operators in dealing
is the subject of the paper. with subsidence-related environmental
248
environment. These monuments function- Thus, there are two systems: a typ-
ed quite well during the monitoring ical monitoring system; and a concen-
program. trated monitoring system. Each systen
measured subsidence with rod and level
The bulk of the monitoring program and each measured strain with a steel
was carried out with conventional sur- tape. By not including the ADAS mea-
veying methods. Measurements of dis- surements, we restrict the comparison
tance, direction, and elevation were of the data to measurements made with
made to all monuments periodically,al- the same "yardstick," if you will, and
though only elevations were observed do not confound (statistical) differ-
for each monument during each survey. ences in systems with differences in
Horizontal surveys were made to. Third measuring devices.
Order, Class II accuracy standards and
vertical surveys were made to Second The difference between the two sys-
Order, Class II accuracy standards. tems, then, is a differ~nce in sampl-
ing. The typical system samples a
Monthly monitoring consisted of large number of points, but each point
observing the elevations of all monu- only a few times. The concentrated
ments and the distances between the system samples a few points but each
strain observation monuments over the one a large number of times. This is
chain pillars betwe~n panels #1 and #2. the basis of the comparison.
In addition, slope distances were mea-
sured between each pair of monuments The series of monthly profiles sho-
within 200 feet of any monument show- wn in Figure 2 portrays the data col-
ing vertical movement so that strains lected from the typical monitoring
over the active part o_f the subsidence system. The vertical scale is change
trough could be determined. in elevation divided by mined height.
For the purposes of this paper, a con-
Complete surveys were performed be- stant mined height .of 7.00 feet was
fore mining, when half of Panel #1 had assumed. The actual mined height ran-
been mined, when Panel #1 had been ged from 7.20 to 8.25 feet and as all
completed, when half of Panel #2 had of this information becomes available,
been mined, and when mining of Panel the proper corrections will be made.
#2 had been completed. During these The horizontal scale represents dis-
surveys all the measurements required tance in terms of seam depth. The 0
for monthly surveys were made and the indicates the beginning of the face, 1
horizontal positions of all monuments indicates a horizontal distance equal
were determined. to one seam depth (620ft.) away. The
linear distribution of the monuments
The second system has been named a which were used for obtaining these
concentrated monitoring system. It profiles is illustrated in the tic
consists of five surveying monuments, marks directly above the horizontal
located 15 ft. apart, and monitored scale. A bar graph directly below the
frequently for a shorter time interval. horizontal scale presents the monthly
Part of the concentrated system is an longwail face position in terms of the
Automated Data Acquisition System (AD seam depth.
AS) which monitors tilt and-: strain
every two hours via an automated data Because of the relationship between
logger. A description of the system subsidence and face position, this
and the results were reported oy Sch- same data can be used to represent
mechel etal.l/ In addition to the subsidence as a function of face posi-
ADAS data, rod and level surveys and tion (Figure)). Figure 4 shows the
slope distance measurements were made calculation of face distance to se~
as with the other monitoring system. depth ratio. The subsidence data frc_
These measurements were made twice the concentrated monitoring systems is
weekly for five months in an effort to shown :i.n Figure 5. Plotting both data
characterize the traveling wave. sets on the same graph in Figure 6,the
011~~ H1d3G W~35 01 J)N~151G l~1NOZI~DH
t:==l_ _ c=LT:l ..,! --:L __.I.r==:r:=r:=J
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Figure 3
CALCULATION OF FACE DISTANCE TO SEAM DEPTH RATIO
SURFACE
---'~
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D= 600 w
f or B = !!.'
D
= 2000- 1940 = I
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Figure 4
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x's from the concentrated and a's from system. This project is just the
the typical system, we find close ag- first of a series of such project
reement. The biggest difference be- directed toward the determination o
tween the two systems is the scatter optimum subsidence characterization
in the higher values of the horizontal systems and cost-effective monitoring
scale. Plotting the data in this man- techniques.
ner shows the typical response of the
sul;'face down the center of the panel
as the face passes underneath, i.e., ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
the traveling wave.
The results presented in this paper
The strain measurements are pre- were obtained from a portion of the
sented in Figures 7, 8, and 9, ~vhere data collected on the surface above
the a's represent the typical system Old Ben Coal Company's No. 24 Mine.
and the x's represent the concentrated The program was initiated in 1976 by
system. Again we find close agreement the Bureau of Mines and later trans-
between the two monitoring systems. ferred to the Department of Ener.gy
The typical system has more scatter under contract No. ET-75-7-01-9023.
than the concentrated system which is The authors wish to express their sin-
consistent with the differences in cere gratitude to all those personnel
sampling techniques. in each of the above-mentioned organi-
zations who made contributions to the
success of the project.
CONCLUSION
0 0
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FRCE D15TRNCE TO 5ERM DEPTH RRTiD
Figure 8
H1 d J <J ~~ !:::1 J S 01 J)N!::J151<J J)!::JJ
h.[2J 2:.0 0.[21
NO 11)1::li'1N0)
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[211
a
NOI5N31X3
X
260
by
N. B. Aughenbaugh, Chairman
Department Mining, Petroleum, Geological Engineering_
University of Missour.i-Rolla
ensided beds and concretions. All some cases , the mining company did
these conditions will increase the not employ a qualified surveyor,
possibility of subsidence occurring in whereas, in other instances, the maps
a shorter period of time. Folds and. were deliberately falsified.
"rolls" in strata also are a negative
effect. Both in old and present mines
large areas may go unmined because of
Other Influencing Factors channel fills and cutouts or because
of hazardous mining conditions. These
To further add to the question of unmined areas usually are very irreg-
when and how much subsidence will ular shapes. Also large blocks of
occur over a given site is the problem coal will be left in order to protect
of ~valuating what are the actual con- existing surface structures and
ditions throughout the mine. When the t:ranspurlal.iuu 1.i.ght-of ways from
mine is active, many things take place subsidence. In old mines many of
that must he known and considered if these protective pillars are too small
any kind of subsidence prediction is and will tend to accentuate di fferen-
attempted. tial settlement at the surface.
During mining, any roof falls Iufluwing ground water mo~t
that occur in operating passageways frequently causes more rapid deterio-
will be removed to nearby crosscuts. ration of a mine. Exploration drill-
The net affect is the place where the ing has demonstrated many abandoned
roof fall occured is an area where mines are partially or completely
the mine cavity is higher than the filled with water. In some cases,
coal seam, whereas, the gabbed site only portions of the mine contain
has a reduced cavity height. As a water. Some people feel pumping of
result, deeper subsidence basins can water from abandoned mines will cause
occur over these roof fall areas, subsidence because the water supports
whereas, little settlement will take or holds up the roof. A cavity filled
place over the gob areas. w.i th water will not support the roof
above it. The only way the author
The type of roof control will can visualize pumping of water from
influence when that particular area an abandoned m.iue w.i.ll cause roof
of the mine will collapse. Bolted failure and subsequent subsidence is
and propped passages will tend to fail the action will allow more inflow of
sooner than those with cribs, steel ground water from the roof. The
supports and other types of bracing. seepage pressures from this flow
could cause the weak roof materials
Pillar sizes, shapes and spacing to collapse.
are not uniform throughout a mine.
The mains usually are protected by
large rib pillars, whereas, in the THE MECHANICS OF TRANSMITTING STRAIN
panels the pillars are smaller in TO THE SURFACE
order to increase the extraction ratio.
Large barrier pillars usually are left In the proceeding sections the
between panels. Some mining plans author has discussed broadly how fail-
include pulling pillars in retreating ure in a coal mine can migrate to the
from a panel. The percent of pillars surface by stoping, fracturing and
pulled varies widely. In old, aband- downwarping of the overlying beds.
oned mines much pillar robbing took Also discussed were the many factors
place which was not recorded on the that will influence the mode and time
mine maps. To add to the problem of aspects of mine deterioration. As
trying to evaluate .conditions in old portions of a mine fail, the strain
mines, maps of these mines, if they does not necessarily migrate upward
exist, usually are not accurate. In continuously to the surface and
settle out to completion. The larger
265
STABLE
AREA
REFEREi\JCES
Mining Engineer
are used to describe subsidence ground describe the response (2). Two of the
ovements and present some ideas on how more important subsidence parameters
hese parameters can affect surface from a structural damage point of view
structures and surface land uses. The are tilt and horizontal strain. For
subsidence parameters that are most both of these parameters the S/h (peak
useful for describing the impact of subsidence/seam depth) ratio is a very
subsidence are: vertical displacements important geotechnical factor. Euro-
or subsidence, slope or tilt, and hori- pean experience indicates that, for a
zontal strain. Typically the vertical given set of circumstances (constant
displacements, that occur as the result width to depth ratio), both the hori-
of the extraction of coal within an zontal strain and tilt are directly
area in the coal seam, form a trough proportional to the S/h ratio (Fig. 2).
on the surface somewhat larger in Clearly, both the peak subsidence (S)
areal extent than the extraction area and the seam depth (h) are important
(Fig. 1). The trough structure re- geotechnical factors when considering
sults in differential vertical dis- the subsidence response. The effective
placements which produce tilts and thickness of the extracted seam (m) is
horizontal strains. Uniform vertical also an important geotechnical factor.
displacements will generally not have The magnitude of the peak subsidence is
significant impact, or even be noticed, directly proportional to the effective
except in areas where water occurs on excavation thickness, which in turn is
or near the surface. In these areas determined by both the mining thickness
vertical displacements can result in and the extraction ratio. Another geo-
flooding and disruption in the normal technical factor that directly affects
flow of water. Tilt can result in the magnitude of the peak subsidence,
damage to selected structures, for hence the whole subsidence response, is
example, tall structures such as smoke- the w/h (excavation width/seam depth)
stacks could be severely damaged if ratio. From Fig. 3 (which is a widely
subjected to significant tilts. Tilt published curve developed by R. J.
movements can also locally alter the Orchard for the National Coal Board)
gradients of such things as sewer lines (3) it is seen that the excavation
or waterways which can clearly have width gradually increases from zero to
severe consequences. The subsidence something like 1.5 of the seam depth,
parameter that usually has the most the magnitude of the peak subsidence
severe impact on most man-made struc- (hence the tilt and horizontal strain)
tures is horizontal strain. Since increase from zero to the maximum
both geologic materials and most man- value. These geometrical geotechnical
made structures are much weaker in factors of m, S/h, and w/h have the
tension than in compression, the zones most significant impact on the subsi-
where tensile horizontal strains are dence response and are incorporated in-
developed are the areas where the most to the empirical subsidence prediction
severe structural damage and noticeable technique developed by the NCB (2).
affects of subsidence usually occur. While the impact of the geometrical
factors on the subsidence response is
well understood and has been exten-
GEOMETRICAL GEOTECHNICAL FACTORS sively examined in the literature, it
is useful to include a discussion of
The subsidence effects of the most these factors to assist in understand-
general and significant geotechnical. ing the manner that the other geotech-
factors have been determined from pre- nical factors influence the subsidence
vious investigations and are incorpor- response.
Lted into the subsidence prediction
:echniques developed in other coun-
tries. The typical approach used was SURFACE GEOLOGY
to relate these geotechnical factors
to the subsidence parameters used to An important geotechnical factor
/ TILT OR SLOPE
t
EXTENSION
N
-.....!
ORIGINAL SURFACE 0
'\,~~~ !I
~
~ ,'
\
\
I ----....!"'~-----~
LOWERD SURFACE
. SUBSIDENCE
PROFILE
I
I
//
'~1~1 I
h
'\ ) : II
J!NGLE OF __..-X I I I
DRAW \ I I
', I w -------~ I
r
' I I
\ I I
__!_ EXTRACTION AREA
m
t
'ig. I CROSS -PANEL SUBSIDENCE, HORIZONTAL STRAIN, AND TILT PROFILES
2. "'t
20
-
10
0
)(
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.......
-_.
t-
c:
9.<v
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i= ~
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a:
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&-
~ N
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t-
en 8
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4 \'\0~-'"z.o~' ~\..
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0 o~~--~2-------4+-------~6-------a~----~~o~----~~2~----~~4~----~~6
3
PEAK SUBSIDENCE /SEAM DEPTH {S/h) {in./ in.x 10 )
THE RELATIONSHIP BETEEN THE S/h RATIO AND HORIZONTAL STRAIN OR TILT FOR W/h-1.4
Fig. 2
272
20
(J')
(J')
LLJ
Z.
0
~
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c:(
LLJ 40
(J')
LL.
0
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w
u
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Cl
en
co
:::::)
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0 1.4
that is usually not explicitly accoun- this case the magnitude of the maximum
:ed for in most subsidence prediction vertical displacements (subsidence)
:echniques is the geologic nature of may be significantly less than for the
the upper zone of the overburden, i.e. base case and the angle of draw may be
the overburden material near the sur- much greater (Fig. 5) (5) (6). In
face. As a starting point or refer- other words, the surface area affected
ence condition,the subsidence response may be much greater for unconsolidated
when the overburden is made up exclu- overburden than for coal measure stra-
sively of coal measure rock will be ta. A directconsequence of this be-
used as a basis for comparison pur- havior is that, in addition to shal-
poses. The subsidence response is lower subsidence, both the slope and
particularly well behaved when the horizontal strain may be significantly
upper zone of the overburden consists less for this case than when the over-
of coals, mudstones, shales and etc. burden consists exclusively of coal
which makil up the coal measure rock measure strata.
strata and which tend to deform plas-
tically and accommodate the ground The next item to be discussed will
movements that result from mining. be the effects of shallow mining
For this case the subsidence response (depths less than 300ft.). As a gen-
closely approximates the textbook des- eral rule the subsidence problems that
cription of the subsidence phenomenon result from shallow mining are of a
in that the subsidence parameters rather severe nature. The severe
(particularly the horizontal strain) nature of the subsidence problems is a
vary in a continuous manner across the natural consequence of the severe dis-
excavated areas (3). In contrast, tortions in the overburden that are
when brittle layers of sandstone and/ necessary to accommodate the mining
or limestone rtlake up the uppt:!r r~gions. d.Ctivity.
of the overburden, the subsidence
response is not so well behaved. In
these cases fissuring and crack forma- SHALLOW MINING
tion on the surface is much more like-
ly, particularly if the mine is not Longwalls mined at shallow depths
very deep. This brittle layer tends generally exhibit one of two different
to fracture locally, breaking the forms of subsidence behavior. These
initially continuous layer into a two forms have been descriptively
series of.essentially independent termed block collapse and conventional
blocks. Cracks or fissures then form behavior respectively. When the block
on the surface at points where adja- collapse form of longwall subsidence
cent blocks come together. As a re- behavior occurs all the overburden
sult, the horizontal strain profile material over the excavated area:
across any excavation made under an fails, breaks up, and collapses into
area where thick brittle layers are the excavation, essentially forming a
located near. the surface may be very large sinkhole. On the surface the
discontinuous (Fig. 4) (3) (4) (5) and zone of failure is outlined by a step-
any surface structure spanning these like boundary that occurs somewhere
fissures is likely to be severely dam- near the panel edge and defines the
aged. boundary between solid and failed
material. In contrast, for convention-
On the other extreme, when a signi- al subsidence behavior there is a rela-
ficant portion of the upper zone of tively smooth transition from subsided
the overburden is made up of unconsoli- to undisturbed area on the surface.
ated material, for example in an allu- Although the transition is relatively
ial valley or in an area where a thick smooth there are still rather severe
layer of glacial till has been deposit- surface distortions associated with
ed, the subsidence response again dif- shallow workings. As indicated in
fers from the base case of an exclu- Fig. 2 both the tilt and the horizontal
sively coal measure overburden. In
~HORIZONTAL STRAIN FOR COAL MEASURE STRATA.
\
~
SURFACE FISSURES
LOWERED SURFACE
EXTRACTION AREA
COAL SEAM
'' \
' ', \
\
\
'' \
' ', \
\
\
' \ I
' ',
\ \K"" 35-+l.
', \ 450__:,.1
, A I
..( \ I
'' \
\ I
.
' \ I
',\I
-- - ; - ' y .,.._.. .. ~ ~J .. ~ y ' "'., ' " .... ~ ''-<1 ' '.-
. - - --
Fig.5 A COMPARASION OF SUBSIDENCE PROFILES FOR UNCONSOLIDATED vs COAL MEASURE SURFACE STRATA
276
.05
0
.....
<{
n:
-.....
: I:
.04
a..
w
0
:::!:
<{
w .03
en
.......
w N
0 -.....!
z -.....!
L&.l
0
en .02
m
::J
en
~
<{
-
LLI
a..
.c
.......
en
.01
0 L-------~------~------~-------L------~------~------~~----~
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
SEAM DEPTH (ft.)
Fig. 6
...----h : 300 I
I
~h=l5::>0
HORIZONTAL STRAIN
hI =30D'
h2 =1500
-IOQO -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
DISTANCE FROM PANEL EDGE (ft.)
....... ~--"' .... "I ......... ...,. A.... A ... 1"'\ C'IIDC'II"'\E:' .. Ir"C' l:"f"\0 T\Aif"\ Cl:" /\1\A 1"\I:"DTUC
6
5
c--:- Depth= 300'
4
f 3 .........
10
Q
t: X
0
;;; 2 t:
c .......
~Depth= 1500' Q)
t- c
t:
a
0
-
...
( /)
0.....
-I t:
COMPARISON OF SUBSIDENCE AND t:
0 0
u; N
"i:
HORIZONTAL STRAIN FOR TWO SEAM II)
...
Q) -2 0 N
-....J
:::r:
DEPTHS Q)
"0
E
0
Q.
"'
w u -3
t
Qj
c
c
Cl.
~Depth= 1500' -
.........
....:
Q)
0
t:
1.5 "0
Q)
"iii
Depth= .0
::J
(/)
3
Fig. 8
~FAULT STEP
ORIGINAL SURFACE
LOWERED SURFACE N
CXl
0
EXTRACTION AREA
:-.::~.:.._.,.~~.!,~'Jrr,JP~l!i:'P~:t.!:.
; : . ~ ~~ ~ 'Jo. ... ~ ~~ ~.~t'~:.-,_..;Y,1q.,~_'P;!:1~
- - -
REFERENCES
above develop within the coal measure ground returning first to its original
strata and are transmitted with vary- length and then to a state of compres-
ing amplitude through the overlying sion.
strata. Geotechnical conditions assoc- 2.3 Structure Factors - The response
iated with this upper crust give rise of surface structures to the ground
to anomalous movements, which in broad movements previously described varies
terms are due to site factors. according to (a) size and shape,
2.2 Site Factors - In 1968, Shadbolt (b) design of foundations, (c) type of
and Mabe (2) gave a qualitative review super structure, (d) method of const-
of the role of the site factor and sug- ruction and quality of materials and
gested that anomalies were due to vari- (e) age and standard of maintenance
ations in: and repair. The accurate prediction of
(a) Soil Properties surface damage and associated cost
(b) Rock Properties requires a careful analysis of all
(c) Hydrogeology these factors in addition to those
and (d) Geological Discontinuities grouped under 'mining' and 'site'. Once
A rigorous discussion of these an evaluation has been made, alterna-
parameters has been given by Shadbolt tives must be considered. Broadly
et al (3) who conclude, "This paper has speaking these concern either preven-
demonstrated that the phenomenon of tion or control.
ground movement due to mining subsi- 3. Methods of Prevention - In short,
dence can be accurately predicted. In subsidence can only be prevented by
those cases where anomalies arise, leaving the coal or mineral in place.
their behavior can be explained pro- Stowing methods which it is claimed
viding the surface geology is accu- 'prevent' subsidence are only instru-
rately known and properly interpreted." mented in decreasing the level of sur-
Thus the importance of interpreting the face damage when used in conjunction
effects of geotechnical influences with longwall mining. In cases where
during pre-calculation cannot be too ' old room and pillar workings collapse
highly stressed. A quantitative assess- due to the interactive degrading ef-
ment of the effect of surface geology fect of air and water penetration,
on the magnitude of mining subsidence backfilling has provided permanent
has been presented by Whittaker and support, but at a cost far exceeding
Breeds (4) They stated that differences that gained from the coal removed. It
in subsidence are not conclusive, is the contention of this paper that
but maximum surface tensional ground a better, more economical solution can
strain values have been found to be be devised from applying methods of
higher than with the other rock types. control.
Conversely no discernible differences 4. Methods of Control
in maximum compressive strain have been 4.1 Underground Methods
observed for the three rock types. a) Coal Pillars - Coal pillars
Thus in a majority at cases it is the may be left for permanent support of
tensile strain component which pro- structures of high economic or socio-
vides anomalous or abnormal damage. political value. Figure 1 gives some
Abnormal damage may also occur indication of the coal which is lost
when a site has been subjected to in protecting a structure 100 feet long
mining induced displacements prior to and 50 feet wide. In addition to lost
construction. In such a situation, the revenue, this method of structure pro-
magnitude of horizontal displacement tection may cause disruption of the
and hence surface damage may double. underground working environment and
Breeds (5) has described a case study concentration of stresses around pillar
where a large kilm was built on ground edges.
which had been subjected to 1.22 mm/m A more acceptable approach to t
of extension. Later workings subjected problem may be obtained from methods or
the ground to 1.6 mm/m of compression partial extraction.
causing extensive, abnormal danage to
the structure. This resulted from the
285
made where predicted damage costs are lain by 36 ft. of permian marl. Mag-
larger than the cost of precautionary nesian limestone has a well develope~
works and remedial measures. The objec- jointing system so that abnormal con
tive is to provide flexibility, and centrations of strain leading to ab-
this may be achieved by, normal damage was anticipated.
(i) isolating sections of the 5.3 Structure Factor(s) -a) Main
building by cutting pathways and Office Block (B 10) --
connecting corridors, walls, etc. This is a two story brick building
(ii) providing cuts or slots in set on a heavily reinforced 5 ft. deep,
girder ties to accomodate movements rigid foundation consisting of latti-
otherwise dissipated at points of ced spread footings. The roof is flat,
weakness within the tram. of sandwich construction and presented
In each case, other 'safety pre- the only anticipated problem insofar
cautions' must be used to protect as drainage was concerned.
services, personnel and equipment Machine Shop (C 2) - This structure
(iii) flexible couplings inserted was originally a hangar and consisted
in pipes carrying gas, water, etc. of steel framed, aluminum clad walls
(iv) windows taped to prevent via- with multi-pitched aluminum clad rooms.
len~ sha~~ering The structure houses over 100 pieces
(v) supports placed beneath dang- of high precision machinery, ranging
erous archways and entrances. from simple lather to large raise
Special Construction - One idea is bores.
to build structures in mining areas Chemical Plants and Press Shop (C3)
that will not be damaged by mining sub- The original construction was simi-
sidence. Such a large scale building lar to the machine shops. However, the
system has been developed by the nature of facilities inside the struc-
Nottingham County Council's Architects ture provided some concern, namely:
Department, (U.K). The system (C.L.A.S. (i) brick lined furnaces
P.) involves an extremely flexible (ii) vacuum presses and furnaces
structure founded on a 5 inch, rein- (iii) chemical acid baths and tanks
forced raft foundation. The flexural 5.4 Predicted Damage and Precaution-
strength of the foundation, and the ary Works - The predicted ground move-
flexibility of the superstructure ments were such that only minor incon-
allows the composite to accomodate veniences were anticipated for the
abnormal subsidence movements. Case major structures. These would include
studies of its performance have been roof drainage difficulties and poten-
given by Swain (12) and Breeds (5). tial disruption of facilities in the
5. Case Study I: A Large Indus- chemical plant. A large fuel pipe-
trial Complex line leading the the main runway T 14
5.1 Mining Factor(s) - a) Past was emptied, and isolated from the
Mining - Permanent movements from ground to prevent any loss of fuel.
previous workings had resulted in a 5.5 The Investigation - The site
line of extension in the Western part gave an ideal opportunity to inves-
of the site as shown in Figure 3. tigate the effects of a partial extra-
b) Present Workings - Figure 3 ction scheme on a variety of fixed
shows the layout of panels under the plant and structures. Several monit-
site. A system of partial extraction oring systems were set up, including:
has been used, so that a minimum of (i) precise leveling of stations
disruption resulted in what is a shown in Figure 3
heavily developed, industrial site. (ii) steel taping between ground
The mining dimensions and the maximum, stations
related, subsidence parameters are (iii) direct tilt measurements
summarized for each of the considered using the B.A.C. (British Aircraft
structures, in Table 3. Corporation) electrolevel on over lOU
5.2 Site Factor(s) -The near large machines and test beds.
surface strata are approximately 24 ft. (iv) photo elastic stress plugs to
of magnesian limestone which are under- measure deformations in the large
287
References
Orchard, R.J. (1954) Jrnl. Royal
_institute of Chartered Surveyors. (U.K.)
Vol. 33, p. 864-874.
2. Shadbolt, C.H. and Mabe, W. (1968)
Ground Movements in the East Midlands
Coalfield (unpublished).
3. Shadbolt, C.H., Whittaker, B. N.,
Forrester, D. J., Recent Developments
in Mining Subsidence Engineering.
Chartered Surveyor, 1974.
4. Whittaker, B. N. and Breeds, C. D.
(1977) "The Influence of Surface Geology
on the Character of Mining Subsidence,"
Proc. The G!:uLedmiques of structurally
complex formations. A.G.I. Capri,
Italy, 1977.
5. Breeds, C. D., "AStudyofMining
Subsidence Effects on Surface Struc-
tures with Special Reference to
Geological Factors." Ph.D. Thesis-
University of Nottingham, Oct. 1976.
6. Candeub, Fleissig and Associates,
Demonstration. of a Technique for
Limiting the Subsidence of Land over
Abandoned Mines.
7. Aynsley, W. J. and Hewitt, J.,
Subsidence Observations over Shallow
t.Jorkings, including Pneumatic Stowing
and Rapidly advancing Faces. Trans.
I.M.E. Jan. 1961.
8. Marr, J.E., Effects on Surface by
Modified Mining Methods. Chartered
Surveyor, May 1965.
9. Whetton, J. T., General Survey of
the Ground Movement Problem, Proc.
Euro. Congr. on Ground Movement,
Leeds 1957.
10. Schulte, H. F., Determination of
Subsidence on the Strata Immediately
a~ove a working with Different Types
of Packing and in Level Measures.
Proc. Euro. Congr. on Ground Move-
ment, Leeds, 1957.
11. Brauner, G., U.S.B.M. Information
Circular 8571 (1973).
12. Swain, H., Successful Design for
Mining Subsidence. Architects Jrnl.
(U.K.), May 1974.
TABLE l:Values of maximum subsidence, surface ground stre:ins and tilt due to longwall
mining (Compiled from the N.C.B. Subsidence Engineers' Handb::>ok, 19.66, 1975).
Longwall width/depth
lw/h)
1I
I 6 '; 5 ';
'4
1;
J
'I 2 J;.
. 1. 0 1 2 1.4
Max.subsidcncc/cx-
trncted SC::\10 flcj gilt s',. 12~ 15% 25::; ~5~ 70;:, 84~ 90'~ 90}~ I.IIHIX.)
S/M; caved W<JStCS
Coefficients for <.I educing rnngn 1 tude and position of maximum ground strains and. tHt
Mox.strain due to
comvrcssion (-El 0.55~
l'osition of -E
0 0 0 0 o.02h o.10h 0.20h o. 29h O.J9h
from centre line (-Ex)
r.Jax.strain due to
cxtcn!!lon lE)
0.65~
l'osi tlon of +E
from ccntre 1 int: (.+Ex) 0.1,9h 0.1,2h O.)l,h O,J2h 0,40h o.6th o. 7011
Max.ground tilLIG)
J.t5fi
s 2.8j~ 2.75fi
s
(ot trunsition .:t.)
l'osi t 1 on of C
f1orn centce line (Gx)
O,JI,h O,J2h o. 22h 0,2th o. 2bh O.J7h 0.56h
.. '
Qr.ound Tl l. t Subsider:~ce
I
- bfs__
T
I t
h
I
k-w~
~=,a I M~~l-
fl..QP~ l.ongwall width ; 200m, depth = I,OOm, extracted seam height = 2m
Since w/h = 1/2,. max. subsidence (S) = 45~~ '2m) 0, 901n at the r:en t rc line
Max.stroin clue to compressiom (-E) I ~j5 X O, 9 O,OOJO (or j.O,IUr~/m) ut 8m from centr~ line
1,00
Max.struln <hH: to extension ,+) 0, 3 X M(}() 0.0018 (or t.!!IIUn/m) at 128m from centre
4
0.9
.Max:, ground t 11 ti.G) J.)5 X-- 0.0075 ((11' 7.51i"l\/in) ot 84111 from ctntre
1,00
~-------------~--------------------------------------------------------------------_J
291
~~-
\_;/\
---~~:;~:;--1
:-----+--....:._--1- --:----,
"'---T-.:.!
100 1a !.1 ,.)')6 \ &9,2~ I'
200 1c toG,503 \ 101,;)!)..
JOO -
'= ~~.5!.: I ;.:..;.~~ I
sao
700
1000
1Q
to
\I:.,B\1:.
9().:;,3~
1,754,550
I, az7 ,G6
1
,;i15,C51.
2,931.,)61
I'
- ...... ____ j
Figure 1 Lost Coal From Varying Seam Thickness (After Breeds, 1976)
. .. ....
..
...... .
,.
rucr6c
..
',.
'; i
'!
,- "I ,;
'
\''~'
~ . ....-.. _____-_,- ~
,_t
l .
~ I . .. . - .-
TIOH ....,., II
II
'
'
II
I
.....1._
II
II
II
liII
"I
!! I
. '
Ill
II
II
II
II
II "I
II
~ JIO,..
II
II
II II
TRAVELLING STRAINS
... -- ..
Ol o:<t o.', o ,:, 02 Ol . o o'J o!c :J~7
- o . , . .. .,O .. Oiftv"~-
r---~--------~---+----r---,_ ___,r----r----~-----H-----------~-----------H-------------1--~----+-----+-----~---------------~
Gt:dl i~~ ~:t. Ann's llo:;pital 1
lli;.~h IIMi:leS 0,61 0.0017 20 1 0Cl0rl !lottinghom Appreciable On II.W. side of 1.2.. 25 c.m, (IJO Slight
6q x 54 metres llosrital
-------------H----f----r----r--~H-----+-----r-----~----------~----~-----~-----------t----1~--+-----+------~--------------~
M'.":orv.reer. Kirat>crley Secord&J")'
; !ll 'blerl.:c 267~ 1}.lm 2,01 O.OOl() O.OOl() 1, 330::1 ~ictool Very severe Or. four sides of 1 .~m 265 m 221 c.m.
7t. x 54 DJelres School
:---~---------~~~--+----r----r---~-----r----4------+-------------~-----------~----------~----4~--4------r------~~------------~
fiedling Sl. Jame' s Churoeh
C55 ' II ir.h Hrzles 272o 1.22m 0.95 0,0015 6.0C22 9t090:1 l'orchester ApJ:recieble On three side~ of 1. lm 72m 40 c.m. (314 Slight
26 x 22 metres :r.urct;
~- -----------~-r--+----+----1-----H-----4-----4------~------------~----------1r-------------~---l-----r-----1-------f----------------1!
Cl'dl ing ~t.
Hi~,t, ~i'!zJes 2:'<3:. }.:4n; . 1,12rr. 0.95 0.0020 r.=o }, ~(lllr..
John's Church
.:ud ton
40 x 24 metres
:.prreci atle 0:1 four .-;ides of
:-hurch
79 c.c. Slight
I
O-Or-------5~0-------'~fO_______,~r-------2~9-0______z~jO_______J~~----~-E-T_R~ES~~
Ii --
,- ..
: E
; E ' ' ....
i- ....
j lj 50 ' ....
z ...
0
;;;
CD
:::>
"'
100 ...
T 1 as
1~0--. .~
1
. . .--~,==~====;=====~==~=-~
3 a 4 ~ ~
....~........~........... 1 ST.Oi'IONS
OBSERVEi:>
.
2S 25
Cill
24. C!IJ
I [-~o7]
'---------. 23. G:!:J
[ill.,2
C3
GRO.UNO DISPLACEMENTS
FIGURE 5
FROM T32'S
I
~. . \.r '~ ..
{&. );,. I', ~
''1;,-, ..\ I ft'l \ :~
';.~~.. .
,. . .._ :.:.J;,_ '.A +
,- '~\ I~---
~ ~ ~,, ~ '"
' 1/'
' ... , 18t....._
~$. . -''"\
. ... . '~
~I .
. .-.. - "'~
0
.. .
c:>
lf"''
N
............
_J rl
_J
<t: w
z: _J
~ <t:
u u
::J (/)
lD =:c I
w u.. 1=:0
-
cr. 0 -
::::J u
L'J a.. --
,__. <t: z:
LL ::E": "-./
lf'l
Ci' '' I (I I II I I I I
N
. ... ..
'l
296
.,.~
/ \
/
/
/
0
.
'
.,...
i'"'f."'l'":.j-'"+;;4---~>j."l' +
:i;..
-
::., \ + +
..::..:.:~\
'~, "'.
T T + 4- '+ ; - ..,._.
...... '"'/-..
-~~-~-"o"n"
4 '~<-. oo~,ooo
, ,_ . Oo e " " " ~
'
. ''...,_ e"' Qr. IJI J ~o ... ....
b
\
\
'" .. 0
K
\
\
' \. ~
0
'I(
""
'
.
0
\
8 \
\
'',. 0
0
. ""
\ \
, "
E \
\
' ., &
,. "'",. ~
w
E 10 \
\
\ ',_ . 0
",......
\
~~ ~ .. 1...15
"'::> \
',.,_ .,.
"'
Q 12
FIGURE 7
\
''
"o
~e
-- Ui-17
~ CIO a)- 4
..J
u ''........... .
$ () 00 ct
"z
u
14
\
................................
... TH~="NCH CLQSURE AT (HE
\
'
"'.... '' \
12-13
.,..t~- -.,.-e
16
HOSI FRY '' .....................
............. / ""
18 FACTORY 7-------- 2-1
---- ---""' /"
20~-----------r-----------,------------,-----------,-----------~----------+-------~--r----------,r----------,-----------,
:J 30 &0 ~0 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
OAYS --+
0 0 0 eoooo ., .,
,. ,. eu eo 10 ooo o e.,
.... .......... -
0 0
~
... ... ,
lO-t
~
nlm ' ... ,
W1 W2
w.-
10
' .....
',
'
Wl 21 , - W1'l20
'N"l W6
w7- 'NtJ
W'l N 10
20
II
l
' , ~~ . .. ,. . ,
WH W 12
'1111 'N U
WIS W16
'N17 W 18
2l
10
17
lo
L 0
30
GO 90 120
FIGUP.E 8
--
QQy~
150
-1 . -
180
"I
210 HO
I I
270
--. -:!o
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
William G. Meister Robert Pocreva
P.O. Box 2099 503 North Main
Houston, TX 77001 Trenton; IL 62293
Mike Thompson
1200 South Hadfield
Marion, IL 62959
Richard Thill
US Bureau of Mines
P.O. Box 1660
twin Cities, MN 55111