16

Lecture 2

Fibre modes, propagation and

dispersion

2.1 Modal expansion of the electric field

The electric eld can, in general, be expanded over a set of orthonormal modes. In
optical bres it is useful to use the natural bre modes. We take the z axis as the
axial position along the optical bre and the (x, y) axes as transverse over the bre
cross-section. We can write the full electric eld as1

spatial structure offset phase

Z + X z }| { z}|{ i
h d
E(r, t) = aj (z, ) ej (rt , ) exp i(j () z t + 0 ) , (2.1)
2
j | {z } |{z}
amplitude propagation constant

where the sum is over all modes j, and the outer integral is an inverse Fourier trans-
form. Note that the electric eld must be real valued, but the Fourier transform of
it (i.e. the RHS above) is complex.

The aj (z, ) are the spectral mode amplitudes.

The ej (rt , ) are the normalized electric eld vectors, which describes the
transverse electric eld structure as a function of rt the transverse position
vector. For the fundamental mode this looks like:
1 For
all the gory details, which are not important here, but are essential reading for serious
further study of bre optics, you must ingest at least chapters 11 to 13 of Snyder and Love: Optical
Waveguide Theory.

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
17 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

y position
0

3
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

x position

Figure 2.1: Electric eld of the fundamental mode of an optical bre,

showing x-polarization.

0 is a xed offset phase per mode.

j () is the z component of the wavevector; it is known as the propagation

constant and is of central importance to nonlinear bre optics. It adds a
frequency dependent phase that increases with propagation.

From now on we drop the (rt , ) dependence of the e, e.

The mode normalization is given by
ej
ej = q , (2.2)
Nj ()

with2 " 
1  
Nj () =  ej hj zdA . (2.3)
2  A 
In this course we assume single fundamental mode propagation, and also ignore
variation of the transverse mode structure with frequency (these are both easily
relaxedbut we are interested in the core physics and applications). Therefore we
drop the modal subscripts j. We now have a simplied expression for the electric
eld Z + h i d
E(r, t) = ej (rt ) a(z, ) exp i(()z + 0 ) eit , (2.4)
2
where I have separated the eit component of the Fourier transform.
2 The hj are dened similarly to the ej .

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
18 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

If we absorb the propagation and offset phase into A(z, ) through

h i
A(z, ) = a(z, ) exp i(()z + 0 ) , (2.5)

we simply obtain Z +
d
E(r, t) = ej (rt ) A(z, )eit . (2.6)
2
And dening the inverse Fourier transform of A(z, ) to be the temporal am-
plitude F(z, t) we nd
E(r, t) = F(z, t)ej (rt ). (2.7)
Note that F(z, t) is real and carrier resolved (i.e. it is not an envelope), and it does
not have eld units (i.e. [V/m]). Instead, if we note that the quantity inside the
integral in 2.3 is essentially the
hPoynting
i vector, we realize that by normalizing to
this, the F(z, t) have units of W . i.e. the power owing in the mode is simply
|F(z, t)|2 .

2.1.1 The analytic signal and envelopes

It is useful to exclude the carrier resolved part from |F(z, t)|2 and obtain what is
commonly referred to as a pulse envelope to describe the temporal propagation
inside the bre. We will use this throughout the rest of this course. While there
are many ad-hoc denitions of the envelope, it is actually very straightforward to
dene one use the concept of the analytic signal. This is obtained by integrating
only over the positive frequencies in the spectrum. Thus we dene the analytic
signal (or envelope) of our mode A(z, t) through:
Z +
d
A(z, t) = 2 A(z, )eit . (2.8)
0 2

Note the limits on the integral (and the factor of 2 to preserve energy). Also note
that A(z, t) is a complex quantity with phase information. Now the instantaneous
power of the mode in [W] is simply P(z, t) = |A(z, t)|2 and this quantity is no longer
carrier resolved. See Fig. 2.2.

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
19 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

1.0

0.5
Amplitude

0.0

0.5

1.0
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Time

Figure 2.2: An electric eld amplitude (blue) and associated analytic

signal (envelope).

2.1.2 Spectral and temporal phase and instantaneous frequency

The spectral phase is the phase of each frequency amplitude
h A(z,i). This is
acquired due to linear propagation through the exp i(()z + 0 ) term, and
through nonlinear interactions. It is computed simply through
h i
() = arg A(z, ) . (2.9)

The corresponding temporal phase is obtained through

(t) = arg [A(z, t)] . (2.10)

The temporal phase also contains information about the instantaneous frequency,
which is dened as

(t) =t (t) (2.11)

=0 + (t), (2.12)

where the second equality is for the usual case that the temporal phase (t) is
dominated by by a certain carrier frequency though an t term.

2.1.3 A simplified mode normalization (for later use)

From Faradays law we have that
i
Hj = Ej , (2.13)
0

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
20 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

and writing
ej (rt ) = etj (rt ) + ejz (rt )z, (2.14)
where the etj are the transverse vector components and ejz the axial component, we
obtain " h
1 i
Nj () = j etj etj etj t Im(ejz ) dA. (2.15)
20 A
We can almost always neglect the axial eld components, i.e. |ejz | |etj |, and so we
nally nd
j
"
Nj () = |et |2 dA. (2.16)
20 A j

2.2 Master propagation equation

Starting from Maxwells equations it is possible3 to derive the unidirectional
propagation equation (UPPE)
"

z A(z, ) = i()A(z, ) + i e (rt , ) PNL (z, rt , )dA . (2.17)
| {z } 4 A
linear term | {z }
nonlinear term

This equation has a very neat form. If we ignore the nonlinear term (the second
term on the RHS), it is just an equation for linear propagation of the modal
amplitude.
The nonlinear term is more complex, but we can think of it as a projection
of the full space and frequency dependent nonlinear polarization onto the bre
mode. I actually solve this directly in my numerical propagation codes, and the
process goes something as follows:

1. First get the full space and time dependent electric eld from 2.7.
Z +
d
E(r, t) = e(rt ) A(z, )eit .
2

2. Then calculate the full space and time dependent nonlinear polarization (see
later), through
PNL (E(r, t)) = ...
3 Come
and see me if you want the nasty details. Start by reading M. Kolesik and J. V. Moloney,
Nonlinear optical pulse propagation simulation: From Maxwells to unidirectional equations,
Phys. Rev. E, vol. 70, no. 3, p. 36604, 2004.

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
21 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

3. Then get the full space and frequency dependent nonlinear polarization
using a Fourier transform.
Z +
PNL (r, ) = PNL (r, t)eit dt

4. Then project that polarization onto the bre mode.

"

i e (rt , ) PNL (r, )dA
4 A

5. This then becomes the source term for the nonlinear contribution to the
mode upon propagation.
We will deal with calculating the nonlinear polarization in the next lecture.
First we consider linear propagation.

2.3 Dispersion
If we ignore the nonlinear terms on the RHS of 2.17 we obtain a linear propagation
equation
z A(z, ) = i()A(z, ), (2.18)
which can be solved analytically:

A(z, ) = A(0, ) exp [i()z] . (2.19)

From 2.19 we see that dispersion does not change the spectral amplitudes, only
their phases. In the time domain this corresponds to changing the temporal
intensity prole.
To understand these changes we must consider some more aspects of the
propagation constant .

2.3.1 The propagation constant

In free space the amplitude of the wavevector is given by
n
k= = nk0 , (2.20)
c
where the vacuum wavevector

k0 = . (2.21)
c
In optical bres the z component of the wavevector is the propagation constant
(), and it describes the phase shift per unit distance as the mode propagates.

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
22 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

The phase velocity is the speed at which a crest (or any given xed point) on a
wave moves. Thus the phase velocity is given by
" #
cycles of phase per unit time rad m
= = (2.22)
cycles of phase per unit space rad s

which is simply

= . (2.23)

By analogy to the material refractive index, we can dene an effective mode index
neff
c c
neff = = = . (2.24)
k0

Figure 2.3: Depiction of a dispersing pulse and the constituent frequen-

cies

Fig. 2.3 depicts how different carrier waves have differing phase velocities and
how this leads to dispersion in a pulse.

2.3.2 Sources of dispersion

Dispersion arises from:

Material dispersion due to the frequency dependence of the refractive index

(this already appears in the wavevector k).

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
23 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

Figure 2.4: Schematic plot of refractive index vs. wavelength. It is

dominated by resonances which occur both in the ultraviolet and the
infrared.

Waveguide dispersion due to the geometric structure of the waveguide.

2.3.3 The Taylor expansion of ()

A central aspect of nonlinear bre optics is to expand () in a Taylor series about
a xed reference frequency 0 and quantify the role of the various terms.
1
() = (0 ) + 1 (0 )[ 0 ] + 2 (0 )[ 0 ]2 + (2.25)
2
1 1
( )[ 0 ]3 + 4 (0 )[ 0 ]4 + ... (2.26)
6 3 0 24
which is the rst few terms of
X ( )
m 0
() = [ 0 ]m (2.27)
m!
m0

where we have used the very common notation that


m 
m () =  . (2.28)
m 

1 describes the group velocity.

2 is the 2nd order dispersion. It describes the group velocity dispersion
(GVD).
3 is the 3rd order dispersion. It describes the dispersion slope.
4 is the 4th order dispersion etc.
We now address the roles of each of these terms.

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
24 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

2.3.4 Group velocity

The group velocity of the mode in an innitesimal bandwidth around is given
by
1
g = = , (2.29)
1 ()
Whereas the phase velocity is the speed of a monochromatic sinusoidal wave,
the group velocity is the speed of a whole wavepacket made from many such
waves (Fig. 2.3).
The phase velocity determines which parts of the spectrum can be phase-
matched, which is critical to many nonlinear effects as it is required for momentum
conservation. On the other hand, the group velocity determines which parts of
the spectrum overlap in time, and hence can interact through an instantaneous
nonlinearity.

2.3.5 Group velocity dispersion (GVD) or 2 ()

Often we are only interested in the relative phase or position between spectral
components. These quantities can usually be obtained from the group velocity
dispersion (GVD). This is the frequency dependence of the group velocity, i.e.
2 (). The shape and magnitude of the GVD is of central importance in nonlinear
bre optics as we will see throughout this course.
The primary effects if GVD are to temporally broaden the optical pulses, and to
chirp them. GVD can be split into two regimes:

2 > 0 normal dispersion (low frequencies faster)

2 < 0 anomalous dispersion (low frequencies slower)

And the zero dispersion point zd is simply dened by

2 (zd ) = 0. (2.30)

Sometimes people refer to GVD through a parameter

1 1 2c
D= = = 2 2 , (2.31)

where is the wavelength. We do not use this in this course, but you should
remember its denition as it arises quite often and you may need to convert
2 () D().

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
25 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

2.3.6 The effects of dispersion on pulse shape, phase and instan-

taneous frequency

10 8
1.0
7

0.5 5 6

Instantaneous frequency
5
Phase (rad)
Amplitude

0.0 0 4
3
0.5 5 2
1
1.0
10 5 0 5 10 10 10 5 0 5 10 0 10 5 0 5 10
Time Time Time

Figure 2.5: The input pulse (no dispersion).

10 8
1.0
7

0.5 5 6
Instantaneous frequency

5
Phase (rad)
Amplitude

0.0 0 4
3
0.5 5 2
1
1.0
10 5 0 5 10 10 10 5 0 5 10 0 10 5 0 5 10
Time Time Time

Figure 2.6: 1 < 0. Note that the pulse has shifted from zero, but (t)
and (t) are unchanged.

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
26 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

10 8
1.0
7

0.5 5 6

Instantaneous frequency
5

Phase (rad)
Amplitude

0.0 0 4
3
0.5 5 2
1
1.0
10 5 0 5 10 10 10 5 0 5 10 0 10 5 0 5 10
Time Time Time

Figure 2.7: Normal dispersion 2 > 0. Note how the envelope is broad-
ened in time, and the carrier frequency is dispersed under the envelope.
Now (t) is parabolic and (t) is linear.

10 8
1.0
7

0.5 5 6
Instantaneous frequency

5
Phase (rad)
Amplitude

0.0 0 4
3
0.5 5 2
1
1.0
10 5 0 5 10 10 10 5 0 5 10 0 10 5 0 5 10
Time Time Time

Figure 2.8: Anomalous dispersion 2 < 0. As for the normal case but
opposite sign.

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
27 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

10 8
1.0
7

0.5 5 6

Instantaneous frequency
5

Phase (rad)
Amplitude

0.0 0 4
3
0.5 5 2
1
1.0
10 5 0 5 10 10 10 5 0 5 10 0 10 5 0 5 10
Time Time Time

Figure 2.9: 3 > 0. Here you get a characteristic lump on the trailing
edge.

10 8
1.0
7

0.5 5 6
Instantaneous frequency

5
Phase (rad)
Amplitude

0.0 0 4
3
0.5 5 2
1
1.0
10 5 0 5 10 10 10 5 0 5 10 0 10 5 0 5 10
Time Time Time

Figure 2.10: 3 < 0. Here you get a characteristic lump on the leading
edge.

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
28 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

10 8
1.0
7

0.5 5 6

Instantaneous frequency
5

Phase (rad)
Amplitude

0.0 0 4
3
0.5 5 2
1
1.0
10 5 0 5 10 10 10 5 0 5 10 0 10 5 0 5 10
Time Time Time

Figure 2.11: 4 > 0. Lumps on both sides, but the carrier is dispersed
as per normal dispersion.

10 8
1.0
7

0.5 5 6
Instantaneous frequency

5
Phase (rad)
Amplitude

0.0 0 4
3
0.5 5 2
1
1.0
10 5 0 5 10 10 10 5 0 5 10 0 10 5 0 5 10
Time Time Time

Figure 2.12: 4 < 0. Lumps on both sides, but the carrier is dispersed
as per anomalous dispersion.

2.3.7 The dispersion length and pulse broadening

The dispersion length is dened as the length over which dispersion becomes
signicant. We will see in later lectures the specic reason for the denition,

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices
29 LECTURE 2. FIBRE MODES, PROPAGATION AND DISPERSION

which is
02
LD =  , (2.32)
2 ()

where 0 is the pulse duration. For bres much shorter than this, dispersion is
negligible. But for longer bres, it cannot be ignored.
For sech2 shaped pulses
FWHM
0 = FWHM , (2.33)
2 ln(1 + 2) 1.763

whereas for Gaussian pulses

FWHM
0 = p FWHM . (2.34)
2 ln(2) 1.665

The temporal broadening of a Gaussian pulse due to GVD (2 ) can be analyti-

cally calculated from 2.19 to be
s
!2
z
(z) = 0 1 + . (2.35)
LD

Dr. John C. Travers B21FC Fibre Optic. Comm: Nonlinear Part

Heriot-Watt University MSc. in Photonics and Optoelectronic Devices