Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Bridget Harrison, MD
Michael Dolan, MD
Michel Saint-Cyr, MD, FRCS(C)
Reconstructive
www.SRPS.org
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SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
Eponychium
Nail fold
Lunula (dorsal roof and ventral floor) Pulp
0 No injury
1 Laceration
2 Crush
Hyponychium
3 Lossdistal transverse
Ventral (sterile) matrix
A Intermediate (germinal) matrix
4 Losspalmar oblique partial
Eponychium
5 Lossdorsal oblique
Lunula
6 Losslateral
7 Losscomplete
Nail
0 No injury
Ventral Intermediate
2 Germinal + sterile matrix laceration
(sterile) (sterile)
B matrix matrix 3 Crush
Figure 1. Anatomy of the nail shown in sagittal (A) and 4 Proximal nailbed dislocation
dorsal (B) views. (Modified from Brucker and Edstrom.5)
5 Lossdistal third
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exploration with trephination and no evidence for any but the indications for this challenging procedure are
difference in final nail cosmesis or complication rate limited and patients must be well versed on the risks
between the techniques.10 If nail bed repair is elected, and potential complications.19,20
the nail plate is removed and the nail bed typically
is repaired with 6.0 chromic suture. Replacement of
the nail plate beneath the fold is another common Nail Deformities
practice, but its replacement has not been found to Although a variety of systemic disorders can result in
affect nail regrowth or final appearance.11 nail abnormalities, the plastic surgeon is most likely
Promising results have also been observed with to be presented with posttraumatic deformities such
the use of dermal adhesives in nail bed repair. In a as a hook nail, pincer nail, or split nail (Fig. 3). A
randomized controlled trial comparing repair with hook nail arises when the nail curves volarly during
6-0 chromic sutures versus 2-octylcyanoacrylate growth. This can occur after fingertip amputation
(Dermabond; Ethicon, Somerville, NJ), Strauss when the remaining nail bed is sutured to volar skin
et al.12 found no difference in cosmesis. However, or granulation tissue results in contraction. For this
Dermabond significantly decreased the time required reason, the nail bed should not be used to cover an
for nail bed repair. Its use in children has also been amputated tip. A hook nail can also arise secondary
successful, although 27 of 30 pediatric patients to a malpositioned distal phalanx fracture with volar
experienced simple transverse lacerations.13 angulation.21 Correction might require scar release
and full-thickness skin graft, V-Y flap, or shortening
When nail bed injury is extensive or involves
of the nail bed to the length of the bone to provide
partial or total loss of the sterile matrix, split-
support.
thickness matrix grafting from an uninvolved finger
or toe can be performed. If the avulsed part has been Lateral hooking, when severe and progressive,
retained, it can be replaced as a graft. This technique is known as a pincer nail. The cause of a pincer nail is
can be successful even with exposed bone of the not always known, but its progression can cause pain
distal phalanx.14 Split-thickness sterile matrix grafts and discomfort. Treatment methods include wedge
generally perform better than grafts of the germinal resection of the midportion of the phalanx, lateral
matrix.15 Germinal matrix grafts must be of full dermal grafts, or surgical extirpation and nail bed
thickness to include the basilar layer of proliferative ablation.
cells. Higher success is obtained when the germinal
A split nail can occur as a result of a
matrix is grafted in conjunction with other nail
longitudinal scar in the germinal matrix or injury to
elements as a composite graft.16 The donor site is then
the sterile matrix. If the split is narrow, scar excision
covered with a split-thickness skin graft.
and primary closure might be possible. Larger splits
In cases with substantial loss of germinal matrix, require grafting for correction.
consideration should be given to primary nail bed
ablation. When performing an ablation, the intimate
relationship of the terminal extensor tendon to
the germinal matrix must be appreciated, with the
two structures being separated by only 1.2 mm.17
Visualization of the insertion of the terminal extensor
tendon represents the proximal limit of excision.
Microvascular nail transfer is the definitive method
for replacing the entire nail matrix, but to obtain
C
improved cosmesis at the recipient site, a notable A B
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Table 1
Empiric Antibiotic Treatment for Some Common Hand Infections
Infection Antibiotic Likely Organisms
Cellulitis/lymphangitis First-generation cephalosporin Streptococcus pyrogenes,
or antistaphylococcal penicillin Staphylococcus aureus
Paronychium/felon Dicloxacillin S. aureus, anaerobes
or first-generation cephalosporin
Flexor tenosynovitis b-Lactamase inhibitor S. aureus, streptococci,
anaerobes;
or first-generation cephalosporin
and penicillin; consider ceftriaxone Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Deep space infection b-Lactamase inhibitor S. aureus, streptococci, gram-
negative bacilli, anaerobes
or first-generation cephalosporin
and penicillin
Human bite wound b-Lactamase inhibitor S. aureus, streptococci,
or first-generation cephalosporin Eikenella corrodens, anaerobes
and penicillin
Dog or cat bite wound b-Lactamase inhibitor S. aureus, streptococci,
or first-generation cephalosporin Pasteurella multocida
and penicillin
associated surgical site infections with longer procedure from aerobic and anaerobic cultures
times, smoking status, and diabetes mellitus in a review and special culturesfungi,
of 8850 patients, prophylactic antibiotics did not affect mycobacteria, virusesas indicated
infection rates in those subgroups.
treatment with broad-spectrum
Antibiotics have been shown to reduce infection antibiotics until cultures are available
rates in large joint replacements,50,51 although Shapiro52
tetanus prophylaxis for all
argued that smaller, non-metallic prostheses, such as
penetrating wounds
those used in the hand, might be more resistant to seeding.
Because of the marked morbidity associated with implant early, aggressive hand therapy
infection, prophylaxis is commonly used when
implanting prostheses.
Common Bacterial Infections
Hand infections can be acute or chronic, but the
Management overwhelming majority of them are acute. Of the
Although the spectrum of acute bacterial hand acute infections, the overwhelming majority are
infections is broad, the management principles are bacterial in origin.
similar for all and can be summarized as follows:
rest, elevation, and immobilization in Cellulitis
position of function
Cellulitis is a common superficial infection of the
adequate drainage of all loculations of hand that presents as erythema, swelling, pain,
pus and dbridement of necrotic tissue and occasional lymphangitis or vesicle formation.
antibiotics, determined by sensitivities Cellulitis occurs most commonly on the dorsal aspect
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of the fingers and metacarpals, and beta-hemolytic Occasionally, paronychia becomes a chronic
streptococcus is the usual pathogen. Treatment problem, perhaps from secondary mycobacterial or
includes rest, elevation, splinting, and antibiotics. fungal infections, which more commonly occur in
immunosuppressed patients, diabetics, and patients
with cancer. Chronic paronychia also occurs in patients
Paronychia with frequent exposure to irritants and allergens.61
With this condition, the cuticle separates from the
Paronychia is an infection of the lateral soft-tissue
nail plate exposing the region to potential bacterial
fold surrounding the fingernail. Paronychia is
and fungal pathogens. Although chronic paronychia
initiated by the introduction of bacteria between
was previously thought to be a predominantly fungal
the nail and its surrounding structures. This usually infection caused by Candida albicans, the role of this
is caused by minor trauma, such as nail biting and pathogen has recently been questioned.62
manicures. It frequently is reported that S. aureus
is the most frequent isolate in paronychia. Studies Before initiating treatment, alternative diagnoses
must be considered. Considering the chronicity of
have shown anaerobic bacteria to be present alone
the lesion, entities such as squamous cell carcinoma
or in combination in a large percentage of cases of
(SCC), malignant melanoma, and metastatic lesions
paronychia,53 likely because of the frequency
should be considered.63,64 Treatment should begin
of contact of the oral secretions with the
with avoidance of contact irritants. Although Candida
inciting wound. has been targeted in the past, topical steroids have
Paronychia initially begins as erythema, been shown to be more efficacious than systemic
swelling, and discomfort at the nail fold, sometimes antifungals.62 Refractory chronic paronychia might
with fluctuation and frank purulence. If paronychia require marsupialization or excision of the proximal
is detected early, warm soaks, elevation, and nail fold. The nail fold can be marsupialized by
oral antibiotics can be sufficient treatment. Oral excision of a crescent of tissue down to the germinal
cephalexin, clindamycin, and amoxicillin-clavulanate matrix, which is then left to close by secondary
are effective against most pathogens isolated from intention.65 Alternatively, the entire proximal nail fold,
including the cuticle, can be excised.66
paronychia.54 Although no trials have compared
antibiotic therapy alone versus surgical drainage, in
the presence of an obvious abscess, drainage generally Pulp Space Infection (Felons)
is recommended.55
A felon is an infection of the pulp of the distal finger.
Different methods for drainage have been The anatomy of the pulp is unique, with hundreds
described.56,57 Superficial infections can be drained of longitudinal septa anchoring the tip to the distal
easily with an 11 blade or elevation of the nail fold phalanx (Fig. 6).58 When infection is present, the
with the tip of a 21- or 23-gauge needle. If pus is septa can compartmentalize an infection and preclude
present underneath the nail, however, most hand adequate drainage if the septa are not fully ruptured.
surgeons remove a portion or all of the nail plate
Most felons are precipitated by some sort
(Fig. 4).58 If nail plate removal is indicated, incision of penetrating trauma, and radiographs should be
of the dorsal nail fold can facilitate removal and obtained of all felons and carefully evaluated for
drainage. Two incisions are made at right angles to foreign bodies. If a felon does not respond to therapy
the nail fold, at the 5 oclock and 7 oclock positions, or if strong evidence indicates that a non-radiopaque
to elevate it completely from the nail bed in the foreign body is embedded in the pulp, ultrasonography
region of the infection (Fig. 5).59,60 Accurate placement might reveal a foreign body not seen on conventional
of the incisions minimizes the chance of subsequent radiographs. S. aureus is the most common pathogen
eponychial retraction. in felons,67 but gram-negative organisms have also
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Hyponychium
maximal tenderness, and the incision should be made
at that site. The pulp must be explored immediately
volar to the phalanx but dorsal to the neurovascular
Sterile matrix structures. The fibrous septa are ruptured to allow
Periosteum complete drainage of the infected space. Good results
are achieved with a longitudinal midline palmar
Fat pad and fascial septa Sterile matrix
incision that does not cross the distal interphalangeal
Paronychium
(DIP) joint (Fig. 7).58,70 The incision heals well and
Artery usually does not produce a hypersensitive scar on the
Nerve
pulp. A dorsal mid-axial hockey stick incision can be
used but should be placed on the noncontact side of
Fascial septa
the digit and should not extend around the tip of the
Figure 6. Anatomy of the fingertip. (Modified from finger. If this incision is used, care must be taken to
Conolly.58) preserve the neurovascular bundles.
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Digital artery
tenderness along the entire flexor sheath
and nerve
pain along the entire flexor sheath with
passive extension of the digit
The sensitivity and specificity of these signs
have not been validated, and authors7780 have
reported variations in the most commonly seen
Figure 7. Drainage of a felon. (Modified from Conolly.58) sign. In a study of 75 patients with purulent flexor
tenosynovitis, Pang et al.77 found that fusiform
swelling was most common (97%). All patients in
a report by Dailiana et al.78 experienced tenderness
Tenosynovitis along the flexor tendon sheath and pain with passive
extension. Diagnosis is first and foremost clinical, but
Tenosynovitis is an infection within the sheaths that in situations of uncertainty, ultrasonography might
form the gliding surfaces around the tendons in the be of benefit.79,80 Ultrasonography can show swelling
hand. It is almost exclusively a disease of the flexor of the tendon and peritendinous fluid.
tendons, although extensor tenosynovitis has also Michon81 classified flexor tenosynovitis
been described. Reports of extensor tenosynovitis into three stages that can be used to describe and
more commonly involve atypical organisms, such document the clinical presentation. In the first stage,
as tuberculosis or blastomyces.7173 Although the tendon sheath becomes distended with exudative
tenosynovitis rarely is life-threatening, delayed or fluid. In the second stage, further distension occurs
with purulent fluid. In the third stage, the tendon
inappropriate treatment can lead to devastating
becomes nonviable and necrosis of the tendon and
consequences. The delicate gliding surfaces of the
pulleys is present.
tendon sheaths can be destroyed by infection,
Once the diagnosis of tenosynovitis has been
resulting in a stiff and painful finger. Even more
made, treatment must be instituted promptly. Very
prolonged delay in treatment can allow the sheath
early cases can undergo a trial of intravenously
to rupture, with spread of the infection to any of the administered antibiotics, splinting, and elevation.
spaces of the palm or to the adjacent bone. Prolonged That mode of treatment, however, should be selected
infection increases pressure in the sheath and can with caution. The patient should be observed closely,
thereby lead to ischemic rupture of the tendon via and if marked improvement is not noted within
inhibition of extrinsic blood flow.74 12 to 24 hours, treatment should progress to
surgical drainage.
Most cases of tenosynovitis begin with
When surgical drainage is deemed necessary
penetrating trauma, and in such cases, the most
based on initial presentation or failure to improve,
common infectious agent is S. aureus. Some cases are
two methods are available. Early cases can be
caused by hematogenous dissemination, particularly irrigated through incisions in the sheath just
of gonococcal infections, and this possibility should proximal to the A1 pulley and at the distal flexor
be considered in cases with no history of antecedent sheath. A small catheter is then placed (Fig. 8).8284
trauma.75 In general, irrigation does not need to continue
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Both thenar and midpalmar space infections tissue. Dbridement of infected soft tissue and bone
usually present with diffuse hand swelling, especially is performed. Antibiotic spacers are placed in the
on the dorsum. This is because the volar skin is defect, and external fixation can be applied before
more limited by tight fascial attachments, whereas wound closure.94 Positive cultures are treated with 4
dorsally, there is room for expansion. Thenar space to 6 weeks of antibiotic treatment. After successful
infections usually are characterized by the thumb treatment, spacers can be removed and autologous
being held in an abducted position, with pain over the grafting can be performed.
adductor muscles and pain on extension or attempted
Overall, S. aureus is the most common
opposition of the thumb. Drainage of the abscesses
infecting organism, but polymicrobial infections are
must not only respect the proximity of neurovascular
common after penetrating trauma or open injuries.
structures, primarily the radial bundle to the index
Hematogenous osteomyelitis and postoperative
finger and the ulnar bundle to the thumb, but also
infections are more likely to be caused by a single
must prevent scarring across the thumb-index web
organism.95 The best test for diagnosing osteomyelitis
(Fig. 10).84
under such circumstances is direct evaluation of the
A midpalmar infection causes loss of palmar bone in an operative setting, with a biopsy performed
concavity, with fingers often held in flexion. The during the same procedure. The biopsy also
midpalmar space, exclusive of the flexor tendon provides a culture to guide the antibiotic therapy. A
sheaths, allows free spread of infection along fascial superficial swabbing of the wound is inadequate for
planes to deeper areas in the hand. Its boundaries diagnosis or culture, because the pathogens obtained
are the fascia over the second and third interosseous by that technique might not accurately reflect
muscles, the oblique midpalmar septum radially, the the microbiology of the infected bone. Although
hypothenar septum ulnarly, and the flexor sheaths of conventional radiographs should be obtained to
the long, ring, and small fingers volarly. The fingers identify foreign bodies and other pathological
might be held in a semi-flexed posture with pain conditions, they are unreliable in the diagnosis of
during passive extension. Hypothenar space infections osteomyelitis.96 Three-phase bone scans and tagged
are less common and are localized to an area defined white blood cell scans are more accurate but are
by the hypothenar septum ulnarly, the periosteum of expensive, time-consuming, and limited by acuity of
the fifth metacarpal dorsally, and the palmar fascia and the infection and other local inflammatory processes.
fascia of the hypothenar muscles volarly. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is frequently
used for diagnosis, but sensitivity and specificity
have been reported to range from 60% to 100%
Osteomyelitis and from 50% to 90%, respectively.97 Diagnosis
Osteomyelitis of the bony structures of the hand can be confused with noninfectious inflammatory
is a relatively infrequent infection because of the conditions, bone contusion, healing fractures,
extensive blood supply to the region,90 but its effects osteonecrosis, and metastasis.
can be devastating. Nearly half of all fingers with
osteomyelitis ultimately require amputation, with
Septic Arthritis
many more remaining stiff or nonfunctional.91
Osteomyelitis can present after penetrating or crush Infection of the joint spaces of the hand can
wounds or can spread from an adjacent infection, cause a devastating loss of hand function because
hematogenous seeding, or treatment of fractures. it can quickly lead to joint degeneration or
The incidence of osteomyelitis after internal osteomyelitis.98,99 Septic arthritis can present as a
fixation of open hand fractures is reportedly 0 to primary site of infection or as a complication of
2.5%.92 For osteomyelitis in this setting, Balaram another hand infection, the most common of which
and Bednar93 recommended implant removal and is an acute flexor tenosynovitis. Isolated septic
surgical cultures from the affected bone and soft arthritis can occur either by direct inoculation or
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C D
Figure 10. Incisions for drainage of deep space infections. A, Thenar space. B, Mid-palmar space. C, Hypothenar
space. D, Collar button abscess. (Modified from Brown and Young.84)
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closure has been reported without subsequent combination of agents has been shown to be the
complications,131 deep wounds, noncompliant treatment of choice. Success has been reported with
patients, and late-presenting injuries might be better tetracycline,140 ciprofloxacin,141 and clarithromycin.142
managed open. Antibiotic choices are similar to those The largest study to date,143 from Hong Kong,
used for dog bites. suggested that chemotherapy alone might be
applicable to more extensive disease; the authors
reported a worse prognosis with severe disease
Atypical Mycobacterial Infections regardless of the treatment option. Generally, deeper
disease treatment also requires surgery with radical
The three major atypical mycobacteria involved
synovectomy and more specific antimycobacterial
in hand infection are Mycobacterium marinum,132
therapy with rifampicin and ethambutol for up to 2
Mycobacterium kansasii,133135 and Mycobacterium
years. The optimal duration of treatment, however,
terrae.136,137 M. marinum is the most common
is unknown. If surgery is indicated, physiotherapy
mycobacterial species to infect the hand. It lives in
should begin promptly.
warm water environments and has been cultured
from contaminated swimming pools, fish tanks, piers,
boats, and stagnant water. It is endogenous to fresh Viral Infections
and saltwater marine life. M. marinum survives best
Herpetic Whitlow
at 31C, and for that reason, it produces infections on
the extremities rather than deep body cavities.138 M. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection of the hand
kansasii infection is associated with exposure to soils, was first described by H. G. Adamson in 1909. It can
whereas M. terrae infection should be suspected with be caused by a primary or recurrent infection with
patients involved in farming. These organisms can either HSV-1 or HSV-2, but subtypes are clinically
cause infection even in immunocompetent patients. indistinguishable. It tends to occur in three distinct
patient subgroups. The first group is adolescents
Infections with Mycobacterium occur after
with genital herpes, who tend to be infected with
a break in the integrity of the skin, often from a
HSV-2.144 The remaining groups tend to be infected
mild abrasion on the dorsum of the hand or over
with HSV-1. The second group is children with
the interphalangeal or MCP joints of the fingers.
oral gingivostomatitis,145 and the third group is
Infection of the hand progresses through a spectrum
adult health care professionalsincluding dentists,
of indolent skin ulcers through subcutaneous
anesthesiologists, surgeons, and nurseswho deal
granulomata with sinus tracts, tenosynovitis (flexor
directly with potentially infected oral and respiratory
and extensor), and septic arthritis or osteomyelitis.
secretions.146
Remote exposure must be identified because lesions
appear after an incubation period of 2 to 4 weeks.139 Herpetic infection of the hand initially declares
itself with a prodromal phase of approximately 72
Early clinical diagnosis of mycobacterial
hours duration, with severe pain or tingling in the
infections is made only with a high index of
affected digit, and then erythema and swelling.
suspicion. When mycobacterial infection is suspected,
This is called herpetic whitlow. During the ensuing
cultures should be obtained at both 31C and 37C;
hours to days, vesicles appear and coalesce, often
otherwise, M. marinum infections can be missed.
around the eponychium and lateral nail fold. It is
Positive cultures for mycobacterial strains take at least
at that stage that the viral infection is most likely
6 weeks for identification; therefore, treatment can
to be mistaken for a bacterial felon or paronychia.
be instituted on the basis of granulomata shown by
However, the pulp usually is not tense, as it would be
histological examination or on the basis of acid-fast
in a case of bacterial felon. Associated lymphangitis
bacilli seen on a smear.
can be present. The natural history of untreated,
Treatment of superficial disease can be uncomplicated herpetic whitlow is complete
successful with chemotherapy alone. No single or resolution within 3 weeks. Viral shedding, however,
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occurs during the first 12 days and corresponds treatment, but multiple treatments usually are
with the peak of infectivity.147 Reactivation of latent required for resolution. Imiquimod, bleomycin,
virus occurs in only approximately 20% of hand and systemic retinoids have all been used to treat
patients.148,149 It is not normally as severe as the warts, but side effects are notable and limit
primary infection and lasts for 7 to 10 days. widespread application.
Diagnosis is primarily clinical but can be
confirmed by viral culture, serum antibody titers,
TUMORS
Tzanck smear, and viral polymerase chain reaction.
Viral culture is the most sensitive diagnostic test but Several authors158162 have presented excellent reviews
can require 1 to 4 days for results. The Tzanck smear of the spectrum of hand neoplasms, including
is easily performed by unroofing a vesicle and taking their incidence, causes, anatomic distribution, and
scrapings with a scalpel but identifies only 50% to management, which almost always involves surgical
60% of culture-proven herpetic infections.150 remova1. Only the more common hand tumors are
discussed herein. The overwhelming majority of hand
The treatment of herpetic infections of the
masses are benign, and true neoplasms are rare in the
hand is primarily nonsurgical. Of note, surgical
hand (Table 2).158
intervention can both delay diagnosis and expose
the patient to other pathogens.151 Rest, elevation,
and anti-inflammatory analgesia are the mainstays Soft-Tissue Tumors
of treatment. A total daily dose of 1600 to 2000
mg of orally administered acyclovir can prevent Ganglia
or shorten symptom duration and viral shedding Ganglia are the most common benign tumors in the
if administered at the onset of the prodrome, but hand.163,164 Although trauma is commonly thought
optimal treatment duration is unknown.152,153 For to be implicated in the development of ganglia, a
immunocompromised patients, aggressive therapy traumatic antecedent has been documented in only
with intravenously administered acyclovir might be a small percentage of patients. The pathogenesis
warranted in an attempt to prevent life-threatening is thought to be mucoid degeneration of fibrous
viremia or meningitis.154 connective tissue in joint capsules or tendon sheaths
occurring idiopathically or secondary to injury
or irritation. Ganglia are two to three times more
Verruca Vulgaris common in women than in men. The usual clinical
The most frequent viral infection of the hand presentation is that of a mass with or without pain.
is caused by human papillomavirus. Human Occasionally, occult ganglia present as paresthesias or
papillomavirus subtypes 2 and 4 cause verruca weakness from nerve compression.165167
vulgaris, or common warts. Warts occur in up to Dorsal wrist gangliaThe dorsum of the
10% of children and young adults, most commonly wrist accounts for 70% of all ganglia in the hand
between the ages of 12 and 16.155 Forty percent of and wrist. In the dorsum of the wrist, the ganglion
warts can be expected to clear without treatment,156 usually overlies the scapholunate ligament. Clay
but pain and aesthetic appearance can prompt and Clement168 noted the pedicle of the ganglion to
consultation. arise from that site in 76% of patients. The cause of
Many over-the-counter preparations contain dorsal wrist ganglia is still uncertain. Some attribute
salicylic acid, and evidence exists for a better cure rate underlying peri-scaphoid ligamentous instability,169
(75%) over placebo (48%).157 Higher concentrations but this might be a sequelae of surgical treatment of
the ganglion.
can be prescribed by a physician, but improved
efficacy compared with over-the-counter preparations Volar wrist gangliaVolar wrist ganglia arise
has not been proven. Cryotherapy is also an effective from the flexor carpi radialis tendon sheath or the
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Table 2
Grading of Bone and Soft-tissue Tumors of the Hand158
radioscaphoid, scapholunate, or scaphoid-trapezium- fingers can originate from the extensor tendon itself
trapezoid joint. Ultrasonography can delineate or from the joint capsule. Mucous cysts can produce
the origin preoperatively. The ganglion is in close a deformity of the nail plate from pressure on the
proximity to the radial artery, which can cause it to nail bed. The etiology of these cysts is unclear, and
be bilocular. various surgical approaches have been successful.
Flexor tendon sheath gangliaFlexor tendon Brown et al.172 reported their experience with 26
sheath ganglia arise from the volar flexor tendon nail deformities occurring secondary to mucous
sheaths in the vicinity of the MCP joint. They cysts of the DIP joint managed by excision of the
present as small, hard, tender tumors on the volar cyst and dbridement of associated osteophytes. No
aspect of the MCP joint or proximal phalanx but do recurrences occurred during the follow-up period,
not move with the tendon. Etiology is unknown, and and residual nail deformity in eight patients was
they require excision only if symptomatic, excising a negligible. However, cyst excision and osteophyte
small cuff of the tendon sheath.170 Recurrence rates removal might not be necessary for treatment
are lower with direct excision, but the most cost- considering that success has been reported with
effective treatment for flexor tendon sheath ganglia is simple osteophyte removal,173 raising and resiting
two aspirations before excision.171 a flap over a suspected leakage point from the DIP
Mucous cystsGanglia arising in association joint without cyst or osteophyte excision,174 and
with tendons and joints on the dorsal aspect of simple dorsal capsulectomy.175
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Pathological anatomyDepending on its rate compared with open resection. It can also
origin, a ganglion typically has a uni- or multilocular identify the exact origin of the ganglion and other
main cyst that communicates with smaller intra- intra-articular pathological conditions.190 Previously,
articular cysts through a tortuous, continuous, excision of the cyst stalk was thought to be necessary
one-way valvular system of ducts. Microscopic to prevent recurrence,191 but this is not a universally
examination of the ganglion wall typically reveals accepted risk factor.192
compressed collagen fibers with no evidence of cells
of epithelial or synovial origin.176,177 The cyst contains
viscous mucoid material consisting of glucosamine, Giant Cell Tumors of Tendon Sheath
albumin, globulin, and hyaluronic acid. Giant cell tumors are the second most frequent
ManagementCalif et al. reviewed the
178 type of hand tumor after the ganglion cyst. They
natural history of wrist ganglia in children and noted typically occur in the fingers of 30- to 50-year-
that 27 of 29 lesions resolved spontaneously within old patients and are slightly more common in
an average of 9 months. A conservative approach to women.193 They have many names and have been
ganglia is therefore advocated for young patients, variably referred to as pigmented villonodular
unless the ganglion is atypical or does not resolve tenosynovitis, myeloplax tumors, fibrous xanthoma,
within a year. Management of wrist ganglia in adults xanthosarcoma, and localized nodular synovitis.
is controversial. The literature supports a spontaneous No evidence has shown that repeated hemorrhage,
regression rate of 58%,179 whereas treatment of all friction, or cholesterol imbalance contributes
types is associated with recurrence rates from less than substantially to the development of giant cell tumors,
1% to 64%.180 and only approximately one-third of patients provide
histories of trauma or surgery to the region. Pain and
Treatment of wrist ganglia is indicated only
tenderness are not prominent features, but prolonged
in the event of substantial discomfort or deformity.
unchecked tumor growth interferes with mechanical
Although surgery is the mainstay of treatment,
function of the hand. Approximately 5% of patients
various nonoperative techniques have been advocated.
experience associated sensory disturbances.194
Zubowicz and Ishii181 reported 85% success rates
with up to three aspirations; however, with each The clinical presentation of a giant cell tumor
subsequent aspiration, failure is more likely. Varley et of the tendon sheath is that of a lobulated, mottled,
al.182 reported less promising results, with only 33% yellow subcutaneous mass. Although the diagnosis
success with either aspiration or aspiration combined usually is evident clinically, MRI and ultrasonography
with steroid injection. Injection of hyaluronidase has have been described as adjuncts in the preoperative
also been proposed, with the theoretical advantage of assessment of extensive tumors.195,196 Histological
making the cyst permeable to the concurrent injection examination reveals stromal cells, multinucleated giant
of steroid. Despite good results reported by Paul and cells, and lipid laden foam cells. Cell proliferation is
Sochart,183 a prospective, randomized clinical trial polyclonal and non-neoplastic.197 Giant cell tumors of
comparing hyaluronidase injection and aspiration the tendon sheath are considered benign but can erode
with surgical excision found a recurrence rate of 77% bone by pressure and/or can infiltrate the overlying
with injection and aspiration compared with 24% dermis. Bony invasion has been described and requires
after surgery.184 Sclerotherapy with phenol,185 OK- enucleation and curretage.198
432, and hypertonic saline186 has been described, but
Treatment is complete local excision, ensuring
benefit over surgical excision has not been proven and
total clearance of the volar joint recess. Recurrences
sclerotherapy carries risks associated with sclerosant
unfortunately are common, especially in the fingers.
injections.179,187
Reported recurrence rates vary from 4% to 44%.199,200
Arthroscopic resection of wrist ganglia has been The lowest recurrence rate was reported by Kotwal et
associated with a lower188 or equivalent189 recurrence al.,201 who applied radiation after excision. Extensive
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SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
of malignant hand tumors.225 Half are associated with SCC is ionizing solar radiation. Other less common
von Recklinghausen disease.226 Local extension and causes of SCC are previous irradiation,232 burn scars,
hematogenous spread are common, resulting in a exposure to arsenic compounds, and inherited genetic
poor prognosis. Wide excision or amputation of the disorders.233 The dorsum of the hand, with the highest
extremity is the recommended treatment. actinic exposure, is the most common site for SCC,
although the tumor has been reported to also occur
Intraneural tumors of non-neural origin
on the palms and subungually.234,235 Most textbooks
Intraneural tumors of non-neural origin include
recommend excision with 1- to 2-cm margins, but
lipofibromatous hamartomas, hemangiomas, ganglion
a recent trial236 of marginal excision for 32 patients
cysts, and lipomas.227 Lipofibromatous hamartomas
reported no recurrences at a follow-up of 31 months.
commonly occur within the 1st decade of life
One case of possible metastasis was identified. Until
and usually involve the median nerve. They can
further information is available, however, margins
result in macrodactyly, especially of the index and
of 4 mm for lesions <2 cm and 6 mm for lesions >2
middle fingers.228 Treatment involves carpal tunnel
cm are recommended.237 If nodal metastasis or local
release with or without neurolysis. Radial excision
recurrence is evidenced, axillary lymphadenectomy
is not recommended because severe sensory and
is recommended. The role of sentinel node biopsy in
functional impairments can result. Macrodactyly
cases of SCC is not yet defined in the literature. SCC
can be treated with amputation, wedge osteotomy,
of the hand is an aggressive tumor prone to recurrence
or epiphysiodesis.229 Malignant degeneration has not
and metastasis.238 The metastatic rate for SCC of
been reported. the hand is higher than elsewhere on the body,
particularly if the primary lesion involves the digital
web space.239
Epidermal Inclusion Cysts
BCCBCC are very uncommon tumors in
Epidermal inclusion cysts commonly occur on the
the upper extremity.240,241 Palmar variants have been
palmar surface of the hand or digits of patients
observed,242 especially in cases of Gorlin syndrome
whose work or leisure activities predispose them
(multiple nevoid BCC syndrome).243 BCC has been
to penetrating hand injuries.230 The time from the
reported to also occur subungually, in which case
traumatic incident to cyst development varies from
differentiation from a subungual melanoma must be
months to years. Clinically, the lesions are firm,
made.244,245 Although BCC do not metastasize, they
spherical, and non-tender, but they can cause pain
are locally aggressive. Excision is the usual form of
from direct pressure or secondary infection. The cyst
treatment, although low-risk BCC can be treated with
wall consists of squamous epithelium with laminated
topical immunomodulators, intralesional treatments,
keratin, and the cyst material contains protein,
or electrodessication and curettage.246
cholesterol, fat, and fatty acids.
MelanomasOf all cutaneous melanomas,
Spontaneous rupture is common, but the lesion approximately 2% present on the hand.247 They are
often persists unless the cyst lining, contents, and palmar, dorsal, or subungual in location. Longitudinal
overlying puckered skin are surgically removed. Local melanonychia or pigmented streaking of the nail plate
complications include infections and bone erosion. might warrant biopsy, particularly when >3 mm or
extending into the nail fold (Hutchinson sign).248
A study by Ridgeway et al.249 showed that the acral
Malignant Skin Tumors
histological subtype does not affect the disease-free
SCCAlthough basal cell carcinomas (BCC) are and overall survival. Tumor thickness remains the
the most common cutaneous malignancy overall, only prognostic indicator. Slingluff et al.250 found that
squamous cell cancer is more common in the upper acral melanoma has a strong racial predilection, carries
extremity.231 SCC predominate among people with a grave prognosis, and arises from glabrous skin. In
fair skin and light hair color. The usual origin of that study, no survival difference was shown between
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SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
volar and subungual sites, nor did amputation make Enchondromas usually appear as well-
a difference. Poor prognosis is likely related to later demarcated round or oval swellings. A pathological
diagnosis in the extremity.251 fracture often is the first indication of their presence.
In such cases, the fracture should be allowed to heal
Melanoma requires wide excision or amputation
before the enchondroma is treated. Radiographically,
of the digit or hand, depending on location and
enchondromas appear as radiolucent, symmetric,
depth.252 The appropriate level of amputation has
not been determined, but there is a trend toward expansile diametaphyseal lesions that do not involve
more conservative resection. In 1982, Papachristou the epiphyses.
and Fortner253 advocated amputation through the Treatment usually consists of curettage of the
carpometacarpal joint. In 1984, Finley et al.254 tumor through a window in the cortex, with or
reported seven finger amputations distal to the MCP without cancellous bone grafting. Injectable calcium
joint (four just proximal to the DIP joint and three phosphate bone cement has also been described for
just proximal to the proximal interphalangeal joint), healed fractures or enchondromas without fractures267
with no local recurrences. Quinn et al.255 showed and provides increased strength compared with
no difference in local recurrence for subungual curettage alone.268 According to a retrospective review
melanomas whether amputations were performed of 102 enchondromas in 82 patients, Sassoon et
proximal or distal to the interphalangeal joint of al.269 found that most patients achieve bony healing
the thumb or the middle of the middle phalanx regardless of the graft material used.
in the fingers. Similarly, no prospective study to
Multiple enchondromasMultiple
date has shown a survival or local control benefit
enchondromas are rare in the hand and always
to prophylactic lymph node dissection, regional
occur as part of a disseminated involvement (Ollier
perfusion, or immunotherapy.256,257 A recent
dyschondroplasia).270 Multiple enchondromas
retrospective study, however, did suggest improvement
associated with hemangiomas are part of Maffucci
in long-term survival with lymph node dissection in
syndrome. The earliest clinical manifestations
advanced stages.258 The use of sentinel lymph node
of multiple enchondromatosis are swelling and
biopsy has grown markedly in recent years.259
deformity of several bones.271 The tumors distort,
Bony Tumors expand, and sometimes erode the bony cortex,
Several authors260263 have presented excellent reviews particularly in the diaphyses and metaphyses;
of bony tumors of the hand. Treatment is based on calcifications are seen in the translucent areas on
accurate diagnosis and staging of the lesions radiographs. Because at least 20% of multiple
(Table 3).158 enchondromas go on to become chondrosarcomas,272
wide excision is the treatment of choice, with
adjuvant radiotherapy to the malignant lesions.
Chondromas OsteochondromasOsteochondromas are the
Chondromas are the most common benign most common cartilaginous neoplasm in the body
cartilaginous tumors of the hand.264 Chondromas overall but are less common than enchondromas in
that remain within the substance of the bone or the hand.273 They are thought to arise secondary to a
cartilage are called enchondromas. Enchondromas defect within the periosteum and present as a bony
favor the tubular bones of the hand, especially the prominence.261 Radiographically, osteochondromas
middle and proximal phalanges.265 Congenital appear as bony protuberances extending beyond
cartilaginous rests are implicated in their origin, and the metaphyseal cortex of the involved bone on a
the lesions are totally benign, with little tendency narrow stalk. Management consists of observation or,
toward malignant degeneration. Nelson et al.266 if symptomatic, surgical excision. The prominence
reviewed the literature and found only three well- can result in tendon rupture or restricted range of
documented cases of chondrosarcoma arising from motion,274276 and some authors recommend early
enchondromas. excision. Of distinct histology and clinical behavior
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SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
Table 3
Enneking Staging System for Bone and Soft-tissue Tumors
and Their Indicated Excision158
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Whereas large bone osteoblastomas typically are The pathological subtypes of soft-tissue sarcomas297,298
distinguished by their larger size, in the small bones of and bone tumors299,300 have been reviewed by several
the hand, size might not be a distinguishing factor.287 authors. Treatment protocols for both bony and soft-
Because of the bone destruction accompanying tissue extremity sarcomas have been reviewed.301303
osteoblastomas, the differential diagnosis includes Combination therapy (wide excision, radiotherapy,
osteoid osteoma, aneurysmal bone cyst, and malignant and chemotherapy) is now used for most high-grade
tumors. Although curettage has been described, high tumors and produces excellent local control rates
recurrence rates and malignant transformation suggest in some tumor types. Amputation is avoided and is
the need for complete excision.288,289 Radiotherapy is saved for the management of local recurrences. When
helpful in tumor cell control and might even aid sarcomas fail, they tend to do so at distant sites. In
in healing.
that circumstance, a functional hand provides a better
quality of life.
Giant Cell Tumors of Bone
Giant cell tumors are uncommon anywhere. They Skeletal Sarcomas
represent approximately 5% or fewer of all primary
Ewing sarcomasEwing sarcomas of the hand
malignant bone tumors, and only 2% to 5% of giant
or foot are not common, representing only 4% of all
cell tumors occur in the hand.290 The lesion affects
patients primarily between the ages of 30 and 50 Ewing sarcoma cases.304 The thumb and long finger
years and is virtually unknown in patients younger are most frequently affected.305 Ewing sarcomas
than 20 years. Women with giant cell tumors slightly affect male patients twice as often as female patients,
outnumber men. usually in the 2nd decade. Radiographically, lytic
bone destruction with variably sclerotic matrix
Clinically, the giant cell tumor is a solitary
and periosteal reaction is seen. A soft-tissue mass
lesion, often well advanced by the time it is noticed.
often is present.306 Ewing sarcoma generally has a
A constant dull pain heralds its presence, sometimes
poor prognosis, with metastasis present in 25% of
preceded by swelling.291 Radiographically, it is seen
presenting cases.307 Still, neoadjuvant or adjuvant
to involve the soft tissues. The epiphyseal end of
chemotherapy improves survival and is recommended
the bone is affected, with extension to the adjacent
metaphysis. The tumor is translucent, and the cortex nearly universally for this malignancy.308 Radiation
of the bone is noticeably thin. The clinical course is alone is not indicated, because it cannot control the
long but localized. Sarcomatous degeneration averages lesion. It is used when wide margins are not obtained
10%, but the lesion metastasizes in fewer than 15% of and when chemotherapy response is incomplete.309
cases.292,293 OsteosarcomasOsteosarcomas in the hand
Treatment consists of curettage with adjuvant are rare tumors, accounting for only 0.18% of all
phenol, cryotherapy, or polymethylmethacrylate to osteosarcomas.310 Peak incidence is during the 2nd
reduce the recurrence rate. When soft-tissue extension decade of life, with a male-to-female ratio of 2:1. The
is present, en bloc resection is advised.294 The presenting complaint often is persistent, increasing
recurrence rate depends on location and method of pain from a rapidly growing mass. The pathogenesis is
treatment, ranging from a reported 0% with resection unknown. The lesions can arise de novo or can occur
to 65% with curettage alone.295,296 Amputation is secondary to a benign process. Osteosarcomas in
reserved for recurrent or highly malignant tumors. general tend to occur more frequently in association
with irradiated bone, Pagets disease, fibrous dysplasia
of bone, giant cell tumor, solitary enchondroma,
Sarcomas multiple enchondromatosis, and multiple
Sarcomas are very uncommon tumors in the hand. osteochondromas.
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SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
Radiographically, the borders of an osteosarcoma or amputation, depending on the size and location
are indistinct, but the lesion invariably involves the of the tumor. Radiation has been shown to reduce
cortex and generally transgresses it. Often, a large local recurrence in randomized trials, but it does not
contiguous soft-tissue mass is present. A combination improve patient survival.320,321 Chemotherapy also
of destructive and proliferative new bone usually is reduces recurrence rates and can improve overall
present, showing a streaked texture and a characteristic survival in selected tumors.322 The prognosis generally
sunburst pattern. Histologically, osteosarcoma has is poor.
a typical spindle-shaped cell pattern. Treatment has Epithelioid sarcomasEpithelioid sarcomas are
changed from amputation to excision with a wide the most common soft-tissue sarcomas of the hand.323
margin plus adjuvant therapy. The 5-year overall They have been associated with trauma in one-third
survival rate associated with osteosarcomas of the of cases.324 Lesions are notoriously insidious and often
upper extremity is approximately 67%.311 mistaken for a benign inflammatory condition.325
ChondrosarcomasChondrosarcomas are the Most lesions in the hand arise on the palm or volar
most common primary malignant bone tumors to surface of the digits.326 Local recurrence is common,
occur in the hand.312 They occasionally are associated as is distant metastasis. Treatment recommendations
with osteochondromas and, to a lesser degree, with are radical excision (often necessitating partial
multiple enchondromatosis,313,314 although the vast amputation) and node dissection.327 Adjuvant therapy
majority of cases include no preexisting lesion.315,316 can be of benefit, particularly in the setting of
Chondrosarcomas characteristically occur in older metastatic disease.328
patients (age, 6080 years) in the epiphyseal area Malignant fibrous histiocytomasMalignant
of the proximal phalanx or metacarpal. The clinical fibrous histiocytomas are the most common soft-tissue
course is slow, and metastasis is late.317,318 The tumor sarcomas overall, often presenting in the 6th to 8th decade
presents as a progressively painful large mass near the of life.329 Lesions can be superficial or deep, single or
MCP joint. Treatment of choice is amputation or ray multinodular. Like epithelioid sarcomas, malignant
resection. Histological interpretation of cartilaginous fibrous histiocytomas often are painless and slow
lesions of the hand is difficult, and clinical and growing. Metastasis has been observed in 35% of
radiological appearance (bone expansion, lytic areas of patients, with a 5-year survival rate of 65% overall.330
bone destruction, soft-tissue swelling) often are more Treatment primarily is surgical resection, with
reliable indicators of malignancy. Prognosis is good if radiotherapy added unless a generous margin has been
metastasis has not occurred. excised. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy can be useful for
high-grade lesions.331,332
RhabdomyosarcomasRhabdomyosarcomas
Soft-Tissue Sarcomas
tend to involve the thenar eminence or interosseous
Soft-tissue sarcomas are an uncommon but important spaces. The alveolar subtype predominates in the
group of hand tumors. They tend to occur in young upper extremity, over the embryonal, botryoid, and
patients, are innocuous in presentation, often leading pleomorphic subtypes. An alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma is
to an incorrect diagnosis, and have protracted clinical a highly malignant, devastating tumor that presents as
courses. They are prone to local recurrence, have a rapidly growing, deep mass in the palm of a child.319
an unusually high incidence of lymphatic spread Local recurrence is common, and it invariably is fatal
and regional node metastases, and often metastasize if not adequately treated. Metastatic involvement has
systemically late in their course. Deep tumors that been noted in up to 50% of cases at presentation.333
are firm and are 5 cm or larger should be considered Total excision of the tumor should be attempted, even
to be possible sarcomas until proven otherwise.319 at the cost of function or cosmesis.334 The prognosis
Workup should include plain radiography and for alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma has improved with
MRI of the hand and computed tomography of the multi-modality therapy but is still poor because of its
chest. Standard treatment is wide surgical excision marked tendency to spread.333
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Kaposi sarcomas Kaposi sarcoma presents as Some authors suggest a cutoff of 1.0 cm2 for nonsurgical
a palpable, pigmented, non-painful lesion. The first management of fingertip injuries.354,355 Such treatment
clinical signs are dark blue to violaceous macules on is especially well suited to children and the elderly. The
the skin that are later replaced by infiltrative plaques wound is covered with a semi-occlusive or alginate
and finally by nodules measuring 0.5 to 3 cm in dressing, which can be left intact for 5 to 7 days and can
diameter. Some of the lesions heal, and others coalesce then be changed as necessary. Complete healing usually is
and ulcerate.346 The classic form is associated with achieved in 1 to 2 months.356 Mennen and Wiese357 treated
elderly men of Jewish and Mediterranean descent, extensive fingertip defects by using this method and
but a more aggressive form has been associated with reported excellent functional and cosmetic outcomes. The
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and human advantage of this treatment is that as the wound contracts,
T-lymphotropic virus type 3. it pulls proximal innervated pulp skin over the exposed
Kaposi sarcoma might respond to surgical bone, resulting in a very small area of residual scar located
excision, radiation, and chemotherapy.347 The off the pressure area of the finger. However, if the same
prognosis varies according to the behavior of the technique is used to treat more dorsal fingertip defects
tumor. Fulminating lesions have a fatal outcome with involvement of the distal nail bed, the subsequent
within 6 to 12 months of diagnosis, whereas slower wound contraction can lead to parrot beaking of the
growing tumors are compatible with 20-year survival. nail, which can be difficult to correct secondarily.
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SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
Even small amounts of exposed bone can be insignificant, with no functional loss
managed conservatively. In a retrospective study at the donor site.
comparing conservatively treated fingertip amputations
The method must be safe, practical,
with bone exposure with surgical intervention, results
reliable, economical, and predictable
were equivalent.358 However, when used for exposure of
in results.
more than a small bony tuft, secondary healing risks bony
desiccation and osteomyelitis. Beasley further listed three indications for local
flaps in the repair of fingertip amputations: 1) wound
bed unsuitable for revascularization of skin graft; 2)
Skin Grafts need for subcutaneous tissue replacement in addition
to skin; 3) protection of vital structure, such as nerve.
Skin grafts commonly are used to repair fingertip defects.
They can be used as a temporizing measure with a view to Flaps for reconstruction of soft tissue of the
subsequent flap revision, or they can serve as the definitive fingertip can be obtained from the same finger
wound closure. In the former situation, split-thickness (homodigital) or another finger (heterodigital)
skin is more appropriate because it has a more predictable or from local, regional, or distant sources.365367
take. Similarly, large soft-tissue defects are resurfaced For a flap to be clinically useful, it must fulfill the
with split skin because it tends to contract more than guidelines listed above and must be reliable and
full-thickness skin, thus keeping the resultant insensitive simple to create. Common reliable flaps are discussed
area as small as possible.359 Split-thickness skin from the in the sections that follow.
hypothenar eminence or instep of the foot has a papillary
pattern that most closely resembles native fingertip skin.360
Beasley359 suggested full-thickness donor sites from the Homodigital Flaps
groin to minimize the cosmetic deformity of the donor The most immediate source of tissue for fingertip
site. Thenar or hypothenar full-thickness skin grafts have replacement is the same finger. The obvious
an excellent texture match and do not hyperpigment as advantages are that it does not violate another normal
groin skin tends to.361 Their size is limited by the necessity finger or part of the body nor does it immobilize
to obtain primary closure of the donor site. uninvolved joints. The tissue used must be outside
Although some spontaneous reinnervation of full- the zone of injury. The neurovascular integrity of the
finger should be maintained.
thickness skin grafts has been observed, any insensitive
or hyposensitive areas that remain theoretically limit the The tissue directly adjacent to the wound is the
application of skin grafts to the hand.362 However, Braun closest source of flap tissue and forms the basis for
et al.363 found no difference in functional outcomes or many traditionally popular flaps. The Atasoy volar V-Y
2-point discrimination when comparing split-thickness advancement is useful for dorsal oblique-to-transverse
skin grafting with primary closure with skin flaps. amputations in cases in which the defect does not
exceed 1 cm (Fig. 12).368 After application of a volar
V-Y flap, 2-point sensitivity is decreased to approximately
Flap Reconstruction 75% of normal.369,370 The usefulness of the flap is vastly
improved by extending the proximal part of the
Loss of fingertip pulp greater than one-third the
V past the DIP joint crease and into the middle
length of the phalanx requires replacement of soft
phalangeal segment and by elevating the flap as a true
tissue to support the distal nail. Beasley364 offered the
bilateral neurovascular island flap on both pedicles,
following guidelines for reconstruction in such cases:
which is known as the Tranquilli-Leali flap.371
Replacement soft tissue must have
In 1964, Moberg372 described a rectangular volar
good ultimate sensibility and be
advancement flap from the base of the thumb that can
capable of tolerating normal usage.
be used in thumb tip reconstruction for defects <1.5
Secondary disfigurement must be cm in axial length. The volar advancement flap is a
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SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
true axial flap in that the incisions are placed dorsal to retrograde pedicle and can be used as a free flap,
the neurovascular bundles so as to include them with an arterial and/or venous flow-through flap, or a
the flap and restore normal sensation to the tip. The neurovascular flap.383,384 It was originally described by
tissue movement achieved in proportion to the extent Iselin385 in France but is now probably more useful in
of the dissection is disappointing, and if too large a coverage of thumb tip defects when harvested from
defect is closed (>1 cm), flexion contracture of the the proximal phalanx of the index finger.
interphalangeal joint can occur. Several authors373,374
subsequently modified the method of mobilization,
incorporating a V-Y closure in the advancement to Heterodigital Flaps
make the flap more reliable. Alternatively, the flap
can be converted into a true island and the proximal In 1951, Cronin386 first described the cross-finger flap
defect can be skin grafted.375 for fingertip reconstruction. The cross-finger flap
brings durable cover to exposed bone, joint, or flexor
Snow376 applied the Moberg flap to the repair tendons when homodigital flaps do not suffice.387
of fingertip amputations, but dorsal tip necrosis and
Blood supply of the cross-finger flap is random and
an unstable pulp scar plagued the series. Macht and
based on the subdermal plexus of an adjacent digit.
Watson377 preserved the dorsal perforating vessels by
The flap can be based laterally, proximally, or distally,
using a spreading-dissecting technique with which
depending on the most comfortable approximation
the volar flap is not cut free except at its most distal
of donor digit to defect. The dorsum of the middle
area. They reported no skin loss or joint stiffness
occurring in 69 transfers and 2-point discrimination phalanges of the index, middle, and ring fingers is
values within 2 mm of the contralateral normal finger. the most appropriate donor site in terms of joint
immobilization. Use of a cross-finger flap from the
Lateral advancement flaps have the potential to volar aspect of the middle finger, rather than from
offer the ideal fingertip reconstruction, replacing the thinner dorsal finger skin, provides better tissue
like with like from the same digit. Unilateral quality for resurfacing the pulp of the thumb.388
advancement flaps move tissue from directly adjacent
to the defect and maintain sensibility. The unilateral The technical points of cross-finger flap
V-Y flap was first described by Geisserndrfer378 elevation and transfer were detailed in 1960389 and
in 1943 but has little cover potential. Bilateral were illustrated by Lister390 in 1993 (Fig. 14). The
advancement flaps can also be used, as described by pedicle can be divided by the 8th or 9th day to lessen
Kutler379 in 1944 (Fig. 13).380 As with all homodigital the risk of joint stiffness from joint immobilization,
flaps, the potential exists for flap embarrassment if but many wait 2 to 3 weeks to ensure graft take.
damaged tissues or pedicles are used.
Many variations of the cross-finger flap have
Reversed digital artery island flaps from the been described. The dorsal sensory branch can be
proximal finger necessitate sacrifice of one digital included in the flap and sutured to the digital nerve
artery and rely on retrograde flow through an intact of the injured fingertip, although that technique has
anastomosis with the contralateral normal artery.381 not been shown to improve the ultimate sensibility
These flaps require neurorrhaphy of a dorsal branch of the flap.391 Dorsal defects can be repaired with the
to the contralateral digital nerve for optimal recovery reverse cross-finger flap, described by Pakiam392 (Fig.
of sensibility.382 A preoperative digital Allen test is 15). Dorsal skin is elevated, exposing full-thickness
essential to assess the patency of both arteries. Venous subcutaneous tissue. This fascial flap is then elevated
drainage of the flaps is via the soft tissue around off the peritenon and transposed to the adjacent
the arterial pedicle, so the pedicle should not be dorsal defect. The method requires a full-thickness
skeletonized. skin graft to cover the recipient site. The originally
The dorsal middle phalangeal finger flap, or flag elevated donor skin is replaced in situ and sewn back
flap, can be raised on a short or long antegrade or into place.
26
SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
A B
Figure 12. Atasoy V-Y advancement flap. A, Skin incision and mobilization of triangular flap. B, Advancement of
flap. C, Closure with V-Y technique. (Modified from Atasoy et al.368)
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SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
A B C D
Figure 13. Kutler lateral V-Y advancement flaps. (Reprinted with permission from Lee et al.380)
Advantages of the cross-finger flap technique are to the adjacent finger must be sacrificed. Cortical
that the flap is easy to elevate and can include ample misrepresentation remains a problem, and the
quantities of similar tissue. Disadvantages are that it is sensibility of the transferred skin has been variable in
a two-stage procedure, a skin graft is required for the several series.399,400
donor site (which is obvious on the exposed dorsum
Holevich401 reported a pedicled island flap
of the finger), stiffness of the involved digits is a from the dorsum of the index finger that is based
possibility, and 2-point discrimination values average on the first dorsal metacarpal artery. It includes a
only 9 mm.393 terminal branch of the radial nerve and can be used
In a study of 54 patients with cross-finger flaps, to resurface a shortened thumb. A problem exists
Nishikawa and Smith394 found that despite recovery with cortical interpretation, and the skin is not pulp
of protective sensation, no patient had recovered skin. Indications for the first dorsal metacarpal artery
tactile gnosis. Maximal recovery of sensibility flap have expanded, and it is reliably used for thumb
occurs in those younger than 20 years, and 2-point reconstruction, contracture release, and web space
discrimination plateaus at 1 year. Contraindications reconstruction.402,403
to the use of cross-finger flaps include arthritis,
Dupuytrens contracture, and generalized
vasospastic syndromes. Regional Flaps
Littler395and Tubiana et al.396 developed In 1926, Gatewood404 first proposed a thenar flap for
the technique of interdigital transfer of pedicled resurfacing the tip of the index finger in one patient.
neurovascular island flaps. Pedicled neurovascular Thirty years later, Flatt405 presented his results with
island flaps have found their greatest application in a similar palmar flap in a large series of fingertip
reconstruction of the ulnar thumb pulp, with median reconstructions.
nerve-innervated skin being transferred from the The classic thenar flap is based proximally to
ulnar pulp of the middle finger (less desirably, the ensure good venous return and to minimize proximal
radial pulp of the ring finger).397,398 For the flap to interphalangeal joint flexion. Contracture can be
reach the tip of the thumb, the digital nerve must further controlled by placing the thumb in full
be dissected well back and the proper digital artery palmar abduction and bringing the MCP joint of the
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SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
Figure 14. Elevation and transfer of dorsal cross-finger flap. Full-thickness skin graft should be sutured to edge of
defect adjacent to donor finger before flap is inset so that a closed system is created. (Modified from Lister.390)
A B C D
Figure 15. Reverse cross-finger flap. A, Dorsal aspect of index finger has exposed tendon. Reverse cross-finger
flap is designed. Dorsal skin of long finger is de-epithelialized. B, Flap is elevated at level of paratenon and trans-
posed, like a page in a book, over dorsal aspect of index finger. C, Both digits are covered with full-thickness skin
graft. Flaps are inset 2 to 3 weeks later. D, Representation of final outcome. (Modified from Pakiam.392)
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SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
involved digit into full flexion.406 If designed properly, distally over the metacarpal head (Fig. 17). These
the donor site usually can be closed primarily.407 reverse dorsal metacarpal artery flaps are sustained by
Unlike the true palmar flap, the thenar flap is not interconnections between terminal branches of the
likely to produce joint stiffness postoperatively, dorsal metacarpal arteries and the deep digital and
provided the pedicle is divided in approximately palmar arterial systems. Maruyama raised flaps on all
10 days. five dorsal metacarpal arteries and reported a largely
successful experience in eight cases.
Small Defects of the Hand or Digits The flap now known as the Quaba flap is based
on a perforator from the dorsal metacarpal artery 0.5
Homodigital Flaps to 1 cm proximal to the adjacent MCP joint (Fig.
Lai et al.408 described the adipofascial turn-over flap 18).418 The arc of rotation allows coverage of the dorsal
with which dorsal defects of the finger and hand metacarpal, web, and phalangeal areas. Long flaps can
can be resurfaced by a flap of subcutaneous tissue also reach volar web spaces.419
hinged on a pedicle that borders the defect. This flap
is especially useful in cases of abrasion injuries of the
DIP joint with exposed terminal extensor tendon. Large Defects of the Hands or Digits
The donor site is closed primarily, and the flap is Regional Flaps
grafted (Fig. 16).409 Advantages include a one-stage
The regional flaps applicable for resurfacing
procedure, minimal donor-site morbidity, and avoidance
the hand are based on the three major arteries of the
of damage to the volar digital arteries.410
forearm: the radial, ulnar, and posterior interosseous
arteries.420 Yang et al.421 described the territory of the
Heterodigital Flaps radial forearm flap in 1981, and it was subsequently
used as a free flap by Song et al.422 in 1982. The
In addition to the flaps previously described, small
skin on the flexor surface of the forearm is relatively
defects of the hand can be resurfaced by applying so-
hairless, thin, and pliable, which makes it ideal
called venous flaps. Venous flaps consist of skin islands for resurfacing the dorsum of the hand. It avoids a
raised on a single-vein pedicle from the dorsum of contralateral donor site or need for attachment to
the hand and are used to reconstruct either the dorsal the groin. The radial forearm unit can be raised as
or volar surfaces of adjacent digits.411,412 When based a composite of fascia-skin,423,424 fascia,425,426 bone-
on the dorsum of the hand, the flap contains a dorsal muscle-fascia-skin,427429 or fascia-tendon-skin.430,431
vein, perivenous areolar tissue, and the fascia of the
interosseous muscle.413 Although initially used for contralateral hand
injuries, in 1984, Lin et al.432 noted ample retrograde
Earley414 detailed the anatomy of the second flow into the radial artery from the ulnar artery
dorsal metacarpal artery and reported various uses for via the deep palmar arch and proposed a reverse
this neurovascular island flap hand reconstruction. forearm flap. The flap is nourished by this retrograde
He and others415,416 broadened the applications of the circulation and can be elevated on its long pedicle for
second dorsal metacarpal artery flap. Its main use involves reconstruction anywhere in the hand. The authors
repair of radio-palmar and thumb defects or release of described a crossover pattern of communicating
first web space contractures. Distal flap necrosis can branches between the paired venae comitantes and
occur if the flap extends beyond the proximal identified small superficial collateral branches of each
interphalangeal joint. vein, which effectively bypass the valves. This system
enables the flap to be drained despite competent
valves. Even in cases of substantial hand trauma in
Regional Flaps
which the palmar arches are in question, the flap has
Maruyama417 and Quaba and Davison418 elevated been successfully raised, based on communications
skin islands from the dorsum of the hand, based proximal to the wrist.433,434
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SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
Turned-over flap
Flap base
Flap Flap base
Defect
Skin graft
Incision
Closure
A B C D E
Figure 16. Surgical technique. A, Complex defect exposing dorsal aspect of distal interphalangeal joint. B, Design
of adipofascial flap. Base of flap is adjacent to defect. C, Development of distally based adipofascial flap. D, Flap is
turned over on itself to cover defect. E, Primary closure of donor site. Flap is covered with split-thickness skin graft.
(Modified from Al-Qattan.409)
The radial forearm flap has two main matrix, and tissue expansion.442446 Split-thickness skin
disadvantages. Foremost is that a major vessel to the grafting remains the standard at most centers.
hand is sacrificed, but Kleinman and OConnell435
Failure of the flap is most commonly related to
found that the only marked objective difference
technical error in elevation or insetting. Care must be
between patients who had undergone flap transfer and
taken to avoid kinking or compression of the pedicle
control patients was an 18% delay in reconstitution of
after its transposition.
normothermia after cold stress testing. Reconstruction
of the vessel rarely is necessary.436,437 Even so, In 1984, Lovie et al.447 described the ulnar
Weinzweig et al.438 described a technique for elevating artery island flap, and 4 years later, they reported their
a distally based fasciocutaneous flap with preservation experience with this method for hand and forearm
of the radial artery if ischemia is a concern and Braun reconstruction. The skin territory of the flap overlies
et al.439 similarly elevated a retrograde radial fascial the proximal ulnar aspect of the forearm, which is
turn-down flap based on distal perforators of the almost always hairless and less visible than the radial
radial artery, leaving the main radial artery intact. border. The authors and others447449 found that the
advantages of the ulnar flap were superiority in terms
The unaesthetic and potentially unstable grafted
of aesthetics, easier harvesting of bone and muscle
donor site of the radial forearm flap remains the major
(flexor carpi ulnaris), direct closure of the donor site,
detractor of this otherwise excellent flap.440 Skin graft
and less morbidity.
take usually is not a problem with flaps used for hand
reconstruction, because the flap is based proximally The posterior interosseous artery flap is based
over the muscle bellies. If the flap needs to be raised on the communication between the anterior and
in the distal forearm over the flexor tendons, graft posterior interosseous arteries.450,451 The posterior
take can be improved by suprafascial dissection of interosseous artery runs in a fascial septum between
the flap.441 Many methods of improving the donor the extensor carpi ulnaris and extensor digiti minimi
site have been proposed, including direct closure, muscles, ulnar to the posterior interosseous nerve
full-thickness skin grafts, local flaps, acellular dermal (Fig. 19).452 Markings for exposure are made on a line
31
SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
Anterior
Ulna interosseus
artery
Radius
Posterior
interosseus
artery
Extensor
carpi Extensor digiti
ulnaris minimi proprius
Extensor
Distant Flaps
1
Large flaps of skin can be transferred to the hand
3
2
from distant sites by means of traditional pedicled
techniques or microvascular free tissue transfer.
Pedicled flapsHistorically, flaps of skin from
Figure 18. Arterial basis of distally based dorsal hand remote sites over the chest and abdomen traditionally
flap is direct branch from dorsal metacarpal artery that were used for resurfacing large wounds of the
enters skin 0.5 to 1 cm proximal to adjacent MCP joint. upper extremity. These included flaps from the
1, Dorsal carpal arch; 2, Deep palmar arch; 3, Superficial abdomen, lower chest, thigh, and buttocks. The most
palmar arch. (Modified from Quaba and Davison.418) commonly used pedicled flap is the groin flap based
32
SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
on the superficial circumflex iliac artery456458 or the both the deep peroneal nerve and the medial plantar
superficial inferior epigastric artery.459 The superficial nerve (Fig. 20).468 Lee and May469 found that the
circumflex iliac artery (SCIA) arises from the femoral first dorsal metatarsal artery arose from the dorsalis
artery 2 cm below the inguinal ligament or from a pedis artery dorsal to the mid-metatarsal axis in
common trunk with the superficial inferior epigastric 78% of 50 cadaver dissections. The authors usually
artery. Chuang et al.460 described a rule of two finger obtain preoperative angiography to determine the
widths, which relies on locating the SCIA two finger
vascular anatomy. The main advantage of the first
widths below the junction of the inguinal ligament
web space flap for sensory reconstruction in the hand
and the femoral artery. Two finger widths medial to
is replacement with similar thin glabrous skin with
the anterior superior iliac spine, the SCIA emerges
from beneath the deep fascia to become superficial. concentrated sensory receptors, allowing the best
The upper flap border is defined two finger widths 2-point discrimination of any neurosensory flap.
above the inguinal ligament parallel to the SCIA, and
the lower flap border is two finger widths below the
SCIA origin.460
Groin flaps are axial-pattern flaps with reliable
vascularity. However, they necessitate two surgical
stages and the hand remains dependent during the
Branch of
initial period of flap attachment, encouraging edema superficial
and stiffness. In addition, groin flaps are too bulky peroneal nerve
33
SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
The thin, malleable skin over the dorsum of necessary for an optimal aesthetic contour.
the foot can also be transferred as an innervated free
The free groin flap constitutes an unsurpassed
flap,470,471 including the underlying extensor tendons472
donor site and allows the transfer of a large quantity
and second metatarsal for composite reconstruction,473
of hairless skin. Like the pedicled groin flap, it is too
if required. The dorsalis pedis flap is raised on the
bulky for resurfacing the hand and requires revision
dorsalis pedis artery, and venous drainage is via the
defatting and/or liposuction.
venae comitantes and saphenous vein. Neural input is
from the superficial peroneal nerve. The donor site is Recent interest in perforator flaps has led to the
unforgiving, so meticulous attention must be paid to growing popularity of the anterolateral thigh flap487,488
flap dissection and wound care. and the tensor fasciae latae perforator flap489 in dorsal
hand reconstruction, but perforator flaps based on
The free radial forearm flap and free ulnar forearm
nearly all the standard pedicled flaps have also been
flap can be used just as readily as the already discussed
described.490492 Large flaps of very thin skin can be
pedicled flaps. They have neurosensory potential
raised with minimal donor site morbidity. Because
via the lateral and medial cutaneous nerves of the
forearm, respectively. the flaps are based on perforating vessels, the motor
function of the underlying tensor fascia latae is
The lateral arm flap, originally described by Song preserved.
et al.474 in 1982, is supplied by the posterior radial
collateral artery and innervated by the posterior The temporoparietal fascia flap offers a thin,
cutaneous nerve of the arm. Pedicle length can be up well-vascularized gliding surface. It is supplied by
to 11 cm. It can be raised as a fasciocutaneous flap or the superficial temporal artery and vein.493 It is
as combinations of fascia,475 muscle, tendon,476 and advantageous in the upper extremity to wrap exposed
bone.477,478 Donor defects up to 6 cm wide usually can or contracted tendons. The deep areolar surface of the
be closed primarily. The cutaneous territory of the flap flap is turned toward the tendons to provide a smooth
can be extended to the lateral epicondyle479 and the gliding surface. The overlying fascia is thin and pliable
pedicle lengthened by splitting the triceps between its for metacarpal contouring. A skin graft completes
lateral and long heads.480The flap has the advantage the reconstruction. This fascial flap is also excellent
of confining flap harvest to the same extremity as the for filling the three-dimensional defect resulting
defect. However, this popular flap comes with a price. from the extensive release of complex first web space
Graham et al.481 reviewed 123 lateral arm flaps and contractures. Upton et al.494 reported favorably on
found a high rate of complications and morbidities. their upper extremity reconstruction using this flap,
Seventeen percent of the patients complained of expressing preference over radial forearm fascia for its
hypersensitivity at the donor site, 19% had elbow superior donor site scar and preservation of a principal
pain, 59% reported numbness in the forearm, and artery to the hand. Potential complications of flap
83% complained of excessive flap bulk. transfer include palsy of the frontal branch of the
facial nerve and permanent alopecia.
For large defects of the upper extremity,
where sensibility is not as important, scapular and Another extremely thin fascial flap is the
parascapular flaps often are applied.482,483 Vascular serratus anterior fascial flap. The serratus anterior fascial
supply is based on the circumflex scapular vessels, off flap consists of the loose areolar tissue between the
the subscapular system. The parascapular flap allows latissimus dorsi and serratus anterior muscles and
a larger skin paddle to be harvested with primary is supplied by the thoracodorsal vessels.495,496 It has
closure of the secondary defect, and the resulting a long constant vascular pedicle, very thin well-
scar is less conspicuous than that of the horizontal vascularized tissue, and low donor site morbidity,
scapular flap defect.484 The scapular flap can be raised and it allows simultaneous donor and recipient site
as a fascial flap or as an osteofascial flap.485,486 Both dissection. It can also be combined with other flaps of
flaps have the disadvantage of being bulky, even in the subscapular system or can incorporate the lower
thin patients, and secondary defatting or liposuction is slips of serratus muscle.497,498
34
SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
Free muscle flaps can provide only crude gracilis flap have been suggested.503 For very large,
protective sensibility through pressure receptors, but degloving-type wounds of the upper extremity, the
their malleability makes them well suited to difficult latissimus dorsi is the muscle of choice. These three
contour problems in the hand, especially the palm.
flaps have large-diameter pedicles of adequate length
They are sometimes favored for complex contaminated
wounds and to fill dead space.499,500 For small defects, with minimal donor site morbidity. Functional free
the serratus anterior497,498 seems most useful, and for muscle transfers are discussed in the Microsurgery
moderate-sized wounds, the rectus abdominis501,502 or issue of Selected Readings in Plastic Surgery.504
35
SRPS Volume 11 Issue R9 2016
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476. Katsaros J, Schusterman M, Beppu M, Banis JC Jr, 492. Koshima I, Urushibara K, Inagawa K, Moriguchi T. Free
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