Nyquist Handout

EE 3CL4, 8
1 / 79
Tim Davidson
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response EE3CL4:
Plotting the
freq. resp. Introduction to Linear Control Systems
Mapping
Contours Section 8: Frequency Domain Techniques
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Tim Davidson
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists McMaster University

Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Winter 2017
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
2 / 79
Tim Davidson Outline
Transfer
functions
1 Transfer functions
Frequency
Response
2 Frequency Response
Plotting the
freq. resp. 3 Plotting the freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours 4 Mapping Contours
Nyquists
criterion 5 Nyquists criterion
Ex: unst., P control Ex: servo, P control
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. Ex: unst., P control
Nyquists Ex: unst., PD contr.
Stability
Criterion as a Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and 6 Nyquists Stability Criterion as a Design Tool
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Relative Stability
Gain margin and Phase margin
Relationship to transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
4 / 79
Tim Davidson Transfer Functions:
Transfer A Quick Review
functions
Frequency
Consider a transfer function
Response
Q
(s + zi )
Plotting the G(s) = K Qi
freq. resp. j (s + pj )
Mapping
Contours
Zeros: zi ; Poles: pj
Nyquists
criterion Note that s + zi = s (zi ),
This is the vector from zi to s
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Magnitude:
Nyquists Q
Stability |s + zi | prod. dists from OL zeros to s
Criterion as a |G(s)| = |K | Qi = |K |
j |s + pj | prod. dists from OL poles to s
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Phase:
G(s) = K + sum angles from OL zeros to s

sum angles from OL poles to s
EE 3CL4, 8
6 / 79
Tim Davidson Frequency Response
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response For a stable, linear, time-invariant (LTI) system, the
Plotting the
freq. resp.
steady state response to a sinusoidal input is
Mapping a sinusoid of the same frequency but possibly different
Contours
magnitude and different phase
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: servo, P control Sinusoids are the eigenfunctions of convolution
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. If input is A cos(0 t + )
Nyquists
Stability
and steady-state output is B cos(0 t + ),
Criterion as a
Design Tool
then the complex number B/Aej()
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
is called the frequency response of the system at
Phase margin
Relationship to
frequency 0 .
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
7 / 79
Tim Davidson Frequency Response, II
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours If a stable LTI system has a transfer function G(s),
Nyquists
criterion
then the frequency response at 0 is G(s)|s=j0
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
What if the system is unstable?
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
9 / 79
Tim Davidson Plotting the frequency response
Transfer
functions
Frequency For each , G(j) is a complex number.

Response
Plotting the How should we plot it?

freq. resp.
jG(j)
Mapping
Contours
G(j) = G(j)

e
Nyquists
Plot G(j) versus , and G(j) versus
criterion
Plot 20 log10 G(j) versus log10 (), and
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
G(j) versus log10 ()
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
G(j) = Re G(j) + j Im G(j)

Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Plot the curve Re G(j) , Im G(j) on an xy plot
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Equiv. to curve G(j)ejG(j) as changes (polar plot)
EE 3CL4, 8
10 / 79
Tim Davidson Polar plot, example 1
Transfer
functions Lets consider the example of an RC circuit
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
G(s) = V2 (s) 1
V1 (s) = 1+sRC
Nyquists
1
G(j) = 1+j/
Stability
Criterion as a 1
, where 1 = 1/(RC).
Design Tool
Relative Stability
1 /0
G(j) = 1+(/ 2 j 1+(/ )2
Gain margin and
Phase margin
1) 1
Relationship to
transient response
1
G(j) = ej atan(/1 )
1+(/1 )2
EE 3CL4, 8
11 / 79
1 /1
Transfer G(j) = 1+(/1 )2
j 1+(/ 2
functions 1)
1
Frequency
Response
G(j) = ej atan(/1 )
1+(/1 )2
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
12 / 79
K
Consider G(s) = s(s +1) .
Transfer
functions
Poles at origin and s = 1/ .
Frequency
Response To use geometric insight to plot polar plot,
Plotting the K /
freq. resp. rewrite as G(s) = s(s+1/ )
Mapping
Contours K /

Then G(j) = |j| |j+1/ |
Nyquists
criterion and G(j) = (j) (j + 1/ )
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
13 / 79 K /
Tim Davidson Polar plot, ex. 2, G(s) = s(s+1/ )
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. When 0+ , |G(j)| , G(j) 90 from below
Nyquists
Stability
Tricky
Criterion as a 2
Design Tool To get a better feel, write G(j) = K K
2 + 4 2 j 2 + 4 2
+
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Hence, as 0 , G(j) K j
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
As increases, distances from poles to j increase.
Hence |G(j)| decreases
As increases, angle from pole at 1/ increases.
Hence G(j) becomes more negative
EE 3CL4, 8
14 / 79 K /
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
When = 1/ , G(j) = (K / )/ (1/ )( 2/ ) ej(90 +45 )

Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool i.e., G(j)|=1/ = (K / 2)ej135
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
As approaches +, both distances from poles get large.
Relationship to
transient response Hence |G(j)| 0
As approaches +, angle from 1/ approaches 90
from below. Hence G(j) approaches 180 from below
EE 3CL4, 8
15 / 79 K /
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Summary
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
As 0+ , G(j) K j
Stability
Criterion as a As increases,
Design Tool
Relative Stability |G(j)| decreases, G(j) becomes more negative
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
When = 1/ , G(j) = (K / 2)ej135
transient response
As approaches +,
G(j) approaches zero from angle 180
EE 3CL4, 8
16 / 79 K /
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
17 / 79
Tim Davidson Bode Diagrams
Transfer
functions
Frequency Bode magnitude plot

Response
Plotting the
freq. resp. 20 log10 |G(j)| against log10
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion Bode phase plot
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. G(j) against log10
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability In 2CJ4 we developed rules to help sketch these plots
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
In this course we will use these sketches to design
transient response
controllers
EE 3CL4, 8
18 / 79
Tim Davidson Sketching Bode Diagrams
Transfer
functions Consider generic transfer function of LTI system
Frequency
K i (s + zi ) k (s2 + 2k n,k s + n,k
2 )
Response
Q Q
Plotting the G(s) = N Q Q 2 2
freq. resp. s j (s + pj ) r (s + 2d,k nd,r s + nd,r )
Mapping
Contours
where zi and pj are real.
Nyquists
criterion
Unfortunately, not in the form that we are used to for
Bode diagrams
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
2
Q Q
Divide numerator by i zi k n,k
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Similarly for denominator
Design Tool Q Q 2 /
Q Q 2

Relative Stability Then if K = K i zi k n,k j pj r nd,r ,
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
K i (1 + s/zi ) k 1 + 2k (s/n,k ) + (s/n,k )2
Q Q
transient response
G(s) = N Q Q 2

s j (1 + s/pj ) r 1 + 2d,k (s/nd,r ) + (s/nd,r )
EE 3CL4, 8
19 / 79
Tim Davidson Sketching Bode Diagrams, II
Transfer
functions
Now, frequency response can be written as:
Frequency
Response
Q
Plotting the K i (1 + j/zi )
freq. resp.
G(j) =
(j)N j (1 + j/pj )
Q
Mapping
Contours
2
Q
Nyquists k 1 + 2k (j/n,k ) + (j/n,k )
criterion Q 2

r 1 + 2d,k (j/nd,r ) + (j/nd,r )
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists Four key components:

Stability
Criterion as a Gain, K
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Poles (or zeros) at origin
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Poles and zeros on real axis
Relationship to
transient response
Poles and zeros in complex conjugate pairs
Each contributes to the Bode Diagram
EE 3CL4, 8
20 / 79
Tim Davidson Bode Magnitude diagram
Transfer
functions
Q
Frequency K i (1 + j/zi )
Response G(j) =
(j)N j (1 + j/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp. Q 2

k 1 + 2k (j/n,k ) + (j/n,k )
Mapping Q 2

r 1 + 2d,k (j/nd,r ) + (j/nd,r )
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: unst., P control Bode Magnitude diagram:
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists 20 log10 |G(j)| against log10

Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
20 log10 |G(j)| is
Relationship to
transient response
Sum of 20 log10 of components of numerator

sum of 20 log10 of components of denominator
EE 3CL4, 8
21 / 79
Tim Davidson Components for magnitude
Transfer
functions
Q
Response G(j) =
(j)N j (1 + j/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp.
2
Q
Mapping k 1 + 2k (j/n,k ) + (j/n,k )
Contours Q 2

Nyquists
r 1 + 2d,k (j/nd,r ) + (j/nd,r )
criterion
Poles at origin: slope starts at 20N dB/dec
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Gain |K | incorporated in position of that sloping line
Stability
Criterion as a First order component in numerator:
Design Tool
Relative Stability increase slope by 20 dB/dec at = zi
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
First order component in denominator:
transient response
decrease slope by 20 dB/dec at = pj
Second order components:
increase or decrease slope by 40 dB/dec at = n
EE 3CL4, 8
22 / 79
Tim Davidson Bode Phase Diagram
Transfer
functions Q
Response G(j) =
(j)N j (1 + j/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp. 2
Q
k 1 + 2k (j/n,k ) + (j/n,k )
Mapping Q 2

r 1 + 2d,k (j/nd,r ) + (j/nd,r )
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Bode Phase Diagram
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists G(j) against log10

Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
G(j) is
Relationship to
transient response
Sum of phases of components of numerator

sum of phases of components of denominator
EE 3CL4, 8
23 / 79
Tim Davidson Components
Transfer
functions
Q
Response G(j) =
(j)N j (1 + j/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp.
2
Q
Mapping k 1 + 2k (j/n,k ) + (j/n,k )
Contours Q 2

Nyquists
r 1 + 2d,k (j/nd,r ) + (j/nd,r )
criterion
Phase of K
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Poles at origin: N90
Stability
Criterion as a First order component in numerator:
Design Tool
Relative Stability linear phase change of +90 over [zi /10, 10zi ]
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
First order component in denominator:
transient response
linear phase change of 90 over [pj /10, 10pj ]
Second order components:
phase change of 180 around = n
EE 3CL4, 8
24 / 79
Tim Davidson Graphically
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
25 / 79
Tim Davidson Graphically
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
26 / 79
Tim Davidson Accuracy of Bode Sketches
Transfer
Isolated first order pole (analogous for zero)
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
27 / 79
Transfer
functions
Isolated complex conjugate pair of poles
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
28 / 79
Transfer
functions
Frequency Isolated complex conjugate pair of poles

Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
29 / 79
Tim Davidson Example
Transfer
functions
5(1 + j/10)
G(j) =
Frequency j(1 + j/2) 1 + 0.6(j/50) + (j/50)2
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
30 / 79
Tim Davidson Example
Transfer
functions
5(1 + j/10)
Frequency G(j) =
Response j(1 + j/2) 1 + 0.6(j/50) + (j/50)2
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
32 / 79
Tim Davidson Introduction
Transfer
functions We have seen techniques that determine stability of a
Frequency
Response
system:
Plotting the Routh-Hurwitz
freq. resp. root locus
Mapping
Contours
However, both of them require a model for the plant
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: servo, P control Today: frequency response techniques
Ex: unst., PD contr. Although they work best with a model
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
For an open-loop stable plant, they also work with
Nyquists
Stability measurements
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Key result: Nyquists stability criterion
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Design implications: Bode techniques based on gain
margin and phase margin
EE 3CL4, 8
33 / 79
Tim Davidson Characteristic equation
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
To determine the stability of the system we need to
examine the characteristic equation:
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
F (s) = 1 + L(s) = 0
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability where L(s) = Gc (s)G(s)H(s).
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
The key result involves mapping a closed contour of
values of s to a closed contour of values of F (s).
We will investigate the idea of mappings first

EE 3CL4, 8
34 / 79
Tim Davidson Simple example
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin Set F (s) = 2s + 1
Relationship to
transient response
Map the square in the "s-plane" to the contour in the
"F (s)-plane"
EE 3CL4, 8
35 / 79
Tim Davidson Area enclosed
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion How might we define area enclosed by a closed contour?
Ex: unst., P control We will be perfectly rigorous, but will go against
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. mathematical convention
Nyquists
Stability
Define area enclosed to be that to the right when the contour
Criterion as a is traversed clockwise
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
What you see when moving clockwise with eyes right
Phase margin
Relationship to Sometimes we say that this area is the area inside the
transient response
clockwise contour
Notions of enclosed or inside will be applied to contours
in the s-plane
EE 3CL4, 8
36 / 79
Tim Davidson Encirclement
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
In the F (s)-plane, we will be interested in the notion of
Ex: unst., P control encirclement of the origin
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
A contour is said to encircle the origin in the clockwise
Nyquists
Stability direction, if the contour completes a 360 revolution around
Criterion as a
Design Tool
the origin in the clockwise direction.
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
A contour is said to encircle the origin in the anti-clockwise
Phase margin
Relationship to
direction, if the contour completes a 360 revolution around
transient response
the origin in the anti-clockwise direction.
We will say that an anti-clockwise encirclement is a
negative clockwise encirclement
EE 3CL4, 8
37 / 79
Tim Davidson Example with rational F (s)
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
s
A mapping for F (s) = s+2
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response Note that s-plane contour encloses the zero of F (s)
How many times does the F (s)-plane contour encircle
the origin in the clockwise direction?
EE 3CL4, 8
38 / 79
Tim Davidson Cauchys Theorem
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response Nyquists Criterion is based on Cauchys Theorem:
Plotting the Consider a rational function F (s)
freq. resp.
Mapping If the clockwise traversal of a contour s in the s-plane

Contours
encloses Z zeros and P poles of F (s)
Nyquists
criterion and does not go through any poles or zeros
then the corresponding contour in the F (s)-plane, F
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. encircles the origin N = Z P times in the clockwise
Nyquists direction
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
A sketch of the proof later.
Gain margin and
Phase margin First, some examples
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
39 / 79
Tim Davidson Example 1
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
s
A mapping for F (s) = s+1/2
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
s-plane contour encloses a zero and a pole
transient response
Theorem suggests no clockwise encirclements of origin

of F (s)-plane
This is what we have!
EE 3CL4, 8
40 / 79
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
s-plane contour encloses 3 zeros and a pole
transient response
Theorem suggests 2 clockwise encirclements of the
origin of the F (s)-plane
EE 3CL4, 8
41 / 79
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability s-plane contour encloses one pole
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
Theorem suggests -1 clockwise encirclements of the
transient response
origin of the F (s)-plane
That is, one anti-clockwise encirclement
EE 3CL4, 8
42 / 79
Tim Davidson Informal Justification of
Transfer Cauchys Theorem
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. (s+z1 )(s+z2 )
Consider the case of F (s) = (s+p
Nyquists 1 )(s+p2 )
Stability
Criterion as a
F (s1 ) = z1 + z2 p1 p2
Design Tool
Relative Stability
As the contour is traversed the nett contribution from
Gain margin and
Phase margin
z1 is 360 degrees
Relationship to
transient response As contour is traversed, the nett contribution from other
angles is 0 degrees
Hence, as contour is traversed, F (s) changes by 360
degrees. One encirclement!
EE 3CL4, 8
43 / 79
Tim Davidson Informal Justification
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping Extending this to any number of poles and zeros inside

Contours
Nyquists
the contour
criterion
For a closed contour, the change in F (s) is
Ex: unst., PD contr. 360Z 360P
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Hence F (s) encircles origin Z P times
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
45 / 79
Tim Davidson Cauchys Theorem (Review)
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp. Consider a rational function F (s)
Mapping
Contours If the clockwise traversal of a contour s in the s-plane
Nyquists
criterion
encloses Z zeros and P poles of F (s)
and does not go through any poles or zeros
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
then the corresponding contour in the F (s)-plane, F
Nyquists
Stability encircles the origin N = Z P times in the clockwise
Criterion as a
Design Tool direction
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
46 / 79
Tim Davidson Nyquists goal
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping Nyquist was concerned about testing for stability

Contours
Nyquists How might one use Cauchy Theorem to examine this?

criterion
Ex: servo, P control Perhaps choose F (s) = 1 + L(s), as this determines
Ex: unst., PD contr. stability
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists Which contour should we use?

Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
47 / 79
Tim Davidson Nyquists contour
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Actually, we have to be careful regarding poles and zeros on
the j-axis, including the origin.
Standard approach is to indent contour so that it goes to the
right of any such poles or zeros
EE 3CL4, 8
48 / 79
Tim Davidson Modified Nyquist contour
Transfer
functions Heres an example for a model like that of the motor in the
Frequency lab.
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
49 / 79
Tim Davidson Coarse Applic. of Cauchy
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Recall that the zeros of F (s) = 1 + L(s) are the poles of
Response the closed loop
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Let P denote the number of right half plane poles of
Mapping
Contours F (s)
Nyquists
criterion
The number of right half plane zeros of F (s) is N + P,
where N is the number of clockwise encirclements of
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
the origin made by the image of Nyquists contour in the
Nyquists
Stability F (s) plane.
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
A little difficult to parse.
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Perhaps we can apply Cauchys Theorem in a more
sophisticated way.
EE 3CL4, 8
50 / 79
Tim Davidson Towards Nyquists Criterion
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the F (s) = 1 + L(s), where L(s) is the open loop transfer
freq. resp.
function
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
Encirclement of the origin in F (s)-plane is the same as
criterion
encirclement of 1 in the L(s)-plane
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
This is more convenient, because L(s) is often
Nyquists factorized, and hence we can easily determine P
Stability
Criterion as a Now that we are dealing with L(s), P is the number of
Design Tool
Relative Stability right-half plane poles of the open loop transfer function
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
51 / 79
Tim Davidson Nyquists Criterion: Stable open
Transfer loop
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists For a stable open-loop transfer function L(s),

criterion
Ex: servo, P control the closed-loop system is stable if and only if the image
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
of Nyquists Contour in the L(s)-plane does not encircle
Nyquists
the point (1, 0).
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
52 / 79
Tim Davidson Nyquists Criterion: General
Transfer case
functions
Frequency For a general open-loop transfer function L(s),

Response
Plotting the the closed-loop system is stable if and only if the

freq. resp.
number of counter-clockwise encirclements of the point
Mapping
Contours (1, 0) made by the image of Nyquists Contour in the
Nyquists L(s)-plane is equal to the number of right half plane
criterion
Ex: servo, P control poles of L(s)
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists Proof:
Stability
Criterion as a Based on the fact that the number of right half plane
Design Tool
Relative Stability zeros of F (s) is Z = N + P, where N is the number of
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
clockwise encirclements of (1, 0) by the image of
transient response
Nyquists Contour in the L(s)-plane, and P is the
number of right half plane poles of L(s).
For the closed-loop to be stable, Z must be zero.
EE 3CL4, 8
53 / 79
1000
Tim Davidson Ex: L(s) = (s+1)(s+10) (stable)
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
For 0 < :
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
No zeros, two poles.
Nyquists
|L(0)| = 1000/(1 10) = 100; L(0) = 0 0 = 0
Stability Distances from poles to j is increasing;
Criterion as a
Design Tool hence |L(j)| is decreasing
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Angles from poles to j are increasing;
Phase margin
Relationship to hence L(j) is decreasing
As , |L(j)| 0, L(j) 180
transient response
Recall that L(j) = L(j)

Remember to examine the r part of the curve
EE 3CL4, 8
54 / 79
1000
Tim Davidson Ex: L(s) = (s+1)(s+10) (stable)
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Note: No encirclements of (1, 0) = closed loop is stable

EE 3CL4, 8
55 / 79
Tim Davidson Nyquists Criterion: Simplified
Transfer statement
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Consider a unity feedback system with an open loop transfer
Nyquists
function L(s) = Gc (s)G(s)H(s),with no zs or ps on j-axis
criterion
Let PL denote the number of poles of L(s) in RHP
Ex: unst., PD contr. Consider the Nyquist Contour in the s-plane
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Let L denote image of Nyquist Contour under L(s)
Stability
Criterion as a Let NL denote the number of clockwise encirclements that L
Design Tool
Relative Stability
makes of the point (1, 0)
Gain margin and
Phase margin Nyquists Stability Criterion:
Relationship to
transient response
Number of closed-loop poles in RHP = NL + PL
Equiv. to earlier statement; often easier to apply
What if we have zeros or poles on j-axis?
EE 3CL4, 8
56 / 79
Tim Davidson Nyquists Criterion: Simplified
Transfer statement
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion function L(s) = Gc (s)G(s)H(s),
Let PL denote the number of poles of L(s) in open RHP
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Consider the modified Nyquist Contour in the s-plane
Nyquists
Stability looping to the right of any poles or zeros on the j-axis
Criterion as a
Design Tool Let L denote image of mod. Nyquist Contour under L(s)
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin Let NL denote the number of clockwise encirclements that L
Relationship to
transient response makes of the point (1, 0)
Nyquists Stability Criterion:
Number of closed-loop poles in open RHP = NL + PL
EE 3CL4, 8
57 / 79
Tim Davidson Example: Pole of L(s) at origin
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Consider
Plotting the K
freq. resp. L(s) =
Mapping
s( s + 1)
Contours
Nyquists
criterion Like in servomotor
Ex: unst., P control Problem with the original Nyquist contour
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
It goes through a pole!
Nyquists
Stability Cauchys Theorem does not apply
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Must modify Nyquist Contour to go around pole
Gain margin and
Phase margin Then Nyquist Criterion can be applied
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
58 / 79
Tim Davidson Example: Pole of L(s) at origin
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Now three key aspects of the curve
Relative Stability
Gain margin and Around the origin
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Positive frequency axis;
remember negative freq. axis yields conjugate
At
EE 3CL4, 8
59 / 79
Tim Davidson Around the origin
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability L(s) = s( K
s+1)
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability Around the origin, s = ej ,
where goes from 90 to 90
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
In the L(s) plane: lim0 L(ej )

transient response
This is: lim0 eKj = lim0 K ej

EE 3CL4, 8
60 / 79
Tim Davidson Up positive j-axis
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
+atan( ))
Nyquists For 0 < < , L(j) = K ej(90
Stability 1+ 2 2
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
For small , L(j) is large with phase 90
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Actually, as we worked out in a previous lecture,
Relationship to
transient response as 0+ , L(j) K j
For large , L(j) is small with phase 180

For = 1/ , L(j) = K / 2 ej135
EE 3CL4, 8
61 / 79
Tim Davidson For s = rej for large r
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
For s = rej with large r , and from +90 to 90 ,
Criterion as a
Design Tool limr L(rej ) = Kr 2 ej2
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
How many encirclements of 1 in L(s) plane? None
Implies that closed loop is stable for all positive K
Consistent with what we know from root locus (Lab. 2)
EE 3CL4, 8
62 / 79
Tim Davidson Example with open loop RHP
Transfer pole, proportional control
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: unst., PD contr. Consider G(s) = 1
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
s(s1)
Nyquists Essentially the same as plant model for VTOL aircraft

Stability
Criterion as a example in root locus section
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Consider prop. control, Gc (s) = K1 , and H(s) = 1.
Phase margin
K1
Relationship to
transient response
Hence, L(s) = s(s1)
Observe that L(s) has a pole in RHP; hence PL = 1

EE 3CL4, 8
63 / 79
Tim Davidson Ex. with open loop RHP pole
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping K1
Contours
L(s) = s(s1) . For s = j and 0 < < ,
Nyquists
K1 K1 K1
90 + atan()

criterion
L(j) = 2
+j 2
=
1+ (1 + ) 1+ 2
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. For 0+ , L(j) K1 + j
Nyquists
Stability
As increases, real and imag. parts decrease,
Criterion as a
Design Tool
imag. part decreases faster
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Equiv. magnitude decreases, phase increases
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
For , L(j) is small with angle +180
Conjugate for < < 0
What about when s = ej for 90 90 ?
L(s) = K1 (180 )
EE 3CL4, 8
64 / 79
Transfer pole
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Recall PL = 1
Number clockwise encirclements of (1, 0) is 1
Hence there are two closed loop poles in the RHP
Consistent with root locus analysis
EE 3CL4, 8
65 / 79
1
Tim Davidson Root locus of L(s) = s(s1)
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
66 / 79
Transfer pole, PD control
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
G(s) = 1
s(s1) and H(s) = 1. L(s) = GC (s)G(s).
Nyquists
criterion
In the VTOL aircraft example, showed that closed-loop can
be stabilized by lead compensation, GC (s) = K(s+p)
c (s+z)
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
It can also be stabilized by PD comp., GC (s) = K1 (1 + K2 s).
Stability (Under the presumption that this can be realized. It can be
Criterion as a
Design Tool realized when we have velocity feedback.)
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Using the root locus, we can show that when K2 > 0 there is
Relationship to
transient response
a K1 > 0 that stabilizes the closed loop (see next page)
Can we see that in the Nyquist diagram?
Plot the Nyquist diagram of L(s) = Gc (s)G(s), where
K1
G(s) = s(s1) and Gc (s) = 1 + K2 s
EE 3CL4, 8
67 / 79
Tim Davidson Root locus analysis
1
Transfer
functions
Root locus of (1 + K2 s) s(s1) for a given K2 > 0
Frequency
Response
Poles, zero and active sections of real axis
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: unst., P control Complete root locus
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response Conclusion: For any given K2 > 0 there is a K1 > 0 such
that closed loop is stable for all K1 > K1 . We can find K1
using Routh-Hurwitz
EE 3CL4, 8
68 / 79
Tim Davidson Nyquist diagram of
K1
Transfer (1 + K2 s) s(s1)
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability Recall that PL = 1
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
If K1 K2 > 1, there is one anti-clockwise encirc. of 1
transient response
In that case, number closed-loop poles in RHP is
1 + 1 = 0 and the closed loop is stable
Consistent with root locus analysis
EE 3CL4, 8
69 / 79
Tim Davidson One more example
Transfer K (s 2)
functions L(s) =
Frequency (s + 1)2
Response
Open loop is stable, but has non-minimum phase (RHP) zero
Plotting the
freq. resp.
K 2 + 4
Mapping
180 atan(/2) 2 atan()

Contours L(j) =
2 + 1
Nyquists
criterion
For small positive , L(j) 2K 180
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
K
Nyquists
For large positive , L(j) 90
Stability
Criterion as a In between, phase decreases monotonically, 180 90 .
Design Tool
Relative Stability
magnitude decreases monotonically (Bode mag dia.)
Gain margin and

2K 2 2 1+j(5 2 )
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
L(j) = (1+ 2 )2
; When = 5, L(j) = K /2
When s = rej with r and : 90 90 ,

L(s) (K /r )ej
EE 3CL4, 8
70 / 79
Tim Davidson Nyquist plot of L(s)/K
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Number of open loop RHP poles: 0
Design Tool
Relative Stability Number of clockwise encirclements of 1:
Gain margin and
Phase margin if K < 1/2: 0; if K > 1/2: 1
Relationship to
transient response
Hence closed loop is
stable for K < 1/2; unstable for K > 1/2
This is what we would expect from root locus
EE 3CL4, 8
71 / 79
s2
Tim Davidson Root locus of L(s) = (s+1)2
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
73 / 79
Tim Davidson Nyquists Criterion (Review)
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion function L(s) = Gc (s)G(s)H(s),
Ex: unst., P control Let PL denote the number of poles of L(s) in open RHP
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Consider the modified Nyquist Contour in the s-plane
Nyquists
Stability
(looping to the right of any poles or zeros on the j-axis)
Criterion as a
Design Tool Let L denote image of mod. Nyquist Contour under L(s)
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Let NL denote the number of clockwise encirclements that L
Relationship to
transient response
makes of the point (1, 0)
Nyquists Stability Criterion:
Number of closed-loop poles in open RHP = NL + PL
EE 3CL4, 8
74 / 79
Tim Davidson Relative Stability: Introductory
Transfer Example
functions
Consider
Frequency K
Response L(s) =
Plotting the s(1 s + 1)(2 s + 1)
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquist Diagram:
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
75 / 79
Tim Davidson Zoom in
Since L(s) is minimum phase (no RHP zeros), we can zoom in
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
For a given K ,
Phase margin
Relationship to how much extra gain would result in instability?
transient response
we will call this the gain margin
how much extra phase lag would result in instability?
we will call this the phase margin
EE 3CL4, 8
76 / 79
Tim Davidson Formal definitions
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Gain margin: |L(j1
Response
x )|
,
Plotting the
freq. resp.
where x is the frequency at which L(j) reaches 180
Mapping amplifying the open-loop transfer function by this amount
Contours
would result in a marginally stable closed loop
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: unst., P control Phase margin: 180 + L(jc ),
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. where c is the frequency at which |L(j)| equals 1
Nyquists adding this much phase lag would result in a marginally
Stability
Criterion as a stable closed loop
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
These margins can be read from the Bode diagram
transient response
EE 3CL4, 8
77 / 79
Tim Davidson Bode diagram
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin 1
Relationship to L(j) =
transient response j(1 + j)(1 + j/5)
Gain margin 15 dB
Phase margin 43
EE 3CL4, 8
78 / 79
Tim Davidson Phase margin and damping
Transfer
functions
Consider a second-order open loop of the form
n2
Frequency L(s) = s(s+2 n)
, with < 1
Response
p
Plotting the Closed-loop poles s1 , s2 = n jn 1 2
freq. resp.
Mapping Let c be the frequency at which |L(j)| = 1

Contours
Nyquists Square and rearrange: c4 + 4 2 n2 c2 n4 = 0;

criterion 2
p
Ex: servo, P control Equivalently, c2 = 4 4 + 1 2 2
Ex: unst., P control n
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. By definition, pm = 180 + L(jc )
Nyquists
Stability Hence
Criterion as a
2
Design Tool pm = atan p
Relative Stability (4 + 1/ 4 )1/2 2
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Phase margin is an explicit function of damping ratio!
Approximation: for < 0.7, 0.01pm , where pm is
measured in degrees
EE 3CL4, 8
79 / 79
Tim Davidson Previous example
Transfer
functions
Frequency
Response
Plotting the
freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours
Nyquists
criterion
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Nyquists
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin 1
Relationship to L(j) =
transient response j(1 + j)(1 + j/5)
Phase margin 43
Damping ratio 0.43

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EE 3CL4, 8

Nyquists McMaster University

G(s) = K + sum angles from OL zeros to s

Frequency For each , G(j) is a complex number.

Plotting the How should we plot it?

Frequency Bode magnitude plot

Nyquists Four key components:

Nyquists 20 log10 |G(j)| against log10

Sum of 20 log10 of components of numerator

Nyquists G(j) against log10

Sum of phases of components of numerator

Frequency Isolated complex conjugate pair of poles

We will investigate the idea of mappings first

Mapping If the clockwise traversal of a contour s in the s-plane

Theorem suggests no clockwise encirclements of origin

Mapping Extending this to any number of poles and zeros inside

Mapping Nyquist was concerned about testing for stability

Nyquists How might one use Cauchy Theorem to examine this?

Nyquists Which contour should we use?

Nyquists For a stable open-loop transfer function L(s),

Frequency For a general open-loop transfer function L(s),

Plotting the the closed-loop system is stable if and only if the

Recall that L(j) = L(j)

Note: No encirclements of (1, 0) = closed loop is stable

In the L(s) plane: lim0 L(ej )

This is: lim0 eKj = lim0 K ej

Nyquists Essentially the same as plant model for VTOL aircraft

Observe that L(s) has a pole in RHP; hence PL = 1

Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

When s = rej with r and : 90 90 ,

Mapping Let c be the frequency at which |L(j)| = 1

Nyquists Square and rearrange: c4 + 4 2 n2 c2 n4 = 0;

Potrebbero piacerti anche

In the L(s) plane: lim0 L(ej )

This is: lim0 eKj = lim0 K ej