Oilfield Review

Spring 2013

Developing Talent
Structural Steering
Expanded Downhole Sampling
Imaging Circular Seismic Surveys
13-OR-0002
Evolving Revolution
Wireline, or electric line, has come a long way since
Schlumberger produced the rst electrical resistivity log
in Pechelbronn, France, in 1927. Today, logging includes
reservoir characterization in both open and cased hole,
reservoir monitoring and surveillance and workover and
mechanical services. And while it is still referred to as
wireline, logging tool conveyance methods have expanded
to include advanced cable products, drillpipe, tractors and
unique through-the-bit technologies.
At Schlumberger, decisions about how to balance a large
and diverse portfolio are complex but at the core require
a discussion of two essential categories: revolutionary
technology geared to open new areas of operation and
evolutionary technology to enhance measurements,
improve efciency or reduce costs in an ongoing market.
Of the two, revolutionary technologies are the more time
sensitive. Their introduction must be carefully managed to
ensure that each one meets the challenges facing custom-
ers at the time. These innovations often provide the only
means for breaking through former barriers. The introduc-
tion of revolutionary products facilitates entrance into new
markets, and once such technologies are successful, many
evolutions followeach an improved, more rened spinoff
of the original.
In the mid-2000s, the Schlumberger Wireline segment
embarked on several critical evolutionary technologies
under the banner of Scanner* rock and uid characterization
services. The goal of this family of services was to upgrade
technology to meet the demands of key petrophysical and
geomechanical measurement toolsthe Rt Scanner*,
Sonic Scanner* and MR Scanner* services. Each product,
while innovative, evolved from a similar predecessor tech-
nology, and each enabled customers to take a closer look
at, or scan, important petrophysical and geomechanical
downhole formation properties.
Customers have long relied on Schlumberger to develop
and bring to market technologies that match current
needs, including those in what are probably the most
challenging new arenas of operation: low-permeability
formations, deep water, unconventional reservoirs and
heavy oils. These new solutions are broadening the
capabilities of the traditional suite of logging services.
Petrophysical evaluation of porosity and saturation in
low-porosity and low-permeability unconventional reser-
voirs requires an accurate evaluation of matrix density,
which is a function of formation mineralogy. However,
conventional methods for determining mineralogy are not
independent of the level of maturity of the organic content
or of formation salinity, density or resistivity. As a result,
An asterisk (*) is used to denote a mark of Schlumberger.
operators must conduct expensive and time-consuming
coring operations for laboratory analysis to obtain the
necessary quality of mineralogy data.
With recent increases in the producibility of unconven-
tional resources, improved reservoir characterization in
these plays has been a top priority of the Schlumberger
Wireline engineering portfolio. As a consequence, this year
the company is introducing innovative and well-timed tech-
nologies for both petrophysical and reservoir applications.
The unprecedented accuracy of the new Litho Scanner*
spectroscopy service provides elemental weight fractions,
particularly for magnesium, and a stand-alone total organic
carbon output for quantifying the amount of hydrocarbon
in place; these measurements are crucial to petrophysical
modeling in complex lithology. The Litho Scanner mea-
surement yields mineralogy and matrix density corrected
for organic content, which has made it possible to deter-
mine porosity in unconventional reservoirs worldwide
without the need to collect extensive samples and wait
for laboratory analysis.
Equally impressive, and featured in an article in this
issue of Oileld Review, is a wireline-conveyed reservoir
tool that will probably have the most impact of any tool
since the inception of the MDT* modular formation dynam-
ics tester platform. The Saturn* 3D radial probe combines
the efciency of a probe with the operating range exten-
sion of a dual packer (see New Dimensions in Wireline
Formation Testing, page 32). This technology extends
formation testing to previously inaccessible uids and
reservoir environments. Since its introduction in 2012, it
has become a worldwide phenomenon; the Saturn probe
has been successfully operated on six continents and
19 countries, both onshore and off.
In the Schlumberger Wireline segment, we like to
think of ourselves as measurement pioneers. With the
introduction of revolutionary and evolutionary technologies,
Schlumberger, as it has done since 1927, will keep meeting
customers needs as the E&P industry continues to break
barriers in hydrocarbon exploration.
Catherine MacGregor
President, Schlumberger Wireline
Clamart, France
Catherine MacGregor is President of Schlumberger Wireline. After joining
the company in 1995 as a field engineer with Sedco Forex, she held diverse
management and marketing positions throughout Europe, Asia and the
US for Schlumberger Drilling & Measurements. In early 2007, she became
Schlumberger personnel director and later that year was appointed vice
president personnel for Schlumberger Limited. She was named to her present
position in 2009. Catherine holds degrees in general engineering and aerospace
engineering from Ecole Centrale de Paris and a diploma in advanced studies of
energetics and heat transfer. She is based in Clamart, France.
1
 Schlumberger

Oilfield Review
www.slb.com/oilfieldreview

Executive Editor 1 Evolving Revolution

Lisa Stewart
Editorial contributed by Catherine MacGregor, President, Schlumberger Wireline
Senior Editors
Tony Smithson
Matt Varhaug
Rick von Flatern

Editor
Richard Nolen-Hoeksema
4 Bridging the Talent Gap
Contributing Editors
John Kingston To remain current with developments in the rapidly chang-
Ginger Oppenheimer
Rana Rottenberg ing oil and gas industry, petrotechnical professionals must
Don Williamson have effective training. One approach to petrotechnical
training uses competency management and a blended learn-
Design/Production
Herring Design ing-by-doing approach to accelerate learning and prociency.
Mike Messinger

Illustration
Chris Lockwood
Mike Messinger
George Stewart

Printing
RR DonnelleyWetmore Plant
Curtis Weeks

14 Structural SteeringA Path to Productivity

The technologies that enable horizontal drilling continue
to improve, changing the way operators plan and drill oil
and gas wells. Structural steering, which integrates data
from deep-reading resistivity tools and high-resolution
imaging LWD devices, is helping operators better under-
stand structurally complex reservoirs and proactively
optimize well placement.

On the cover:

An engineer prepares to download data

from an LWD logging tool that records
resistivity and imaging data while drill-
ing. Geologists interpret high-resolution
image data from this tool to identify
faults and fractures and determine for-
mation dip. The data are either sent
uphole in real time using mud pulse
telemetry or downloaded from the tool
when it returns to the surface. Well About Oilfield Review
placement engineers use these interpre- Oilfield Review, a Schlumberger journal, Oilfield Review is published quarterly and 2013 Schlumberger. All rights reserved.
tations to validate drilling programs or communicates technical advances in printed in the USA. Reproductions without permission are
make changes to planned wellbore tra- finding and producing hydrocarbons to strictly prohibited.
jectories based on geologic conditions employees, customers and other oilfield Visit www.slb.com/oilfieldreview for
encountered while drilling. professionals. Contributors to articles electronic copies of articles in English, For a comprehensive dictionary of oilfield
include industry professionals and experts Spanish, Chinese and Russian. terms, see the Schlumberger Oilfield
from around the world; those listed with Glossary at www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com.
only geographic location are employees
of Schlumberger or its affiliates.

2
 Spring 2013
Volume 25
Number 1
ISSN 0923-1730

32 New Dimensions in Wireline Formation Testing Advisory Panel

Hani Elshahawi
Operators face many challenges obtaining pressure measure- Shell Exploration and Production
ments and samples with conventional wireline formation Houston, Texas, USA
testers. This is especially problematic in fractured reservoirs, Gretchen M. Gillis
low-permeability rocks and unconsolidated formations. Aramco Services Company
Engineers have recently developed a tool that reliably Houston, Texas
obtains formation tests in these challenging environments Roland Hamp
Woodside Energy Ltd.
and is also effective sampling from heavy-oil reservoirs. Perth, Australia
Dilip M. Kale
ONGC Energy Centre
Delhi, India
George King
Apache Corporation
Houston, Texas
Andrew Lodge
Premier Oil plc
42 Developments in Full Azimuth London, England
Marine Seismic Imaging
Traditional marine seismic data are acquired by a seismic
vessel sailing in a series of straight lines over a target.
However, shooting in continuously linked circles delivers
richer datasets with reection contributions from all azi-
muths and the added benet of little or no nonproductive
time. Case studies from Indonesia, Brazil, Angola and the
Gulf of Mexico demonstrate the benets of circular shooting
for imaging challenging environments such as subsalt and
other complex geologic settings.

Oilfield Review is pleased to welcome

Andrew Lodge to its editorial advisory
panel. Andrew is Exploration Director at
56 Contributors Premier Oil plc in London. He joined the
Premier board of directors in April 2009
from Hess Corporation, where he was
59 New Books and Coming in Oilfield Review vice president, exploration, responsible
for Europe, North Africa, Asia and
63 Defining Drilling Fluids: Australia. Previously, he was vice president,
Drilling Fluid Basics exploration; asset manager and group
exploration advisor for BHP Petroleum,
based in London and Australia. Prior to
This is the ninth in a series of introductory articles describing basic concepts of the E&P industry. joining BHP Petroleum, he worked for
BP as a geophysicist. He has a degree
(Hons) in mining geology from the
University of Wales and a masters degree
in applied geophysics from the University
of Leeds, England. He is a Fellow of the
Geological Society of London. Andrew
became a Nonexecutive Director of
Editorial correspondence Subscriptions Distribution inquiries Egdon Resources in March 2012.
Oilfield Review Customer subscriptions can be obtained Matt Varhaug
5599 San Felipe through any Schlumberger sales office. Oilfield Review
Houston, TX 77056 Paid subscriptions are available from 5599 San Felipe
United States Oilfield Review Services Houston, TX 77056
(1) 713-513-1194 Pear Tree Cottage, Kelsall Road United States
Fax: (1) 713-513-2057 Ashton Hayes, Chester CH3 8BH (1) 713-513-2634
E-mail: editorOilfieldReview@slb.com United Kingdom Fax: (1) 281-285-0065
E-mail: subscriptions@oilfieldreview.com E-mail: DistributionOR@slb.com

3
 Bridging the Talent Gap

E&P companies are investing in the education of current employees as well as

acquiring additional talent. A Schlumberger training program is helping companies
manage such talent and accelerate employee training by assessing, developing and
monitoring employees skills and abilities. Geoscience and petroleum engineering
courses, integrated training programs and competency assessment and development
services are being used to bridge the gap for the next generation of petrotechnical
professionals while sharpening the skills of current employees.

Seraj Al-Abdulbaqi Every job requires certain skill sets and knowl-
Al-Khafji, Saudi Arabia edge. In the oil and gas industry, skills and
knowledge tend to be honed while on the job.
Abdulaziz Alobaydan However, because changes are constantly taking
Al-Khafji Joint Operations place, even experienced professionals may feel
Al-Khafji, Saudi Arabia some degree of inadequacy. In todays fast-
paced E&P world, operators need interdisciplin-
Ravi Chhibber
ary approaches to exploration and production,
Abul Jamaluddin
an intense focus on new technologies and atten-
Lynn Murphy
Kalyanaraman Venugopal tion to the changes in tactics required to pursue
Houston, Texas, USA new plays, often in settings that were previously
deemed inaccessible. For E&P engineers and
Jeffrey D. Johnson scientists, these are exciting times lled with
Consultant innovations and changing paradigms. These cir-
Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
cumstances require both new and existing
employees to increase their knowledge and
upgrade their skills.
In addition to the challenge of new technolo-
gies and new ways of accessing resources, E&P
companies must also ll gaps in experience and
workforce resulting from a demographic shift in
petrotechnical professionals (PTPs), many of
whom are leaving their jobs as part of the great
crew change.1 Many experts who entered the
industry during the boom days of the late 1970s
and early 1980s are reaching retirement age. This
situation is compounded by the baby boom gen-
eration in the US, a large number of births

Oileld Review Spring 2013: 25, no. 1.

Copyright 2013 Schlumberger. 25
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Tamir
X. Aggour, Salam P. Salamy and Khalid A. Zainalabedin,
2009
Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia; Alvin Barber, Alan 20
Lee Brown and Patricia Marolla, Houston; Ronald Carter, 2015
College Station, Texas; and Claude Hernandez, Al-Khafji,
Saudi Arabia.
Global PTPs, %

15
Petrel is a mark of Schlumberger.

10

0
20 to 24 25 to 29 30 to 34 35 to 39 40 to 44 45 to 49 50 to 54 55 to 59 60 to 64 65+
Age, years
> Global stafng changes, present and future. The percentage of PTPs per age category illustrates
the great crew change dilemma. The retirement rate is at 20% for 55- to 59-year-olds, 90% for 60- to
64-year-olds and 100% for those 65 and older. The E&P industry attrition rate is 1.4%. (Adapted from
Rostand and Soupa, reference 1.)

4 Oileld Review
recorded between 1946 and 1964. The rst of
these baby boomers reached age 65 in 2011,
and the expectation is that up to 50% of the US
energy workforce will retire within the next
decade.2 At the same time, the experienced mid-
career population of 32- to 50-year-olds is under-
represented because of low hiring rates during
the boom-and-bust cycles of the 1980s and 1990s.
Although companies are hiring young workers
to replace retiring workers, many younger people
typically have limited experience and inadequate
1. The term petrotechnical professionals refers to
geoscientists and petroleum engineers. Geoscientists
include geologists, geophysicists and petrophysicists.
Petroleum engineers include reservoir, drilling,
completion and production engineers.
For more on the great crew change: Coton S: The Great
Crew Change: A Challenge for Oil Company
Protability, Journal of Petroleum Technology 63,
no. 4 (April 2011): 5859.
Spring 2013
training because companies, under restricted
budgets, have cut training. The result is a loss of
know-how leading to a talent gap (previous
page). Companies are already reporting delays in
some projects caused by this talent shortage.3
Consequently, some operators ask relatively inex-
perienced PTPs to assume the responsibilities of
their mentors and managers without allotting
time for them to acquire the necessary skills.
Young employees also have to take responsibility
for complex engineering projects earlier in their
Rostand A and Soupa O: The Strategic Importance of
Talent, SBC Energy Perspectives (Summer 2011): 4851.
2. Tennant J: Making Informed Human Resources
Decisions Based on Workforce Outlook, World Oil 233,
no. 9 (September 2012): R127R132.
3. Talent refers to a person or persons with ability or
aptitude in a particular domain, eld or area of
knowledge or specialization.
careers than did their predecessors. The result-
ing situation necessitates intensied training
and development programs.
Changing demographics, the accelerated
introduction of new sciences and technologies
and the experience gap are combining to com-
pel E&P companies to reassess the strategic
importance of their training and development
programs. In addition, companies want to
improve and accelerate the transfer of existing
knowledge from senior experts to recent hires
Rousset J-M, Bismuth P and Soupa O: Technical Talent
Shortage Could Begin to Limit Growth, Journal of
Petroleum Technology 63, no. 6 (June 2011): 4649.
Olson B, Klump E and Kaskey J: Dearth of Skilled
Workers Imperils $100 Billion Projects, Bloomberg
(March 7, 2013), http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-
03-07/dearth-of-skilled-workers-imperils-100-billion-
projects.html (accessed March 7, 2013).
Huizer TJ and Portner F: Building a Talent Engine,
SBC Energy Perspectives (Semester 1, 2013): 49.
5

> Geology eld trip. At an outcrop of the Desert Member and Castlegate Sandstone in Thompson
Canyon, Utah, USA, a eld trip leader (second from left) shows trainees that what they see in the
outcrop translates to a geologic cross section and a deterministic Petrel E&P software platform
model. The outcrop relief here is about 100 ft [30 m].
while those experts are still available. Current
training programs focus on accelerating the
development and transfer of domain knowledge
to novice PTPs but are often rooted in tradi-
tional classroom learning environments, a
methodology that tends to neglect practice and
learning using real data and workow procien-
cies. These prociencies are essential for suc-
cess in the rapidly changing E&P environment.
> Training program. Trainees meet with a Schlumberger subject matter expert (center) to discuss
drilling operations in a NExT training program.
6 Oileld Review
To make immediate contributions, young PTPs
must have a rm grasp of their subject matter
and have practical knowledge of the data, tools
and workows important to their work groups
and businesses.
The challenge for accelerating petrotechnical
learning is to maximize its efciency, practicality
and effectiveness. NExTNetwork of Excellence
in Traininga Schlumberger company, uses
blended learning-by-doing and competency man-
agement to meet these challenges. The approach
consists of three components:
sSUBJECTMATTERLEARNING
sTECHNOLOGYEXPOSURE
sPRACTICEWITHREALDATA
These components are achieved through a
combination of classroom-based, instructor-led
coursework and workshops, case study learning,
eld trips, visits to laboratories and engineering
and manufacturing facilities, mentoring and
coaching programs and on-the-job training (left).
The exact mixture of these training tools depends
on each customers needs and the competency
levels to be achieved.
Learning-by-doing emphasizes analytical think-
ing and experience gained through a mixture of
traditional teaching and hands-on training com-
plemented by comprehensive technology and data
exposure.4 The goal is to shorten the time to auton-
omy, transforming a newly hired PTP into a compe-
tent, independent decision maker who contributes
to a companys success.5
For t-for-purpose training, NExT uses com-
petency assessment and management to estab-
lish the curricula, benchmarks and milestones to
ensure that training is efcient, targeted, effec-
tive and meets the needs of businesses to acquire
talent and the needs of employees to acquire
knowledge and skills to do their jobs. These com-
petency programs are customized to the require-
ments of E&P disciplines and job functions of
each business. Competency management uses a
matrix of specic skill elements and levels of
required prociency for a job at each rank or pro-
gression level. Training and development staff
use the matrix to assess prociency, identify skill
gaps, design curricula to ll gaps and verify train-
ing effectiveness.
This article describes the NExT program, a
training approach created to bridge the talent
gap, and explains how training programs are
tailored to meet specic customer needs
while providing prociency metrics to quantify
success. Case studies of competency manage-
4. Learning-by-doing is a form of problem-based learning.
For more on problem-based learning: Galand B, Frenay M
and Raucent B: Effectiveness of Problem-Based
Learning in Engineering Education: A Comparative Study
on Three Levels of Knowledge Structure, International
Journal of Engineering Education 28, no. 4 (July 2012):
939947.
5. Soupa O: Benchmarking Industry Talent Needs,
Journal of Petroleum Technology 62, no. 7
(July 2010): 2830.
6. Bowman C, Cotten WB, Gunter G, Johnson JD,
Millheim K, North B, Smart B and Tuedor F: The Next
Step in Collaborative Training, Oileld Review 12, no. 2
(Summer 2000): 3041.
7. Some program participants may receive masters
degrees from Heriot-Watt University if the programs are
certied by that university for academic credit.
Reservoir Engineering Profiles

Skill unit Skill element Deviation of assessment

Knowledge
Awareness

Advanced
from required proficiencies

Skilled

Expert
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Reservoir production geology X
Formation evaluation X
Fluid flow through porous media X
Properties of petroleum fluids X
Reservoir Well performance prediction X
engineering Well test design and interpretation X
foundations Data management X
Geology X
Petrophysics X
Decline curves X
Unconventional reservoirs X
Reserves determination X
Basic Gas reservoir engineering X
reservoir
engineering
Petroleum economics X
methods Analytical techniques X
Reservoir management principles and practices X
Secondary recovery process X
Immiscible and miscible gas injection X
Advanced Subsurface integration X
reservoir Interactive real-time data transmission X
engineering Simulation-model construction and history matching X
methods Simulation-model behavior forecast X
Simulation compositional modeling X
Simulation of complex, dual-porosity systems X

= Required level Gap Strength

= Self-assessment
X = Final adjusted assessment
> Job prole. A job prole matrix is a collection of skill units, skill elements and prociency levels; only a portion of a matrix is shown here. A skill unit is a
collective job function such as reservoir engineering foundations. A skill element is a subset of a skill unit, such as reservoir production geology. Each skill
element has a required prociency (black dot) that depends on the job, required skill unit and a trainees experience level. The matrix also includes specic
denitions of each skill element (not shown) at each rank and prociency level; including these specics reduces assessment subjectivity. A participant
performs a self-assessment (checkmark), which is adjusted (X) after an SME interviews selected participants. The deviation of the nal adjusted assessed
prociency from the required prociency shows gaps (blue) and strengths (green) in the individuals skills and abilities; where there is no deviation color, the
individual has met the required prociency level.

ment and integrated training programs illus-
trate the NExT approach to developing and
executing training programs.
Background
In 2000, Schlumberger and three universities
that offer curricula in petroleum studies created
a limited liability company called NExT, a
Network of Excellence in Training. The three uni-
versities with close links to the energy industry
Texas A&M University, College Station, USA; the
University of Oklahoma, Norman, USA; and
Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland
combined their educational capabilities with the
operational experience of Schlumberger profes-
sionals to provide the NExT organization with
training and development expertise.6 This part-
nership continues today.
In 2010, Schlumberger purchased commer-
cial rights from the three alliance universities
but retained and maintained their instructor
pool. In addition, NExT augmented its instructor
staff with Schlumberger petrotechnical experts
and industry-recognized experts from various
consulting organizations.
NExT provides services to E&P companies in
more than 50 countries. These services span
three categories: oil and gas courses, competency
management services and training programs
(previous page, bottom).
The NExT course catalog contains more than
420 offerings that include technical and software
courses, integrated training programs, software
certication, and in some cases, credit toward
masters degrees.7 Competency management ser-
vices include initial assessments, competency
gap analysis, curriculum development and train-
ing to ll assessed gaps in employee competen-
cies as well as follow-up verication to quantify
improvements from training.
Competency and Gaps
NExT training programs are often tailored to
meet a customers business objectives and tech-
nical challenges. A NExT team begins the process
by building a tailored, customer-specic compe-
tency catalog and matrices for each job function;
then it executes competency assessments and
gap analysis. The results provide the data neces-
sary for NExT experts to propose priorities for
training and development programs and recom-
mend strategies to meet those priorities.
To dene job functions, NExT subject matter
experts (SMEs) work with a company to under-
stand its business and technical needs. Then
they draft discipline-based competency matrices
for jobs within the company. The matrices con-
sist of skill units, skill elements and required
prociencies for each domainthe eld or area
of knowledge or specialization (above). Each

Spring 2013 7
 Proficiency Levels
Expert Advises the company on the strategic value and direction of the technology.
Considered an authority on the technology by peers and company.
Advanced Advises others engaged in applying the skill and can teach or mentor
others. Has applied the technology on numerous projects in several
diverse, complex areas.
Skilled Applies the knowledge and skills, regularly and independently, in projects
and can demonstrate their use.
Knowledge Has attended a relevant course or training that covers principles and can
explain and apply technology under supervision.
Awareness Recognizes a technology or technique, knows its purpose, can describe
it and understands its value and limitations.
> Prociency levels and their denitions.
skill element in the competency matrix has ve within the domain. Core competencies are ele-
prociency levels: awareness, knowledge, skilled, ments that are critically important in performing
advanced and expert (above). To reduce subjec- the job or meeting a business or technical chal-
tivity in the assessment, the matrix includes lenge. The remaining elements are called com-
specicity about each skill element, rank and plementary competencies.
prociency level. A job prole maps the required SMEs then perform a competency assessment
prociency level for the skill elements in that job to determine an individuals actual level of
Competency Management
Begin Define business needs
Prepare appropriate competency
matrices by function
Define job profiles and required
proficiency levels
Perform self-assessments
Conduct interviews with experts
Identify skill gaps and
development needs
Recommend development options
Review process Update
> Competency management. Competency management is a process that
responds to customer company objectives and business needs. NExT SMEs
and company representatives gather technical requirements, which are
based on the current corporate and business objectives. They align the
competency framework with the technical needs and then create
processes and job proles that represent the projects and position
competency requirements. Working with NExT, the company assesses its
staff and evaluates the gaps between required and actual prociencies.
Last, NExT and the company design a roadmap to close these gaps in the
short term and provide a plan for long-term career development. As the
companys business changes, the human resources department realigns
the models.
8 Oileld Review
knowledge and skills compared with the level of
knowledge, skills, abilities and competencies
required for the job.8 The participants in the
training program complete a self-assessment
questionnaire by selecting the prociency level
they believe they possess for each of the skill ele-
ments. Following the self-assessments, the
results are compiled and analyzed, and a sample
of participants, who represent the distribution
of responses to the questionnaire, is selected
for interviews to validate and adjust the
self-assessments.
Finally, gap analysis is performed to compare
individuals assessed prociency level with the
required prociency level for job functions. When
assessed prociencies are less than required,
curriculum planners target these skill gaps for
training. When assessed prociencies are greater
than required, these are noted as technical
strengths. Gap analysis results form the basis of
recommendations for training priorities and pro-
grams that address skill gaps and raise the com-
petency levels of trainees (below left).
Redening Independent
Small, independent oil companies are often char-
acterized by at organizational structures with
very little vertical hierarchy. Their business
model is simpleto add more reserves through
exploration, development and production.
Typically, most employees are involved in looking
for exploration plays, leads and prospects that
may turn into successful discoveries; preparing
and executing eld development plans; and con-
ducting production or reservoir analysis tasks to
grow or maintain production from existing assets.
These job tasks are focused on growing and
exploiting reserves for a company. As a success-
ful, small independent oil company grows, its
staff increases, and the company eventually
imposes some degree of vertical structure and
hierarchy. To do so, it must understand what tal-
ent it has and how to use it to run the business
most protably and effectively.9
An independent oil company in the US recog-
nized that it was facing a personnel development
dilemma. The company was expanding rapidly;
its workforce and proven reserves doubled in ve
years. To address this rapid growth, the company
formed a talent and development division within
8. Knowledge is the set of facts, concepts, language and
procedures needed for a job. Skill is the acquired
experience and know-how needed to perform tasks in a
job. Ability is the innate aptitude to carry out a job.
Competence is the combination of knowledge, skill and
ability to perform a job at some specied prociency level.
9. Sanghi S: Building Competencies, Industrial
Management 51, no. 3 (MayJune 2009): 1417.
its human resources (HR) department to acquire, M Are we developing enough
technology and business
develop and manage talent. leaders?
The rst task for the HR department was to
M What skills are needed 4 Develop
evaluate the current level of employee expertise, to deliver business? cy future leaders
en De
What is technical et ess
assess each employees skill set and dene spe- n

with omp

ve
performance?

i
bus

lop
M How are we doing?

Align c
cic job roles within the organization (right).

talent
Where are we in
The department also needed to understand the M What entry level skills the process?
do we desire?
skill gaps that existed and to align and develop Is our development
program attractive to 1 3
skill sets commensurate with business objectives;
targeted employees?
the HR department had to conduct this process 3
ie

to understand how to attract, develop, engage
and retain talent for the company and cultivate
future technical leaders within the organization.
The HR department also needed to identify those
with technical leadership and establish a struc-
tured system to transfer knowledge from senior
to junior staff.
The HR department required quantiable
measurement points to determine the business
value of this process. Business value may come in
the form of direct and indirect benets. Direct
benets include accelerating personnel develop-
ment and improving retention of those with key
skills in the company. Indirect benets include
engaged employees who are empowered to take
control of their careers.
The company approached NExT to assist with
talent management. NExT SMEs teamed with the
s
As
ses nc
Attract talent 2 s c o m p ete
M What do we need
to accomplish?
M Measurement How much do we need
required
to accomplish?
>Talent development steps. Counterclockwise from upper left, talent
development starts with the development of competency modelsa
combination of competencies and job proles that are aligned with the needs
of the business (1). The company must attract the correct talent (2), which is a
continual process and is inuenced by business needs and the alignment of
competency models with them to help with recruitment of both midcareer
staff and new graduates. The keys to building talent are skills assessment
and personnel career development (3). Using the competency models, a
company assesses existing talent, establishes the gaps in prociencies and
uses the gaps to develop training options and plans for employees. Finally,
through this process, the company identies, develops and nurtures its future
leaders (4). The measurement points (M) identify questions that must be
quantied to determine the progress of development.
Proficiency Level

Knowledge
Awareness

Advanced
company SMEs to dene job proles and compe- Skill elements

Skilled

Expert
None
tency matrices for each domain represented in
the organization. Reservoir production geology X
For the rst step of the process, early career Formation evaluation X
staffthose with one to seven years of experi- Fluid flow through porous media X
encecompleted individual self-assessments, Properties of petroleum fluids X
and the SMEs created skill assessment reports for Well performance prediction X
each participant. The HR department provided Well test design and interpretation X
the SME team with background information for Data management X
each participant, including job assignment, years Geology X
of experience, education level and place of educa- Petrophysics X
tion. This background information helped the Decline curves X
team compare skill levels of participants with skill Unconventional reservoirs X
levels based on industry requirements. The team Reserves determination X

then conducted skill assessment interviews that Gas reservoir engineering X

enabled the team to validate each participants Petroleum economics X

self-assessment, and the results of the interviews Analytical techniques X

allowed the team to update the self-assessment Reservoir management principles and practices X

reports (right). The team of NExT and company Secondary recovery process X

SMEs then planned multiyear training actions for Immiscible and miscible gas injection X
Subsurface integration X Gap
each participant. Plans included courses, work- Strength
shops, learning-by-doing programs, self-study and Interactive real-time data transmission X
Required level
on-the-job coached project work. Simulation-model construction and history matching X X Assessed level
Through the competency assessment pro- Simulation-model behavior forecast X

cess, the company has aligned job functions Simulation compositional modeling X

with its business objectives, compiled required Simulation of complex, dual-porosity systems X

job proles, dened prociency requirements,
> Gap analysis of job trainee population. Every job has skills that an employee must perform at required
prociency levels (black dots). A group of job trainees undergoes competency assessment, and the
trainees nal adjusted assessment scores are aggregated and averaged (X). Gaps (blue) and strengths
(green) in the trainees prociencies provide the data to establish training targets for improving the
groups skills and to identify talent within the company.

Spring 2013 9

Deviation of Assessment
Skill Elements from Required Proficiencies
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 nology along with skills for using specic soft-
Production impediments
Safety and environment
Sand control and
stimulation techniques
Special topics Gap
Strength
Surface production operations
Unconventional completions
Well completions
Well control
Well evaluation
Well intervention techniques
Well performance
> Gap analysis. This summary of gap analyses from a population of one
companys production engineering employees revealed areas where
training should be focused to eliminate gaps (blue) in prociency. The
analysis also showed some expertise within well completions, as this
element showed the highest strength (green). For each production
engineering skill, the bars summarize four statistics of the deviations of
assessment from required prociencymaximum, minimum, average (red
dot) and median deviation. Zero deviation means that the assessed
prociency equals the required prociency for the skill element. Positive
deviations are strengthswhen the assessed prociency is greater than
the required prociency. Negative deviations are gapswhen the
assessment is less than required. The boxes along the bars show the
central tendency of the deviations; they are black when the median is less
than the average and gray when the median is greater than the average.
The spread of deviations results from the mix of backgrounds and
experience in the sampled population.
completed roadmaps for training and develop- Maximizing Software Prociency
ment and established benchmarks for assessing When companies experience rapid growth, they
talent and training. The company has learned sometimes need to restructure to adapt to their
what skill sets are required for individuals to do expanded size and activity. A medium-sized North
their jobs now and in the future. The company American independent oil company had to con-
became cognizant of the baseline skills for their tend with growing pains as it sought to expand
current staff, and as a result, established a operational activities and add seasoned technical
training plan for closing the skill gaps (above). and managerial staff. The company also intended
As the independent oil company grows and to adopt the latest eld and software technolo-
redenes itself, the HR department has a road- gies. In doing so, it recognized the need for effec-
map for aligning and managing its talent to t its tive software training and thus provided generous
business objectives. The competency matrices training opportunities for its technical staff.
will facilitate the companys ability to foster and Embracing the most current software tech-
reward performance and optimize its ability to nologies is a tactic for increasing efciency and
attract and retain talent. The employees should productivity of PTPs on exploration, operations
then have a complete understanding of the per- and asset teams. To benet from changes in
formance drivers within the organization, which
will help them develop their careers.
software technology, employees must have a
good technical foundation in science and tech-
ware products championed in the company.
NExT was called in to assess the companys
training environment, including the organiza-
tions structure, technologies used, types of
training offered, current competencies of the
staff and anticipated technology needs.
To begin its evaluation, NExT interviewed the
companys management to understand the orga-
nization, its current business outlook and its
expectations for technology in the future. NExT
placed parameters on these expectations to
develop metricsstandards of measurement
to assess experienced employees, dened as
those with 10 years or more in the industry. Most
respondents had been with the company for
10 years or less but had more than 10 years of
industry experience. A sample group of these
employees took a survey that measured their cur-
rent prociency with the companys software
technologies and workows. The company
expected experienced PTPs to be procient with
technology, yet the survey revealed gaps in skills
and abilities that provided NExT with the data
necessary to establish targets for improvement.
Assessment results also revealed that the cur-
rent technology training program was not provid-
ing desired benets to the company (next page,
top right). The self-assessment surveys showed
that few people were highly procient in software
usage. Follow-up interviews conrmed these
ndings. Some PTPs used only basic functions
provided by the software and, because they
lacked awareness and knowledge of software
capabilities, these PTPs did not use other soft-
ware applications.
Survey results suggested that, with few excep-
tions, the company software training program
was not meeting the technical requirements of
employees. Employees software prociency
needed to be aligned with domain experience,
and targeted training had to be designed to ll
gaps between assessed and expected software
prociency. Knowledge transfer could also be
facilitated by fostering a climate in which junior
staff members feel comfortable asking for help
and expert staff are expected to mentor, coach
and transfer knowledge to junior staff.
The surveys and interviews identied employ-
ees concerns regarding the current state of the
organization; their own learning, competency
and software usage; and standard practices sur-
rounding software technology. The survey and
interview results suggested that the companys

10 Oileld Review
lack of a software vision and strategy had led to Software Proficiency Technology Fit to Job Workflow
haphazard adoption of software. NExT recom- 9: High 5 to 8: Medium 1 to 5: Low 1 to 2: High 2 to 3: Medium-high 3 to 5: Medium-low
mended the following strategic solutions to
address these concerns: 255+ High seniority, high experience 9.0 1.0
Low seniority, high experience
sRATIONALIZE WORKmOWS TO ALIGN WITH COMPANY Low seniority, low experience
21 to 25 3.5 3.0
strategies and industry best practices

Experience in company, years

sPROVIDEMOREHANDS ONCOURSESUSINGSOFTWARE 16 to 20 9.0 1.0
critical to the company mission as well as soft-
ware recognized to be E&P industry standards 11 to 15 4.6 2.1
sESTABLISH TRANSPARENT GUIDELINES FOR PAIRING
SOFTWAREWITHASSETTYPESANDWORKmOWS 5 to 10
4.6 5.4 3.4 4.0 4.2 2.3 1.9 3.0 1.0 3.2
sESTABLISHBENCHMARKSFORSKILLSWITHRECOM-
2 to 4
mended software, organized by workflow 3.8 5.1 4.4 7.9 1.0 2.3 1.6 2.2 2.3 2.8
and discipline
0 to 1 6.7 1.3
sPROMOTE AND DEVELOP TECHNOLOGY CHAMPIONS 4.5 3.3 2.0 1.0

within asset teams to transfer knowledge of 0 to 1 2 to 4 5 to 10 11 to 15 16 to 20 21 to 25 25+ 0 to 1 2 to 4 5 to 10 11 to 15 16 to 20 21 to 25 25+

assets, facilitate peer-to-peer training and fos-
ter a sense of technical achievement.
After implementing various recommenda-
tions, the company saw measurably positive
returns on its training investment.
Accelerated Learning
Aramco Gulf Operations Company and Kuwait
Gulf Oil Company formed Al-Khafji Joint
Operations (KJO) in 2000 to operate jointly and
share equally in hydrocarbon production from
the SaudiKuwaiti neutral zone between the bor-
ders of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. KJO wanted to
expand its exploration activities. However, it
faced an acute shortage of trained PTPs. To
accelerate its training of exploration PTPs, KJO
contracted with NExT to develop a blended train-
ing program for new hires and midcareer engi-
neers and geologists.
NExT developed two training programs, one
designed to train 20 new hires over three years
and the other to train 20 midcareer PTPs over
two years. Both programs started with a trainee
competency analysis followed by gap analysis.
These data formed the bases of blended learning
curricula featuring theory and software courses,
on-the-job training (OJT), workshops, eld trips,
mentoring sessions, projects and project manage-
ment training. The programs included verica-
tion of training effectiveness to gauge competency
growth and individual participation.
The new-hire program focused on training
seven engineers and ve geoscientists in sub-
surface geology and eight engineers in surface
facility operations. The goal was to develop
semiautonomous professionals who were able to
operate at a skilled prociency level. The three-
10. The competency prociency scale levels are the
following: not aware 0, awareness 1, knowledge 2,
skilled 3, advanced 4 and expert 5.
Experience in the industry, years Experience in the industry, years
> Self-assessed software prociency and technology t. Fifty geoscientists at one company
participated in self-assessment surveys about their software prociency and understanding of how the
software t with their job workow. The bubble size corresponds to the number of respondents. The
bubble colors and numbers represent average scores on software prociency (left) and t to job
workow (right). Software prociency is low across the experience spectrum. However, the
respondents rated the software as being appropriate for their jobs. These ndings suggest that low
software prociency results from inadequate training rather than from inappropriate software.
year curriculum evolved from 100% classroom the end of Year 3, trainees were expected to
training at the start of the rst year to 90% OJT achieve prociency and autonomy in their job
by the end of the third year. Building a founda- function, to be fully engaged in OJT under struc-
tion of core competencies in each subject tured mentoring by experts and to be responsi-
domain was the purpose of Year 1. Training ble for project assignments.
included a blend of instructor-led and self- The new-hire program started in October
directed learning and eld trips. During Year 2, 2010. After the rst year devoted primarily to
the focus moved to strengthening core compe- coursework, the trainees competency rose from
tencies in each trainees primary discipline an awareness level of 1.55 to a knowledge level of
through advanced coursework, mentoring by 2.04 (below).10 After three years, trainees were
peers and experts and starting OJT projects. By expected to be at the skilled level of 3.
Domain Initial Assessment End of Year 1
Subsurface geology 1.61 1.90
Subsurface engineering 1.55 2.01
Surface engineering 1.50 2.21
Overall 1.55 2.04
> Return on KJO investment in training. Competency models and measurements
provide a standard for assessing skill levels and ensuring that training is t
for purpose. The range of improvement in the trainees competency since
their initial assessments was 18% to 47%. This result gives the company
condence that the training program is working.

Spring 2013 11
 Based on lessons learned during the rst year
of training, NExT and KJO will modify the new-
hire program. The ability to modify such training
programs illustrates the exibility of the NExT
system. Rather than starting the program with a
year of classroom coursework and ending with
principally OJT, the new program will include a
richer mix of classroom and hands-on training
from the outsetfrom 60% classroom training at
the start to 80% OJT by the end. Program partici-
pants indicated that staggering the courses and
mixing in hands-on training would be more effec-
tive and would also facilitate learning and reten-
tion of course material. During 2013, KJO expects
to hire 30 recent graduates; these new employees
will follow the modied training regimen.
The program for midcareer hires focused on
training seven geoscientists and nine engineers
in geology and reservoir engineering and four
engineers in drilling engineering. The goal was to
develop participants into autonomous profession-
als, able to operate at an advanced to expert level
and be responsible for conducting a full eld
BASED TRAINING USING SHALE RESERVOIR
development plan. NExT training professionals
designed a two-year curriculum that began with
100% classroom learning and concluded with
100% onsite mentoring. During the rst year, the
trainees took preliminary courses to ll in gaps in
the groups knowledge and combined their disci-
plines to collaborate on fully integrated multidis-
ciplinary projects. In addition, individualized
courses resolved gaps in trainee education and
functional knowledge.
During the second year, each trainee was
assigned to one of three integrated eld develop-
ment training projects following consultation
with mentors and KJO management. NExT SMEs
designed each integrated eld development
training project to last approximately four
months. In the rst two weeks, the trainees con-
ducted an initial project assessment and took
part in a project management course. During the
following seven weeks, participants attended
courses on the theory and workows related to
eld development plans, including subsurface
reservoir geology and geophysics, surface facili-
ties, predictions of production and eld opera-
tions and maintenance. In the nal eight weeks,
the trainees planned a eld development project
and worked on a subset of data from a general
development plan. The trainees concluded the
program with a nal project and a presentation
to KJO management. After these training proj-
ects, each midcareer trainee is expected to capi-
talize on knowledge gained and become a
contributing member of an asset team.
12
The midcareer hire program was completed
in 2012. The successor to this program is the KJO
Specialist Talent Development Program (STDP),
which is open to high-potential national employ-
ees with at least seven years of industry experi-
ence. STDP is a competency-based development
program with the goal of transforming employees
skilled in a discipline into specialists or experts.
For the new program, each participant is evalu-
ated for acceptance into the program based on
competency level, then each phase of that per-
sons individualized development plan will be
evaluated by KJO SMEs.
The new hire and STDP programs are
important to KJO because these programs
eliminate the knowledge and skill gaps created
as experienced employees depart KJO through
retirement and attrition. For KJO, the pro-
grams help to build PTP leaders, develop young
qualified PTPs into skilled PTPs who can work
independently and enable the company to
become less reliant on external specialists.
Unconventional Talent for Shale Plays
Saudi Aramco collaborated with NExT to train
and develop expert PTPs in unconventional gas
resource (UGR) exploitation. The company made
a commitment to an accelerated training pro-
gram to train asset teams of engineers and geo-
scientists for the UGR group. The training
program emphasized integrating trainees into
coherent asset teams, in which each team mem-
ber has a core discipline competency and also
has familiarity with the other team members
disciplines.
A typical training program begins with com-
petency assessments of trainees. However, in this
case, candidate trainees received general over-
view coursework on shale gas geoscience and
engineering. Based on their coursework evalua-
tions, the candidate teams of geoscientists and
engineers were selected for UGR training.
The trainees then underwent baseline compe-
tency assessments evaluating their knowledge of
the geoscience and petroleum engineering of
shale gas resources. Following assessment, they
began their UGR training, a blend of 20% learn-
ing, 20% technology exposure and 60% on-the-
job training.
The program began with a focus on the fun-
damentals of UGR technology. This curriculum
consisted of instructor-led coursework covering
shale play geology, geophysics, petrophysics,
geomechanics, reservoir engineering, well engi-
neering, completions and stimulation, produc-
tion engineering and water management.
Following the classroom component, the geo-
science and petroleum engineering trainees
focused on their core technologies, although each
group was exposed to the technologies of the
other group through cross-disciplinary training.
Such training ensured that all participants under-
stood the role of each technical discipline since
interdisciplinary teamwork is vital for UGR exploi-
tation and reservoir management.
The heart of the training program was an
extended period of practical OJT. Trainees were
expected to conduct tasks on actual shale play
datasets and apply knowledge gained from
classroom and software training. The trainees,
separated into their geoscience and engineer-
ing groups, were rotated through diverse paral-
lel projects in various Schlumberger facilities.
In conjunction with OJT, the trainees partici-
pated in the following:
sPROJECT
data under the supervision of industry shale
experts
sSITEVISITSTOMANUFACTURINGFACILITIESTOEXAM-
ine openhole logging tools, wellhead assem-
blies, drill bits and other technology
sGEOLOGY lELD TRIPS TO OBSERVE SHALE OUTCROPS
and correlate them with software-based geol-
ogy models
sOBSERVATIONSOFSELECTEDlELDOPERATIONS
sSPECIALIZED TRAINING ON UNCONVENTIONAL GAS
resource technology.
Following OJT, the groups came back
together to work as asset teams on integrated
facilities and shale play asset management proj-
ects. Each asset team member shared responsi-
bility for the successes and failures of projects
and learned the economics of unconventional
gas resources using a mixture of theory and soft-
ware to analyze datasets.
At the end of the program, each asset team
evaluated an integrated project and produced a
report detailing how it would manage the asset.
Each team presented its report to a panel of
industry SMEs, who graded the team.
Each trainee underwent a closing competency
reassessment to measure and verify improvement
in prociency in shale play geoscience and
engineering. The improvement in the trainees
skill prociencies, which was quantied by the
reassessments, demonstrated the return on
investment from the UGR training program.
Oileld Review
 Integrated 12-Week Program

Geoscience Program Engineering Program

Shale pilot project Engineering pilot

presentation project presentation

Shale Shale
economics economics

Geology field trip Visits to laboratories

to shale outcrops and operations sites

Oilfield water
Shale
management practices
geomechanics
12 weeks

for shale plays

Production and
Shale
engineering of
petrophysics
shale reservoirs

Basin modeling Completion and

of shale plays stimulation of shale

Shale geology Well architecture

and geophysics and drilling shale

Introduction to Introduction to
shale plays shale plays

Theory Data analysis Site visits Geology Laboratory Project

and interpretation field trips visits application
> Multidomain shale training program. This 12-week training program (left) consists of parallel geoscience and engineering tracks. The training is a blend of
theory, data analysis and interpretation (right), site visits to operations, geology eld trips, laboratory visits and projects. The order of training proceeds
from bottom to top. Geoscientists and engineers begin together learning the fundamentals of shale plays. Their tracks diverge for several weeks. At the end
of the program, the trainees come back together to learn the economics of shale plays, form asset teams and work on common pilot projects. Finally, the
teams give presentations to industry SMEs, who grade the trainees on their evaluations and recommendations for the projects.

Multidisciplinary Learning
The Saudi Aramco training program focused on
acquiring capabilities needed to develop shale
plays. In addition to conventional instructor-led
training, the program exposed trainees to
enabling technologies, eld operations and on-
the-job practice, culminating in trainees working
through a scenario from a real project. This par-
ticular program will enable Saudi Aramco to
accelerate the capabilities of its PTPs to exploit
UGR opportunities.
Unlike Saudi Aramco, many companies in
North America have mature shale play busi-
nesses. Even so, some companies may still need
to expand their employees capabilities in shale
play technologies. Based on recommendations
and feedback from participants and mentors of help bridge the talent gap in the E&P industry.
the Saudi Aramco program, in addition to discus- Learning-by-doing combines learning modes
sions with SME advisors from US-based compa- based on customers business objectives and
nies, NExT designed a 12-week multidisciplinary technical challenges, while competency man-
shale training program, which is expected to be agement ensures that the training is efcient,
available during the fourth quarter of 2013 targeted and effective. Using these techniques
(above). Each part of the 12-week program is a puts E&P businesses of all sizes on the path to
blended learning-by-doing module. In addition, sustainable talent development and puts their
customer companies may provide their employ- PTPs on the road to prociency. RCNH
ees with additional OJT in shale play resource
exploitation and management.
The solution to development and accelera-
tion of petrotechnical learning is to maximize its
efciency, practicality and effectiveness. NExT
uses blended learning-by-doing and competency
management to achieve these objectives and

Spring 2013 13
 Structural SteeringA Path to Productivity

Aimen Amer The number of oil and gas wells drilled horizontally continues to increase as
East Ahmadi, Kuwait
operators strive to maximize contact with target formations, develop more-efcient
Filippo Chinellato completion programs and optimize recovery from complex geologic structures.
Milan, Italy
Structural steering, a method by which operators direct horizontal and high-angle
Steve Collins
Chief Oil & Gas LLC wellbore trajectories, integrates data from deep-reading LWD resistivity tools
Dallas, Texas, USA and high-resolution imaging devices to create structural models of the geologic
Jean-Michel Denichou conditions encountered by the drill bit. This technique allows drillers to correct
Sugar Land, Texas
wellbore trajectories in anticipation of structural changes ahead of the bit and helps
Isabelle Dubourg operators better understand the formations already drilled.
Clamart, France

Roger Grifths
Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia The drilling of oil and gas wells today has little in continue to introduce new technologies that help
common with the early days of exploration when operators drill wells that produce longer, drain
Randy Koepsell wildcatters punched holes, sometimes based on the reservoir more completely and improve return
Denver, Colorado, USA seemingly random patterns, in hopes of on investment.
discovering untapped resources. Today, modern The ability to drill high-angle and horizontal
Stig Lyngra
drilling engineers access an array of technologies well trajectories has been one of the most signi-
Saudi Aramco
to visualize the subsurface and then command cant changes in drilling in recent years. Although
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
sophisticated downhole hardware to precisely horizontal wells typically average two to three
Philippe Marza target reservoir sections. After analyzing data times the cost of conventional vertical wells and
Aberdeen, Scotland from various sources, well placement engineers involve higher risks, the proportion of horizontal
can adjust wellbore trajectories while drilling to wells continues to increase (below). For exam-
Doug Murray maximize reservoir contact. Service companies ple, in the US at the end of 2012, 63% of the
Abu Dhabi, UAE

70
Iwan (Bob) Roberts
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
60
Oileld Review Spring 2013: 25, no. 1.
Horizontal wells in the US, %

Copyright 2013 Schlumberger. 50

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Danny
Hamilton, Frisco City, Texas; Remi Hutin, Clamart, France; 40
Emmanuelle Regrain, Houston; and Haifeng Wang,
Stavanger.
CMR, eXpandBG, eXpandGST, FMI, FPWD, MDT, MicroScope, 30
PeriScope, Petrel and PowerDrive are marks of
Schlumberger. 20

10

0
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
Year
> Horizontal drilling in the US. The number of wells drilled horizontally, as a
percentage of the total number of wells drilled in the US, has increased
sharply in the past decade. (Data used with permission from Baker Hughes.)

14 Oileld Review
Spring 2013 15
1,817 wells being drilled were classied as hori-
zontal and another 11% were labeled directional
wells. Only 26% of the wells were classied as
vertical.1 A primary reason for this shift to hori-
zontal and high-angle wells is that they bring
potential short- and long-term rewards that ver-
tical wells cannot typically provide. Through a
single wellbore, high-angle and horizontal wells
can improve drainage, access discrete compart-
ments in complex reservoirs, reduce interven-
tion costs, improve efciencies and provide
exposure to more of the reservoir. Despite their
higher initial costs, horizontal wellbores often
provide operators with a method for developing
reservoirs that otherwise might not be prot-
able. Horizontal wellbores are especially impor-
tant in unconventional reservoirs where their
use has been a key enabling technology in devel-
oping shale resources.2
These improvements in drilling technologies
and practices have transformed the way operators
approach developing resources.3 In the early days
of horizontal drilling, wells were constructed
based primarily on geometric well plans. When
some wells were not optimally placed in target
zones, results were often disappointing. Today,
geoscientists and drilling engineers understand
that the term horizontal drilling is an
oversimplication of the process, and accurate
well placement involves more than turning a well
90 from vertical. Maximizing reservoir contact
and understanding subsurface geometry and
Horizontal Wells Drilled Worldwide
1,600
Outside North America
1,400
Canada
1,200 United States
1,000
Number of wells
800
600
400
200 145
41 65
0
1986 1987 1988
> Horizontal drilling before 1995. In 1986, only 41 wells worldwide were classied as horizontal. A
dramatic increase in these numbers occurred between 1989 and 1990, driven by technological
improvements and by the resultant increases in production experienced by some operators drilling
horizontal wells. Although at the outset the trend was primarily in the US, operators in other regions,
especially Canada, also drilled more horizontal wells. (Adapted from Kuchuk et al, reference 5.)
16
geology are crucial components of successful
drilling operations.
Technological advances in LWD formation
evaluation tools are also making it possible for
engineers to achieve well placement objectives
more effectively. Tools that probe the formation
some distance from the wellbore allow drilling
engineers to visualize complex subsurface geom-
etry. Engineers use real-time, high-resolution
image data to dene structural geometry and pro-
actively adjust drilling programs. LWD measure-
ments also help operators differentiate intervals
that have superior production characteristics
from those that may not be protable.
To optimize the horizontal drilling process,
well placement engineers have developed work-
ows that help them in the quest to realize drill-
ing objectives. Even before the well is spudded,
these workows play a role in helping geologists
and engineers identify targets and develop realis-
tic trajectories that avoid unnecessary drilling
complications. While drilling, the well placement
team can update models with real-time informa-
tion utilizing a 3D approach.
These new technologies and workows may
not always provide the answer. The critical ele-
ment in determining which well type performs
best is the drilling teams understanding of how
reservoir geology impacts long-term performance
of the well. In many high-permeability reservoirs,
particularly during the early phase of develop-
ment, vertical and horizontal wells may perform
1,570
1,400
1,250
1,190
1,020
257
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
Year
equally well, which makes vertical wells more
attractive because of lower costs. In a recent
study from a complex, naturally fractured reser-
voir, vertical wells produced with higher oil rates
and lower water cuts than horizontal wells.4 This
phenomenon was a result of waterood maturity
and unique reservoir geology.
Nevertheless, recent drilling and geosteering
technology developments have allowed access to
resources for which conventional vertical or geo-
metrically drilled horizontal wells would not have
worked as well. This article discusses LWD tools
that provide data directly impacting drilling pro-
grams, software for visualization of subsurface
geometry and a workow operators use to optimize
well placement through structural steering tech-
niques. Examples from a gas storage project in
Italy, an unconventional reservoir in the US and a
thin carbonate reservoir in the Middle East dem-
onstrate how operators are optimizing well place-
ment and more effectively accessing reservoirs
and resources.
Dimensions of Drilling
Technological advances in drilling were key fac-
tors in the sharp rise in the number of horizontal
and directional wells in the 1990s. In 1986, there
were 41 horizontal wells drilled worldwide
(below left).5 Just four years later, in 1990, there
were 1,190 horizontal wells drilled, the majority
of which were in Texas, USA. More than 20% of
those wells were concentrated in the Austin
Chalk formation. Activity in this formation epito-
mizes the evolution that has occurred in horizon-
tal drilling.
The Austin Chalk is a low-permeability and
low-to-moderateporosity reservoir. The rst
wells were drilled in this formation in the 1920s.
Production of oil and gas in commercial quanti-
ties relied on the well intersecting existing inter-
connected fractures. To enhance production
from vertical wells, operators introduced new
technologies with varying degrees of success.
These technologies included acid treatments to
open pathways from the wellbore to existing frac-
ture networks, seismic interpretation to locate
fracture clusters and hydraulic fracture stimula-
tion to increase wellbore connectivity to natu-
rally occurring networks.
In the 1980s, operators began experimenting
with lateral well extensions, usually by reenter-
ing existing nonproductive wells. Because this
approach allowed the wellbore to contact many
more fractures than was possible with the original
vertical well, spectacular production increases
often ensued.
Oileld Review
 Offset Log Layer Geologic
Well Log Squaring Column Model Resistivity Log

Markers Markers Surfaces

Modeled
Measured

Horizontal Departure
Formation Formation markers The markers are linked to
resistivity identified surfaces in the geologic model.

Geologic Model

> Model, compare and update method of well placement. Log data from offset wells are used to construct geologic and tool
response models. Geologists generate geologic models by rst squaring the original data, creating layer columns and labeling
formation markers and surfaces (top left). Formation markers and layering are propagated from offset well data to create a
geologic model (bottom left), which may also be enhanced with seismic data. A forward modeling program predicts how logging
tools, such as a resistivity tool, will respond to formation properties (red, top right). Once the model is generated, a well trajectory
(green, bottom right) is proposed to target specic reservoir layers. As the horizontal well section is drilled, the measured
response (blue, top right) observed from the well is compared with the modeled response. (Adapted from Grifths, reference 7.)

Some experts have attributed the global
growth in horizontal drilling to the successes and
lessons learned in these and other Texas wells.6
However, not all horizontal wells drilled in the
Austin Chalk formation experienced dramatic
increases in production. Many operators failed to
take into account the complex nature of the for-
mation, which included compartmentalization
and subseismic faults that divided the Austin
Chalk into multiple isolated reservoirs.
Today, operators use extensive reservoir mod-
els to extrapolate surface and downhole data and
predict the formations that horizontal wellbores
will encounter. This approach attempts to iden-
tify rock of better reservoir quality, and where
1. Baker Hughes: Interactive Rig Counts, Investor
Relations, http://gis.bakerhughesdirect.com/RigCounts/
(accessed February 13, 2013).
2. Alexander T, Baihly J, Boyer C, Clark B, Waters G,
Jochen V, Le Calvez J, Lewis R, Miller CK, Thaeler J and
Toelle BE: Shale Gas Revolution, Oileld Review 23,
no. 3 (Autumn 2011): 4055.
3. For more on the evolution and innovations in drilling
technology: Felczak E, Torre A, Godwin ND, Mantle K,
Naganathan S, Hawkins R, Li K, Jones S and Slayden F:
The Best of Both WorldsA Hybrid Rotary Steerable
System, Oileld Review 23, no. 4 (Winter 2011/2012):
3644.
applicable, of better completion quality. However,
until a well is drilled, the model, which is a func-
tion of the type and quality of available data,
remains an approximation.
Well Placement Methods
Downhole hardware for drilling horizontal wells
has improved considerably over the past decades,
and well placement methodologies and work-
ows have been developed to capitalize on new
technologies and drilling techniques. With these
improvements, well placement methods continue
to evolve. Today, three complementary methods
are generally used in well placement.7 The rst
method is characterized as model, compare and
Bennetzen B, Fuller J, Isevcan E, Krepp T, Meehan R,
Mohammed N, Poupeau J-F and Sonowal K:
Extended-Reach Wells, Oileld Review 22, no. 3
(Autumn 2010): 415.
Williams M: Better Turns for Rotary Steerable Drilling,
Oileld Review 16, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 49.
Downton G, Hendricks A, Klausen TS and Patis D:
New Directions in Rotary Steerable Drilling,
Oileld Review 12, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 1829.
update and is a reactive drilling process. The sec-
ond relies on estimating and extrapolating the
orientation of bedding planes from formation
dip data, usually with azimuthal measurements
acquired while drilling. The third method relies
on deep-reading directional data for remote
boundary detection to proactively adjust the well-
bore trajectory to maximize reservoir contact and
avoid exiting target zones.
In the model, compare and update method,
the well placement team rst generates a model
of logging tool responses based on expected for-
mations observed in offset log data (above).
Seismic data interpretations are included in the
analysis to help geologists estimate the location
4. Widjaja DR, Lyngra S, Al-Ajmi FA, Al-Otaibi UF and
Alhuthali AH: Vertical Cased Producers Outperform
Horizontal Wells in a Complex Naturally Fractured Low
Permeability Reservoir, paper SPE 164414, presented at
the SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and Conference,
Manama, Bahrain, March 1013, 2013.
5. Kuchuk F, Nurmi R, Cassell B, Chardac J-L and Maguet P:
Horizontal Highlights, Middle East Well Evaluation
Review 16 (1995): 725.
6. Kuchuk et al, reference 5.
7. Grifths R: Well Placement Fundamentals. Sugar Land,
Texas, USA: Schlumberger (2009): 10.

Spring 2013 17
 Real-Time Modeling of formation boundaries. The team may use 3D
200 visualization software that usually includes plan-
Gamma ray, gAPI

Modeled
ahead functionality to develop wellbore trajec-
Measured tory and drilling programs. Real-time data
acquired while drilling either validate the model
0 or are used to update it in response to the new
information (left). The directional driller can
Deep resistivity, ohm.m Shallow resistivity, ohm.m

1,000
then make changes in the wellbore trajectory
100 Modeled
based on the updated model.
Measured
10 The second well placement method requires
an understanding of the orientation and magni-
tude of the formation dip. After interpreting azi-
1,000
muthal data from wellbore images, well
100 Modeled placement engineers are able to estimate and
Measured extrapolate the orientation of the target bed or
10
formation. The bit is steered to remain within the
target. If the bit is no longer in the target reser-
X,450
voir layer, the LWD data can be used to determine
whether the bit has exited the top or the bottom
X,500
of the reservoir, and the directional drilling engi-
True vertical depth, ft

neer can apply corrections to steer the bit back

X,550
toward the target (below). When the wellbore
crosses a fault and leaves the reservoir, this tech-
X,600
nique may not be effective because the engineer
Gamma ray, gAPI
X,650
must know which direction to proceed to recon-
50 75 100 125 150
nect with the target, and azimuthal data alone
X,700 may not provide that information.
1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500 1,600 1,700 1,800 0 200
In the third method, well placement engi-
True horizontal length, ft Gamma ray, gAPI
neers use remote boundary detection to proac-
> Tracking the model. Well placement engineers and geologists may create software models of tively determine the direction in which to steer
logging tool responses from anticipated subsurface geology. The gamma ray (green, top) and shallow the bit. Deep azimuthal measurements give
resistivity data (blue, middle) are tracking the modeled response (red), which would indicate that the
2D model for well trajectory (bottom, green) is valid. Differences between the modeled and measured
deep resistivity data (log data, bottom) may indicate that the well trajectory will need to be adjusted,
although the deep resistivity data are again tracking at the current bit position.

Well Intersecting Ascending Layer Image log Well Intersecting Descending Layer Image log
Top

Bottom

Top

Measured depth Measured depth

> Well placement using formation dip data. Azimuthal log data in the shapes of smiles and frowns help well placement engineers determine bit corrections.
When a wellbore crosses a bedding plane, an azimuthal logging tool response indicates whether the wellbore is exiting an ascending or descending
geologic layer. When the wellbore cuts an ascending layer (left), the rst contact with the formation is at the bottom of the hole (bottom left); when the bit
exits the layer, the last contact will be at the top of the hole. When the bit cuts an ascending layer, the data appear as a frown in the image. Conversely,
measurements from a wellbore that exits a descending bedding plane appear as a smile (right). The bit can be guided up or down based on these
interpretations to ensure that the wellbore remains in or reconnects with a target zone.

18 Oileld Review
early warning of approaching changes in the
target and surrounding layers (right). This tech- X,606
nique works best when there is sufcient resis-
tivity contrast between the bounding layer and X,608
the target. Drilling programs that optimize

True vertical depth, ft

drainage, access untapped compartments and X,610
steer clear of potential water sources are some Planned trajectory
of the primary beneciaries of this type of pro- X,612 Drilled trajectory
active drilling. In thick reservoir sections or in
low-contrast environments, this technique may X,614
not be as effective. Complex geologic environ-
ments, such as faulting and folds, are also prob- X,616
lematic for this technique.
Another well placement technique, structural X,618
X,800 X,850 X,900 X,950 Y,000 Y,050 Y,100 Y,150 Y,200 Y,250 Y,300
steering, extends the capabilities of these three
True horizontal length, ft
methods. It replaces geometric assumptions
> Distance to boundary (DTB) technology for well placement. Real-time distance to boundary mapping
about planar surfaces with geologically informed
technology uses directional measurements and large depth of investigation (DOI) to determine the
predictions of structure based on observed well distance to adjacent layers above and below the well path. For DTB technology to be used effectively,
data (below right). Whereas most well placement resistivity contrasts between adjacent beds must be present, and the adjacent beds must be within the
techniques focus on geometry, structural steering measurement window. Resistivity data from deep-reading LWD services, such as the PeriScope tool,
uses some aspects of the traditional methodolo- can be inverted and the values converted to colors. Contrasting colors highlight the differences in
bedding plane properties. Data are processed and presented in such a way as to give the appearance
gies but attempts to resolve geologic complexi- of curtains, giving rise to the name curtain display. When the well position relative to adjacent beds is
ties with LWD data, some of which have only known, the bit can be steered by making adjustments to the drilling assembly to point the bit in the
recently become available in real time. desired direction (blue) so that the wellbore stays within target zones or returns should the trajectory
exit from a target. Had the planned trajectory (green) been followed, this well would have exited the
target zone (light colors).
Structural Steering Workow
Directional drilling is dened as the science of
steering a wellbore along a planned path to a tar-
get located at a given lateral distance and direc-
tion. Structural steering, which leverages
information from LWD services, is the process of
combining structural analysis and modeling
capabilities with borehole images to create 3D
models that operators use to optimize well place-
ment, often in real time. By incorporating geo-
logic models created with new software tools and
developing greater trust in interpretations that
might not t original drilling programs, operators
are able to make real-time decisions based on
structural steering methodologies.
One example of software that enables well
placement by means of structural steering com-
bines two plug-ins used in the Petrel E&P soft-
ware platform: eXpandBG near-wellbore to
reservoir scale modeling and the eXpandGST real-
time geosteering module. Real-time data from
the MicroScope resistivity- and imaging-while-
drilling service can be combined with deep mea-
surements from the PeriScope bed boundary
mapper tool to provide structural analysis and
modeling capabilities.
Using data from tools that provide deep-read-
> Structural steering for well placement. Structural steering incorporates reservoir modeling and
ing capabilities along with those that acquire real-
distance to boundary technology in conjunction with high-resolution imaging to manage drilling
time borehole images, geologists at Schlumberger decisions. From these data, geologists create 3D models, such as the one shown, which help
have developed a structural steering workow directional drillers visualize the formations around and ahead of the bit. This is especially useful for
that provides a framework for well placement predicting subsurface geometry and for guiding the bit in complex reservoirs with faults and folds.

Spring 2013 19
 Prejob Planning decisions (left). The interpreter picks the dis-
tance to boundaries, and the boundaries are dis-
played on an eXpandGST curtain section. Image
data from tools such as the MicroScope service
provide bedding dip, fracture information and
fault detection.
The eXpandBG module imports the LWD log-
ging data, and engineers generate an updated
Structural model Offset well logs
model that includes drilling polarity logs. Polarity
logs indicate whether the well is heading toward
the bottom or toward the top of a structure. The
Correlation and Formation Tops Well Placement Models
software next computes a true stratigraphic
thickness (TST) index; TST is related to the
thickness of the reservoir section. Well place-
ment engineers can compare structural dips
while the drilling progresses with those in the
original model and quickly identify anomalies.
Curtain section The software projects the structural dip away
from the well using stratigraphic horizons, and
the geologist can label formation tops and strati-
Real-Time Dip Analyses
graphic surfaces. Armed with this information,
the well placement team can determine whether
corrections are required and in which direction
to steer.
Two crucial elements for structural drilling
are LWD data that can be used to develop realis-
tic models and software that can provide a
robust solution describing the reservoir. Without
real-time data, engineers and geologists may
TST Profiling Well Placement have difculty understanding the geometry of
the subsurface and accurately projecting where
the next step should be taken. Unfortunately,
engineers must often make decisions with insuf-
cient data about complex reservoirs. Until
recently, the tools for resolving these complexi-
ties did not exist for LWD operations, but this is
no longer the case.

Postjob Evaluation and Deliverables

, Structural steering workows. Prejob planning
for structurally steered wells begins with geologists
creating a structural model from offset well logs,
which may be from a vertical pilot well (top).
Data are correlated to determine the location of
formation tops and geologic markers. These data
are then propagated away from the vertical well,
and a well trajectory is created based on the
expected subsurface geometry. As the well is
drilled, well placement engineers use real-time
analyses of dip data to steer the well. They may
use true stratigraphic thickness (TST) proles to
determine distances from marker beds and make
adjustments in well placement. When the well
reaches TD, the job is not nished. Models are
updated with the newly acquired data,
completions and designs can be optimized and
new well plans may be developed to maximize
recovery (bottom).

8. Borghi M, Piani E, Barbieri E, Dubourg I, Ortenzi L and presented at the 10th Offshore Mediterranean
Van Os R: New Logging-While-Drilling Azimuthal Conference and Exhibition, Ravenna, Italy,
Resistivity and High Resolution Imaging in Slim Holes, March 2325, 2011.

20 Oileld Review
Tools of the Trade
Along with modeling software and drilling hard-
ware, LWD tools are experiencing an evolution in
design and function. Originally, LWD tools repli-
cated information available from conventional
wireline logging tools, which are designed pri-
marily to obtain high-quality petrophysical data
essential for reservoir characterization. Modern
LWD tools still provide petrophysical information
and have the advantage that data are acquired
before the formations have been exposed to drill-
ing uids, which over time can alter rock and
uid properties. However, the real-time aspect of
LWD operations is creating a divergent path in
tool development.
Service companies are introducing LWD tools
that probe regions deeper in the formation than
is customary with wireline tools. New tool designs
also make it possible to acquire data at the bit.
With a wide swath of the formation around the
wellbore illuminated by these measurements,
drillers can precisely position the wellbore to
optimize production or injection performance.
Application of data from these new tools has
the potential to fundamentally change the way
directional wells are drilled. For example, well
placement engineers can use information pro-
vided by deep-reading tools to help steer the well
within a narrowly dened target zone. Using deep-
reading measurements and TST processing, engi-
neers can now manage the direction of wellbore
trajectories based on surrounding structures
rather than conditions very close to the wellbore.
For fractured reservoirs, such as the Austin
Chalk and many shale plays, the reservoir section
may be tens or even hundreds of meters thick,
and well placement may be more focused on
intersecting fracture networks than staying in a
narrow zone. Imaging tools that provide high-
resolution measurements can conrm the pres-
ence of fractures and perhaps lead to redirecting
or redrilling wellbore sections that are not opti-
mally placed. Conversely, to prevent early-onset
water production, fracture and fault avoidance
may be the objective in some reservoirs.
Engineers use these same imaging tools to iden-
tify fractures and faults and to accurately charac-
terize their orientation.
Because these measurements, especially
wellbore imaging, involve large amounts of data,
and LWD data transmission rates are orders of
magnitude below those of wireline logging sys-
tems, the primary source for imaging data has
been wireline tools. Recently, LWD data trans-
mission systems and imaging tools have been
introduced that can replicate the capabilities of
Spring 2013
Mud Pulse Telemetry Data Rate
10 3
Data transmission rate, bit/s
10 2
10 1
10 0
10 1
1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
> Transmission rates with mud pulse telemetry (MPT). LWD tools transmit
and receive data using mud pulses encoded with data. Early MPT systems
had transmission rates in the single-digit bit/s range. Although these rates
have increased in the past few decades, LWD data transmission rates are
two orders of magnitude below that of wireline logging tools. For some
operations, LWD data must be stored in memory and retrieved when the
tools are back at the surface. Downhole storage is typical for LWD
measurements that require large amounts of data such as high-resolution
images. New data compression techniques, combined with higher data
transmission rates, now make it possible to acquire some of these data in
real time for operations such as structural steering.
wireline tools for detecting fractures and faults wireline counterparts, service companies have
and determining their orientation. No longer are found ways to overcome inherently low MPT
separate logging runs required to obtain this rates. However, data-intensive measurements,
information, and drillers can make decisions such as those associated with borehole imaging,
while the drilling assembly is still in the hole. were almost always performed with wireline log-
ging tools because the logging cable offered the
Resolution Evolution ability to transmit data at sufciently high rates.
Most LWD tools transmit data to the surface Modern LWD MPT systems transmit at higher
using mud pulse telemetry (MPT). Although ratessome systems can approach 128 bps.
today, data rates are often given in megabits/s These enhanced transmission speeds, together
and terabits/s, mud pulse telemetry systems orig- with new methods for data compression, have
inally offered data rates in the single-digit bit/s opened up a new world of possibilities for real-
(bps) range (above). Because LWD tools have the time data acquisition. One tool that has beneted
ability to continuously transmit data uphole from higher data transmission capabilities is the
while drilling, giving them the benet of having MicroScope service (below).8 Acquiring data
more time to acquire and send data than their from focused azimuthal sensors while rotating,
Azimuthal gamma ray
Two high-resolution
button sensors
Inclination
Bit resistivity
+ Laterolog resistivity at four DOI
+ Borehole images at four DOI
+ Toroidal resistivity at two DOI
+ Mud resistivity
> MicroScope tool. The MicroScope LWD logging tool provides four laterolog resistivities, four
borehole image measurements and two toroidal resistivities. The tool also includes inclination and
azimuthal gamma ray measurements. High-resolution borehole images from the tool can be used to
dene structural conditions. From these data, faults as well as fractures can be identied. Because
the tool provides high-resolution information at multiple depths of investigation (DOIs), natural
fractures can often be differentiated from shallow drilling-induced fractures. Toroidal resistivity
measurements are useful for determining drilling conditions and identifying formations at the bit.
21

FMI Images Depth, MicroScope Images
ft
X,333
X,334
X,335
X,336
X,337
X,338
X,339
X,340
> Wireline versus LWD imaging. Data from wireline imaging tools, such as
the FMI tool (left), have been the standard, even though running these tools
in horizontal wells can be time consuming and may result in added risk of
sticking. Recently introduced LWD imaging tools, such as the MicroScope
tool, provide images (right) with a quality comparable to that of wireline
tools, often in real time or stored for surface retrieval. (Adapted from
Allouche et al, reference 10.)
the tool provides images of the borehole compa- measurement of current is a function of the for-
rable to those of wireline tools such as the FMI mation conductivity (and its reciprocal, resistiv-
fullbore formation microimager. An added bene- ity). The buttons measure azimuthal resistivity in
t of the MicroScope tool is that it can provide 56 separate bins distributed around the borehole
high-resolution resistivity images at different circumference, and the orientation of the button
radial depths of investigation, which allows engi- measurements is determined with respect to the
neers to distinguish natural fractures from drilling- Earths magnetic eld, which is measured with
induced fractures. an azimuthal orientation system mounted per-
The tool uses toroidal antennas as transmit- pendicular to the tools axis.
ters to send axial currents along the collar and The full array of measurements has depths of
into the formation for resistivity measurements. investigation approximately 2.5, 7.6, 13 and
Two electrode buttons mounted at opposite sides 15 cm [1, 3, 5 and 6 in.], measured radially out-
of the collar provide borehole coverage as the ward from the tool surface. These data can
tool rotates. The current leaves the tool surface, resolve bedding planes and features as small as
is directed through the conductive drilling uid an inch. Although FMI images can resolve
into the formation and returns to the button elec- smaller features, which are useful for texture
trodes.9 Once corrected for borehole effects, the analysis and characterization of fractures,
MicroScope image data compare favorably with
FMI images (above).
22
A bit resistivity measurement, derived from
two antennas at the bottom of the tool, is also
available. One antenna acts as a transmitter and
the other as a monitor. Current ows out from the
bit and returns farther up the toolstring. The
drillstring below the antennas acts as an elec-
trode, and the measured current depends on the
formation resistivity and mud properties.
Other than the large amount of data needed
to provide images, one of the biggest challenges
of producing high-resolution images using LWD
tools is the conversion of time-based to depth-
based data. Traditional LWD measurements
are indexed to pipe movement observed at the
drilling oor. This technique is not adequate
for detection of small formation features
because drillpipe movement at the surface may
not reect small tool movements downhole.
Scientists at Schlumberger have introduced a
new algorithm to derive local depth information
based on tool revolutions rather than observed
pipe movement.10
For this technique, high-resolution data,
along with magnetometer-based tool orientation,
are recorded versus time. These data can be
viewed as strips with a constant and known thick-
ness. Converting the time-based measurements
to a depth-indexed image requires precise esti-
mations of the azimuthal and axial position of the
sensors. As the tool advances, overlapping strips
are merged and then correlated to axial tool
movement. The technique provides a high-resolu-
tion depth match (next page, top). The images
are then transmitted to the surface with minimal
resolution degradation.
Well placement engineers also use measure-
ments with greater depths of investigation than
those of wireline logging tools to identify dis-
tances to top and bottom boundaries of reservoir
sections. These measurements help engineers
plan wellbore trajectories so they remain within
target intervals. The PeriScope bed boundary
mapper makes a 360 measurement and can
detect beds as far as 6.4 m [21 ft] from the bore-
hole. Tilted receiver coils that have directional
sensitivity can determine bed orientation. As
long as there is sufcient resistivity contrast
between target beds and those adjacent to the
zones of interest, the PeriScope tool can provide
crucial information about the position of the
wellbore in the formation.11
Modern well placement requires more than
determining the location and orientation of the
bit within a target zone. If faults are encoun-
tered, well placement engineers may not have
Oileld Review
 Noncorrelated Correlated
Images Images

2,944
Correlation depth
2,945 Surface-measured
depth
2,946

Depth

Depth, ft
2,947
Image
strip
2,948

2,949

2,950

2,951
1,498 1,499 1,500 1,501 1,502 1,503 1,504 1,505
Time, 100 s
> Correlating high-resolution measurements to depth. LWD logging depths are referenced to pipe measurements taken at the surface. For most data, this is
an acceptable acquisition method. However, the accuracy of this method is not sufcient for high-resolution measurements. To compensate for
shortcomings of traditional depth measurements, engineers at Schlumberger developed a technique that uses overlapping strips from images (left) to
create an internal depth reference based on known xed distances between sensor buttons on the tool. Correlation takes into account the mismatch
between tool movement downhole (middle, blue) and surface movement (black). The resulting correlated images (right) are much improved compared with
the noncorrelated images. (Adapted from Borghi et al, reference 8.)

Real-Time Images Used for Dip Picking

sufcient information from deep-reading tools
alone to understand the geometry required to
guide the bit back to the target. Integrating
high-resolution image data with data from deep-
reading tools helps geologists construct a 3D
Bed dip
picture of the structure surrounding the well- X,300
bore and can often help directional drillers Target formation Actual trajectory
True vertical depth, ft

decide where to go next and how to reconnect X,310

with the reservoir if the wellbore trajectory
exits the target interval (right). X,320

Resolving Complexities X,330

During the past decade, gas production from
organic-rich shales has become a global pursuit;
this phenomenon has been driven in large part by
hydraulic stimulation and horizontal drilling. The
conventional approach to developing these
resources is to drill a vertical pilot well followed
by a horizontal sidetrack targeting the shale
interval. Because of the complex geologic struc-
tural settings in many of these plays, some well-
bores may exit the pay zone or encounter rock
with poor reservoir quality. Although seismic
data are frequently used to resolve reservoir com-
plexities, in many cases these data lack the reso-
lution to adequately dene subsurface features.
A new 3D structural technique, which includes
the application of eXpandBG modeling, was
recently utilized in a Marcellus Shale well oper-
ated by Chief Oil & Gas LLC.12
Planned trajectory
Microseismic fault
X,340
X,800 Y,000 Y,200 Y,400 Y,600 Y,800 Z,000 Z,200 Z,400 Z,600 Z,800 XX,000
True vertical length, ft
> Data integration. Geologists use real-time images (top) to identify faults and determine dip direction;
these data are then used to explain geologic conditions. Geologists may also use DTB measurements
to help generate models of subsurface layers (bottom). The integration of these data allows directional
drillers to modify planned well trajectories (green) to maximize reservoir contact and determine the
optimal path (blue) to return the wellbore to the target (yellow) should the wellbore encounter unexpected
conditions such as faults and folding.
9. The MicroScope tool is designed for use in conductive muds. Bourgeois D, Tribe I, Christensen R, Durbin P, Kumar S,
Skinner G and Wharton D: Improving Well Placement
10. Allouche M, Chow S, Dubourg I, Ortenzi L and van Os R:
High-Resolution Images and Formation Evaluation in with Modeling While Drilling, Oileld Review 18, no. 4
Slim Holes from a New Logging-While-Drilling Azimuthal (Winter 2006/2007): 2029.
Laterolog Device, paper SPE 131513, presented at the 12. Amer A, Collins S, Hamilton D, Gamero H, Contreras C
SPE EUROPEC/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition, and Singh M: A New 3D Structural Modeling Technique
Barcelona, Spain, June 1417, 2010. Unravels Complex Structures Within the Marcellus
11. For more on the PeriScope tool and bed boundary Shale: Utilizing Borehole Image Logs, presented at the
mapping: Chou L, Li Q, Darquin A, Denichou J-M, AAPG Eastern Section Meeting, Washington, DC,
Grifths R, Hart N, McInally A, Templeton G, Omeragic D, September 2527, 2011.
Tribe I, Watson K and Wiig M: Steering Toward
Enhanced Production, Oileld Review 17, no. 3
(Autumn 2005): 5463.

Spring 2013 23
 Based on the dips identied in the vertical
well, the formation was assumed to be gently dip-
ping to the NNW at 5. The well was to be landed
Anticline in the target interval and follow this trend.
Structural Model Produced Using eXpandBG Processing
Syncline However, the lateral was actually landed at a fold
NW SE
axis where the structure immediately turned
down to the south at 24. The well soon exited the
Vertical well 8
reservoir section and crossed a fault, eventually
5 Fold axis reconnecting with the reservoir but in a section
25 that dipped in the opposite direction, north at
24 Marcellus Shale
25. The well encountered a second fault and was
Horizontal well
then back in the target formation; drilling contin-
ued along the path indicated by the original
structural model. Unfortunately, because the for-
Marcellus Shale mation was dipping more steeply than had been
Gamma ray log
modeled, the well exited the bottom of the
Marcellus Shale earlier than expected.
Major fault line A review of the well path validates the need
Gamma ray
log X Average dip and for real-time structural data while drilling. With
direction
only azimuthal gamma ray data available for
Highly interpreting the formation structure, the drilling
tilted
Asymmetrical anticline block Gently tilted block program did not produce an optimal well path.
Had imaging and deep resistivity data been
> Complex Marcellus Shale model. The original reservoir model (inset) was created by propagating acquired with LWD tools in real time, the resul-
formation tops picked from pilot hole data, and well placement engineers designed a well trajectory tant drilling and completion programs may have
based on the model. The actual structure was quite different. The lateral well was landed in what was been quite different.
thought to be a gently upward sloping (5 NNW) layer cake formation. However, before reaching One nal step in the modeling process
horizontal, the well crossed a fold axis with steeply dipping beds, and then exited the target interval. involves validation with Petrel geologic recon-
Although the directional driller hoped that continuing to drill would help determine which way to steer
the well, the well soon crossed a fault; the fault block was lifted and tilted relative to the previous struction software. This suite enables restora-
section and was also dipping in the opposite direction. The well reconnected with the target interval tion and forward modeling of complex folded
only to cross a second fault. Fortunately, the well was still within the Marcellus Shale, and drilling and faulted geologic models. By simulating
continued close to the originally projected angle based on the pilot hole, from which it was assumed
mechanical rock behavior with a comprehensive
that the formation dipped 5 NNW. The well exited the bottom of the target earlier than expected
because the formation was dipping more steeply (8 NNW) than projected. The directional driller had set of boundary conditions, the software allows
little help determining how best to steer this well because only azimuthal gamma ray information was the user to analyze complex structures. The
available for guidance. Geologists later loaded image data, acquired with an FMI tool, into the software conrmed the viability of the complex
eXpandBG module of Petrel modeling software, which generated an interpretation that explained why
the well failed to encounter the reservoir as expected.
present-day interpretation (next page, top).
Newly acquired 3D seismic data also validated
the structural model.
Production from this well was classied as dis-
Constructed with data from the pilot well, the structural models using multiwell data for input. appointing compared with that in nearby wells.
original model indicated a syncline plunging to In this example, formation dip was computed Had the structural model been updated using
the northwest and an anticline plunging to the using the local curvature axes technique to pro- LWD images, the well path may have been modi-
southeast toward the toe of the proposed lateral duce the eXpandBG structural model.13 Solutions ed or perhaps redrilled based on the new model.
section. Engineers at Chief Oil & Gas proposed a using this technique may not be unique; however, Similarly, the four-stage stimulation design may
well trajectory based on this interpretation from the interpreting geologists may intervene and have been more effective (next page, bottom).
the vertical pilot well. adjust the solution to t with other data such as Only Stages 2 and 3 were completely within the
The horizontal section was drilled using only 3D seismic interpretations. target zone. Stages 1 and 4 covered zones that
LWD azimuthal gamma ray data. After the lateral Geologists with Chief and Schlumberger were in the target for only half the interval.
was drilled, borehole images were acquired on wire- analyzed dip sequences in both the pilot well Additionally, a section of the Marcellus Shale at
line with an FMI tool. The interpretation provided and the subsequent horizontal section and clas- the heel of the well was not stimulated, although
by eXpandBG processing highlighted signicant dif- sied structures using the local curvature axes it coincides with a highly stressed interval around
ferences between the original reservoir model and technique on a Schmidt plot to resolve the the fold where FMI data indicated the presence of
the geologic structure observed in the well. structural complexity. Contrary to the original natural fractures, which often enhance produc-
The eXpandBG approach solves for geometric model, the new model revealed three distinct tion in shale reservoirs. In this case, real-time
complexities without the need for extensive input sections: an asymmetrical anticline, a highly structural data may have resulted in a well trajec-
by the interpreter. The software can also create tilted block and a third section characterized as tory that contacted more of the target formation
gently tilted (above). and led to better well production.

24 Oileld Review
Steering for Storage Step 1: After Deposition
A structural steering workow that did use real-
time LWD data and eXpandBG processing was
recently employed in an underground gas storage
project carried out by Stoccaggi Gas Italia
(Stogit) SpA, the gas storage division of Societ
Nazionale Metanodotti (Snam). The multield,
Step 2: Early Stage of Deformation
multiwell project was developed with the techni-
cal contribution of Eni SpA specialists. The objec-
tive of the drilling program was to expose as Maximum
much reservoir section with optimal properties compresssion

as possible in the shortest well length.14 To that

end, wells were drilled and steered using real-
time LWD data.
As is the case in many areas of Italy, horizon-
Step 3: Present Day
tal drilling is challenging because of steeply dip-
ping beds, faulting and abrupt stratigraphic Fold axis

changes. The reservoir section of the Furci eld

is characterized as a limited extension Pliocene
turbidite system. It includes several sand bodies
with smaller interbedded laminations. The pro-
cedure for drilling wells in the eld followed a
predetermined workow. The operator chose
horizontal targets, and well placement engineers Uplift results in
localized extension
loaded the well plan into the eXpandGST module
in the Petrel E&P software platform, which was
> Structural balancing and restoration. To conrm the validity of an interpretation created using the
populated with log properties from a vertical
eXpandBG model, structural balancing and restoration modeling must be performed. Assuming the
pilot well. The program created a forward mod- original layer cake geometry (top), the model is exposed to postdepositional loading using Petrel
eled log to predict log responses for several sce- geologic reconstruction software. Early-stage compression (middle) produces the complex geometry
narios such as a formation dip that was higher or observed, and later uplift explains the present-day condition (bottom). This last modeling step
validates the interpretation generated by the eXpandBG software.
lower than expected. These scenarios would indi-
cate that the well was in a different part of the
reservoir than planned. Hydraulic Fracture Stages
For the second of two wells drilled in the
eld, the target consisted of two large sand lobes
separated by two shale beds. The objective was to
drill through the shallow sand lobe, cross the thin
shale beds and navigate into the deeper sand
lobe. The operator drilled the vertical pilot hole
Stage 4
as planned and then began the horizontal section Stage 3
Stage 2
following the predetermined trajectory. Stage 1
Geologists determined formation dips by
using two independent tool systems: a deep-read-
Marcellus Shale
ing bed boundary PeriScope tool and a borehole
imaging MicroScope tool. These measurements
provided information about faults and bedding
that cut across the borehole. As horizontal drill-
ing commenced, the PeriScope tool indicated at
dip and then a slightly rising inclination. A sud-
den decrease in resistivity appeared to indicate
13. Amer et al, reference 12.
14. Borghi M, Loi D, Cagneschi S, Mazzoni S, Don E, > Completion results. The operator designed the stimulation program for the Marcellus Shale well
Zanchi A, Boiocchi D, Gremillion J, Chinellato F, based on interpretation of the azimuthal gamma ray data; the program was developed before the
Lebnane N, Lepp R, Chow S and Squaranti S: Well
Placement Using Borehole Images and Bed Boundary revised structural model, shown here, was created. Of the four stages shown (magenta), only Stages 2
Mapping in an Underground Gas Storage Project in and 3 were wholly within the target zone. Stages 1 and 4 were only partially in the Marcellus Shale. No
Italy, presented at the 10th Offshore Mediterranean treatment was applied to the heel of the well (dashed white oval) where fractures were identied,
Conference and Exhibition, Ravenna, Italy, which engineers viewed as a missed stimulation opportunity. The operator considered the performance
March 2325, 2011. of this well disappointing compared with that in offset wells.

Spring 2013 25
 LWD Data
MicroScope
Resistivity Images

PeriScope Data

PeriScope
Resistivity

ROP
Gamma Ray
700 800 900 1,000

X,004
Shale layers
Planned trajectory
X,006 Upper lobe Drilled trajectory

X,008
True vertical depth, m

X,010

X,012

X,014

X,016
Lower lobe Possible subseismic fault,
apparent dip
X,018
700 800 900 1,000
True horizontal length, m

> Complex geology in an Italian gas storage well. The targets for this horizontal well were two sand lobes separated by shale layers. The original model
assumed a layer cake geology, and the drilling engineers developed a trajectory (green) to pass through the upper sand lobe, cross the shale layers and
terminate in the lower lobe. Instead of encountering continuous layers, the actual trajectory (blue) encountered a fault, entered an uplifted section below
the target sand lobes and crossed another fault before reconnecting with the lower sand lobe in a downthrown section. After drilling through a section of
the lower sand lobe, the well placement engineers turned the well upward and then it again crossed the shale layer and reconnected with the downward-
dipping upper sand lobe. Traditional petrophysical measurementsresistivity (Tracks 2 and 3), gamma ray (Track 4) and formation density (not shown)did
not provide much directional guidance. In addition, had engineers used only DTB data from the PeriScope tool (red and blue dots, bottom), they would have
had difculty determining directional adjustments. Image data from the MicroScope tool (top) allowed geologists to identify the faults and determine dip
direction and correctly steer the well. Without the two complementary measurement systems, engineers would have had difculty determining in which
direction to steer the well after it crossed either fault. (Adapted from Borghi et al, reference 14.)

that the trajectory had crossed the upper lobe
and the middle shale sections and was approach-
ing the lower lobe; however, geologists inter-
preted the image data as indicating the well had
crossed an unexpected fault and was now in an
upthrown section (above).
Drilling through the upthrown section con-
rmed the fault interpretation, and eventually
the wellbore crossed a second fault and again
encountered the reservoir section. Log data
acquired after the trajectory crossed the second
fault indicated that the well was penetrating the
lower sand lobe, and the drilling team made the
decision to incline the bit to more than 90 and
reconnect with the upper lobe.
The well crossed back through the shale lay-
ers and eventually reached a downdip section of
the upper sand lobe. After crossing the rst fault,
the original well trajectory would have missed
the lower lobe entirely, and a large portion of the
well would have been drilled through the shale
layers that separated the lobes. The updated
trajectory, modied using real-time LWD data,
intersected both lobes and maximized wellbore
contact with the reservoir section.
Shale Drilling
In a Niobrara Shale exploration well in northeast
Colorado and southeastern Wyoming, USA, engi-
neers used the structural drilling workow to
resolve complex geologic conditions in a shale
well.15 The Niobrara Shale play is an upper
Cretaceous calcareous shale that produces oil
and gas. The shales are composed of argillaceous
limestones with interblended chalk, marl and
bentonite. Because of the rocks low permeability
and porosity, production is generally higher in
zones with natural fractures enhanced by hydrau-
lic stimulation.
The typical development scenario for
Niobrara Shale wells is to drill a vertical pilot
hole and acquire petrophysical data using logging
tools on wireline. For evaluation wells, the log-
ging program usually consists of resistivity, neu-
tron and density porosity, elemental capture
spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) tools. Borehole image logs are run for
fracture identication and geologic characteriza-
tion. Acoustic logs may be run for mechanical
properties, which are used in fracture stimula-
tion design and wellbore stability estimations.
Operators often include conventional coring for
the pilot wells to determine lithology and
describe fractures. Data from the pilot holes are
used to characterize the reservoir, dene the ori-
entation of target zones and identify the optimal
depth for landing the lateral section.
15. Koepsell R, Han SY, Kok J, Munari M and Tollefsen E:
Advanced LWD Imaging Technology in the Niobrara
Case Study, paper SPE 143828, presented at the SPE
North American Unconventional Gas Conference and
Exhibition, The Woodlands, Texas, June 1416, 2011.

26 Oileld Review
 95
Resistive Fracture

Fault
True Dip Angle

Bed Boundary

Fault Orientation

Microfault Orientation
5
Top
Bed Boundary
Dynamic Image

Fault
Bottom
Resistive Fracture

Microfault
Top
1,000
Deep Resistivity
ohm.m
Shallow Resistivity
0.1
Top
Static Image

Bottom

Top
150
Gamma Ray gAPI

0
Measured
X,940

X,950

X,960

X,970

X,980

X,990

Y,000

Y,010

Y,020

Y,030

Y,040

Y,050
Depth, ft

> Resolving complex geology. Image data from the MicroScope tool can be presented in dynamic (Track 2) or static (Track 4) mode. Formation dip (top,
Track 1) can be handpicked from images or computed from these data. The green tadpoles indicate the down direction of the dip, 0 to 360 clockwise
around each tadpole, which represents north-east-south-west-north. The magnitude of dip is also computed and can be read from the log. The magenta
tadpole indicates a fracture and provides its orientation. The image data can be presented in a wrap mode that simulates the horizontal well (inset).
Bedding planes (green), faults (magenta), open fractures (blue) and healed fractures (cyan) can be visualized as they appear in the horizontal wellbore.
(Adapted from Koepsell et al, reference 15.)

Logging objectives in the horizontal section
differ from those of the vertical pilot wells.
Fracture population density, type and orientation
are needed for stimulation design. Measuring the
wellbore path and orientation are crucial, espe-
cially when the well crosses in and out of reser-
voir layers. Identifying faults and determining
their location and orientation aid completion
design. Engineers identify zones with structural
complexity to help them keep the wellbore in the
reservoir unit or determine the best path to
reconnect if the well exits the target. Depositional
variations can be determined with LWD tools,
and geologists use these data to adjust models
that extrapolate properties from the pilot well.
Traditional methods of acquiring image data
in the lateral section require that drillpipe-
conveyed wireline tools be deployed. Geologists
used these data to identify the presence of natu-
ral fractures and quantify their orientation and
density. However, high-resolution image data
from the MicroScope tool eliminate the need for
separate wireline logging runs (above).

Spring 2013 27
 An operator in the Denver-Julesburg basin target layer known as the C bench. The image tures at an azimuth of 104 and with a length of
began a campaign to develop the Niobrara data indicated open fractures with strike popula- approximately 2,400 ft [730 m].
formation with multistage hydraulic fracturing in tions oriented NW-SE and mineralized fractures The MicroScope tool provided real-time high-
horizontal wells. From the vertical pilot well logs, striking NNE-SSW. To maximize intersection with resolution images for structural and fracture anal-
geologists were able to conrm the presence of a the natural fractures, the horizontal well section ysis. Engineers created 3D models using eXpandBG
was planned perpendicular to the natural frac- software, which helped them optimize well place-
Raw dips ment and design hydraulic stimulation operations.
N
W E
Vertical pilot hole The MicroScope image data were particularly use-
S
0 90 ful in revealing the complex structural setting. In
X,200
Open fracture
addition to numerous open and healed fractures,
Healed fracture geologists identied numerous faults, a missing
X,300 Fault section and structurally deformed beds (below).
Structural dip The planned well trajectory, developed from
X,400 pilot hole and surface seismic data, resulted in
the well crossing a fault and exiting the target
Niobrara formation
C bench Fort Hays zone into unproductive marl sections below the
X,500 Limestone target. The last half of the well was below the C
bench and was drilled mostly in nonreservoir
Structural dip Codell
X,600 siltstone quality ductile shale. After these data were ana-
Depth, ft

lyzed, the well was sidetracked and redrilled

through most of the interval and steered higher
X,700
Marl in the structure based on the new model.
Chalk The logging results affected a number of the
X,800 Ductile shale engineers decisions for the completion program
Fault for the sidetrack well. For instance, the program
called for openhole packers for isolation.
X,900 Carlile Engineers identied washed out and elliptical
Shale
borehole sections and avoided setting packers in
Y,000 these zones. Packers were not set near faults,
Greenhorn
Limestone which can affect the quality of the seal as well as
impact stimulation results. For similar reasons,
Y,100
packers were not set in open natural fractures,
Dip Data
X,100 Y,100 Z,100
90
Raw dips
E
N

S
W

Expanded Section, C Bench Target Structural dip Fault

Well in lowest part of C bench Well below C bench

C bench 0
target
270 90
0

180
270 90
0 0 0

180
270 90 270 90 270 90

180 180 180

Ductile shale Chalk Marl Fault

> Stepping out from vertical. Geologists can identify the location and orientation of bedding planes and faults in vertical wells and project them away from
the wellbore, but horizontal wells often encounter unexpected geologic geometry. In this vertical well section (top), geologists identied several geologic
sections, including the target reservoir C bench section, which is a mixture of chalk and marl bounded by ductile shales and unproductive chalks and is part
of the Niobrara formation. Well placement engineers developed a trajectory to follow the target, and directional engineers landed the lateral well in the C
bench (bottom, expanded section). Horizontal drilling proceeded for approximately 2,350 ft [716 m] and the well encountered structural geometry that
differed from geologists expectations. The well (black) crossed at least seven major faults (magenta lines). After the rst set of faults, the C bench was
found to be upthrown, which positioned the well in the lowest part of the reservoir. As drilling progressed, the well crossed a fth major fault and was
below the target formation and completely out of the reservoir. After geologists developed the new model of the horizontal well, the operator pulled back to
the rst fault section and redrilled the horizontal section with an orientation (not shown) that carried the well above the original trajectory; this repositioning
allowed the well to remain in the target interval. Geologists can also use dip data to identify other features. The stereonet plots shown across ve of the
intervals can be used to identify fracture and fault type and orientation. The far left plot shows the NNW by SSE orientation of healed fractures, probably
resulting from folding. (Adapted from Koepsell et al, reference 15.)

28 Oileld Review
 Resistivity Water
90-in. Array
Oil
0.2 ohm.m 2,000

60-in. Array Bound Fluid

0.2 ohm.m 2,000 0 % 25

30-in. Array Bulk Density CMR Porosity T2 Distributions

Volumes
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 1.95 g/cm3 2.95 0 % 25 0.3 ms 5,000
T2 Cutoff Calcite
20-in. Array PEF Total Porosity Hydrocarbon
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 0 10 0 % 25 0.3 ms 5,000 Water
Hydrocarbon
Gamma Ray 10-in. Array Neutron Porosity Water Volume T2 Log Mean Saturation Oil
Depth,
ft 0 gAPI 200 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 45 % 15 0 % 25 0.3 ms 5,000 0 % 100 0 % 100

X,725

X,750

X,775

> Pilot hole logs. An oil-bearing carbonate reservoir section was identified from openhole logs acquired in a pilot hole drilled at a 30
angle. The pay zone (gray shading) was less than 20 ft [6 m] thick based on measured depth. Corrected for well deviation, the true
vertical thickness would be even less than shown. Fluid mobility, determined from NMR (Track5) and MDT data (not shown), indicated
a small permeable streak within the interval. The well placement team proposed drilling a horizontal well that would be steered using
PeriScope and MicroScope tools. Directional drillers use petrophysical measurements to guide them in steering wells, but there was
insufficient variation in the gamma ray (Track1), resistivity (Track2) or porosity (Track3) within the target zone for these to be used. A
high-resistivity caprock overlying the zone, however, provided a boundary layer for reference in steering the well.

which were also identified in image data.
Fracture stimulations were performed in stages,
and the stages were designed to target similar
rock types identified from petrophysical data.
Stimulation designs also included consideration
of local stresses that resulted from formation
structural complexity.
Drilling Between the Lines
Unconventional resources may require approaches
for drilling and completions that differ from those
for conventional reservoirs, but conventional res-
ervoirs can benefit from application of unconven-
tional solutions. Saudi Aramco used the real-time
structural steering workflow with eXpandBG and
eXpandGST processing to access resources that oth-
erwise would have been difficult to produce eco-
nomically. The carbonate reservoir consisted of a main producing horizon. The pilot hole was
thin, permeable layer sandwiched between low- drilled as a 30 slanted well across the reservoir
permeability intervals overlain by a thick, nonpo- section, and Saudi Aramco carried out an exten-
rous carbonate caprock. sive data acquisition program that included cor-
The well was drilled in a mature giant field ing the full reservoir interval.
located in Saudi Arabia.16 Historically, this field Porosity and resistivity in the zone of interest
has produced mainly
Oilfield from two major carbonate
Review were fairly uniform; the operator used a CMR
reservoirs.SPRING 13 1980s, two smaller strati-
In the early combinable magnetic resonance logging tool to
graphic oilStructural Steering
accumulations Fig.discovered.
were 18 The identify the presence of movable oil (above). An
ORSPG
example well was13-STCTSTR
drilled in the18larger of these MDT modular formation dynamics tester con-
two reservoirs. The discovery was further delin- firmed that only a thin layer within the zone had
eated and tested by several vertical wells. The 16. Al-Suwaidi SH, Lyngra S, Roberts I, Al-Hussain J,
low-permeability reservoir contains good quality Pasaribu I, Laota AS and Hutabarat S: Successful
Application of a Novel Mobility Geosteering Technique
light oil with a relatively high gas/oil ratio. in a Stratified Low-Permeability Carbonate Reservoir,
In early 2012, Saudi Aramco drilled the first presented at the SPE Saudi Arabia Section Annual
Technical Symposium and Exhibition, Al-Khobar, Saudi
reservoir development well, deepening an exist- Arabia, May 1922, 2013.
ing dead producer originally completed in the

Spring 2013 29
 Mobility

Formation
Dip

MicroScope
Images

Resistivity

Gamma Ray
Inclination
X,000 Y,000 Z,000

Drilling
Polarity

Caprock layer Well trajectory

PeriScope Inversion

Top of reservoir

PeriScope Real-Time
Boundary Inversion
Curtain

Well trajectory
Top of reservoir
Integrated
Curtain
Section

Inferred high-mobility layer

> Well placement and job execution. Within the oil-bearing carbonate zone of interest, engineers conned the target to a narrow permeable streak (bottom,
yellow) bounded by lower-permeability oil-bearing layers (tan). The drilling objective was to guide the well maintaining a constant distance from the
high-resistivity, low-porosity caprock (green) overlying the reservoir. Resistivity (Track 4) and porosity (not shown) data exhibited little variation across the
interval. For guidance, engineers used PeriScope curtain data (Tracks 7 and 8) to maintain the DTB. Geologists also used MicroScope image data (Track 3)
to detect subtle changes in orientation and formation dip (Track 2). Well placement engineers proactively corrected the well trajectory based on polarity
data (Track 6, red indicates drilling up structure, green indicates drilling down structure). Because uid mobility and permeability were the properties that
differentiated the target interval from the rest of the zone of interest, an FPWD tool was included in the LWD logging suite. Mobility measurements were
acquired at irregular intervals along the well (blue circles, Track 1), but after validating the presence of uid mobility for approximately 1,700 ft [520 m],
engineers removed the FPWD tool from the string because of concerns about tool sticking. The well placement team steered the well for approximately
2,900 ft [884 m] (bottom, blue) and stayed within the narrow window throughout the interval.

30 Oileld Review
good mobility and would produce oil. From the
log data, petrophysicists determined that the
permeable layer was less than 10 ft [3 m] thick
and was positioned about 6 ft [1.8 m] below the
high-resistivity caprock layer. Log analysts were
uncertain whether the zone with high mobility
extended farther out in the reservoir or was sim-
ply a stratigraphic anomaly.
Even if the zone extended into the reservoir,
engineers knew that effectively producing from
such a small interval in the pilot well would be
difcult. Thus, they designed a horizontal pilot
producer to more effectively drain the reservoir.
Challenges included using real-time data from
LWD tools to verify the presence of the high-
mobility zone and stay within this narrow, high-
permeability window. Porosity and resistivity logs
provided little help in identifying the zone with
the best mobility.
The technical team determined that the best
course of action was to drill the well with a trajec-
tory that maintained a constant standoff or dis-
tance from the overlying caprock. The standoff
was based on distance to boundary (DTB) mea-
surements computed from a PeriScope tool. The
team relied on true stratigraphic thickness (TST)
data to maintain a constant position relative to
the caprock location. Well placement engineers
with Schlumberger were able to compute TST in
real time using eXpandBG processing of formation
dips picked from MicroScope images. Saudi
Aramco personnel used these interpretations to
instruct the directional driller in the proper
direction to guide the PowerDrive rotary steer-
able system.
Based on results from the pilot hole, NMR
data were judged to be insufcient to identify
the zone with mobility. Consequently, an FPWD
formation pressure while drilling tool was used
to conrm that the wellbore trajectory remained
in the high-mobility streak. To ensure that the
wellbore followed subtle changes in dip and
direction, the geosteering staff used interpreta-
tions from borehole images acquired with a
MicroScope tool.
Geologists created a 2D structural model
from pilot well data and forward modeled logging
responses for the LWD tools. The well placement
team landed the well near the interval, steering
the well stratigraphically upward to attain the
required distance to the upper boundary. Once
the data from eXpandBG processing conrmed
the required trajectory, the well was drilled main-
taining the proper orientation (previous page).
Spring 2013
FPWD data were acquired for the rst 1,700 ft Structural steering involves more tools and
[520 m] and conrmed that the chosen path was requires more data for analysis than conven-
following the high-permeability streak. Each tional drilling; in addition, the costs of structural
FPWD mobility test required leaving the drilling steering are higher. But the answers provided by
assembly stationary for 20 min. Signicant over- the tools and data to engineers and geologists
pulls began to occur after each mobility test, and have the potential to reveal better access to
the FPWD tool was removed because of opera- more of the reservoir, enhance recovery and pro-
tional concerns related to hole conditions and duce more hydrocarbons. Structural steering
sticking. The remainder of the well was then may not be the answer for every well, but the
drilled using only DTB and TST data from opportunity to resolve the complexities of down-
eXpandBG and eXpandGST processing to deter- hole geology offers operators a tremendous tool
mine corrections to the wellbore trajectory. for enhancing resource recovery. TS
Images from the MicroScope tool helped estab-
lish the formation dip and were a key input in the
interpretation. The horizontal interval covered
approximately 2,900 ft [884 m] and remained
within a 4-ft [1.2-m] sweet spot window for the
entire interval.
The well conrmed that the high-permeabil-
ity streak was not a stratigraphic anomaly and
extended far out into the reservoir. The well was
tested after completion and produced at a rate of
several thousand bbl/d. Further evaluation is
ongoing, but early analysis conrms that because
the well followed the high-permeability path,
resources were accessed that otherwise might
have been difcult to produce economically.
Knowledge Is Power
At one time, horizontal drilling was an exercise in
geometry and drilling technology. However, as
well placement techniques and practices have
evolved, LWD tools have been introduced that
provide well placement teams with a better grasp
of geologic and subsurface structural conditions.
Integrating downhole data into modeling soft-
ware provides operators with the ability to visual-
ize subsurface complexities. This knowledge
gives operators powerful tools to modify drilling
plans, alter wellbore trajectories and optimize
completion programs.
Service companies continue to add to the
assortment of LWD tools that may have been
considered impractical for the drilling environ-
ment in the past. Pressure sampling, downhole
seismic acquisition and acoustic logging devices
were once considered to be beyond the capabili-
ties of tools used while drilling. Just as these
services have been accepted by the industry,
high-resolution measurements that image the
borehole and result in large amounts of data are
now becoming available. Proper interpretation
of these data has the potential to alter the way
wells are drilled; such drilling is no longer based
primarily on geometry but optimized for down-
hole structural conditions.
31
 New Dimensions in Wireline Formation Testing

Operators have had difculties obtaining pressure measurements and samples

with conventional wireline formation testers in certain formations and reservoir
uid types. Engineers have recently developed a tool for reliable testing even in
challenging environments such as low-mobility formations and heavy oil.

Cosan Ayan
Paris, France

Pierre-Yves Corre
Abbeville, France

Mauro Firinu
Eni SpA E&P
Ravenna, Italy

Germn Garca
Mexico City, Mexico

Morten R. Kristensen
Abu Dhabi, UAE

Michael OKeefe
London, England

Thomas Pfeiffer
Stavanger, Norway

Chris Tevis
Sugar Land, Texas, USA

Luigi Zappalorto
Eni Norge SA
Stavanger, Norway

Murat Zeybek
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Oileld Review Spring 2013: 25, no. 1.
Copyright 2013 Schlumberger.
ECLIPSE, MDT, Quicksilver Probe and Saturn are marks
of Schlumberger.
1. For more on WFTs: Ayan C, Hafez H, Hurst S, Kuchuk F,
OCallaghan A, Peffer J, Pop J and Zeybek M:
Characterizing Permeability with Formation Testers,
Oileld Review 13, no. 3 (Autumn 2001): 223.

32 Oileld Review
 Borehole fluid

Packer assembly
Inflatable packer

Fluid intake
opening for WFT
Pistons

Probe

Inflatable packer

> Probe-type WFT. Once a probe-type tool is on

depth, the tool extends pistons from one side of
the WFT against the wellbore wall, while a packer
assembly is forced rmly against the formation to
be tested. A probe in the center of the packer
assembly then extends into the formation; the
reservoir uids ow through the probe into the
tools owline and sample chambers for retrieval
to the surface. The packer seal, which surrounds
Borehole fluid
the probe, prevents wellbore uids from mixing
with reservoir uids.

lowered on wireline logging cable to the zone of

interest. One recent version of these tools uses
> Dual straddle packer wireline formation tester (WFT). Some WFTs use dual straddle packers inated above and below
hydraulic inatable packers to seal the formation from contamination by the sample point, or station, to isolate the forma-
borehole uids during sampling and transient testing. tion from wellbore uids and to expose more
of the formation for sampling (above left).
Formation uids are then owed or pumped into
Engineers seeking to characterize reservoirs and components. These samples were transported to the tool for capture and retrieval to the surface.
design completions for maximum production ef- offsite laboratories for analysis. Well tests con- Probe-type WFTs use hydraulically operated
ciency depend heavily on analysis of downhole tinue to provide engineers with useful data arms to force a packer assembly against the
reservoir uid samples and transient pressure about reservoir uids, reservoir size and produc- borehole wall (above). The probe, located in the
testing. But identifying mobile uids and dening tion potential. But characterizing uids from center of the packer, extends into the forma-
hydrocarbon columns can be difcult in complex samples captured at the surface can be prob- tion, and then reservoir uids ow or are
formations. Reservoir engineers and petrophysi- lematic. Recombination of the separated uids pumped into the tool. The uids are analyzed
cists use a variety of data to make accurate at the surface requires great care: It is often downhole, and samples may be captured while
reserves estimates and create representative res- difcult for technicians to avoid contaminating pressure is measured using downhole gauges.
ervoir models. These include uid composition, the samples or inducing pressure losses during Fluids are analyzed for purity before being
pore pressure measurements, reservoir tempera- capture and transportation, particularly when directed to the sample chambers. This allows
ture, reservoir response to pressure changes and working at remote locations; re-creating in situ contaminated uids to be removed before wire-
integration of seismic data. conditions in the laboratory is difcult but nec- line engineers take formation samples. Sample
In the past, most formation uid samples essary for accurate analysis. bottles maintain the uids at formation pres-
were captured after they reached the surface In the 1950s, the industry began addressing sure to avoid phase changes while the samples
during drillstem tests and production well tests these and other sampling difculties by introduc- are being retrieved to the surface for transport
and were then separated into gas, oil and water ing wireline formation testers (WFTs) that were to a laboratory for analysis.1

Spring 2013 33
 WFTs often delivered uid samples that were
more representative of reservoir uids than those
captured on the surface. However, the probes used
in early tools were not applicable in certain forma-
tions where establishing a seal was difcult. In addi-
tion, testing formations in which uids move slowly
to the tool prolonged the time the tool was on sta-
tion and often resulted in samples that were con-
taminated with excessive mud ltrate. Furthermore,
highly viscous uids can typically be mobilized
through the formation and into the wellbore only by
creating a relatively high differential pressure
between the wellbore and the formation. This draw-
down, or differential pressure, may exceed the rat-
ings of the WFT packer or may cause the borehole
wall in unconsolidated formations to fail, leading to
loss of the seal around the packer assembly.2 A high
pressure differential may also cause the pressure at
the tool to drop below the bubblepoint pressure,
inducing free gas and composition changes in the
oil, which jeopardizes sample integrity.
In certain well conditions, it may be difcult
to capture representative samples using standard
single-probe WFTs because the sealing packer
isolates the formation or the probe assembly only
from drilling or completion uids in the borehole.
Fluids that have invaded permeable zones may
also contaminate the sample. To acquire a rela-
tively pure sample of reservoir uids, engineers
use a pumpout modulea miniature pump
Contamination level
Acceptable sample
Time
Contaminated
Guard
intake
Seal
Sample intake
> Formation uid sampling with the Quicksilver Probe focused sampling tool. The probe has two intake
ports, the guard intake surrounding the sample intake (bottom left). Packers surround and separate
these probes and seal against the borehole wall (right). Formation uid is blue-gray and ltrate is light
brown. When pumping begins, uid owing through the sample intake is highly contaminated (top left),
but contamination levels quickly reach an acceptable value.
34
included in the WFT toolstringto ow or pump
uids from the formation through the tool and
out to the wellbore until contaminants have been
pumped away. The nature of the incoming uids
is analyzed downhole by a variety of sensors. Flow
is then directed to sample bottles that capture
and store uids for transport to surface laborato-
ries for analyses.
Under any condition, obtaining a representa-
tive reservoir uid sample can be a challenge
because it can be difcult for engineers to know
when the ow stream is sufciently purged of
contaminants. Engineers must rely on informa-
tion about the reservoir and nature and amount
of contaminant invasion to calculate the time it
will take for the formation to clean up at a given
ow rate. This calculation is further complicated
because the ow from the reservoir streams in a
conical volume toward the probe and draws con-
taminants from the near-wellbore invasion zone
as well as from some vertical distance along the
wellbore. The outer edge of this ow stream may
contain signicant nonreservoir uids, which
may then require extended periods of time to be
pumped away. Often, because engineers may
underestimate the amount of time this process
can take, they capture nonrepresentative sam-
ples, or conversely, if engineers overestimate the
time, they spend unnecessarily long and costly
periods of time at the sampling station.
Innovations in WFT designs have done much
to overcome these limitations. For instance, to
shorten cleanup and ensure a representative
sample, Schlumberger engineers developed the
Quicksilver Probe focused extraction of pure res-
ervoir uid tester, which uses two concentric
Flow tube to
sample chambers
intake
Seal
Flow tube to
wellbore
sampling areas through which pumped uids
enter the tool. The outer ring is a conduit for the
more contaminated outer segment of the ow
stream, which is discarded to the wellbore. The
inner probe draws uids from the more represen-
tative inner section of the conical ow, which
may then be diverted into the WFT sample bot-
tles (below).3
Another innovation, downhole uid analysis
(DFA), uses optical spectroscopy to identify the
composition of reservoir uid as it ows through
the WFT. This technology allows engineers to
determine contaminant levels and begin sam-
pling only after these levels within the ow
stream have reached an acceptably low value.
When DFA is deployed at selected intervals
within a well and in multiple wells, engineers
gain previously unavailable data with which to
perform reservoir architecture analysis.4
In addition to ensuring the purity of samples,
these innovations shorten time on station, which
may aggregate to signicant savings in operating
expenses. However, hurdles remain. This article
discusses obstacles to capturing uid samples in
certain troublesome reservoirs and a new WFT
probe that helps overcome these obstacles. Case
histories from the Middle East, Mexico and
Norway illustrate how the new tool facilitates
uid sampling in challenging environments.
The Continuing Challenges
In most formation types, enhancements to WFT
technology have greatly increased an operators
ability to capture representative uid samples suit-
able for analysis while obtaining highly accurate
downhole pressures. But operational constraints,
unconsolidated sands, heavy oils and low-permea-
bility rock still impact sampling success.
Traditional dual straddle packers offer one
solution for these conditions. However, this solu-
tion comes with operational concerns. In large
holes, the packers require extended ination
times, and their relative positioning above and
below the zone being tested creates a large sump
volume. The effect of this storage volume can sig-
nicantly extend cleanup times and create prob-
lems for transient testing measurements in
low-permeability reservoirs.5
In the testing of low-mobility formations, draw-
down pressures during pumpout may become
quite high. The resulting differential pressures can
exceed existing straddle packer ratings of about
31 MPa [4,500 psi]. High differential pressures
may also result from owing high-viscosity uid
through unconsolidated sands, causing seal failure
or even borehole wall collapse.
Oileld Review
 Crumbling formations may also foil sampling
operations when sand from the formation plugs
the probe and owlines. In addition, drilling
Inflata
through rock with low mechanical strength typi- ble
packe
r
cally results in a highly rugose wellbore wall with
few sections of in-gauge hole against which to
obtain a good packer seal.
To address these issues, engineers have
increased probe size 10-fold over the years and
devised probe shapes to better accommodate
Fluid in
various formation types. Probes that create ports take
larger ow areas have increased success rates
in tight formations and friable sands, and dual
packer technology has increased the ratings for
differential pressure to 40 MPa [5,800 psi]. DFA
measurements also help ensure sample purity
and enable a different set of complex uid anal-
yses than is possible on samples brought to the
surface and transported to laboratories. The
next step in the evolution of WFTs was recently
introduced by engineers at Schlumberger with
the development of a probe that provides a sig-
nicantly larger ow area between the forma-
tion and the tool while simultaneously providing
a better sealing element.

A Radial Solution
To address the limitations of differential pressure The Saturn 3D radial probe, which uses four ports, increases the
probe surface area to more than 500 times that of the standard probe.
and issues of related seal and packer failures,
Schlumberger engineers developed the Saturn
3D radial probe. This tool uses four elongated
ports spaced evenly around the circumference of
the module rather than a single probe or dual
packers. The ports are individually isolated from
the wellbore by a single inatable packer that
creates a large sealing surface against the forma-
Saturn 3D Elliptical Extra Large Quicksilver Probe Large Diameter Standard
tion (right). Radial Probe Probe Diameter Probe Probe Probe Probe
The packer used in the Saturn probe seals 79.44 6.03 2.01 1.01 0.85 0.15
more reliably against a rugose borehole than sin- Surface flow Surface flow Surface flow Surface flow Surface flow Surface flow
area, in.2 area, in.2 area, in.2 area, in.2 area, in.2 area, in.2
gle-probe WFT packers do and inates and deates
more quickly than the dual straddle packers while > Saturn probe. The Saturn probe (top) captures reservoir uid samples through four large ports
completely eliminating sump volume. The four spaced evenly on the tools circumference. The ports are pressed against the borehole when the
packer that contains them is inated, which creates a seal separating reservoir uids from wellbore
openings are embedded in the packer, and each is uids. The tool geometry provides a radial ow pattern (middle, right) for reservoir uids (green) and
signicantly larger than those on conventional faster removal of contaminated uids (blue). This differs from the ow pattern of a typical WFT (middle,
probes, which further hastens cleanup. left), which has a single opening on one side of the tool. The Saturn probe also has a ow area that is
Cleanup timea primary component of for- many times larger than that of traditional probes (bottom).
mation test timesis the period required to
ow the well until contamination of the reser-
voir uid ow stream has been eliminated or 2. Drawdown is a differential pressure condition that 4. For more on downhole uid analysis: Creek J, Cribbs M,
reduced to an acceptable level. One key to induces uids to ow from a reservoir formation into a Dong C, Mullins OC, Elshahawi H, Hegeman P, OKeefe M,
wellbore. It occurs when the wellbore pressure is less Peters K and Zuo JY: Downhole Fluids Laboratory,
reducing prolonged test times is to shorten than the formation pressure and may occur naturally or Oileld Review 21, no. 4 (Winter 2009/2010): 3854.
cleanup through higher ow rates. To test be created by pumping or producing from the well. 5. Wellbore uid expansion and compression effects distort
3. For more on the Quicksilver Probe tool: Akkurt R, the reservoir response to pressure changes used in
whether the Saturn probe design accomplishes Bowcock M, Davies J, Del Campo C, Hill B, Joshi S, pressure transient analysis. A critical element of
this goal, reservoir engineers constructed a Kundu D, Kumar S, OKeefe M, Samir M, Tarvin J, pressure transient analysis is distinguishing between
Weinheber P, Williams S and Zeybek M: Focusing the wellbore storage effects and the true reservoir
numerical model comparing cleanup time using on Downhole Fluid Sampling and Analysis, pressure response.
the Saturn probe to those with a traditional Oileld Review 18, no. 4 (Winter 2006/2007): 419.

Spring 2013 35
 Common Parameters Value surface area and inversely proportional to uid
Porosity 20% viscosity and the length over which the draw-
Horizontal permeability 10 mD down is applied. By introducing a ow area
Vertical permeability 2 mD about 40 times larger than that of traditional
Wellbore diameter 21.6 cm [8.5 in.] XLD probes, the Saturn probe reduces the nec-
Formation thickness 50 m [164 ft]
essary drawdown pressure to mobilize heavy
Tool distance from boundary 25 m [82 ft]
uids or uids in low-permeability formations
Formation pressure 21 MPa [3,000 psi]
(next page, top).
Maximum drawdown during cleanup 4 MPa [600 psi]
Maximum pumpout rate 25 cm3/s [0.4 galUS/min]
In the past, traditional WFT options restricted
Depth of filtrate invasion 10 cm [4 in.] operators to a choice between the higher draw-
down and reduced ow rate of a traditional probe
Miscible Cleanup Parameters Value
and the larger ow rate of a straddle packer. The
Oil viscosity 1 cP
Oil-base mud filtrate viscosity 1 cP
disadvantage of lower ow rates is longer cleanup
times. On the other hand, while dual packers
Model Output Value
allow higher ow rates than the ow rates of tra-
Oil viscosity 1 cP
Water-base mud filtrate viscosity 0.6 cP
ditional probes, they create large storage vol-
Relative permeability Water-wet Oil-wet umes and may lose seal because they cannot
Residual oil saturation 0.10 0.30 provide necessary borehole wall support in
Irreducible water saturation 0.20 0.15 unconsolidated formations. The Saturn probe
Water relative permeability 0.20 0.80 design provides the benet of both a probe and a
Oil relative permeability 1.00 0.60 dual packer: a large ow area to reduce time to
Water and oil core exponents 3.0 and 1.5 1.5 and 3.0 cleanup and a packer-probe conguration that
Connate water saturation 0.12 0.12 provides mechanical support of borehole walls to
Miscible Immiscible Cleanup, Immiscible create a more reliable seal.
Model Output
Cleanup Water-Wet Cleanup, Oil-Wet The Saturn 3D radial probe innovations allow
Saturn 3D radial probe 0.71 h 0.42 h 0.99 h operators to capture samples, perform DFA and
XLD probe 9.10 h 7.17 h 14.61 h
identify transient ow regimes in situations where
Saturn speedup over XLD probe 12.8 17.0 14.8
they previously could not. These include low-per-
> Parameters of a cleanup test simulation. Engineers performed a model meability formations, heavy oils, unconsolidated
comparison of the cleanup efciency of the Saturn probe, dual straddle formations, single-phase uids close to the bubble-
packer and XLD probes using a reservoir model based on specic wellbore,
point, ultratight formations and others.7
formation, uid and simulation parameters (top). Model output (bottom)
conrmed that the greater ow area of the Saturn probe signicantly
decreased cleanup times for various vertical and horizontal permeabilities for Putting Theory to the Test
both water-wet and oil-wet sands. The simulations take into account the An operator deployed the Saturn tool to distin-
storage effects of the dual packer sump. In these simulations, a sump volume
of 17.0 L [4.5 galUS] is assumed, and oil- and water-base mud ltrates are
guish between oil and water zones in formations
assumed to be segregated instantaneously within the sump. The interval that had been difcult to test using traditional
height between packers is 1.02 m [40 in.]. tools. Among the problems was a history of forma-
tion tests in which mud losses had restricted
sampling time to four hours per station. Because
extra large diameter (XLD) probe. The team 3D radial module with less total volume pumped. these were also low-mobility formations, this
used ECLIPSE reservoir simulation software on In a simulation of immiscible contamination operational constraint made it difcult to cap-
three probe congurations to test the proposi- cleanup, mud ltrate viscosities of 1.0 cP ture samples using traditional probes.
tion. A ne grid was used to model the XLD and [1.0 mPa.s] and 0.6 cP [0.6 mPa.s] were used. In Engineers viewed this operation as an oppor-
Saturn probes. For miscible contamination, scenarios using typical water- and oil-wet relative tunity to compare the Saturn tool with traditional
investigators simulated a single-phase uid sys- permeability, cleanup times to reach 5% contami- sampling methods. They designed a WFT tool-
tem and represented the drilling uid ltrate nation were similar to those for miscible contam- string that comprised an XLD probe, a Saturn
contamination using an embedded tracer. In ination (above).6 probe, a compositional DFA module and several
addition, investigators conducted immiscible Because mobilizing heavy uids often gener- sample bottles. Engineers took multiple pressure
modeling for oil-wet and water-wet systems. ates drawdown pressures high enough to cause measurements as the tool was run into the hole,
During the simulated tests, engineers consid- weak formations to collapse, the combination of 6. Al-Otaibi SH, Bradford CM, Zeybek M, Corre P-Y,
ered parameters such as permeability, anisotropy, high-viscosity uids in poorly consolidated sands Slapal M, Ayan C and Kristensen M: Oil-Water
Delineation with a New Formation Tester Module,
viscosity contrast between ltrate and oil, disper- constitutes one of the most formidable wireline paper SPE 159641, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
sion of the invasion front and extent of invasion. formation testing challenges. Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, USA,
October 810, 2012.
In a miscible contamination cleanup scenario, The behavior of uid ow from the reservoir
7. Mobility is the ratio of formation permeability to uid
engineers found that although the breakthrough to the sampling tool is governed by Darcys law, viscosity. Therefore, lower formation permeability or
of formation oil is faster for the XLD probe, in which ow is directly proportional to perme- higher uid viscosity decreases mobility.
cleaner samples can be collected with the Saturn ability, drawdown pressure and cross-sectional

36 Oileld Review
and seven samples were captured as the tool- Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4
string was retrieved from the well. Contamination Contamination Contamination Contamination
At the rst station, samples were captured 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
using the XLD probe after DFA measurements

Saturn Probe
had identied 60% to 70% oil in the ow stream.
The operator chose Station 2 in an effort to deter-
mine the depth of lowest mobile oil. Engineers
attempted to capture a sample at Station 2 using
the XLD probe, but with a 13.8-MPa [2,000-psi]
drawdown, a ow rate of only 5.2 L/h [1.4 galUS/h]
could be achieved. After 1.5 hours of pumping,
Contamination Contamination Contamination Contamination
ow was switched to the Saturn probe, and
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
although the ow rate was increased to 7.8 L/h
[2.1 galUS/h], the accompanying drawdown was

XLD Probe
only 4.7 MPa [680 psi]. Under these conditions,
ow stability was achieved and engineers were
able to identify the oil/water delineation within
the previously imposed four-hour time limit.
While sampling at Station 2 with the XLD probe,
engineers observed no oil owing in the rst 34 L
[9.0 galUS] pumped during cleanup (below). Even > Three-dimensional contamination distribution. Models of cleanup using the Saturn probe and an XLD
accounting for the XLD probe contribution, engi- probe are shown at four points in time. The same drawdown is applied to both the XLD and the Saturn
probes, but because of its larger ow area and multiple, circumferentially spaced drains, the Saturn
neers concluded that oil arrived at the tool faster
probe can operate at higher pump rates and consequently achieve cleanup 12 to 18 times faster than
the XLD probe. (Adapted from Al-Otaibi et al, reference 6.)

Thermal Neutron Porosity Resistivity

% 60-in. Array Induction
Formation Density ohm.m
g/cm3 30-in. Array Induction
Delta-T ohm.m
Lithology
Sonic Porosity 20-in. Array Induction
% ohm.m Porosity

Pretest Bulk Density Correction 10-in. Array Induction Sandstone

Mobility g/cm3 ohm.m
mD/cP MDT Limestone
Formation Pressure Photoelectric Factor Invaded Zone Resistivity Fluid Type Station
530 psi 930 0.01 1,000 ohm.m Dolomite
46 Station 3
70% 30%
0.367 psi/ft (oil) water oil

48
Station 1
40% 60%
water oil
49
Station 2
water
50

51
0.477 psi/ft (water)
0.021 psi/ft

52

> Finding oil. Logs of formation pressure (Track 1), mobility (Track 2), density-neutron-sonic (Track 3) and resistivity (Track 4) in this Middle East well would lead
analysts to assume the target formation to be devoid of oil. However, DFA (Track 5) during pumpout indicated the presence of oil in the carbonate formation.

Spring 2013 37
 2,000
Quartz pressure gauge (observation) pressure 110
1,800
100
1,600 90

Volume pumped, 1,000 cm3

1,400 80

Pumpout rate, cm3/s

Gauge pressure, psi
Saturn 3D radial probe pressure
1,200 70
1,000 60 40
50
800 30
40
600
30 20
400 20
Volume pumped Rate pump 2 10
200 10
Rate pump 1
0 0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000
Elapsed time, s
> Fluid sampling. The Saturn tool was used to acquire uid samples and measure pressure (red) at the
zone of interest. Initial measurements are mud pressure. At about 2,500 s, the tool is set and pumpout
begins, followed by a buildup beginning at about 10,000 s, which establishes an estimate of reservoir
pressure. Cumulative total volume pumped (green) begins to increase when the pump is turned back
on at about 18,000 s to begin cleanup. At around 40,000 s, a second pump is engaged, which increases
pump rate. The drawdown increases because of higher pump rate and the arrival of high-viscosity oil
at the tool. Two spikes in pressure at about 55,000 s are the results of pressure shocks created when
samples are captured followed by stopping the pump. Pressures are also recorded by an observation
probe (black). Pumpout rates (tan and blue) are recorded on the far right axis in cm3/s for the rst and
second pumps, respectively. (Adapted from Flores de Dios et al, reference 10.)

using the Saturn probe, which they attributed to the
increased ow rate and radial cleanup.
The operator also tested a low-porosity, low-
resistivity zone in the eld. The rst attempt,
performed with an XLD probe, produced a
13.8-MPa drawdown and ow rate of less than
72 L/h [19.0 galUS/h]. Using the Saturn probe,
engineers were able to reduce drawdown to
7.6 MPa [1,100 psi] with a ow rate of 288 L/h
[76.1 galUS/h]. As a consequence, they were able to
capture sufcient samples to delineate the oil/water
contact (OWC) using the optical density mea-
surements of the DFA module.
The Saturn probe was also used to identify a
small amount of oil in a low-mobility zone in
which pumpout was not possible with the stan-
dard XLD probe. And nally, the operator sought
to use sampling and DFA to determine the OWC
in a heterogeneous carbonate formation with a
resistivity measurement of 0.7 ohm.m. In this
instance, in which traditional sampling tech-
niques were unsuited to the task, engineers were
able to use DFA measurements in conjunction
with uid samples captured with the Saturn tool
to determine the thickness of the oil zone.8
Heavy Oil Challenge
Heavy oil is particularly problematic for conven-
tional downhole sampling devices. Production of
this type of resource through proper placement
of injection and production wells can be highly
dependent on accurate uid characterization.
Because moving high-viscosity oil to the wellbore
and then to the surface is often accomplished
using steam injection and articial lift, it is criti-
cal for operators to be aware of higher-mobility
zones within the reservoir layers created by rela-
tively high-permeability rock or low-viscosity
uid. Both situations may create preferential
high-mobility pathways through which the oil and
steam ow and often result in signicant
bypassed reserves.
In 2011, the national oil company of Mexico,
Petrleos Mexicanos (PEMEX), reported 60% of the
nations oil reserves were heavy or extra heavy oil.9
As other more easily produced reserves are drained,
these resources have become increasingly impor-
tant to PEMEX and the nation. In the Samaria
heavy-oil eld in southern Mexico, PEMEX is trying
to produce uids with viscosities at downhole condi-
tions as high as 5,000 cP [5,000 mPa.s] from forma-
tions with unconned compressive strength of from
0.69 to 5.5 MPa [100 to 800 psi].10 Because of chal-
lenges presented by the combination of high-viscos-
ity uid moving through an unconsolidated
formation, operators have been able to use WFTs to
take pressure measurements in these formations
but have been unable to capture samples. In the
Samaria eld, PEMEX engineers have instead perfo-
rated and owed each zone individually and deployed
sampling bottles on coiled tubing or a drillstring.
Because this approach proved impractical and
costlyoften taking days or weeks per zonethe
operator abandoned this sampling method.
As PEMEX engineers began a new develop-
ment cycle in these Tertiary-age sandstones, they
turned to the Saturn probe in 2011 to evaluate
four wells. The primary team objective in the rst
well was to test the functionality of the new tool.
In the second and third wells, engineers moved to
full pressure testing with uid scanning and sam-
pling. In the fourth well, they also planned inter-
val and vertical interference testing.
Multiple stations were tested and sampled in
each of the wells. Because the formations are
unconsolidated, the wellbores are often rugose
and out of roundconditions that may cause a
traditional probe to lose its seal before cleanup is
8. Al-Otaibi et al, reference 6.
9. Petrleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) Exploracin y Produccin:
2011: Las reservas de hidrocarburos de Mxico,
Mexico City: PEMEX (January 1, 2011): 22 (in Spanish).
10. Flores de Dios T, Aguilar MG, Perez Herrera R, Garcia G,
Peyret E, Ramirez E, Arias A, Corre P-Y, Slapal M and
Ayan C: New Wireline Formation Tester Development
Makes Sampling and Pressure Testing Possible in
Extra-Heavy Oils in Mexico, paper SPE 159868,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, October 810, 2012.
11. Flores de Dios et al, reference 10.

38 Oileld Review
 103

Modeled delta P, Saturn tool

2
10

Delta P and derivative, psi

Modeled derivative,
Saturn tool
Modeled derivative,
101
WFT observation probe

10
Modeled delta P,
WFT observation probe

10 101 102 103

Time since end of drawdown, s
> WFT interference test. The Saturn probe was run beneath a single-probe WFT. Engineers conducted
an interval pressure transient test, obtaining vertical permeability (kv ) and horizontal permeability (kh ).
Delta P and its derivative were recorded by the shallower observation tool (blue) and by the Saturn tool
(green). Models were built using values of 12.2 m, 640 mD, 120 mD and 370 cP for height, kv, kh and
viscosity, respectively. The modeled values (solid blue and green lines) reproduce the data closely,
indicating that values for vertical and horizontal permeabilities are correct. (Adapted from Flores de
Dios et al, reference 10.)

accomplished and samples captured. In the rst
well, tests were run with an XLD probe and a
Saturn probe to test the sealing efciency of the
new system and to adjust variables such as set-
ting and unsetting time, minimum ination pres-
sure for a seal and optimal pretest volume to
account for storage effects.
The Saturn probe achieved 100% sealing in
each of the seven stations tested using packer
ination pressures as low as 0.2 MPa [30 psi]. As
a consequence, engineers were able to obtain
full pressure surveys in both oil- and water-base
mud environments that indicated only minor
storage effects on the pressure responses.
PEMEX engineers used the pressure surveys
and mobilities determined from pretests to
design completions that will evenly distribute
injected steam in designated intervals, which
will increase sweep efciency.
As the testing for the Saturn tool continued,
engineers captured minimally contaminated
uid samples from three wells using a toolstring
that included an XLD probe and Saturn probes,
uid analyzers and sample bottles. Because of
the unconsolidated nature of the formations,
PEMEX engineers expected to use low differen-
tial pressures that would require 16 to 20 hours
per station to capture a sample; much of the time
would be used to pump ltrate ahead of reservoir
uids during cleanup. At the rst station, while
limiting differential pressure, engineers saw rst
hydrocarbon after 9 hours of pumping.
The pump speed was accelerated, and the dif-
ferential pressure rose to about 200 psi [1.4 MPa];
no sand was seen in the tool. Flow pressure also
decreased, indicating that the seal was holding.
This led the team to abandon the original plan for
low drawdown pressures and instead establish a
300-psi [2.1-MPa] differential minimum for
Station 2 (previous page). The minimally con-
taminated sample collected at this station was
7.5API gravity oil; subsequent laboratory analy-
sis documented that this sample had a viscosity
of approximately 1,030 cP [1.03 Pa.s] at down-
hole conditions and about 7,800 cP [7.8 Pa.s] at
atmospheric conditions. Engineers will use the
results from laboratory analysis of the samples in
completion and production planning of the eld.
In the fourth well, engineers performed inter-
val pressure transient tests using the Saturn probe
combined with an observation probe. These tran-
sient tests consist of complete cleanup of the mud
ltrate followed by variable-rate ow and shut-in
periods, which are used to evaluate formation
deliverability. Data from an observation probe
higher on the toolstring provided engineers with
information about formation permeability and
permeability anisotropy (above). PEMEX engi-
neers are applying this information to calibrate
cutoffs in nuclear magnetic resonance log pro-
cessing, which they use to ne-tune permeabil-
ity predictions.11
Low Mobility and High Condence
Using resistivity log measurements, petrophysi-
cists are able to delineate oil/water contacts in
the majority of formations. However, in some for-
mations, operators have difculty interpreting
the log response where water- and oil-bearing
zones intersect. This uncertainty can affect how
engineers choose to complete the well.
For one Middle East operator trying to deter-
mine the extent of an oil zone in a tight carbon-
ate formation, logs strongly indicated that the
top of the zone was oil bearing and the bottom
was water bearing. But log results for the
middle zone were ambiguous; the resistivity
response was similar to that of the water zone
below it. Resolving the question of the uid
types of the middle zone with DFA measure-
ments using traditional downhole sampling
tools was precluded because establishing ow
from the tight carbonate formation would have
created a differential pressure greater than tra-
ditional dual packer ratings.

Spring 2013 39
 Resistivity reservoir model and uid contacts and increase
Thermal Neutron Porosity 60-in. Array Induction
%
their understanding of this new technology.
ohm.m
Formation Density 30-in. Array Induction During the testing operations, the formation
g/cm3 ohm.m
Lithology pressure survey encountered some supercharged
Sonic Porosity 20-in. Array Induction
% ohm.m
Porosity low-mobility zones at the bottom of an oil col-
Bulk Density Correction 10-in. Array Induction Limestone umn. This introduced some uncertainty in the
g/cm3 Dolomite
ohm.m
MDT
pressure gradient interpretation.12 Finding a
Photoelectric Factor Invaded Zone Resistivity Clay
Fluid Type Station clear delineation of the OWC also proved difcult
ohm.m Sandstone
because the resistivity log response could be
attributed to either high water saturation or deep
invasion effects. Fluid scanning with the Saturn
probe identied the location of the OWC 5.5 m
[18 ft] deeper than indicated by pressure gradi-
ent and log response.
Furthermore, because of the large ow area
of the Saturn probe, the strength of the lami-
nated and low-permeability rock was conrmed.
In this case, although reservoir mobility was a
moderate 45 mD/cP, the reservoir pressure was
near saturation pressure. Thus, a low drawdown
pressure was essential to prevent a high pressure
differential that might induce two-phase ow
and an unrepresentative gas/oil ratio. Using
Water
the Saturn probe, a drawdown of only 0.5 bar
[0.05 MPa or 7.3 psi] was needed to scan and
5,500 30
clearly identify reservoir oil. A sample was also
5,000
25
acquired using an XLD probe at another station
4,500
in the same well in which the reservoir mobility
4,000
20 Flow rate, cm3/s was 880 mD/cPmore than an order of magni-
3,500 4,900-psi
Pressure, psi

pressure
tude greater than that of the reservoir sampled
3,000
differential 15 using the Saturn probe. Compared with the ow
2,500
rate of the XLD probe, the Saturn probe achieved
2,000
10 twice the ow rate at half the drawdown (next
1,500
1,000
Pressure page). As a result, cleanup time was one-third
5
Rate of that using the XLD without raising concerns
500
0 0 over the effects of extreme pressure changes on
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 sample integrity.
Time, s
> Low-mobility carbonate. Wireline log measurements (top) were inconclusive or provided conicting Another Step Forward
interpretations in a formation in the Middle East. Porosity (Track 1) and resistivity (Track 2) The industrys ability to capture uid samples and
measurements indicate an oil-bearing zone. However, log data from a middle zone were similar to those
of the deeper water-bearing zone. Engineers resolved uncertainty in the middle zone by using the critical pressure data has evolved rapidly since the
Saturn probe to capture a reservoir sample and a DFA module to measure uid properties. Downhole 1970s. Innovations in these arenas have been
uid analysis (Track 3) indicated, similar to that in the top zone, the presence of oil in the middle zone. spurred by need to develop more-complex forma-
Flow from the tight carbonate formation required a differential pressure of 4,900 psi (bottom), which tions with tighter limits on testing operations.
exceeds traditional WFT and packer ratings. (Adapted from Al-Otaibi et al, reference 6.)
With increasing frequency, engineers are testing
weaker formations and producing high-viscosity
uids, which means tests must take less time at
Using the Saturn probe, however, engineers Drawdown Restrictions each station with lower drawdown ranges and
were able to collect samples in all three zones, In some instances, operators have reason to use lower ow rates. Often, these restrictions conspire
which conrmed light oil in the top zone and water the Saturn 3D radial probe, even though a tradi- to make sampling impossible.
in the lowest zone. After 15 hours of pumping at tional one might sufce. After engineers at Eni
12. Supercharging occurs when mud ltrate invading
4,900-psi [34-MPa] differential pressure from the SpA saw the results achieved using the new through the wellbore wall during drilling creates an
0.04-mD/cP mobility zone, DFA measurements probe in Ghana, engineers at an afliated com- overpressure in the formation around the wellbore.
Pressure tests with WFTs, performed during the pretest,
indicated the presence of mobile light oil in the pany, Eni Norge, elected to try the service in the are affected by this overpressure, which is higher than
middle zone, which allowed the operator to deter- Goliath eld in the Barents Sea. Engineers at the true formation pressure.

mine that the thickness of the oil zone was greater Eni used this application to test sandstones in a
than initial estimates (above). relatively low-mobility environment, update the

40 Oileld Review
 45-mD/cP Mobility Reservoir 880-mD/cP Mobility Reservoir
195.0 50 195.0 50

194.5 45 194.5 Quartz gauge pressure, 45

Sample line pressure
194.0 40 194.0 40
Quartz gauge pressure,
Sample line pressure Drawdown
193.5 35 193.5 Drawdown 35

193.0 30 193.0 30

Flow rate, cm3/s

Flow rate, cm3/s

Pressure, bar

Pressure, bar
192.5 25 192.5 25

Flow rate
192.0 40 cm3/s 20 192.0 20
Pumpout total
Pumpout total flow rate
191.5 15 191.5 15
flow rate
Flow rate
191.0 10 191.0 22 cm3/s 10

190.5 5 190.5 5

190.0 0 190.0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Elapsed time, min Elapsed time, min

3.5 3.5
Fluorescence Channel 0
3.0 3.0
Fluorescence Channel 0
2.5 2.5

Fluorescence
Fluorescence

2.0 Fluorescence Channel 1 2.0 Fluorescence Channel 1

1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
Fluorescence Ratio Fluorescence Ratio
0.5 0.5
Fluorescence Reflection Fluorescence Reflection
0 0

100 100

80 80
Fluid fraction, %
Fluid fraction, %

60 60

40 40

20 10 min 20 30 min

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Elapsed time, min Elapsed time, min
Oil Water Mud-contaminated fluid

> Drawdown and ow rate comparison. Engineers at Eni chose the Saturn probe to capture samples from a 45-mD/cP mobility reservoir and a single XLD
probe to capture a sample in a much higher 880-mD/cP mobility reservoir within the same well. While ow rate (top, green line) through the Saturn probe
(left) was nearly twice that of the XLD probe (right), the drawdown (blue line) was half that of the XLD probe. Fluorescence monitoring during cleanup
(middle) indicated cleanup as uorescence increased with uid purity. The reservoir tested using the Saturn probe reached cleanup in 10 minutes (bottom
left) compared with the XLD probe, which cleaned up in about 30 minutes (bottom right).

The Quicksilver Probe tool design shortens and pressure differentials are reduced; viscous Shorter operating time is not trivial on some
time on station, and DFA technology provides uid ow and pressure differentials are the pri- of todays projects in which operating costs often
engineers with critical and timely knowledge mary constraints to testing in formerly inaccessi- exceed $US 1 million per day. The Saturn probe
about reservoir uids as they are captured. Both ble environments. addresses this issue of high-cost time through
these advances have allowed operators to gather In addition to allowing operators to take mea- higher ow rates that save operators hours and
pressure and uid sample data more quickly and surements and samples in these formations, in even days of operating expense. Similarly, data
with greater condence in the results. most cases the Saturn probe works to more from the Saturn probe allow engineers to make
The Saturn probe expands the range of situa- quickly dispose of ltrate and contaminated for- critical completion and production decisions
tions and conditions in which WFTs are applicable; mation uids, reducing time on station. Constant- based on hard facts rather than estimates, and
these include low-permeability or unconsolidated drawdown simulations in low-mobility reservoirs that can make the difference between success or
formations, heavy oil, near-critical uids and show the Saturn tool to be orders of magnitude failure, prot or loss. RvF
rugose boreholes. The Saturn probe openings are faster than standard XLD packer probes in com-
congured to create a total surface ow area pleting cleanup. With no sump, transient ow
1,200% greater than that of the largest conven- regimes can be recognized earlier, extending the
tional single-probe formation testers. This larger range of applicability of interval pressure tran-
area means ow of viscous uids is less restricted sient tests.

Spring 2013 41
 Developments in Full Azimuth
Marine Seismic Imaging

The Coil Shooting technique, in which a single vessel acquires full azimuth 3D
seismic data by sailing in circles, delivers more-accurate and reliable subsurface
images than conventional 3D methods in areas of complex geology. Recently, a
multivessel implementation of the technique has been developed to address subsalt
imaging challenges in deepwater areas.

Tim Brice Traditionally, vessels acquire 3D marine seismic

Perth, Western Australia, Australia data by sailing in a series of straight, parallel
lines over a survey area. This recording configura-
Michele Buia tion suffers from an inherent problem: Although
Eni E&P the source wavefront propagates in all directions,
Milan, Italy
only a small proportion of the reflected wavefront
is captured by the surface receiver spread, and
Alex Cooke
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil the seismic raypaths are aligned predominantly
in one direction, or azimuth.
David Hill In the presence of complex geology, ray bend-
Ed Palmer ing can leave portions of the subsurface
Gatwick, England untouched by seismic waves when only a narrow
range of source-receiver azimuths is recorded
Nizar Khaled (left). Attempts to solve this problem have led to
Srgio Tchikanha the development of wide azimuth (WAZ), rich azi-
Enrico Zamboni muth (RAZ) and multiazimuth (MAZ) acquisition
Total E&P Angola
configurations (next page, top left). By shining a
Luanda, Angola
light on the formations from many directions,
Ed Kotochigov these methods deliver better illumination of the
Oslo, Norway subsurface, higher signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) and
improved seismic resolution in challenging imag-
Nick Moldoveanu ing areas such as beneath complex salt bodies.1
Houston, Texas, USA Wide azimuth surveys are typically conducted
using three or four vessels, each shooting in
0 to 10 60 to 70
Oilfield Review Spring 2013: 25, no. 1. straight, parallel lines. As in conventional sur-
Copyright 2013 Schlumberger. > Image distortion. Refraction of light through the veys, the time taken to turn vessels around
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to irregular surface of a glass drinking mug (top) between the end of one swath of straight lines
Paul Bidmead, Gatwick, England; and Giuseppe Uncini, Eni causes parts of a spoon to be invisible or
Indonesia, Jakarta. distorted when viewed from different directions; and the start of the next has, to date, been
3D GSMP, Coil Shooting, DSC, Dual Coil Shooting, ObliQ, the image changes depending on azimuth. accepted as inevitable nonproductive time (NPT)
Q-Fin and Q-Marine are marks of Schlumberger. Similarly, seismic images of a subsurface (next page, top right).
structure (bottom) offshore Angola differ
depending on the source-receiver azimuth of the
contributing data.

42 Oilfield Review
 Routes taken by
Source vessels to position
vessels them for the next
Vessels towing swath of survey lines
source and streamers

Streamers

Next planned
survey lines

0
330 30

300 60

> A four-vessel wide azimuth (WAZ) > Multivessel line changes. The four vessels in a typical Gulf of Mexico
conguration. This acquisition linear WAZ acquisition conguration follow a circuitous path between the
270 90
arrangementtwo vessels towing end of one swath and the start of the next, which is necessary to align the
streamers and sources, plus two vessels for the start of the new swath and avoid collisions during line turns.
240 120
additional source vesselshas been This vessel movement conguration results in nonproductive time.
widely used in the Gulf of Mexico. The
210 150
offset-azimuth plot (inset) indicates
180 the offsets and azimuths acquired by
this congurationin this case a 60
range of azimuths. Azimuth corresponds to the angle clockwise from the top
of the circle. Offset corresponds to the distance from the center of the
circle. Colors range from purple for a low number of traces to green, yellow
and red for a high number of traces.

In 2007, WesternGeco began testing the

Coil Shooting technique, in which a vessel sails
in overlapping circles in corkscrew fashion,
recording continuously, to deliver full azimuth
(FAZ) data (right).2 The method provides higher
fold and better azimuthal coverage than other
techniques.3 FAZ surveys may be more cost-
effective because data are acquired using a sin-
gle seismic vessel and are recorded continuously,
minimizing NPT.
The ability to successfully perform Coil Shooting
acquisition is made possible by the Q-Marine
point-receiver marine seismic system. Calibrated
1. Camara Alfaro J, Corcoran C, Davies K, Gonzalez
Pineda F, Hampson G, Hill D, Howard M, Kapoor J, 0
330 30
Moldoveanu N and Kragh E: Reducing Exploration Risk,
Oileld Review 19, no. 1 (Spring 2007): 2643.
2. Buia M, Flores PE, Hill D, Palmer E, Ross R, Walker R, 300 60

Houbiers M, Thompson M, Laura S, Menlikli C,

Moldoveanu N and Snyder E: Shooting Seismic > Coil Shooting schematic. For Coil Shooting single-
Surveys in Circles, Oileld Review 20, no. 3 270 90

(Autumn 2008): 1831.

3. Fold is a measure of the density of seismic measurements.
It is usually computed as the number of different 240
source-receiver pairs that record reections from a
particular target layer in each of the rectangular bins 210
(typically 25 m 25 m [82 ft 82 ft]) of a 3D grid over the 180
survey area. High fold usually improves S/N.
vessel full azimuth acquisition, the seismic vessel sails
in overlapping circles in corkscrew fashion, recording
120
continuously. The offset-azimuth plot (inset) indicates that
this survey conguration acquires complete azimuthal
150
and high offset coverage.

Spring 2013 43
single sensors enable noise attenuation that can-
not be resolved by other technologies. A fully
braced acoustic network provides accurate posi-
tioning of the in-sea equipment. Q-Fin steering
devices accurately control the depth and lateral
position of the streamers, facilitating constant
streamer separation. DSC dynamic spread con-
trol technology adds steerable sources and auto-
matic vessel, source and streamer steering to
achieve the best possible match with planned
source and receiver positions. The Coil Shooting
technique requires no special adaptation of the
equipment used for conventional 3D surveys, and
vessels can easily switch between linear and cir-
cular acquisition programs.
Coil Shooting surveys have been acquired in
several regions and, in areas of complex geology,
the results from these circular geometry FAZ sur-
veys have been superior to those from conven-
tional 3D surveys and comparable to or better
than WAZ data acquired using multiple vessels.
This article describes recent imaging successes
from offshore Indonesia, Brazil, Angola and the
Gulf of Mexico.
Imaging in Indonesia
The rst full commercial survey using the
Coil Shooting technique was acquired in 2008 for
the E&P division of Eni SpA on the Tulip project
in the Bukat production-sharing contract block
east of Kalimantan, offshore Indonesia. Several
unfavorable geologic conditions conspire to
cause poor seismic response in the area.4 The
target has low P-wave impedance contrast, thus
has only weak seismic reectivity. The seaoor is
characterized by rough geomorphology, with can-
yons and irregularities that cause uneven illumi-
nation in the subsurface and complex 3D raypaths
for surface and internal multiples.5 A bottom-
simulating reector (BSR) below the seabed gen-
erates several orders of multiples that further
degrade subsurface illumination.6 The presence
of free gas below the BSR causes sudden fre-
quency and amplitude decay of primary reec-
tions. Complex subsurface geology further
complicates the scenario. Combined, these con-
ditions lead to diffraction, absorption, scattering
and weak transmission of seismic signal energy.
Such effects have been observed in the results of
conventional narrow azimuth towed streamer
(NATS) 3D seismic surveys, which have delivered
poor illumination of the target reservoir.
Eni sought to improve imaging through inno-
vative acquisition. Engineers performed a feasi-
bility study using ray tracing on an existing Tulip
velocity-depth model to evaluate the potential of
44
various single-vessel towed streamer geometries. Jakarta in February 2010. The Coil Shooting
Multivessel WAZ and RAZ options were not con- method results in many acquisition and imaging
sidered because it was important to record near benets but introduces challenges in data pro-
offsetsdata with short source-receiver separa- cessing because some standard processing work-
tionto image the undulating seabed. The study ows were designed for data with linear geometry.
concluded that a Coil Shooting survey would Prior to acquisition of the full survey, WesternGeco
provide the best illumination of the targets. In geophysicists generated a subset volume of 3D
addition, mobilizing several vessels to the synthetic data with coil geometry and processed
survey area would have been logistically and it to verify the efcacy of the proposed algorithms
nancially challenging. and workow.
The selected survey design consisted of 145 An important step in preparing data for the
circles of radius 6,500 m [21,300 ft] with circle processing workow is the removal of multiples.
centers spaced 1,000 m [3,280 ft] apart. The seis- WesternGeco has developed the 3D GSMP gen-
mic vessel Geco Topaz, equipped with eight eral surface multiple prediction process, which
streamers each 6 km [3.7 mi] long and separated has proved highly effective for attenuating multi-
by 100 m [328 ft], acquired the 563-km2 [217-mi2] ples while preserving the integrity of primary
survey during August and September 2008. energy.7 Apart from stacking velocities, the algo-
Approximately 260,000 shotpoints were acquired. rithm requires no a priori knowledge of the sub-
Acquisition of the data from the original pro- surface and can handle all orders of surface
grammed circles was completed more quickly multiple in the presence of complex geology and
than expected, and some additional lines were irregular acquisition geometries.8 The 3D GSMP
acquired to ll in areas of low illumination. At the technique predicts the multiples at true azimuth,
end of the survey, after inll shooting, the actual ensuring that the modeled multiples accurately
target illumination was slightly more uniform match the multiples in the input data. The tech-
than the planned one. WesternGeco completed nique is most effective when applied to data from
the Tulip eld Coil Shooting survey in 49 days. By a wide range of azimuths, so optimal performance
comparison, a three-azimuth MAZ survey was is achieved when applied to the FAZ data pro-
predicted to require 60 days, and a four-azimuth vided by the Coil Shooting approach. In the Tulip
survey 75 days. dataset, 3D multiples were predicted almost per-
Seismic engineers began processing the Tulip fectly in phase, and the algorithm reduced their
Coil Shooting survey data onboard Geco Topaz in amplitudes by approximately 25 dB [94%].
August 2008 and completed the process in
Initial TTI velocity model
PSDM 0 to 60 PSDM 60 to 120 PSDM 120 to 180
50-m grid output 50-m grid output 50-m grid output
Identify Identify Identify
traveltime errors traveltime errors traveltime errors
Tomography inversion
Ray tracing with actual azimuths
Updated TTI velocity model
> Azimuthal tomography workow. A tilted transverse isotropic (TTI) velocity
model derived from time domain processing formed the starting model. The
Tulip Coil Shooting dataset was divided into three azimuthal groups for
prestack depth migration (PSDM). Traveltimes from the PSDM were
compared with those predicted by the model using tomography inversion
and ray tracing techniques, leading to an updated velocity model.
Oileld Review
 High stacking fold, and therefore improved Tulip NATS Data Tulip Coil Shooting Data
S/N, is one of the many benets of the
Coil Shooting method. However, fold can vary
considerably from one bin to another, and this 2.0

variation must be addressed to avoid introducing

anomalous variations in the amplitude of traces
after stacking them together. Using a weighting
system that computed scale factors based on the
spatial distribution of traces within a 3D bin,
3.0
engineers applied processes to regularize fold
and offset contributions within the full range of
azimuths. Subsequent analysis of amplitudes at
the target depth indicated that normalization

was successful, rendering the dataset suitable for
processes such as amplitude variation with offset
analysis or inversion.
Azimuthal information also provides opportu-
nities for building more-accurate models of sub-
surface seismic velocity, which in turn enable
more-accurate depth images of subsurface 3D
structures. The models are built using tomogra-
phyan inversion process that attempts to con-
struct an estimate of the 3D velocity structure of
the Earth based on observed measurements of
traveltimes associated with seismic reections,
often including some geologic constraints. The
analysis is usually performed on 2D sections and
is an iterative process that moves toward a best-
t solution between observed traveltimes and
those predicted from the 3D velocity model.
As input for the azimuthal tomography work-
ow, the Tulip dataset was split into three azimuth
sectors, each representing a range of 60 (previous
page). Prestack depth migration (PSDM) was
applied to each sector and the prestack results
were output on a 50-m 50-m [164-ft 164-ft] grid
for analysis.9 The initial tilted transverse isotropic
(TTI) velocity model was derived from time
domain processing. Analysis of the PSDM data
indicated where adjustments to the velocity model
were required, and the process was iterated until
the model matched the observed traveltimes. The
resulting anisotropic velocity model showed a good
match with interval velocities derived from a verti-
cal seismic prole (VSP) that had been previously
acquired in the survey area. The TTI model was
also consistent with geologic boundaries and
velocities observed in a well, and it identied
areas of low velocity below the seabed that were
probably caused by the presence of free gas.
The nal Coil Shooting PSDM results show
several improvements in imaging at the target
level and at greater depths compared with data
from a previous narrow azimuth survey over the
same area (above right). In particular, the conti-
nuity, visibility and sharpness of the dipping
events are clearly evident.
Time, s
4.0
5.0
6.0
> Tulip Coil Shooting data. Comparison of an example line from a previous NATS 3D survey (left) with
equivalent data from the new Coil Shooting prestack depth migrated dataset (right) demonstrates
improvements in imaging, particularly in the continuity, visibility and sharpness of the dipping events in
the deeper section.
Seeing Through Salt Offshore Brazil
In early 2010, an operator was looking for an
opportunity to evaluate the coil acquisition tech-
nique as a tool to improve imaging of presalt tar-
gets offshore Brazil. The company invited
WesternGeco to implement the technology in an
oil eld located in deep water in the Santos
basin.10 The reservoirs in this eld are up to
6,000 m [20,000 ft] below the ocean surface and
4. Buia M, Vercesi R and Tham M: Coil Shooting on Tulip
Discovery: Seismic Processing Challenges, Opportunities
and Results, paper SPE 134222, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Florence,
Italy, September 1922, 2010.
5. A multiple is a seismic arrival that has incurred more than
one reection in its travel path. Many multiples involve
reections from the seabed and the sea/air interface.
Others involve reections between subsurface reectors.
Multiples can interfere with or obscure primary
reections and usually need careful suppression during
processing.
6. A bottom-simulating reector (BSR) is a seismic
reection often seen in seismic sections from deepwater
areas. Studies indicate that it is primarily caused by the
acoustic impedance contrast where free gas is trapped
at the base of a gas hydrate zone.
vary in thickness from tens to hundreds of
meters. The overburden includes a complex dip-
ping salt layer up to 2,000 m [6,600 ft] thick that
consists of homogeneous halite bodies and lay-
ered evaporites. The S/N in existing seismic data
from the area is poor at the reservoir level. In
addition, strong surface and interbed multiple
energy interferes with primary reections from
the presalt target.
7. Moore I and Dragoset B: General Surface Multiple
Prediction: A Flexible 3D SRME Algorithm, First Break 26,
no. 9 (September 2008): 89100.
8. Stacking is a key stage in seismic processing in which
the traces in a bin are combined. Before stacking, traces
require individual corrections based on their
source-receiver offsets and an estimate of subsurface
seismic velocities to bring them to a common time
horizon before stacking, or summing.
9. Migration is a step in seismic processing in which
reections are moved from their recorded two-way
traveltimes to an estimate of their true position in space
based on a model of subsurface seismic velocities.
10. Cooke A, Le Diagon F, De Marco R, Amazonas D,
Bunting T, Moldoveanu N, Klug S and Mattos E:
Full-Azimuth Towed-Streamer Seismic: An Exploration
Tool for Pre-Salt Hydrocarbon Exploration Offshore
Brazil, paper SGS 1.6, presented at the 82nd SEG
Annual International Meeting and Exposition, Las Vegas,
Nevada, USA, November 49, 2012.

Spring 2013 45
 The survey was centered on the planned loca- Survey area boundary
tion of a future well, with the objective of using Area of 180 coverage
the new dataset to help optimize well placement.
Area of 360 coverage
The survey area also enclosed an active drilling Planned Fold Actual Fold
rig. While this rig prevented acquisition of con-
tiguous coil data over the entire survey area, it
facilitated acquisition of a spiral 3D VSP dataset.
Processing specialists used these measurements
to validate the earth model used for depth imag-
ing of the surface seismic dataset. The operator
plans to merge the 3D VSP data with the surface
seismic data volume, which will improve cover-
age in the area obscured by the presence of the
drilling rig.
Modelers conducted a survey design study to
compare the expected results of several potential
acquisition geometries. The expected processing
sequence was applied to synthetic datasets gen- 1 1,000
erated using 3D ray tracing through an existing
earth model. The study conrmed that, compared
Fold
with linear geometries, Coil Shooting acquisition
would deliver improved S/N, better attenuation of Planned Illumination Actual Illumination
multiple energy and better continuity of reec-
tions at the target level. After considering several
potential coil geometries, the companies agreed
on a plan to acquire 78 circles of 6.25-km
[3.88-mi] radius over an area of 600 km2
[230 mi2] (below). In an effort to make the
acquisition geometry slightly less regular and
reduce offset clustering within 3D bins, the coil
centers were randomly distributed within a pre-
dened tolerance.11

1 1,280

Survey area boundary

Illumination
Area of 180 coverage > Fold and illumination. Total fold of coverage (top) calculated for 25-m 25-m bins. The planned fold
Area of 360 coverage (left) and actual fold (right) are in close agreement. Target illumination, or hit count (bottom), also
Acquired Coils shows a close match between planned (left) and actual illumination (right).

> Brazil survey source positions. The red coils
show the actual source positions. The squares
represent the survey area boundary, 180 and
360 azimuth areas. The drilling rig location is
indicated by the black circle.
The survey was acquired from November 2010
to January 2011 in water depths ranging from
2,000 to 2,300 m [6,600 to 7,500 ft]. The seismic
vessel was equipped with 12 streamers, each
8,000 m [26,250 ft] long, towed 120 m [394 ft]
apart. Two source arrays 60 m [197 ft] apart were
red alternately every 37.5 m [123 ft].
The seismic crew generated displays onboard
to conrm the quality of the seismic data. Source
and receiver position data were transferred to
ofces in Rio de Janeiro, where analysts pro-
duced near real-time fold and illumination maps
for comparison with the original plan (above).
The crew made some changes to the arrangement
of swaths during the survey, particularly in the
area around the rig. These changes were neces-
sitated by the magnitude and direction of currents
as well as an extension of the exclusion zone
around the rig. The circular geometry allowed for
easy operational adjustments. The vessel
acquired more than 92,000 shots and conducted
one less circle than originally planned.
Before acquisition began, analysts tested a
workow that included initial noise attenuation
and some wavelet processing, which was subse-
quently applied in near real time onboard the
seismic vessel. The workow effectively removed
high-amplitude noise with no apparent impact on
signal amplitudes (next page, top).
Processing specialists applied corrections to
account for variations in the acoustic velocity of
the seawater during the survey because of
changes in temperature and salinity. Such varia-
tions cause anomalies in the traveltimes of

46 Oileld Review
Shot Gathers: Raw Shot Gathers: Filtered

> Noise attenuation. The raw shot record (left) contains high-amplitude noise, which is effectively attenuated after onboard processing (right).

reection events that can impact imaging, atten-
uation of multiples and some other processes
applied to data sorted into 3D bins. The varia-
tions are likely to be most signicant in deep
water and in areas of rapidly changing currents,
which are both features of the waters offshore
Brazil. Many different coils, each with its own
water column characteristics, contribute data to
each bin; thus when signicant velocity varia-
tions occur, they must be corrected.
Water velocity corrections were applied using
a layer-replacement approach.12 Because a single
coil sail line with a radius of 6.25 km [3.9 mi] may
sample signicantly varying current regimes in
the survey area, geophysicists divided each coil
into separate segments and estimated the water
velocity for each segment. They then applied
attenuating multiples such as the 3D GSMP
method that was applied.
Data coverage in terms of offset, azimuth and
midpoint (the surface position equidistant
between source and receiver) is inherently
irregular over the area of a coil survey. For some
data processing algorithmssuch as tomo-
graphic velocity model building3D bins need
to have regularly spaced midpoints, azimuths
and offsets. Several methods are available for
Common Offset, Common Azimuth Before Regularization
3.2
3.6
Traveltime, s
regularization, and various methods were used
as appropriate for different parts of the data pro-
cessing sequence for the Santos basin survey.
Producing regularly sampled data from irregu-
larly sampled data requires interpolation. For the
offshore Brazil dataset, matching pursuit Fourier
interpolation produced a fully regularized dataset
in offset, midpoint and azimuth for building the
velocity model in the sediments (below).13 This
method can efciently interpolate in multiple

dynamic corrections to adjust the dataset to a

single water velocity function. 4.0

In this area of the deepwater Santos basin,

surface multiples from both the seaoor and the 4.4
complex top-of-salt horizons coincide with the
arrivals of the weaker base-of-salt and subsalt
4.8
reections. Therefore, it was critical to attenuate
this energy without corrupting the primary ampli-
Common Offset, Common Azimuth After Regularization
tudes. One of the characteristics of coil acquisi-
tion is that it has a higher shot density than 3.2
conventional NATS surveys and delivers more
near-offset information than multivessel WAZ sur-
3.6
veys. These features provide data that more
Traveltime, s

closely meet the requirements of techniques for

4.0
11. Moldoveanu N: Random Sampling: A New Strategy for
Marine Acquisition, Expanded Abstracts, 80th SEG
Annual International Meeting and Exposition, Denver
(October 1722, 2010): 5155. 4.4
12. Carvill CV: A New Approach to Water Velocity
Estimation and Correction, paper U027, presented at
the 71st European Association of Geoscientists and 4.8
Engineers Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam,
June 811, 2009.
13. Schonewille M, Klaedtke A and Vigner A: Anti-Alias
> Data regularization. This section from a common offset, common azimuth volume (top) exhibits gaps
Anti-Leakage Fourier Transform, Expanded Abstracts, and jitter between traces caused by azimuthal variation. After regularization, the gaps are lled and
79th SEG Annual International Meeting and Exposition, jitter is reduced (bottom). The blue plots (inset) show the fold coverage for the offset-azimuth volume
Houston (October 2530, 2009): 32493253. before and after regularization. The yellow lines indicate the location of the seismic sections.

Spring 2013 47
 Geophysicists updated the Santos basin eld
velocity model in several steps: They rst split
the coil dataset into three azimuth volumes for
tomography: 0 to 60, 60 to 120 and 120 to
180 and their opposite azimuths. They next
updated the anisotropic velocity model sequen-
tially in three zones: sediment, intrasalt and pre-
salt. Validation of the resulting earth model
included 3D VSP traveltime analysis, in which
measured and modeled arrival times were com-
pared to produce an indication of condence in
the model (left).
Results of depth migration of the Coil Shooting
data using an intermediate velocity model pro-
vided signicant imaging improvement compared
Traveltime residuals, ms with those from a previous 2D depth migrated
40 32 24 16 8 0 8 16 24 32 40
dataset in the area (below left). The new FAZ
data have delivered high-quality images of the
> Brazil survey traveltime residuals. Geophysicists validated the velocity
base of the salt and are allowing condent inter-
model for seismic imaging by comparing traveltimes through the model
with actual traveltimes from a 3D VSP acquired at the same time as the pretation of presalt structures. Further improve-
Coil Shooting survey in the Santos basin. The VSP was acquired with spirally ments are expected when the data are migrated
distributed source positions around the rig and receivers in the borehole at using the full anisotropic earth model.
the center of the spiral. Colors indicate the difference between the modeled
and actual traveltimes, with aqua indicating the closest match. The magenta
surface beneath and to the right of the spiral is the top of salt. Coil Acquisition Offshore Angola
The rst Coil Shooting survey acquired in the
West African subsalt province was acquired in
dimensions to improve the regularization of For depth imaging in complex geologic areas Block 33 Angola over the Calulu Predevelopment
sparsely sampled data. Data are transformed from such as this Santos basin eld, an accurate Area (PDA) for Total E&P Angola (TEPA) and its
the space-time domain to the space-frequency velocity model is essential to correctly place partners (next page, top right). Water depth in
domain by a fast Fourier transform. For each fre- reections in their true subsurface positions. this block ranges from 1,500 to 2,500 m [4,900 to
quency slice, data are transformed from the spa- With full azimuth acquisition, multiazimuth 8,200 ft]. The area is characterized by complex
tial domain to the spatial Fourier, or wavenumber, tomographic methods may be used for velocity geology related to extended salt canopies that
domain. Once the Fourier domain has been com- model updating. The introduction of additional cover most of the block. The main reservoir levels
puted, data can be transformed back to any loca- information from multiple azimuths reduces are turbidite sands located in highly structured
tion in the spatial domainin this case onto a uncertainty and increases condence in veloc- near-salt and subsalt areas.
dense and regular gridusing an inverse discrete ity model updates.14 A NATS 3D seismic survey was acquired over
Fourier transform. the area in 1999; however, the quality of the
resulting data was insufcient to correctly image
Brazil Coil Shooting 3D Volume the complex salt tectonic structures and the
steeply dipping anticlinal anks. In addition, the
presalt targets were characterized by poor S/N
and poor illumination. Limited 3.5-km [2.2-mi]
offsets and a restricted range of azimuths con-
tributed to these unsatisfactory results.
To address these concerns, TEPA and part-
ners decided to acquire two new 3D datasets: a
1,284-km2 [496-mi2] NATS survey with long off-
Base of salt 14. Dazley M, Whiteld PJ, Santos-Luis B, Sellars A,
Szabo P, Nieuwland F and Lemaistre L: Solving
Presalt structures Short-Wavelength Velocity Variations with High-
Resolution Hybrid Grid Tomography, paper C001,
presented at the 69th European Association of
Geoscientists and Engineers Conference and Exhibition,
London, June 1114, 2007.
15. Khaled N, Capelle P, Bovet L, Tchikanha S and Hill D:
A Coil Shooting-Acquisition Case Study in the Angolan
Deep Offshore, paper X027, presented at the 74th
> Seismic lines and a time slice from the Brazil Coil Shooting 3D volume. The European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers
new Coil Shooting data have delivered high-quality images of the base of salt Conference and Exhibition, Copenhagen, Denmark,
June 47, 2012.
and are enabling condent interpretation of presalt structures.

48 Oileld Review
sets7.5 km [4.7 mi]over the full area, and an
860-km2 [332-mi2] Coil Shooting survey over a
subset of the area. The companys objective in
conducting the NATS survey was to improve the
A F R I C A
imaging of the deep Oligocene, Cretaceous and
presalt sections through better signal penetra-
tion, longer offsets, higher fold and a longer CONGO
recording time than the 1999 survey. The new ANGOLA
data would enable reevaluation of the deep post-
salt series and a rst 3D interpretation of the
presalt series. The objective of the Coil Shooting
survey was to improve the imaging of the deep ANGOLA
Oligocene and Cretaceous subsalt structures to Calulu
PDA
provide a better understanding of trap geometry
and reduce uncertainty about the presence or
absence of a reservoir. Comparison of the
results of the two types of survey provided an 33
opportunity to assess the added value of the 0 km 100
Coil Shooting technique. 0 mi 100
Before data acquisition, a feasibility study
was performed to select the optimal Coil Shooting > Location of the Calulu Predevelopment Area (PDA), Block 33, offshore Angola.
parameters to adequately image a 38-km2
[15-mi2] target area at the center of the survey.15
The study resulted in a survey design comprising
72 circles with centers in a rhombic pattern
spaced 2,500 m [8,200 ft] apart in both inline and
crossline directions (right). For the selected
design, the fold of the 12.5-m 12.5-m [41-ft 41-ft]
bins was up to 567, and the azimuthal coverage
was up to 360 within the target area.
In comparison with a NATS survey of the same
size acquired with exactly the same in-sea equip-
ment conguration, in the coil design 95% of bins
2,500 m

have a higher fold, and 70% have more than twice

the fold. A single vessel Coil Shooting survey
records more than double the data volume of a
NATS survey, although the Coil Shooting survey
2,500 m
records slightly shorter far offsets because of the
curvature of the streamers (below). > Calulu Coil Shooting survey design. The survey design comprised 72 coils (left) with their centers (red
dots) in a rhombic pattern (right). The survey delivered high-fold, full azimuth coverage over the target
area (red box).

Fold Offset, m
0 74 100 200 300 400 500 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000

NATS survey

Coil survey NATS survey

Coil survey
Number of traces
Number of bins

> Comparison of NATS and single vessel Coil Shooting survey fold and offsets. The histogram of fold (left) shows the constant fold of a NATS survey (red)
and the variable but large fold of a coil survey (blue). In offset (right), a NATS survey offers slightly longer offsets, but a coil survey of the same size records
more than double the number of traces.

Spring 2013 49

1 525
> Target illumination. Expected illumination based on 3D ray trace modeling (left) closely matches actual illumination (right) at the target level. Illumination
values, the number of raypaths passing through a bin, are color-coded: Low values are blue, and high values are red.
The seismic vessel WesternGeco Amundsen
acquired the two surveys between February and
April 2011. The Calulu PDA coil survey acquisition
was completed in 21 days. On several occasions,
the vessel acquired data continuously for periods
longer than 24 hours with no NPT. Despite the
much smaller area of the Coil Shooting survey, the
size of its prestack dataset was equivalent to that
of the NATS survey; each survey comprised approx-
imately 120,000 shots.
Quality control of coverage in a NATS survey
is usually based on the fold and range of offsets
represented in each bin of the 3D grid. Seismic
traces whose midpoints lie within a bin are
assumed to belong to that bin. This assumption is
correct for at reectors and isotropic velocities,
which are often appropriate for the seabed and
shallow geology but becomes less accurate with
increasing geologic complexity. Ocean crosscur-
rents cause streamers to feather, or deviate from
planned positions, which may lead to gaps, or
areas of bins with low fold. If the gaps are consid-
ered detrimental to the imaging objective, addi-
tional inll lines are acquired over these areas.
Because the Calulu survey was designed to over-
come illumination challenges in a structurally
50
Illumination
complex subsalt target, QC using 3D ray trace
modeling, in addition to the conventional acqui-
sition QC, was performed in near real time
onboard the vessel to compare the expected and
actual illumination at the target reservoir level.
At the end of the programmed survey, the
achieved illumination proved to be essentially
equivalent to the expected illumination, indicat-
ing that streamer feather, vessel deviation and
other factors that can lead to a requirement for
inll acquisition did not impact illumination of
the target (above). Based on this analysis, the
team determined that no inll was necessary for
the Coil Shooting survey, although the NATS
survey required 6.4% more time for inll lines
compared with that used for the programmed
acquisition (next page, top).
Towing the streamers in a curve in the pres-
ence of strong crosscurrents created high levels of
acoustic interference known as crossow noise
that required special processing. Because geo-
physicists needed to design a workow for effec-
tive crossow noise attenuation during the main
Coil Shooting surveyscheduled to be performed
after the NATS surveyseveral preliminary cir-
cles were acquired before the NATS survey to
1,050
assess the magnitude of the crossow noise. The
crossow noise for this Coil Shooting survey
reached levels more than 10 times those of average
straight line surveys.
Q-Marine technology facilitates effective
removal of crossow noise by leveraging advances
in electronics and ber-optic networks to provide
high channel count recording systems. Its single-
sensor eld data are sampled at 3.125-m
[10.25-ft] intervals along each streamer, provid-
ing adequate sampling of the signal and most
noise. The rst stage of the onboard processing
sequence is digital group forming (DGF). In DGF,
engineers apply data-adaptive algorithms to the
shot records from each streamer to recognize and
suppress the crossow noise while preserving the
integrity of the seismic signal. Further noise
attenuation is achieved during subsequent pro-
cessing stages.
Seismic engineers tested parameters for
3D GSMP processing early during acquisition to
determine the optimal workow and facilitate
rapid processing turnaround. They selected
parameters based on ray tracing through a TTI
velocity model provided by TEPA. Various types of
multiples were modeled, including some related to
Oileld Review
the sea/air surface and others occurring between 400
subsurface reectors. The water bottom and top- 350 Coil
of-salt horizons were dened as the most signi-
300 NATS
cant generators of multiples. The Coil Shooting
and NATS data were processed with similar
250
3D GSMP parameters.

Time, h
TEPAs eld evaluation schedule required 200
rapid turnaround for the processing and prelimi-
150
nary imaging. A raw TTI reverse time migration
(RTM) prestack depth migration 3D volume 100
was available four and ve months after the last
50
shotpoint was acquired for the NATS and
Coil Shooting data, respectively. RTM is a 0
prestack two-way wave equation migration algo- Prime Infill Line Technical
acquisition acquisition change downtime
rithm suited to accurate imaging in and below
areas with structural and velocity complexities. > Survey times. While prime acquisition took about the same time for each of
Until recently, companies considered RTM the Calulu PDA surveys, line change and other nonproductive time are much
greater for the NATS acquisition.
impractical because of its high computational
requirements and sensitivity to velocity and
reectivity parameters. Now, large parallel com-
puting clusters, coupled with new workows able
to build increasingly accurate velocity models,
make RTM a more viable option in the imaging
portfolio. Nevertheless, to complete the fast
track processing on schedule, compromises were
made. To produce the fast track images, geophys-
icists selected 50% of the shots and migrated fre-
quencies up to 25 Hz and 20 Hz for the NATS and
Coil Shooting data, respectively. The Coil Shooting
data were divided into four azimuth sectors
before RTM, then the four partial-stack azimuth
datasets were stacked with equal weighting. The
Coil Shooting dataset provided an overall
improvement in imaging, particularly in the
areas of complex structures and steep dips, com-
pared with the NATS dataset.
In some areas, steeply dipping reectors
appeared better imaged in the fast track NATS
data than in the unweighted stack of the
Coil Shooting data. In the presence of complex
geology, illumination from different azimuths is
likely to lead to images of varying quality.
Combining datasets of different azimuths with-
out consideration of image quality may lead to
destructive stacking. Analysis of predicted sub-
surface illumination using ray tracing showed
large variations in the offsets and azimuths that
would be expected to illuminate different areas
and also indicated that destructive stacking was
likely to occur in specic offset-azimuth ranges
along specied target horizons (right).
To further investigate the variation in azi-
muths required to illuminate reectors around > Offset-azimuth plots. Offset-azimuth plots are shown for four locations in a target horizon (center)
around a salt diapir. For each circular plot, distance from the center indicates offset, clockwise
the salt structures, geophysicists applied PSDM
deviation from vertical represents azimuth and color represents the illumination, or the number of
raypaths passing through that location, with low values in blue and high values in red. The plots
indicate large variations in the offsets and azimuths required to illuminate each area. Optimal stacking
results are achieved by giving additional weight to data from azimuths that provide the best image.

Spring 2013 51
 0 to 10 10 to 20 20 to 30 30 to 40 40 to 50 50 to 60 60 to 70 70 to 80 80 to 90

90 to 100 100 to 110 110 to 120 120 to 130 130 to 140 140 to 150 150 to 160 160 to 170 170 to 180

> The impact of azimuth on imaging. PSDM results on a subset of the Calulu PDA Coil Shooting survey were split into 18 azimuth ranges. Each panel
illuminates different features. Because ordinary stacking averages these features and enhances only those signals that are common to all panels, it could
degrade signal amplitude in the most difcult-to-image areas. This observation led geophysicists to devise a data dependent weighted stacking method
that would give preference to azimuths that provided the best illumination.

NATS Data Unweighted Coil Shooting Data Weighted Coil Shooting Data to part of the dataset and split the results into
18 azimuth rangeseach of 10for stacking.
Analysis of the 18 datasets conrmed the corre-
lation observed between the seismic imaging
and the illumination study (above). The images
produced using data from different azimuths
exhibited signicant differences, indicating that
a more intelligent data-adaptive stacking
scheme should create a better image than an
unweighted method.
> Intelligent stacking. Variations in azimuth and offset coverage necessitate a weighted stacking Processing experts developed an iterative
scheme to deliver optimal results. In some areas, data from the NATS survey (left) were similar in intelligent stacking scheme to solve the problem
quality to those from the Coil Shooting fast track processing (middle). Applying data dependent of destructive stacking and create an optimal
weighting to azimuth ranges prior to stacking the Coil Shooting data (right) provided an optimized
image throughout the 3D volume. Localized
image throughout the dataset.
weights for each azimuthally migrated image
were derived from comparison with a reference
NATS Final Processing, 20 Hz Coil Shooting, Fast Track Processing, 20 Hz
image. If the azimuthal image was locally similar
to the reference image, its weight was increased,
and if it was dissimilar, its weight was decreased.
Preliminary results of this iterative stacking
scheme suggest that it shows promise for produc-
ing optimized results from multiazimuth data
(middle left).16
Initial results indicate that the azimuthal
richness of the Coil Shooting technique may be
benecial for enhancing imaging in the Calulu
PDA. A comparison between the Coil Shooting
fast track results and the full processing results
of the NATS data acquired at the time demon-
> Comparing NATS nal processing with preliminary Coil Shooting results. The fully processed narrow
strates the effectiveness of the weighting
azimuth, towed streamer data (left) reveal a great deal of structural complexity, but the partially
processed Coil Shooting data (right) show areas even more clearly imaged (green boxes). These
approach (left). Areas of imaging improvements
include features that are poorly imaged in the NATS data such as layers below salt overhangs and include targets below salt canopies that have
deep reectors that show better lateral continuity.

52 Oileld Review
beneted from FAZ illumination, and deep targets Wide Azimuth Survey, Standard Offsets Coil Shooting Survey, Long Offsets
that have beneted from improved S/N resulting
from the higher fold. The ongoing nal process- Salt keel
ing is focused on fully exploiting the azimuthal
richness of the Coil Shooting technique.

Full Azimuth and Long Offsets in the

Gulf of Mexico
Some geologic environments lead to highly com-
plex raypaths. In such environments, adequate
illumination of the subsurface often requires not
Re
only a full range of azimuths but also very long fl
pacectio
offsets between seismic sources and receivers. kag n
e
This is the case in some subsalt hydrocarbon
plays in deepwater areas of the Gulf of Mexico,
which often present severe imaging challenges
because of thick salt bodies with complex mor- > Improving subsalt illumination with long offsets. Finite-difference acoustic modeling shows the effect
phology. Multivessel WAZ methods have improved of offset length on imaging a reection package truncating against a salt keel (dashed yellow circles).
imaging in these areas, but many datasets have In a commonly used WAZ recording conguration with a maximum inline offset of 8 km and maximum
crossline offset of just over 4,200 m [13,800 ft], reection truncation against the salt keel is indistinct
exhibited areas of low S/N and poor reector con- (left). With a long-offset FAZ Coil Shooting design (right), the reection truncation is more coherent.
tinuity, particularly beneath salt overhangs and
where dip is steep. These areas of poor illumina-
tion are often where imaging is most crucial for
identifying drilling targets and performing eld
appraisal. Modeling studies of these areas have
indicated that adequate subsalt imaging requires
full azimuth coverage and source-receiver offsets
of up to 14 km [8.7 mi] (above right).17
Modern 3D surveys in the Gulf of Mexico typi-
S1 S4
cally use streamers 8 km [5 mi] long. Because
deploying much longer streamers in a circular
geometry would be logistically challenging, a
single-vessel solution cannot meet the require-
ments for long offsets. To deliver the required
azimuth and offset ranges in this area,
WesternGeco geophysicists designed a four-vessel
coil system. It involves two recording vessels with
their own sources and two separate source ves-
sels sailing in 12.5-km [7.8-mi] diameter inter-
linked circles (right). Each streamer vessel has
10 streamers 8 km in length and with 120-m
streamer separation. This dual coil design deliv-
ers a trace density approximately 2.5 times that
S3
of current WAZ survey designs, which improves S2
S/N, further enhancing the imaging of weak sub- > Dual coil survey design. The long-offset FAZ Coil Shooting surveys in the
salt reections. The rst multivessel coil survey Gulf of Mexico have been acquired using two recording vessels with their
in the Gulf of Mexico was acquired in 2010, own sources (S1 and S3) and two separate source vessels (S2 and S4)
and today an area of more than 25,600 km2 sailing in 12.5-km diameter interlinked circles.
[9,880 mi2]equivalent to about 1,100 Outer
Continental Shelf blockshas been surveyed
using the multivessel method. Survey locations
have included heavily obstructed areas with cur-
rents exceeding 2.5 knots [4.6 km/h, 2.9 mi/h]. 16. Zamboni E, Tchikanha S, Lemaistre L, Bovet L, Webb B 17. Moldoveanu N and Kapoor J: What Is the Next Step
and Hill D: A Coil (Full Azimuth) and Narrow Azimuth After WAZ for Exploration in the Gulf of Mexico?,
The surveys are designed to have a random Processing Case Study in Angola Deep Offshore, paper Expanded Abstracts, 79th SEG Annual International
distribution of sources and receivers. The motiva- X025, presented at the 74th European Association of Meeting and Exposition, Houston (October 2530, 2009):
Geoscientists and Engineers Conference and Exhibition, 4145.
tion behind this is twofold: The random shot and Copenhagen, Denmark, June 47, 2012.

Spring 2013 53
 One Gulf of Mexico survey was located in an
area with several production and drilling installa-
tions, representing exclusion zones that required
consideration when planning coil locations. To
acquire surface seismic data under such obstruc-
tions involves deploying sources on one side and
receivers on the opposite side of the restricted
areaa method called undershooting. The dual
coil conguration lends itself to undershooting
because a four-boat coil unit can enclose an area
with a diameter of approximately 9 km [5.6 mi]
without modication. Careful planning of the coil
locations enabled the survey crews to undershoot
most of the production and drilling facilities
without the need to recongure. For the three
largest obstructions in the survey area, the coil
diameter was enlarged to accommodate the
exclusion zones. An automated steering and posi-
tioning system accurately controlled the loca-
tions of the vessels, sources and streamers, which
is particularly critical when making passes close
to obstructions.
> Coil Shooting design exibility. The source positions (red coils) of a dual
Flexibility in survey design in terms of the
coil survey in an obstructed area of the Gulf of Mexico demonstrate the
ability to extend the survey area in any direction. Obstructions are denoted shape of the area to be covered is another impor-
by yellow circles. tant feature of the Coil Shooting technology.
While NATS surveys are generally rectangular
or have other regular geometric shapes,
receiver distribution removes any clustering or undersampled for both sources and receivers and Coil Shooting survey designs can accommodate
repeating pattern that may appear in the cover- regularly distributed along parallel lines. any shape so can be optimized to address the res-
age, and compressive sampling theory states that Therefore, in any part of the processing sequence ervoir or exploration target area. Also, survey
if data are undersampled, the seismic waveeld that requires interpolation or regularization, the areas can be easily extended in any direction
is better reconstructed if measurements are ran- Coil Shooting randomly sampled data will per- after acquisition of an initial program, for exam-
domly distributed.18 Seismic data acquired in form better than conventional data. ple if interesting new features are identied or
conventional NATS marine surveys are typically the initial survey is completed faster than
expected (above left).
The dual coil Gulf of Mexico FAZ datasets
Linear WAZ Data Dual Coil Shooting Data have been processed using vertical transverse
Top of Salt
isotropy or TTI RTM schemes appropriate for the
complex geology and steep dips around the sub-
salt targets. Processing included 3D prestack
acoustic full waveform inversion (FWI), which
uses a two-way wave equation method, to build
high-resolution velocity models. Full waveform
Base of Salt
inversion performs forward modeling to compute
the differences between the acquired seismic
data and the current model and carries out a pro-
cess similar to RTM on the residual dataset to
compute a gradient volume and to update the
velocity model. When combined with imaging
using RTM, model building with FWI improved
the nal product because consistent waveeld
solutions were applied throughout the depth
imaging workow. Initial results from the Gulf of
> Dual Coil Shooting results. Two datasets were fast track processed using the same preliminary
Mexico Dual Coil Shooting surveys show signi-
velocity model. The linear WAZ dataset (left) and Dual Coil Shooting dataset (right) both show a strong
cant improvements over linear WAZ surveys in
reection at the top of salt. The Dual Coil Shooting dataset exhibits improved imaging of the base of salt
and better continuity of reections (dashed yellow circles) beneath the salt body. the same areas (left).

54 Oileld Review
 Horizontal Streamer
Slant Streamer
> Slanting the streamer. In a Gulf of Mexico test, Coil Shooting data from a
horizontal streamer (top) and a slant streamer (bottom) demonstrate the broader
bandwidth achievable with a slant streamer. Deep reectors in complex
structures, such as those in the yellow boxes, are more clearly imaged with
the slant streamer.
To date, the multivessel Coil Shooting tech-
nique has focused on imaging challenges in the
western Gulf of Mexico; however, it is applicable
in other difcult-to-image geologic environments
such as where thick layers of basalt are present
or where carbonates distort seismic raypaths.
Investigations are ongoing into the use of
simultaneous sources to improve source sampling
and productivity in multivessel seismic acquisi-
tion. The four sources in the current Gulf of
Mexico projects are red sequentially at intervals
17 s apart. By ring four sources at the same time,
data density is quadrupled for no extra acquisi-
tion cost as long as the resulting waveelds can
be recorded separately. With sources spaced at
least 12.5 km apart on opposite sides of a coil,
there is no overlap of the waveelds for large por-
tions of a simultaneous shot record. Modeling
studies and a eld feasibility test have indicated
18. Moldoveanu, reference 11.
19. Moldoveanu N, Ji Y and Beasley C: Multivessel
Coil Shooting Acquisition with Simultaneous Sources,
paper ACQ 1.6, presented at the 82nd SEG Annual
International Meeting and Exposition, Las Vegas,
Nevada, November 49, 2012.
20. Moldoveanu N, Seymour N, Manen DJ and Caprioli P:
Broadband Seismic Methods for Towed-Streamer
Acquisition, paper Z009, presented at the 74th
European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers
Conference and Exhibition, Copenhagen, Denmark,
June 47, 2012.
Spring 2013
that multivessel coil data acquired with simulta-
neous sources can be processed effectively.19
Further investigations are underway to conrm
that simultaneous shooting can be applied on
future multivessel Coil Shooting projects.
Extending the Bandwidth
Coil acquisition geometries deliver FAZ data and
may be congured to deliver long offsets, both
of which contribute to improved illumination.
Improving resolution, another key objective in
the quest to enhance seismic imaging, requires
extending the range of usable signal frequencies
at both high and low ends.
One of the limiting factors in seismic resolu-
tion for marine towed streamer acquisition is the
so called ghost effect, which results from the
receivers being deployed several meters below
the sea surface. The ghost effect causes attenua-
tion of certain frequencies depending on the
receiver depth. The attenuation is caused by
interference between the upgoing seismic wave-
eld and its ghostthe reection of the wave-
eld bouncing back from the sea surface above
the streamer. Conventional towed streamer
marine seismic acquisition systems typically
deploy streamers at depths between 6 and 12 m
[20 and 39 ft]. Shallower towing would preserve
medium and high frequencies but attenuate low
frequencies. Shallower towing would also make
the data more susceptible to environmental noise
such as waves, swell and wind. Towing streamers
at greater depths would reduce environmental
noise and preserve low frequencies but would
attenuate higher frequencies.
Recent developments in seismic acquisition
and processing technologies have enabled the
successful implementation of several solutions to
address the receiver ghost problem. One solution
is to tow the streamers at a slant, resulting in
variable receiver depthsand thus attenuating a
variable range of frequenciesfrom one end of
the streamers to the other.20 Stacking and migra-
tion combine data from different parts of the
streamers, attenuating the receiver ghost.
However, before these processes, attenuation of
multiples and velocity model building must be
performed, for which a uniform wavelet is
required. To facilitate this, a new algorithm was
developed that performs prestack receiver
deghosting, and this is applied at an early stage
in processing. The source ghost is addressed by
a newly developed calibrated marine broadband
family of seismic sources.
WesternGeco conducted a feasibility eld test
with a slant streamer conguration during the
multivessel coil acquisition program in the Gulf of
Mexico, in which streamers are usually towed at a
depth of 12 m. Acquisition of one coil was repeated
with the streamers deployed in a slant mode such
that receiver depths ranged from 12 m to 32 m
[39 to 105 ft]. Comparison of prestack depth
migration results for horizontal streamer and
slant streamer data indicated that the ObliQ slant
streamer acquisition and processing technique
enhanced the low frequencies while preserving
medium and high frequencies (above left). The
preservation of lower frequencies is important
not only for imaging deep or steep targets but
also for building high-resolution velocity models
using FWI. To date, two single-vessel Coil Shooting
surveys have been acquired using slant stream-
ers, one in Europe and one in Asia. A multivessel
Coil Shooting survey using slant streamers has
been acquired in the Gulf of Mexico.
Since the rst Coil Shooting feasibility tests
in 2007, the technique has proved to be a cost-
effective and efcient solution for better illumi-
nation and improved seismic imaging in complex
geologic environments around the world. Further
improvements are expected from the implemen-
tation of innovative acquisition congurations,
advanced processing technologies and new work-
ows that will extract more information from
seismic measurements to enhance our under-
standing of the subsurface. JK
55

Seraj Al-Abdulbaqi is a Service Quality Support
Manager for NExT, a Schlumberger company; his
NExT responsibilities include work with Al-Khafji Joint
Operations in Al-Khafji, Saudi Arabia. In 2001, Seraj
began his career at Schlumberger as a log data proces-
sor; he became the SaudiKuwaiti neutral zone data
delivery center manager in 2006 and assumed his
current position in 2011.
Abdulaziz Alobaydan is the Superintendent of
Career Development in the Training and Development
Department for Al-Khafji Joint Operations (KJO) in
Al-Khafji, Saudi Arabia. He is responsible for career
development and special training and development
projects. Abdulaziz became an electrical engineer in
fire and safety maintenance in 1992 with KJO and has
since held various positions with the company. He
earned a BS degree in electrical engineering from
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Aimen Amer, based in East Ahmadi, Kuwait, is a
Principal Geologist for Schlumberger working as a
Fracture and Petroleum Systems Specialist. He has
served in this capacity for the past 15 years in the
Middle East, Africa and the US. He holds a US patent
for a new concept of structural dip computation in the
subsurface and has taught basic and advanced geology
courses in the US, Brazil, Oman, Algeria and Libya. He
has performed numerous outcrop studies on modern
and ancient depositional environments. Aimen
obtained a BS degree in geology and geophysics from
Benghazi University, Libya, and an MSc degree in
basin and petroleum systems dynamics from Jacobs
University Bremen, Germany.
Cosan Ayan is a Reservoir Engineering Advisor and
Reservoir Domain Champion for Schlumberger
Wireline; he is based in Paris. Previously, he held res-
ervoir engineering positions for Schlumberger Testing
Services and Data & Consulting Services. He joined
the company in 1990 to work with Schlumberger
Reservoir Characterization Services in Dubai. Later,
he held reservoir engineering positions in Cairo,
Aberdeen, Houston, Jakarta and Abu Dhabi, UAE. The
author of many papers on well testing and reservoir
engineering, he was an SPE Distinguished Lecturer
for 2005/2006 and served as executive editor of SPE
Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering from 2007 to
2010. Cosan earned a BS degree from Middle East
Technical Universitywhere he currently serves as
Associate Professorand MS and PhD degrees from
Texas A&M University in College Station, USA, all in
petroleum engineering.
Tim Brice is a Principal Geophysicist for WesternGeco
in Perth, Western Australia, Australia. He began his
career with Schlumberger in 1991 as a field geophysi-
cist and has since held multiple positions with the
company; he has been involved mainly in survey design
and acquisition geophysics. Before this, he worked at
Horizon Exploration, Robertson Geologging and
Gearhart Industries. Tim has a BS degree in geology
from the University of Leeds, England, and an MS
degree in geophysics from Imperial College, University
of London.
56
Contributors
Michele Buia is Geophysical Senior Advisor for the
Eni SpA E&P Africa Region and is based at headquar-
ters in Milan, Italy. Since 1992, he has held various
technical positions in data processing, participated in
four-component survey planning, acquisition and pro-
cessing projects and managed an R&D project to inte-
grate seismic and nonseismic geophysical methods.
From 2003 to 2008, he led the Eni seismic processing
group. Michele obtained a degree in geology with a
specialization in rock mechanics from the University
of Bologna, Italy.
Ravi Chhibber is Exploration Systems Advisor at
Schlumberger Information Solutions in Houston. He
joined the company in 1989 as a processing geophysi-
cist in New Delhi, India, and since then has worked
in Mumbai, Dubai and Houston. He has been involved
in field operations, field studies, software deploy-
ment, workflow optimization and marketing. During
his career, he has worked on projects for national and
international oil companies as well as regional and
small companies throughout the world. Ravi earned a
bachelors degree in science from Punjab University,
Chandigarh, India, and a masters degree in geophysi-
cal engineering from the Indian Institute of
Technology in Roorkee, Uttarkhand.
Filippo Chinellato, based in Milan, Italy, is Well
Placement Domain Champion in charge of geosteering
and geology LWD applications for Schlumberger opera-
tions in continental Europe. He joined Schlumberger
Drilling & Measurements in 2006 as a field engineer in
Ecuador. Since 2007, he has worked as a well place-
ment engineer and borehole geologist in South
America and Europe. He geosteered more than 70
wells worldwide in conventional and unconventional
plays for more than 20 operators. Filippo recently par-
ticipated in a joint ENI SpA and STOGIT underground
gas storage field campaign in Italy and assisted with
the first shale gas well placement in Poland. He has an
MSc degree in geology from Universit di Padova, Italy.
Steve Collins, based in Dallas, is a Petroleum
Geologist with Chief Oil & Gas LLC. He began his
career in 1982 with the Pitts Energy group as a geolo-
gist in the Fort Worth basin in Texas. In 1998, he
joined Tejas Western Corporation, a pioneer in the
Barnett Shale play in Texas. In 2003, he joined Chief
Oil & Gas as a member of the companys Barnett Shale
horizontal drilling development team. In 2007, Chief
Oil & Gas began focusing on the Marcellus Shale play
in Pennsylvania, USA, and Steve is involved primarily
with the Marcellus Shale development team today. He
holds a BS degree in geology from Western Carolina
University, Cullowhee, North Carolina, USA.
Alex Cooke is an Area Geophysicist with WesternGeco
in Brazil. His responsibilities focus on the technical
aspects of data processing operations in Rio de Janeiro.
He began his career as a geophysical analyst with
Western Geophysical in London, working on offshore 3D
projects. Then he supervised land, shallow marine and
marine processing departments and most recently was
the data processing service manager in Gatwick,
England. Alex received a BS degree in geophysical
sciences from the University of Lancaster, England.
Pierre-Yves Corre is a Schlumberger Engineering
Project Leader in Abbeville, France, where he leads
the development of high-performance, high-tempera-
ture inflatable packers for the MDT* and Saturn*
probes. Since beginning his career with the company
18 years ago, he has held various positions, including
design engineer, project leader and project manager.
Pierre-Yves has a degree in engineering from
Universit de Technologique de Compigne, France.
Jean-Michel Denichou is the Schlumberger Well
Placement and Geology Domain Head in Sugar Land,
Texas, where he is responsible for advising customers
in the planning and execution of well placement oper-
ations and the development of new well placement
solutions. He started his career with Schlumberger in
Nigeria as a log analyst in 1996 and two years later
focused on well placement, holding positions such as
well placement engineer, well placement coordinator,
team leader and domain champion. During the last
15years, he has served in Nigeria, Algeria, Tunisia,
Norway, the US and China. He has coauthored several
SPE papers and is a member of the AAPG, the SPWLA
and the SPE. Jean-Michel obtained his MSc degree in
geology from the Institut Catholique de Paris.
Isabelle Dubourg is a Tool Physicist for Schlumberger
Drilling & Measurements in Clamart, France. She
began her career with Schlumberger in 1988 working
on pressure gauges and then helped with the develop-
ment of electrode-based formation evaluation tools for
openhole, cased hole and LWD logging systems. She
has been involved in the physics and interpretation of
images from the MicroScope* tool. Her primary areas
of responsibility have been physics of measurement,
response modeling and answer product development
for these tool systems. Isabelle holds a PhD degree in
atomic and molecular physics from the Universit
Paris-Sud, France.
Mauro Firinu is a Project Manager and Geology
Operations Team Leader for Eni E&P in Ravenna, Italy.
In his 25 years of experience in the oil and gas indus-
try, he has served as wellsite geologist, petrophysicist
and subsurface geology manager in Europe, Asia,
Africa, and the US. Author of several technical papers,
Mauro earned a diploma in geology and mining engi-
neering from the G. Asproni Technical Mining Institute
in Iglesias, Italy.
Germn Garca, who has more than 17 years of oil-
field experience, is the Reservoir Domain Champion
for Schlumberger Wireline for Mexico and Central
America and is based in Mexico City. He previously
was domain champion and provided wireline techni-
cal support in the Middle East, the North Sea and in
South America. Germn received a BS degree in
petroleum engineering from the National University
of Colombia in Medelln and has a masters degree in
petroleum engineering with project management
from Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh, Scotland.
Oilfield Review
Roger Grifths is the Petrophysics Domain Head for
Schlumberger Drilling & Measurements in Petaling
Jaya, Malaysia. He joined the company in 1987 as a
wireline eld engineer and has worked in Asia, the
Middle East, Europe, Africa and North America in
eld, management, engineering and technical posi-
tions. He is a Technical Advisor in petrophysics and
well placement, has written two books, coauthored
numerous technical papers and holds several patents
related to petrophysics and well placement. Roger
received a degree (Hons) in mechanical engineering
from The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
David Hill, Europe and Africa Technology Manager at
WesternGeco in Gatwick, England, joined the company
in 2000. He is responsible for geophysical support for
the WesternGeco Europe and Africa region. Previously,
he worked with Amoco UK for 10 years as an opera-
tions geophysicist and designed, acquired and pro-
cessed seismic surveys to meet the objectives of
exploration and development asset teams. He also held
various positions for Western Geophysical from 1978 to
1990, gaining experience in data processing and in
geophysical software development. David received a
BSc degree (Hons) in physics and geophysics from the
University of Liverpool, England.
Abul Jamaluddin is NExT Business Manager for North
America and a Schlumberger Flow Assurance Advisor
in Houston. He joined Schlumberger in 1998 and has
worked in business development and operations man-
agement in the Americas, Middle East and Asia.
Previously, he served as the NExT unconventional pro-
gram director, reservoir sampling and analysis opera-
tions manager for the Middle East and Asia, and uids
business development manager for North and South
America. He is the coinventor of eight patented pro-
cesses and has coauthored more than 100 technical
papers. He was named an SPE Distinguished Member
in 2012. Abul, who has more than 22 years of industry
experience, obtained his PhD degree from the
University of Calgary.
Jeffrey D. Johnson is a Consulting Geophysicist and
Geology and Geophysics Instructor for NExT in Tulsa.
He has 35 years of experience in the oil and gas
industry, including technical, supervisory and senior
management positions in exploration, reservoir char-
acterization and geoscience technology management.
Until his retirement from Schlumberger in 2010, he
was geology and geophysics curriculum director for
NExT, where he designed, coordinated and taught in
many NExT training and development programs and
projects worldwide. Before joining Schlumberger, he
spent 15 years with Amoco as an exploration geophys-
icist and technical manager and nine years as gen-
eral manager of Amoco geology and geophysics
research and technical services. He has BS and MS
degrees in geophysics from Stanford University in
California, USA, as well as additional technical and
business school education.
Spring 2013
Nizar Khaled has been a Geophysicist with Total since
2008. From 2010 to 2012, he was in charge of seismic
acquisition for Total E&P Angola. Nizar earned an
engineering degree from Ecole Polytechnique de
Tunisie, Tunis, and an MSc degree in petroleum geosci-
ences from Ecole Nationale Suprieure du Ptrole et In early 2007, she became Schlumberger personnel
des Moteurs, Rueil-Malmaison, France. He is based in
Luanda, Angola.
Randy Koepsell is a Schlumberger Geology Advisor in
Denver. He began his career with Schlumberger in
1980 as a wireline eld engineer in Graham, Texas,
and has since held various positions within the com-
pany, including eld service manager, district manager
and principal geologist. Randy has coauthored numer-
ous papers presented at AAPG, SPWLA, SPE and SEG
conferences. He holds a BS degree in mining engineer-
ing from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.
Ed Kotochigov is Manager of Marine Global
Operations Support for WesternGeco in Oslo, Norway.
Previously, he was a marine marketing manager in
Gatwick, England. He joined Schlumberger in 1998 as
a marine seismic acquisition engineer, working on sev-
eral seismic vessels in London and Houston. In 2003,
Ed was cross-trained as a reservoir stimulation engi-
neer, and in this role he was a DESC* design and eval-
uation services for clients engineer for Chevron and
BP in Houston. He returned to WesternGeco in 2006 as
operations manager in the Arctic and in South
America. Ed earned an associates degree from the
American Institute of Business and Economics,
Moscow, and an MS degree in geology and geophysics
from the Lomonosov Moscow State University.
Morten R. Kristensen is a Senior Reservoir Engineer
with Schlumberger in Abu Dhabi, UAE, where he
works on new technology development and deploy-
ment for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). He started
working for Schlumberger in 2008 developing
ECLIPSE* modeling software at the Schlumberger
Abingdon Technology Center, England. He specializes
in modeling and simulation of advanced recovery pro-
cesses and been involved in chemical and CO2 EOR
projects in the Middle East. Morten received both MSc
and PhD degrees in chemical engineering from the
Technical University of Denmark in Lyngby, where he
focused on thermal EOR processes.
Stig Lyngra is a Petroleum Engineering Consultant
with Saudi Aramco in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. He
began his career in 1987 with Conoco, Inc., where he
spent 10 years as a reservoir engineer, commercial
coordinator and in various joint asset management
positions in the US, Norway and the UK. He then
became the discipline leader for petroleum engineer-
ing for Danop in Denmark. In early 2000, after this
company was taken over by DONG, The Danish
National Oil Company, he became asset manager. In
his 12 years with Saudi Aramco, he has coauthored 25
publications on topics ranging from completions tech-
nology, reservoir and fracture characterization and
reservoir simulation and microgravity to electromag-
netic R&D on interwell saturation surveillance tech-
niques. Stig has an MS degree in petroleum
engineering from the Norwegian Institute of
Technology, Trondheim, and a degree in business
administration from the BI Norwegian School of
Management in Stavanger.
Catherine MacGregor is President of Schlumberger
Wireline. After joining the company in 1995 as a eld
engineer with Sedco Forex, she held diverse manage-
ment and marketing positions throughout Europe, Asia
and the US for Schlumberger Drilling & Measurements.
director and later that year was appointed vice presi-
dent personnel for Schlumberger Limited. She was
named to her present position in 2009. Catherine holds
degrees in general engineering and aerospace engineer-
ing from Ecole Centrale de Paris and a diploma in
advanced studies of energetics and heat transfer. She is
based in Clamart, France.
Philippe Marza is a Schlumberger Principal Geologist
in Aberdeen. He began his career in 1997 working as a
borehole geologist in West Africa, North Africa and the
North Sea until 2005. After holding a technical support
position, he was in charge of the design of the
eXpandBG* software, a Petrel* plug-in dedicated to
structural analysis and modeling based on borehole
images. In 2012, he returned to the North Sea region
to develop advanced structural interpretations of LWD
measurements. Philippe teaches courses on structural
analysis and modeling based on borehole image inter-
pretation; he received a PhD degree in geology from
Montpellier University, France.
Nick Moldoveanu started his career with
Schlumberger in 1989 and has had various assign-
ments in data processing, software development, geo-
physical support for acquisition and processing,
seismic survey design and the development and com-
mercialization of seismic acquisition and processing
technologies. Currently, he is the Global Geophysical
Advisor for Seismic Solution Design and Modeling in
Houston. Before joining Schlumberger, he worked for
the Geological and Geophysical Oil Prospecting
Company (IPGG), Bucharest, Romania, as a eld geo-
physicist, seismic interpreter, seismic technology ana-
lyst, data processing manager and technical director of
the IPGG seismic computer center. He earned a degree
in geophysics from the Romanian Oil, Gas, and Geology
Institute, Faculty of Geology and Geophysics,
Bucharest, and a degree in mathematics from the
University of Bucharest. Nick has more than 60 pub-
lished technical papers, holds 10 patents and has 12
patent applications under review.
Lynn Murphy is the Manager of the NExT Technical,
Management and Software Customer Training
Business in Houston, a position she has held since
2010. Lynn began working for Schlumberger in 2000
and has served in a variety of Schlumberger
GeoMarket* business management roles. Previously,
she spent 20 years at numerous large and medium
independent oil and gas operators in Houston. Lynn
holds a bachelors degree in geology and environmen-
tal science from Thiel College in Greenville,
Pennsylvania.
57
Doug Murray is LWD Domain Champion and
Petrophysics Advisor for Schlumberger in Abu Dhabi,
UAE. Since joining Schlumberger in 1982, he has held
various positions in the eld and in management, engi-
neering and formation evaluation. His career includes
assignments in Canada, Algeria, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia,
Trinidad and Tobago, Argentina, Japan and China.
Doug has a BS degree in electrical engineering from
Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada,
and an MA degree in management from the University
of Hull, Yorkshire, England. He is a member of the
SPWLA, the SPE and SEG.
Michael OKeefe is Principal Reservoir Engineer for
Schlumberger Global Accounts in London, where he
provides technical advice and customer support on
exploration and appraisal projects across Africa and
Europe. Since joining the company as a wireline eld
engineer in Austria, he has held positions in interpre-
tation, product development, marketing and wireline
operations in locations around the world. He is the
author of more than 22 technical and industry articles
and holds seven granted patents. As a member of the
Quicksilver Probe* development team, he received the
Harts Meritorious Engineering Award in 2006. He has
been awarded two Performed by Schlumberger Gold
Medals, was an SPWLA Distinguished Lecturer in 2010
and is a 2013/2014 SPE Distinguished Lecturer.
Michael holds a bachelors degree in electrical engi-
neering from the University of Tasmania, Australia.
Ed Palmer is a Solution Design and Modeling Manager
for WesternGeco in Gatwick, England. He manages the
solution design and modeling business in Europe and
Africa. He began his career in 1976 with the Republic
of South Africa Department of Minerals and Energy,
collecting and interpreting geophysical data for
groundwater, diamond and mineral exploration proj-
ects. In 1979, he returned to England to work for
Geophysical Service Inc. (GSI) in seismic data pro-
cessing. As GSI evolved into Halliburton Geophysical
Services, Western Geophysical and then WesternGeco,
Ed gained experience in supervising 2D, 3D and 4D
marine data processing projects and, more recently,
advanced integrated projects around the world. He
earned a BSc degree (Hons) in physics and geophysics
from the University of Liverpool, England.
Thomas Pfeiffer is a Senior Reservoir Domain
Champion for Schlumberger Wireline in Stavanger.
He joined Schlumberger as a wireline eld engineer
in 2002 and has worked in the North Sea, Europe and
the Gulf of Mexico. As a subject matter expert,
Thomas provides technical support to wireline forma-
tion testing services and integrates the acquired data
in reservoir engineering workows. He is a coauthor
of seven publications on downhole uid analysis and
a coinventor of a US patent application. Thomas
received BS and MS degrees in electrical engineering
from the Technical University of Munich, Germany,
and an MS degree in petroleum engineering from
Texas A&M University in College Station.
Iwan (Bob) Roberts is a Schlumberger Drilling &
Measurements Principal Geoscientist in Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia. He began his career in 1988 with
Schlumberger as a mud logging geologist and then
became an MWD and LWD engineer in Aberdeen. In
58
1998, he ran the rst LWD quad combo job in India. Murat Zeybek is a Schlumberger Reservoir
Since 2001, he has worked in interpretation of LWD Engineering Advisor and Reservoir and Production
measurements and has introduced new technology, Domain Champion for the Middle East. His work
mainly in Saudi Arabia and India. These new technol- focuses on analysis and interpretation of wireline for-
ogy introductions include the rst well placement ser- mation testers, pressure transient analysis, numeri-
vices using real-time images for Saudi Aramco, the cal modeling of uid ow, water control, production
rst seismic-while-drilling application in India, rst logging and reservoir monitoring. He has written
deployment of EcoScope* multifunction LWD in India more than 50 technical publications and has served
and the introduction of the PeriScope* electromag- on a variety of SPE technical review committees.
netic (EM) boundary mapping tool to India; most Murat earned a BS degree from the Istanbul
recently, he has overseen the introduction of a new Technical University, Turkey, and MS and PhD
deep EM LWD tool in Saudi Arabia. He has published degrees from the University of Southern California in
widely in many professional journals, mainly on LWD Los Angeles, all in petroleum engineering. He is
applications. He has served on the board of directors based in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
of SPWLA India. Bob teaches courses in geosteering An asterisk (*) is used to denote a mark of Schlumberger.
and interpretation of LWD measurements and their
applications. He holds a BSc degree in geology from
the University of Edinburgh, Scotland.
Srgio Tchikanha is a Processing Supervisor
Geophysicist for Total E&P Angola in Luanda, a posi-
tion he has held since 2010. Srgio earned a BS degree
in physics engineering from the University of Lisbon,
Portugal, and an MS degree in geosciences from the
Institut Franais du Ptrole, Rueil-Malmaison, France.
Chris Tevis is a Product Champion with Schlumberger
at the Houston Pressure and Sampling Center in Sugar
Land, Texas. Before this, he was a eld engineer, an
engineer in charge, a eld service manager and
quality operations support manager in China,
Southeast Asia and the US. Chris obtained a BS degree
in mechanical engineering from Columbia University,
New York City, and is pursuing an MSc degree in oil
and gas industry management from Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Kalyanaraman Venugopal is a Project Manager for
NExT in Houston and manages the NExT shale gas
training program for Saudi Aramco. He started his
career in 1995 as an MWD and LWD engineer with
Drilling & Measurements (then known as Anadrill) in
Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia. In 18 years with
Schlumberger, he has held a variety of managerial
positions with Drilling & Measurements, Oileld
Services and Data & Consulting Services in worldwide
locations. He has an integrated dual degree in electri-
cal and electronics engineering and an MSc degree in
mathematics, both from the Birla Institute of
Technology & Science, Pilani, Rajasthan, India.
Enrico Zamboni is a Geophysicist at Total E&P Angola
in Luanda and began his career with the company in
2008. He has more than 12 years of experience in the
industry; he has also worked as a geophysicist at Eni
SpA and as a research geophysicist at the University of
Milan, Italy. Enrico received an MA degree in physics
from the University of Milan.
Luigi Zappalorto is a Senior Operations Geologist
with Eni Norge SA in Stavanger. Prior to his current
position, he was an operations geologist in Italy and
Tunisia. Luigi holds a BS degree in geology and an
MS degree in EU environmental policy for sustainable
development from the G. dAnnunzio University of
Chieti-Pescara, Italy.
Oileld Review
NEW BOOKS Coming in Oileld Review

Sacred; Next to Emily Dickinson; Contents: Multistage Stimulation. Liquid-

Jokin in the Girls Room; An s (OTSPOTSAND2OGUE%ARTHQUAKES rich shales are delivering on their
Education; There Should Be Other early promise as high-volume
Prizes; With Love and Squalor s 0ART0ROBLEMSScreaming Cities;
What Is an Earthquake, Anyway?; sources of new oil. But these
s 3ELECTED7ORKSBY,YNN-ARGULIS Journey to the Center of the Earth; ultralow-permeability formations
.OTES)NDEX can be accessed and produced only
Ly n n Tracking the Unseen; How Big?
How Strong?; The Wave That Shook by stimulating many intervals along
Ma rgul i s . . . this is a captivating read for the World lengthy horizontal wellbores. New
The Life and Legacy of a S C I E N T I F I C R E B E L anyone interested in what powers
s 0ART3OLUTIONSPrevention and multistage stimulation technology
great scientists.
E D I T E D BY DORION SAGAN Cure; Next Years Earthquakes; allows operators to improve comple-
h"OOK2EVIEWvPublishers Weekly/CTOBER Twenty-Five Seconds for Bucharest; tion efciency even as they drill
 HTTPWWWPUBLISHERSWEEKLYCOM
Earthquakes Dont Kill People, longer wells and the number of


ACCESSED*ANUARY  Buildings Do; The Probability of
Lynn Margulis: The Life and intervals to be treated increases
Legacy of a Scientic Rebel Disaster; Stay Safe accordingly.
In this thoughtful and expertly
Dorion Sagan (ed) s .OTES)NDEX
curated collection, Marguliss son
Chelsea Green and long-time collaborator, Dorion Routine Core Analysis. The nature
85 North Main Street, Suite 120 . . . an excellent read presenting of subsurface exploration forces oil
Sagan, calls her indomitable
White River Junction, Vermont the levelheaded detachment of an
Lynn. . . . In other essays, Marguliss and gas companies to investigate
05001 USA academic expert in the entertaining
complex personality beguiles, frus- each reservoir remotely, primarily
2012. 224 pages. US$ 27.95 guise of a popular science book.
trates, charms, and elevates various through well logs, seismic surveys
ISBN 978-1-603-58446-3 writers, resulting in a stunning 3MITH.h"OOK2EVIEWSvEngineering and
and well tests. Cores, however,
portrait that no single remembrance Technology Magazine3EPTEMBER 
Lynn Margulis, who passed away in provide operators with physical
could have captured. . . . Taken as a HTTPEANDTTHEIETORGMAGAZINE
2011, was best known for her work on whole, Sagans collection is a tting BOOK
REVIEWSCFMACCESSED*ANUARY 
the origins of eukaryotic cells, the Gaia
hypothesis and symbiogenesis as a
driving force in evolution. This collec-
samples of rock and uids that can
tribute to a woman whose life and be measured directly to yield valuable
legacy have touched so many others. . . . people with no background in information. Careful testing and
Earth sciences can understand every analysis of these samples allow
tion of essays about her, edited by her -ILLARD %h"OOK 2EVIEWvForeWord Reviews
word of it; its author is the head of operators to determine whether
son and collaborator, reveals her life
and legacy through descriptions of her
scientic collaborations and the
application of her intellectual energy
3EPTEMBER https://www.foreword
seismic hazard for the British the rock contains uid-lled pores,
reviews.com/reviews/lynn-margulis/ (accessed
Geological Survey and writes with whether those pores contain hydro-
January 11, 2013).
authority. . . . carbons, and if so, whether those
and interests. 2ADFORD4h"OOK2EVIEWvThe Guardian hydrocarbons can be produced. The
.OVEMBER HTTPWWWGUARDIANCOUK process of routine core analysis
Contents: BOOKSNOVMILLION
DEATH
QUAKE
ROGER
helps answer these questions and
MUSSON
REVIEWACCESSED*ANUARY 
s "EGINNINGSTale of Tales; more.
Erudition; As Above, So Below; On
Musson provides a lay-reader-
Lynn from a Close Friend and Workow Software for
friendly guide to seismology funda-
Colleague; Gaia Is Not an Stimulations and Completions.
mentals, from early theories about
Organism: Scenes from the Early Schlumberger engineers have created
earthquake origins to the workings of
Scientic Collaboration Between
contemporary plate tectonics. . . . workow software for designing,
Lynn Margulis and James Lovelock
Musson demonstrates why his exper- simulating and analyzing hydraulic
s 0UTTINGTHE,IFEBACKINTO"IOLOGY tise is much in demand in the wake of fracture stimulations and comple-
The Passionate Lynn Margulis; each new quake by keeping readers tions. A completion advisor tool
Lynn Margulis and Stephen Jay absorbed with clear explanations and
Gould; Too Fantastic for Polite
enables a systematic, engineering
colorful anecdotes about one of
Society: A Brief History of design approach that improves stim-
The Million Death Quake: The natures most calamitous forces.
Symbiosis Theory; Kingdoms and ulation effectiveness and increases
Science of Predicting Earths (AYS#h"OOKLIST2EVIEWvBooklist Online
Domains: At Work on the Linnaean well production. Advances in hydrau-
Deadliest Natural Disaster 3EPTEMBER HTTPWWWBOOKLISTONLINE
Task; The Battle of Balliol; Science, lic fracture simulation software
Roger Musson COM0RODUCT)NFOASPXPID
Music, Philosophy: Margulis at enable integrated fracture design
Palgrave Macmillan Ltd, !SPX!UTO$ETECT#OOKIE3UPPORTACCESSED
Oxford; Neo-Darwinism and the and evaluation. The workow allows
Group Selection Controversy
s !-ODERN
$AY#OPERNICUS
Sippewissett Time Slip; The Cultural
Dimensions of Lynn Marguliss



 plan, monitoring and calibration and,
Science; Lynn Margulis on
Spirituality and Process
Philosophy; A Ferocious
Intelligence; Fishermen in the
Maelstrom: Big History, Symbiosis,
and Lynn Margulis as a Modern-
Day Copernicus
a division of St. Martins Press LLC *ANUARY 
completion engineers to close the
175 Fifth Avenue
New York, New York 10010 USA completion design loop, from reser-
2012. 272 pages. US$ 27.00 voir characterization to stimulation
)3".
nally, production evaluation.
Seismologist Roger Musson describes
the tectonic forces driving earthquakes
and tsunamis and highlights locations
that are vulnerable to these geologic
forces. Musson also explores what
scientists and engineers are doing to
s 2EBEL4EACHER.EIGHBOR&RIEND prepare our most populated places for
Gaiadelic: Lynn Sagan and LSD; future earthquakes.
Two Hit, Three DownThe Biggest
Lie: David Ray Grifns Work
Exposing 9/11; No Subject Too

Spring 2013 59
Seismic Imaging and Inversion:
Application of Linear
Inverse Theory
Robert H. Stolt and Arthur B. Weglein
Cambridge University Press
32 Avenue of the Americas
New York, New York 10013 USA
2012. 416 pages. US$ 125.00




ISBN: 978-1-107-01490-9




Intended as a resource for working
geoscientists, programmers and theo-
retical physicists, this book is the rst
volume in a proposed two-volume series.
The authors present an overview of
modeling, migration, imaging and
inversion and the relationships between
these technologies. Also included is a
discussion of linear inverse scattering
theory to extract information from
seismic data.
Contents:
Global Environment: Water,
Air, and Geochemical Cycles,
Second Edition
Elizabeth Kay Berner and
Robert A. Berner
Princeton University Press
41 William Street
Princeton, New Jersey 08540 USA
2012. 460 pages. US$ 85.00
ISBN 978-0-691-13678-3
The updated edition of this textbook
takes a global approach to geochemistry
and environmental problems involving
water. The new edition, which intro-
duces basic concepts of meteorology,
surcial geology, biogeochemistry,
limnology and oceanography, is
intended for students and those doing
research on global geochemical and
environmental issues.
Contents:
Reverse Innovation: Create Far
from Home, Win Everywhere
Vijay Govindarajan and
Chris Trimble
Harvard Business Publishing
60 Harvard Way
Boston, Massachusetts 02163 USA
2012. 256 pages. US$ 30.00
)3".
Innovation no longer travels only from
developed to developing nations say the
authors, who claim the concept of reverse
innovation is on the rise and that implica-
tions for global emerging markets are
profound. The authors follow companies
such as General Electric Company, Deere
& Company and PepsiCo to illustrate how
these corporations have used reverse
innovation in emerging markets.
Contents:
s 4HE2EVERSE)NNOVATION#HALLENGE
Solved Problems in Geophysics
Elisa Buforn, Carmen Pro and
Agustn Udas
Cambridge University Press
32 Avenue of the Americas
New York, New York 10013 USA
2012. 264 pages. US$ 50.00
)3".
The authors offer a collection of nearly
200 problems in geophysics and solve
them, showing steps in the solutions,
the equations and the assumptions
made. The equations, which are com-
monly used to solve geophysical prob-
lems, are applied to a series of exercises
addressing classical areas of geophysics.
Contents:
s )NTRODUCTIONGravity;
Geomagnetism; Seismology; Heat
Flow; Geochronology
s 'RAVITYTerrestrial Geoid and
s )NTRODUCTION-ODELING-IGRATION s )NTRODUCTIONTOTHE'LOBAL The Future Is Far from Home; The Ellipsoid; Earths Gravity Field and
)MAGINGAND)NVERSION %NVIRONMENT4HE7ATERAND%NERGY Five Paths of Reverse Innovation; Potential; Gravity Anomalies,
#YCLESAND!TMOSPHERICAND Changing the Mind-Set; Changing Isostasy; Tides; Gravity
s "ASIC-IGRATION#ONCEPTS
/CEANIC#IRCULATION the Management Model Observations
s 0RESTACK-IGRATION
s !IR#HEMISTRY4HE'REENHOUSE s 2EVERSE)NNOVATIONIN!CTION s 'EOMAGNETISMMain Field;
s -IGRATION,IMITATIONS %FFECTANDTHE/ZONE(OLE Logitech, and the Mouse That Magnetic Anomalies; External
s -ODELSFOR7AVE0ROPAGATIONAND Roared; Procter & Gamble, Magnetic Field; Main (Internal),
s !IR#HEMISTRY2AINWATER!CID
2EmECTION Innovating the Un-P&G Way; External, and Anomalous Magnetic
2AINANDTHE!TMOSPHERIC#YCLES
EMC Corporation, Planting Seeds; Fields; Paleomagnetism
s 'REENS&UNCTIONS OF3ULFURAND.ITROGEN
Deere & Company Plows Under the
s 4HE3CATTERING0OTENTIAL s #HEMICAL7EATHERING-INERALS s 3EISMOLOGYElasticity; Wave
Past; How Harman Changed Its
s 2EmECTIVITY
s 3YNTHESIZING2EmECTION$ATA
s &REQUENCY
7AVENUMBER-IGRATION
s !SYMPTOTIC-ODELINGAND
-IGRATION
s 2ESIDUAL!SYMPTOTIC-IGRATION
0LANTSAND7ATER#HEMISTRY Propagation. Potentials and
Engineering Culture; GE
Displacements; Reection and
s 2IVERS Healthcare in the Heart of India;
Refraction; Ray Theory. Constant
PepsiCos Brand-New Bag;
s ,AKES and Variable Velocity; Ray Theory.
Partners in Healths Radical Model
s -ARGINAL-ARINE%NVIRONMENTS Spherical Media; Surface Waves;
for Care; A Call to Action
%STUARIES Focal Parameters
s !PPENDIX!2EVERSE)NNOVATION
s 4HE/CEANS s (EAT&LOWAND'EOCHRONOLOGY
4OOLKIT
Heat Flow; Geochronology
s !SYMPTOTIC$ATA-APPINGAND s 2EFERENCES)NDEX s !PPENDIX"!2ESEARCH!GENDA
s "IBLIOGRAPHY
#ONTINUATION s .OTES)NDEX!BOUTTHE!UTHORS
This excellent book is a compre-
s ,EAST
3QUARES!SYMPTOTIC hensive treatment of the entire eld, Although not a textbook in its own
-IGRATION . . . Vijay Govindarajan and Chris right, it does make an excellent
intended as an advanced under-
Trimble make a compelling argument companion to any quality geophysics
s !PPENDICES2EFERENCES)NDEX
The prevailing view of imaging
and inversion technologies is that they
are separate and unrelated. A key
contribution of this new volume is to
graduate or early postgraduate text.
for companies to not just widen their textbook, with its nearly 200 solved
With its broad scope and extensive
lens, but shift it to a completely problems in which theory and
references, it will also be useful to
different contextthat of advanced mathematics are kept to a
researchers working in the many
developing economies. minimum. Clear, simple explanatory
related areas. . . . It is well organized,
clearly written and presented, effec- (OLLY+h"EST"USINESS"OOKS gures accompany most of the prob-
demonstrate the relationship that tively illustrated, and thoroughly )NNOVATION#ONTEXT)S+INGvstrategy+business lems. . . . Given this reviewers own
exists between the two through inverse referenced to the primary literature. .OVEMBER HTTPWWWSTRATEGY
struggles to comprehend complex
scattering theory. . . . I believe this Without doubt, it will be a standard BUSINESSCOMARTICLEDGKOCE geophysical phenomena when he was
series represents an important contri- text for years to come. ACCESSED*ANUARY  a student, he would have found this
bution to geophysical literature. book of considerable value.
'REEN72h"OOK2EVIEWvThe Leading Edge
. . . a book that offers provocative Highly recommended.
-C#ORMACK-h2EVIEWvThe Leading Edge NO.OVEMBER 
NO3EPTEMBER 
insights into the quickly changing &IELD-3h"OOK2EVIEWvChoiceNO
dynamics of the global economy. $ECEMBER n
-URRAY!h4RICKLE
5P$EVELOPMENTvThe Wall
Street Journal!PRIL HTTPONLINEWSJ
COMARTICLE3"
HTMLACCESSED*ANUARY 

60 Oileld Review
 Electron and the Ether; Poincar on
Hertz and Lorentz; St. Louis, 1904;
The Dynamics of the Electron;
Poincar and Einstein; Early
Quantum Theory
s 4HEORYOF&UNCTIONSAND
-ATHEMATICAL0HYSICSFunction
Theory of a Single Variable;
Function Theory of Several
Variables; Poincars Approach to
Potential Theory; The3IX,ECTURES
in Gttingen, 1909
Digital Wars: Apple, Google, Great Inventions That Changed Henri Poincar: s 4OPOLOGYTopology Before
Poincar; Poincars Work, 1895 to
Microsoft and the Battle the World A Scientic Biography 1905
for the Internet James Wei Jeremy Gray
Charles Arthur John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Princeton University Press s )NTERVENTIONSIN0URE-ATHEMATICS
Kogan Page Limited 111 River Street 41 William Street Number Theory; Lie Theory;
1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100 Hoboken, New Jersey 07030 USA Princeton, New Jersey 08540 USA Algebraic Geometry
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2012. 360 pages. US$ 49.95 2013. 616 pages. US$ 35.00 s 0OINCARASA0ROFESSIONAL0HYSICIST
19102 USA ISBN 978-0-470-76817-4 )3".



 Thermodynamics; Probability
2012. 272 pages. US$ 19.95 s 0OINCARANDTHE0HILOSOPHYOF
ISBN: 978-0-7494-6413-4 Inventions from the stone axe to the Math historian Jeremy Gray explores
3CIENCEPoincar: Idealist, Skeptic,
internet, author James Wei posits, have the life of Henri Poincar, whose
or Structural Realist?
In 1998, Microsoft was on the verge of been spurred by basic human needs theorem about the characterization of a
becoming the highest-valued company such as food, health and security. Wei 3D sphere remained unsolved for nearly s !PPENDIXESElliptic and Abelian
in the world, Apple was quite small by examines the role of inventors and their 100 years. The author looks at Functions; Maxwells Equations;
comparison and Google a startup. In work and the impact these creations Poincars accomplishments in math- Glossary
2012, Apple was worth more than
Microsoft and Google combined. This
book examines what happensstarting
with the 1998 antitrust case in which
Microsoft was accused of abusing
monopoly power on its computers
as these three technology companies
wrestled to control what was evolving
into the network connecting the world.
Contents:
s 
s -ICROSOFT!NTITRUST
have had on society, our lives and the
environment. The book looks at how
inventions have not only solved prob-
lems but also created problems such as
climate change and bioterrorism.
Contents:
s )NTRODUCTIONInventors and
Inventions; Innovation,
Development, Diffusion; Changing
the World
s )NVENTIONSFOR7ORKTools and
Methods; Energy and Power;
ematics, physics and the philosophy of
science as well as the debates sparked
by his investigations and the impact his
discoveries have had on society.
Contents:
s )NTRODUCTIONViews of Poincar;
Poincars Way of Thinking
s 4HE%SSAYISTPoincar and the
Three Body Problem; Poincars
Popular Essays; Paris Celebrates
the New Century; Science,
Hypothesis, Value; Poincar and
s .AME)NDEX3UBJECT)NDEX
. . . Jeremy Grays biography
stands out because it is so long,
drenched in mathematical and biblio-
graphical detail, and offers several
chronologies from diverse disciplin-
ary perspectives. . . . It is a compre-
hensive but uncluttered guide to
Poincars extensive oeuvres that is
technical, even though it omits techni-
calities, and deep, even though it
raises more questions than it answers.
Materials Projective Geometry; Poincars 0ESIC0h(ISTORYOF3CIENCEvScience Magazine
s 3EARCH'OOGLE6ERSUS-ICROSOFT
s $OMESTIC,IFEFood, Clothes, and Popular Writings on Physics; The NO-ARCH n
s $IGITAL-USIC!PPLE6ERSUS Future of Mathematics; Poincar
House: Food; Clothes; House
-ICROSOFT Among the Logicians; Poincars It would be petty to nd faults
s (EALTH2EPRODUCTIONPrevention;
s 3MARTPHONES
Diagnostics; Therapy; Reproduction
s 4ABLETS
s 3ECURITYNatural Threats; Economic
s  Threats; Human Violence: War
Defenses of Science
s 0OINCARS#AREERChildhood,
Schooling; The Ecole
Polytechnique; The Ecole des
in a work of this caliber, but some
reference to Louis Bachelier would
have been welcome. He was the
visionary of the BlackScholes
s .OTES2EFERENCESAND&URTHER s 4RANSPORTATIONLand Mines; Academic Life; The Dreyfus options pricing formula of modern
2EADING4RADEMARKS)NDEX
$IGITAL7ARS does more than
rehash familiar stories of these
industry giants, instead focusing on
overarching narratives complete with
an accounting of the victories and
losses of each. . . . $IGITAL7ARS is a
must-read for a view of [Steve] Jobs
doppelganger, Apple, and the other
Transportation; Water
Transportation; Air and Space
Transportation
s )NFORMATIONObservation; Records;
Communication; Information Tools
s 'OOD,IFEParty and Play; Luxury;
Arts
s &URTHER#HALLENGESFuture Needs
and Opportunities; Future Sources
Affair; National Spokesman;
Contemporary Technology;
International Representative; The
Nobel Prize; 1911, 1912;
Remembering Poincar
s 4HE0RIZE#OMPETITIONOFThe Gray keeps the tone light and embeds
Competition; Fuchs, Schwarz,
Klein, and Automorphic Functions;
Uniformization, 1882 to 1907
nancial theory . . . and one
of Poincars handful of
doctoral students.
On the whole, however, this book
is an achievement in its own right.
each of the equations in explanatory
text. . . . Fortunately, Gray also tells it
like it was, warts and all.
companies that waxed and waned in of Inventions s 4HE4HREE"ODY0ROBLEMFlows on 3ZPIRO'h-ATHEMATICS0OETOFTHE)NlNITEv
no small part due to his genius. Surfaces; Stability Questions; NatureNO$ECEMBER n
s )NDEX Poincars Essay and Its
,O,h"OOK2EVIEWvNew York Journal of Books
Supplements; ,ES-THODES
HTTPWWWNYJOURNALOFBOOKSCOMREVIEW James Wei . . . has written a remark- .OUVELLESDELA-CANIQUE#LESTE
DIGITAL
WARS
APPLE
GOOGLE
MICROSOFT
AND
BATTLE
able and wide ranging work that spans Poincar Returns
INTERNETACCESSED*ANUARY 
human development from the stone age
to the computer age. Every page
contains information that made me
admire the breadth and depth of his
knowledge. . . . undoubtedly a major
work that is nothing less than superb.
s #OSMOGONYRotating Fluid Masses
s 0HYSICSTheories of Electricity
Before Poincar: Maxwell;
Poincars Electricit et Optique,
1890; Larmor and Lorentz: The
%MSLEY*h(UMAN$EVELOPMENTvChemistry
World.OVEMBER HTTPWWWRSCORG
CHEMISTRYWORLDGREAT
INVENTIONS

CHANGED
WORLD
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENTACCESSED
*ANUARY 

Spring 2013 61
 . . . Randall provides readers with
an impressively thorough conceptual
understanding of the atmospheres
central role in climate.
emerging, hyperconnected areas such
as smart-grid energy infrastructures,
cloud computing, and eHealth sys-
tems or in ensuring our ability to
preserve digitally stored culture and
(ILL3h!(EADINTHE#LOUDS%LUCIDATESv knowledge for generations to come.
Science MagazineNO3EPTEMBER
$E.ARDIS,h4HE3OCIAL3TAKESOF
 
)NTEROPERABILITYvScienceNO
Earthmasters: The Dawn of the
Age of Climate Engineering
Clive Hamilton
Yale University Press
302 Temple Street
New Haven, Connecticut 06511 USA
2013. 264 pages. US$ 28.00
ISBN 978-0-300-18667-3
Giving arguments both for and against
climate engineering, the author
3EPTEMBER n
Palfrey and Gasser have a record
of taking up a concept early and
writing about it accessibly and
Atmosphere, Clouds, informatively. . . . [They] are at their
and Climate best when discussing how regulation
David Randall and legislation can promote interop-
Princeton University Press erability. . . . This issue, the authors
41 William Street stress, is not about making systems
Princeton, New Jersey 08540 USA the same, but about maintaining
2012. 288 pages. US$ 75.00 diversity while identifying key areas
ISBN: 978-0-691-14374-3 of contact: an important point
well made.
The author, a professor of atmospheric
3HADBOLT.h#OMPUTER3CIENCE4HE'REAT
science, gives an overview of atmo-
spheric processes, how they work and
Interop: The Promise "ETWEENvNatureNO-AY
explores the technologies being devel-
oped in the eld of geoengineering how phase changes of water inuence and Perils of Highly  

the manipulation of Earths climate weather and climate. One in the series Interconnected Systems
systems to address the effects of of Princeton Primers in Climate, this John Palfrey and Urs Gasser
greenhouse gas emissions. The author book is intended for students, research- Basic Books, a member of
also discusses the interests that link ers and those with an interest in the The Perseus Books Group
researchers, venture capitalists and Earths climate. 387 Park Avenue South
corporations and explores the publics New York, New York 10016 USA
discomfort with the concept of Contents: 2012. 304 pages. US$ 28.99
geoengineering. )3".    
s "ASICS
Contents: s 2ADIATIVE%NERGY&LOWS Technology experts John Palfrey and
s (OW4URBULENCEAND#UMULUS Urs Gasser explore the importance of
s 7HY'EOENGINEERING standardization and interoperability as
#LOUDS#ARRY%NERGY5PWARD
s 3UCKING#ARBON our world becomes more connected and
s -OREABOUT%DDY&LUXES show how the concept of interoperabil-
s 2EGULATING3UNLIGHT
s (OW%NERGY4RAVELSFROMTHE ity is a critical component of any
s 4HE0LAYERSANDTHE0UBLIC 4ROPICSTOTHE0OLES successful system. The authors also
s 0ROMETHEAN$REAMS s #ONSERVATIONOF-OMENTUMONA consider the negative effects of interop-
s !TMOSPHERIC'EOPOLITICS 2OTATING3PHERE erability but argue that despite the
inherent negatives, global technology
s %THICAL!NXIETIES s &EEDBACKS integration and innovation can ourish
s 4HIS'OODLY&RAME s 4HE7ATER0LANET with a stable foundation of
s .OTES)NDEX s 0REDICTABILITYOF7EATHERAND interoperability.
#LIMATE
Clive Hamilton . . . provides a Contents:
s !IR3EA,AND
thorough, frank and, at times, chilling s 4HE4HEORYOF)NTEROPThe
account of the technologies, the key s &RONTIERS Technology and Data Layers; The
players, ethical implications, poten- s .OTES'LOSSARY3UGGESTIONSFOR Human and Institutional Layers
tial benets and disturbing risks. &URTHER2EADING"IBLIOGRAPHY s 4HE0ROMISEAND0ERILSOF)NTEROP
)NDEX Consumer Empowerment; Privacy
0OOL2h"OOK2EVIEWSvEngineering and
Technology MagazineNO-ARCH  and Security; Competition and
This small-format book is Uniformity; Innovation; Systemic
n
short . . . and called a primer. This Efciencies; Complexity
should not be taken to suggest that it
Hamilton has put together a s 3OLVINGFOR)NTEROPGetting to
is some form of Climate change for
smart, timely book. In places it has a Interop; Legal Interop; Interop by
dummiesthe physics is rigorous . . .
philosophical detachment but overall Design: The Case of Health Care
and as with the atmosphere, many of
it is more an activists work, a kind of IT; Interop over Time: Preservation
the physical concepts are complex
soft polemic. of Knowledge; Architectures of the
and often counter-intuitive. The
book . . . assumes no background in Future: Building a Better World;
I doubt that he will win over many Conclusion: The Payoff of Interop
atmospheric physics. . . . [T]his
of geo-engineerings adherents as Theory
primer does exactly what it sets out
because he gives his own arguments
to doprovide a concise but rigorous s .OTES3UGGESTED2EADINGS)NDEX
the benet of the doubt rather more
introduction to a complex subject that
than theirs.
affects us all on all scales. )NTEROP will serve as a construc-
9EARLY3h"OOK2EVIEWvTimes Higher tive and motivating resource for
"RITTAN*h"OOK2EVIEWvThe Leading Edge
Education-ARCH HTTPWWW policymakers, citizens, and practitio-
NO$ECEMBER 
TIMESHIGHEREDUCATIONCOUKBOOKS ners interested in the outcome of
EARTHMASTERS THE DAWN OF THE AGE OF CLIMATE
ENGINEERING BY CLIVE HAMILTONARTICLE
ACCESSED!PRIL 

62 Oileld Review
DEFINING DRILLING FLUIDS
Drilling Fluid Basics
Don Williamson
Contributing Editor
Drilling uids serve many functions: controlling formation pressures,
removing cuttings from the wellbore, sealing permeable formations encoun-
tered while drilling, cooling and lubricating the bit, transmitting hydraulic
energy to downhole tools and the bit and, perhaps most important, main-
taining wellbore stability and well control. Often referred to as mud, drilling
uid was rst introduced around 1913 for subsurface pressure control. The
1920s and 30s saw the birth of the rst US companies specializing in the
distribution, development and engineering of drilling uids and compo-
nents. In the decades that followed, drilling uid companies introduced
developments in chemistry, measurement and process engineering that led
to signicant improvements in drilling efciency and well productivity.
Drilling uid compositions vary based on wellbore demands, rig capa-
bilities and environmental concerns. Engineers design drilling uids to con-
trol subsurface pressures, minimize formation damage, minimize the
potential for lost circulation, control erosion of the borehole and optimize
drilling parameters such as penetration rate and hole cleaning. In addition,
because a large percentage of modern wellbores are highly deviated, drill-
ing uid systems must help manage hole cleaning and stability problems
specic to these wells.
Drilling Fluid Systems
Drilling uid systems have a continuous phase, which is liquid, and a dis-
continuous phase comprising solids. On occasion, they also have a gas
phaseeither by design or as a result of formation gas entrainment. The
continuous phase may be used to categorize drilling uid types as gas, aque-
ous uids or nonaqueous systems. These uids are a blend of liquid and
solid components, each designed to modify a specic property of the drilling
uid such as its viscosity and density.
Aqueous drilling uids, generally referred to as water-base muds, are
the most common and the most varied of the three drilling uid types
(above right). They range in composition from simple blends of water and
clay to complex inhibitive, or clay stabilizing, drilling uid systems that
include many components. In recent years, engineers and scientists have
focused on improving the inhibitive and thermal performance of water-
base systems in efforts to compete with the nonaqueous uids typically
used in challenging drilling environments.
In nonaqueous drilling uids, commonly referred to as synthetic-base
muds, the continuous phase may consist of mineral oils, biodegradable
esters, olens or other variants. Although typically more costly than aque-
ous drilling uids, these systems tend to provide excellent borehole control,
thermal stability, lubricity and penetration rates, which may help reduce
overall cost for the operator.
In fractured rock or environments where the borehole will not support a
column of water without signicant uid loss to the formation, drillers use
air, mist or foam systems to help remove cuttings from the hole and main-
tain wellbore integrity.
Oileld Review Spring 2013: 25, no. 1.
Copyright 2013 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Daryl Cullum and Sonny Espey, Houston;
and to Ole Iacob Prebensen, Sandnes, Norway.
Spring 2013
> Bentonite drilling uid being mixed and agitated.
Basic Functions
Drilling uids are formulated to carry out a wide range of functions. Although
the list is long and varied, key performance characteristics are the following:
Controlling formation pressuresDrilling uid is vital for maintaining
control of a well. The mud is pumped down the drillstring, through the bit,
and back up the annulus. In open hole, hydrostatic pressure exerted by the
mud column is used to offset increases in formation pressure that would
otherwise force formation uids into the borehole, possibly causing loss of
well control. However, the pressure exerted by the drilling uid must not
exceed the fracture pressure of the rock itself; otherwise mud will escape
into the formationa condition known as lost circulation.
Removing cuttings from the boreholeCirculating drilling uid carries
cuttingsrock fragments created by the bitto the surface. Maintaining
the uids ability to transport these solid pieces up the holeits carrying
capacityis key to drilling efciently and minimizing the potential for
stuck pipe. To accomplish this, drilling uid specialists work with the driller
to carefully balance mud rheology and ow rate to adjust carrying capacity
while avoiding high equivalent circulating density (ECD)the actual mud
density plus the pressure drop in the annulus above a given point in the
borehole. Unchecked, high ECD may lead to lost circulation.
Cooling and lubricating the bitAs the drilling uid passes through
and around the rotating drilling assembly, it helps cool and lubricate the bit.
Thermal energy is transferred to the drilling uid, which carries the heat to
the surface. In extremely hot drilling environments, heat exchangers may
be used at the surface to cool the mud.
Transmitting hydraulic energy to the bit and downhole toolsDrilling
uid is discharged through nozzles at the face of the bit. The hydraulic
energy released against the formation loosens and lifts cuttings away from
the formation. This energy also powers downhole motors and other hard-
ware that steer the bit and obtain drilling or formation data in real time.
Data gathered downhole are frequently transmitted to the surface using
mud pulse telemetry, a method that relies on pressure pulses through the
mud column to send data to the surface.
Maintaining wellbore stabilityThe basic components of wellbore sta-
bility include regulating density, minimizing hydraulic erosion and control-
ling clays. Density is maintained by slightly overbalancing the weight of the
mud column against formation pore pressure. Engineers minimize hydrau-
lic erosion by balancing hole geometry against cleaning requirements, uid
carrying capacity and annular ow velocity. The process of clay control is
complex. Clays in some formations expand in the presence of water, while
others disperse. To some degree, these effects can be controlled by modify-
ing the properties of the drilling uid. Regardless of the approach used,
controlling the uids effect on the formation helps control the borehole
and the integrity of the cuttings and leads to a cleaner, more easily main-
tained drilling uid.
63
DEFINING DRILLING FLUIDS

At the suction or mixing

tank, fresh additives are
mixed into the system,
the continuous phase is
replenished and mud
The mud is pumped from
weight adjusted, preparing
the suction tank, up the
Kelly the fluid for its trip back
standpipe, down the
down the hole.
kelly and through the Standpipe
drillpipe on its way
downhole to the bit. Rotary table
Drill floor Flowline
At the surface, the mud
flows down the flowline
Bell nipple Shale to the shale shakers
Blowout preventer shaker where larger formation
solids are removed. Further
cleaning occurs as the
Mud Suction Shaker fluid flows through the
Shear and temperature Cemented
pump tank tank mud tank system.
affect the mud as it casing
is pumped to the bit at
high velocity and pressure.

Drillpipe
The mud returns up
the annulus degraded
Annulus by downhole conditions,
Additional shear effects dehydrated and loaded
occur as the mud passes with formation solids.
through the bit jets and
Bit
impacts the formation.

> Drilling uid life cycle. Throughout the circulation cycle, the mud is subjected to a number of processes that alter its physical
parameters. The drilling uid treatment plan must evolve to keep pace with these changes.

Drilling Fluid Life Cycle
Drilling uid design and maintenance are iterative processes affected by
surface and downhole conditions. These conditions change as the well is
drilled through deeper formations and encounters gradual increases in tem-
perature and pressure and the mud undergoes alterations in chemistry
brought about by different types of rock and formation uids (above).
Onsite uid specialists and staff engineers use continuous process engi-
neering to ne-tune the drilling uid in response to changing borehole con-
ditions then evaluate uid performance and modify uid properties in an
ongoing cycle.
Initial designIn the planning phase, uid experts select mud system
types and designs for each borehole section. The systems are designed to
meet several specications, including density requirements, borehole sta-
bility, thermal gradients, logistics and environmental concerns. Drilling
may begin with a simple uid system. Water is often the rst uid used for
drilling to the initial casing point. As the borehole deepens, increasing for-
mation pressure, rising temperature and more-complex formations require
higher levels of mechanical wellbore control and hole cleaning capacity.
Simple uid systems may be displaced or converted to weighted water-base
inhibitive mud, followed at greater depths by nonaqueous drilling uids.
CirculationThe drilling uids character constantly evolves. In one
circulation cycle, the uid has expended energy, lifted cuttings, cooled the
bit and hole and then released waste at the surface. This requires engineers
and uid specialists to continuously evaluate and recharge the system with
fresh uids and other additives.
Measurement and redesignThe drilling uids specialist measures
certain properties of the returning mud. The specic properties measured
are generally a function of the uid type that is used, but typically include
density, rheology, ltration rate, continuous phase content and ratios and
solids content and classication. The uid is further analyzed for pH,
hardness, alkalinity, chlorides, acid gas content and other parameters
specic to certain uid types. The specialist then designs a treatment pro-
gram for the next 12 to 24 hours. The driller, derrickman and uids spe-
cialist constantly monitor borehole conditions and characteristics of the
returning uid then make adjustments to the mud as hole and drilling
conditions dictate.
A Century of Continual Development
From humble beginnings about 100 years ago, drilling uids have evolved as
a science, an engineering discipline and an art. Scientists and product
developers create new uid designs that address the many demands placed
on modern drilling uids, while engineers and uid specialists in the eld
continue to nd new ways to monitor, measure, simulate and manage the
drilling uid life cycle.

64 Oileld Review