77 Fa 5 C 35 C 4 Agromanual I

PRACTICAL MANUAL
on
AGROMETEOROLOGY
Dr. L.R. Yadav

Dr. S.S. Yadav
Dr. O.P. Sharma
Dr. A. C. Shivran
2012
Department of Agronomy
S.K.N. College of Agriculture
(SK Rajasthan Agricultural University)
Campus : Jobner 303329 (Rajasthan)
SKN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
(S.K.RAJASTHAN AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY: BIKANER)
JOBNER-303329 Distt. - Jaipur (Raj.)
Phone: 01425-254022 (O), 01425-254022 (Fax) 01425-254023(R)
Dr. G.L. Keshwa

Dean
FOREWORD
Weather and crop production are integral components of agriculture. During the era of global
warming and climate change, the role of agrometeorology in agriculture has become more
important in mitigating the challenges arised by climate change. Successful crop production
depends on the prevailing weather conditions at different stages of crop growth. This manual
has been prepared to enhance the understanding of undergraduate students regarding
measurement of weather elements, their interpretation and role in crop production.
Dr. L.R. Yadav, Dr. S.S. Yadav, Dr. O.P. Sharma and Dr. A.C Shivran deserve
congratulation for bringing out this manual for benefit of students, readers and all those
involved in the measurement of weather data.
PREFACE
Agriculture and weather are the essential components of the crop production.
Crop production depends upon the prevailing weather conditions at different stages of
crop growth. Precise measurements of weather elements ar e required to understand
the proper interpretation in relation to crop growth and development. Recently, the
course curricula of undergraduate classes has been reoriented according to IV Deans
committee of ICAR. The practical exercises of this manual are according to new syllabi
of agrometerology course running in the UG programme.
Sixteen exercises have been included in the manual. The material has been drawn from
various publications with and without seeking permission from authors/publishers. The authors
would like to express their gratitude of all of them. The authors would be grateful to receive
suggestions from readers for further im provement of this manual. The authors wish to acknowledge
the financial assistance received from ICAR for publication of this practical m anual.
Special gratitude is expressed to Dr. G.L. Keshwa, Dean, S.K.N. College of Agriculture,
Jobner for his able guidance and encouragement for preparation of this manual.
February, 2012
Jobner Authors
CONTENTS
S. Particulars Page Date Signature of teacher

No no
1 Agro meteorological observatory site

selection , installation and exposure of
instruments
2 Calculation of local mean time
3 Handling of agro meteorological
instruments and weather data
recording
4 Measurement of total solar radiation
5 Measurement of long and short wave
radiation
6 Measurement of bright sunshine hours
7 Measurement of maximum and
minimum temperature
8 Measurement of soil temperature
9 Measurement of dew point
temperature
10 Determination of vapor pressure and
calculation of relative humidity
11 Measurement of atmospheric pressure
12 Measurement of wind direction and
speed
13 Measurement of rainfall
14 Measurement and determination of
evaporation
15 Processing and tabulation of weather
data
16 Presentation of weather data
Exercise No. 1
Agro-meteorological observatory site selection, installation and exposure of instruments
An obs ervatory is a s pecially designed station or place where the regular and simultaneous records of the
weat her data are made by physical measurements using various techniques, sensors, skills, recorders, instruments
etc. by standard methods at hours recommended by IMD and WMO. IMD was established during 1875 with its
central office at Pune which takes up this responsibility. Country is divided into 35 meteorological sub divisions.
To facilitate the collection of data at one point, five regional centres were established, which are located in
five different places, for which the head quarters are mentioned against each as detailed below.
North zone Delhi
East zone Calcutta
South zone Chennai
West zone Bombay
Central zone Nagpur
Weather affects agriculture at every stage, therefore, knowledge of crop weather relationship helps in
opti-mizing the agricultural operations. Since meteorology and climatology are primarily observational
science, adequate care has to be taken for getting most representative and accurate observations of weather
parameters for their worthwhile application in weather and climate prediction.
In arid and semi arid agriculture, the weather aberrations are more as compared to the humid
agriculture that adversely affect the agricultural production. The weather variables and their measurement, if
taken in time for the weather forecast for short and medium range one can avoid from the great losses in the
arid and semi arid areas. Therefore, urgent and rapid data collection and their dissemination is possibl e by
well settled agromet observatory in the data measurement and mana gement for weather forecast agencies
like India Meteorological Department (IMD), National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecast
(NCMRWF) and State Agricultural Universities for their better use for the farming community.
Types of general observatories
On the basis of instrumental facilities, observer type, data observation frequency and mode of
data transmission, IMD has divided general observatories into 6 classes:
PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 1

10. Class I(Special station): Autographic recording and eye recording, all data elements are
recorded at least thrice(0530,1130,1430,2030,0230 IST).
11. Class II (Synoptic station) : Eye reading, almost all data recorded at least twice(0830, 1730 IST).
12. Class III(Synoptic station) : Eye reading,data are recorded part time once a day(0830 IST).
13. Class IV(Climatological station) : Eye reading without barom eter all data recorded except
pressure once a day.
14. Class V(Rainfall station) :Eye reading only, rainfall is recorded daily.
15. Class VI( Less or Non instrument station) : Less or no instrument, wind direction, cloud,
speed visibility etc. are recorded daily.
Agro meteorological observatories
Agromet observatories are those stations at which physical elements of climate and biologic al, agricultural
elements, generally of phenological nature or both relat ed to agriculture are observed to explore crop -
environment relationship. World Meteorological Organization (WMD) has divided agromet observat ories into four
categories-Principal, Ordinary, Auxiliary and S pecific purpose agromet observatories.
Types of the observatories
The observatories are classified on the basis of the number and type of instrum ents available.
Essential and optional availability of the instruments in each type observatory are as below:
(a) Auxiliary ( or class C) observatory:
Essential instruments
1. Single Stevenson screen with
Dry bulb thermometer

Wet bulb therm ometer With one spare set of thermometers
Minimum thermom eter

Maxim um thermom eter
14. Non-recording rainguage and measuring glass (with one spare

measuring glass) Optional instruments
1. Wind vane 2. Anem ometer 3. Dewgauge

(b) Ordinary (or class B) observatory:
Essential instruments
1. Single Stevenson screen with

Dry bulb thermometer
Wet bulb therm ometer With one spare set of thermometers
Minimum thermom eter

Maxim um thermom eter
17. Non-recording rainguage and measuring glass (with one spare measuring glass)
18. Soil therm ometers at the depth of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 cms along with the stand
19. Class A pan evaporimeter with fixed point gauge covered with a wire mesh and an ordinary
therm ometer for m easuring water temperature in the evaporimeter
20. Wind vane
21. Anem ometer and
Optional instruments
1. Dewgauge 2. Sunshine recorder 3. Self recording rainguage and
4. Double Stevenson screen with thermograph and hygrograph.
(c) Principal (or class A) observatory:
1. Instrum ents of class B observatory
2. Self recording rainguage
3. Thermograph and 4. Hygrograph
Criteria for site selection

I. The site should contain a flat rectangular plot with 55 meters (180 feet) in north-south
direction and 36 m eters (120 feet) in east-west direction( Fig. 1),
II. The site must be representative of climate, soils and agricultural (cropping) conditions of the
area and should be located at the centre of the farm,
III. The site must be free from water logging and easily accessible throughout the year,
IV. Site selected should be away from hills, buildings, streams and trees to avoid shade, shield or channel affects,
V. It should be away from steep slopes, water bodies and frequent irrigation.
VI. The recommendable distance from the obstacles from the raingauge and other instruments are at least twice
and 10 times the height of the obstructions, respectively.

Fencing
After the site selection, it should be wire fenced, normally to a height of about 1.5 meter with a gate
locking arrangement to protect from theft, animals and rodents which may cause damage to and cables.

Surface conditions
The surface of the observatory should be cleaned regularly and be covered with thin grass
as barren ground causes increased ground radiation. The grass should be periodically trimmed.
Coordinates of the observatory
Since data has far wider application, therefore, exact location of the obs ervatory should be known. For t his
purpose, coordinates of the site of the observatory, i.e. latitude and longitude to the nearest meter and elevation
(height above mean sea level) to the nearest meter should be obtained. The elevation refers to the ground on
which raingauge stands, in the absence of which it refers to the ground under thermometer screen.
Precautions for installation
1. The instrument should be robust, durable, accurate and simple for operation and should not
require calibration graph without any electrical connection.
2. While installing the Stevenson screen which contains the therm ometers, care should be
taken that it should open in North direction to prevent direct sun shine during observation.
3. Tall instruments should be on one side of the observatory so that they may not shade small instrument.
Hours of observation:
Since Meteorological elements vary with time, it is necessary that the y should be recorded at a particular time on every
occasion. In India, the main observations are recorded as per the guide lines of I.M.D. at 0830 and 1730 IST.
At Agromet observatories, the observations are recorded at 07:00 and 14:00 hours LMT except
evaporation and rainfall which are recorded at 08:30 hours IST. Radiation observations including sunshine
are recorded as per LAT (Local Apparent Time). At meteorological observatories the hours are numbered
consecutively from midnight 00 hours to midnight 24 hours, the hours after noon being 13 hours, 14 hours
and so on. Time as 2:30 p.m and 2:30 a.m are expressed as 1430 and 0230 hours I.S.T. respectively.
The instruments should be read in the following
order: 1. Wind instruments 2. Raingauge
3. Thermometers 4. Barometer
Type of observations
The observations are of two types:
1. Instrum ental (for which instruments are used). Most of the observations recorded in observatory
2. Sensory (for which observer uses his senses and these are prim arily visual). These are current
weather including clouds, visibility, thunder storm, lightening, fog etc.

Fig.1 Layout of agrometeorological observatory

Problem: 1. Draw the layout plan of a standard agrometeorological observatory.

Dated___________
Exercise No.2
Calculation of local mean time
Indian Standard Time (IST)
The surface of the Earth is divided into 24 time zones the way in which there are 24
hours in a day. The time established in each of the zone is called as Standard time. The Indian Standard
Time (IST) is the Local Mean Time (LMT) for the meridian of lo ngitude 82 30 E. This is the longitude of
Allahabad which is taken as standard longitude for our country. Since each degree is equal to four minutes of
time, the IST is 5 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). The GMT is also known as universal time.
Local Mean Time (LMT
This is the local time based on the transit of the mean Sun. To calculate LMT from IS T, it is essential to
know the longitude of the station. The time of observation at India Standard time is 0700 and 1400 hours for all
observations except rainfall and pan evaporation whose observations are taken at 0800 hours. As corresponding
to each degree longitude local mean time (LMT) is higher by 4 minutes on the east and lower to the west,
therefore, for determining LMT from Indian standard time (IS T), following formula may be used:
LMT= IST- 4 (L1 - L2)
LMT = IST - 4 (82 30' - longitude of the station) m inutes)
Local apparent time
The interval between two successive transits of the Sun across the meridian is called the true solar day and the
time based on the length of this day is called Apparent Solar Time. Local Apparent Time is the apparent solar time for any
particular place such that the Sun passes across the geographical meridian at noon.
o o o
Example1: Station Hyderabad, Longitude 78 30' East. i.e. 78.5 East, Standard meridian 82 30' i.e. 82.5
LMT = IST 4 (82.5 78.5)
IST 4 (4)
IST 16 minutes.
If IST is 10 h 30 m, then
LMT = 10 h 30 m 16 m = 10 h 14m.
Example 2 : Longitude of Jobner is 75 28', then corresponding to 0700 IST and 1400 IST, the LMT will be ?

LMT = 0700 - 4 x ( 82 30' - 75 28') minutes = 0700 hrs - ( 4 x 7 2') minutes
= 0700 - (28 + 4 x 2/60) = 0700 -28.13 minutes = 0632 hours
LMT = 1400 - 4 x ( 82 30' - 75 28') minutes = 1400 hrs - ( 4 x 7 2') minutes
= 1400 - (36 + 4 x 2/60) = 1400 -28.13 minutes = 1332 hours
Jobner lies in the west, therefore, the tim e of observation will be 0732 and 1432 hrs.
Proble m: Workout LMT of New Delhi( 77 12'), Kolkatta( 80 21'), Mumbai (72 50' ),
and Jaipur (75 48'). at 0700 hrs.
Solution:

Dated___________
Exercise No. 3
Handling of agro meteorological instruments and weather data recording
Meteorological operations are required for a variety of purposes which can

be broadly classified into two categories: I. Forecasting II. Climatological study.
In the country, there is an international understanding to have uniformity in the observatory set up
including instruments installation procedure as well as timing. Different weather elements with units
and different instruments are shown in Table 3.1.
Different thermometers used for measurement of temperature in an agrometeorological observatory are:
Maximum thermometer : Maximum thermometer is a mercury-in-glass thermometer with a constriction in the

bore below the lowest graduation. When the temperature falls after reaching the maximum value, mercury
does not return to the region below the constriction, provided that the stem of the thermometer is
approximately horizontal. The range of maximum thermometer graduation is from -20C to 55C.
Minimum thermometer : Minimum thermometer is a spirit thermometer, commonly used liquid being absolute ethyl alcohol.
Within the liquid there is a very light dumb bell shaped glass index which moves freely within the spirit but not readily eme rge
from the liquid due to surface tension. The thermometer is tilted slightly so that bulb end is upward, the glass index slides along
the tube until it reaches the meniscus. But when temperature rises, it remains stationary while the liquid moves ahead in the
column. The range of minimum thermometer graduation is from -40C to 50C.
Self recording of te mperature :
Continuous air temperature is rec orded by bimetallic thermograph that work on the principle of
expanding of two different metals in length at different rates with the temperature variation. The outer strip of iron -
nickle alloy having negative coefficient of expansion much less than the inner strip of brass and the different
expansion is recoded at clock drum by pointer. The bimet allic thermograph is kept in big Stevenson screen.
Exposure and installation of air thermometers
To give a representative reading, the thermometers are protected from direct sunlight, sky, earth and
surrounding objectives with a adequate ventilation. For this purpose thermometers are kept in Stevenson screen.
Stevenson screen: Stevenson screen is a wooden box whose side walls are louvered providing free movement of air with
gusts suppressed. Its upper roof is double with space in between preventing solar radiation and consequent heat affecting the
inside. These are of two types. Small Stevenson screen and large Stevenson screen. Sm all Stevenson screen has a size of 2' x
2.5' x 3' whereas large has 4' x 2.5' x 3' with 4' large lags mounted on the earth for fixing in concrete material ( Fig. 2).
Thermometers ( maximum, minimum, dry and wet) are kept in small Stevenson screen whereas se lf recording instruments like
thermograph and hair hygrograph are kept in large Stevenson screen for

ventilation and protection from outside objects.
Measure ment of soil te mperature
For measuring of soil temperature, the mercury -in-glass thermometers are used for the depth of 5, 15
and 30 cm with their stem bent at right angles or other suitable angle with their scale facing upward are the most
conve-nient. For greater depth, the soil thermometers are installed in greater depths like 50 cm in iron pipes.
Grass minimum thermometer
The idea about ground frosts which are very crucial from the point of view of agriculture, is obtained
from Grass minimum thermometer. Grass minimum thermometer consists of sheathed alcohol minimum
thermometer, simi-lar to the ordinary minimum thermometer and is used to measure temperature at soil
surface covered with vegetation. This is also called terrestrial radiation minimum thermometer.
Table 3.1: Measured ele ments, units in general use and me asuring instrume nts
S. Ele ment Unit Instrument(s)

No.
1. Temperature Degree Celsius (C) Thermometer, hygrograph
2. Wind speed kmph, mps, knots Anem ometer, Anemograph
3. Wind direction Degre es clo ck wise fro m nor th on Wind Vane, Anemograph
the scale 00-36, where 36 is the
wind from the north, 09 from the
east and 00 refers calm.
4. Relative humidity Per cent (%) Dry and wet bulb
therm ometers, hygrograph
5. Precipitation millim etres (mm) Rain guage, dewgauge,
snowguage
6. Evaporation millim etres (mm) Evaporimeters
7. Duration of hours (h) Sunshine recorder
sunshine hours
8. Cloud cover Ok ta s (1 /8 of the ce le stial do me) Visual, observed in the
observatory

Fig. 2 Single Stevenson screen

Wind instruments:
The site for wind instruments must be as open as possible and should be away from tall structures.
The instruments namely anemometer and wind vane should be placed on wooden posts or masonry pillars
so that the height of the centre of the cup in case of anemometer and the arrow head should be 10 feet
above the ground level. The pillars should be vertical to the ground surface. In order to maintain natural
rotations of wind vane and anemometer, the instruments should be regularly lubricated by oiling.
Sunshine recorder
It is placed at elevated place and usually placed at a platform of 5-10 feet from the
ground surface. It is kept on a horizontal plane.
Open pan evaporimeter
This instrument is installed at a place free from water logging. The pan rests on a wooden plank which is
painted white and placed about 5-6 cm above the ground surface. This allows free circulation of air.
Proble m:
1. Name the different thermom eters which are kept in

Stevenson screen. Solution:
2. Name the different instruments installed in an agromet

observatory. Solution:
3. What precautions are to be followed in handling of instruments while recording weather data?

Dated____________
Exercise No. 4
Measurement of total solar radiation
Global solar radiation can be meas ured by converting radiant energy into electro magnetive force
as in thermopiles. Total short wave radiation or global radiation on a horizontal surface can be measured by
Pyranometers (Fig.3).
In the absence of the instrumentation for observing solar radiation, the solar radiation receiving on the surface of
the earth could be estimated by using the relationship between the duration of sunshine and radiation(Table 1). That
2
is, radiation (calories/cm /day) is directly proportional to number of bright sunshine hours. Higher the sun shine hours,
larger the radiations received and vice verse. This can be given in Angstroms formula as:
Q = QA(a+b n/N)
2
Where Q = the radiation actually received on the surface of the earth(cal/cm /day)
QA = Angots value(extra terrestrial radiation value incident outside the

earths atmosphere
n = actual num ber of sunshine hours in a day as observed
N = Maximum possible duration of sunshine( depends on the

latitude of the place)
a & b = constants depending upon the locations( latitude sun angle)
Case I- when n=N that is actual sunshine equal to m aximum possible sunshine
under clear sky
Q = QA(a+b n/N) = QA(a+b)
Maximum radiation received on the earth surface.
Case II - n =0, due to continuous overcast conditions through out the day
Q = QA(a+b 0/N) = QA(a)
Lowest radiation received due to scattering effect of clouds.
Q is not equal to 0, even if n=0. It is due to the fact that diffused

radiation is received even on cloudy days.

Table1. The value of a and b for different stations in India( Gangopadhyaya, 1970)
o
Station Latitude N a b
Bangaluru 13.0 0.18 0.62
Chennai 13.1 0.30 0.44
Hyderabad 17.4 0.14 0.55
Pune 18.5 0.35 0.40
Nagpur 21.1 0.16 0.68
Ahem dabad 23.1 0.42 0.30
Jodhpur 26.4 0.31 0.49
New Delhi 28.4 0.31 0.46
Shillong 24.6 0.18 0.66
Depending upon the sky condition, the radiation varies between (aQA) to (a+b)QA .
Proble m:
1. Calculate the radient energy recorded at Jobner during different months.
Months Normal n N n/N QA

January 10.6 715
February 11.3 793
March 12.0 870
April 12.8 896
May 13.4 900
June 13.8 892
July 13.6 893
August 13.0 891
September 12.3 859
October 11.6 813
November 10.8 735
December 10.4 695
Solution:

Dated____________
Exercise No. 5
Measurement of long and short wave radiation
Solar radiation affects to a large extent the micro-climate thereby, the crop growth and yield. Spectral quality of sunlight
intercepted by the crop canopy and light that penetrates through the canopy are other important factors determining the crop
growth in the system. The measurements should enable the evaluation of the photosynthetic efficiency of the system and
matching of this with alternate designs of canopy structure. Instruments used for the
measurement of radiation (Fig.3) for the study of micro-clim atic regimes are:
(1) Line quantum sensor ( 2) Net radiometer (3) Spectroradiometer ( 4) Pyranometer
(5) Pyrano - albedom eter etc.
Radiometers are named according to the nature and direction of radiation which they absorb and indicate. The commonly
used instruments are :

Name of the instrument Radiation me asured
1. Pyra no meter o r So lar imeter : Dir ect and diffu se solar rad iation
2. Pyrheliom eter Direct solar radiation
3. Pyrradiometer Solar and long-wave radiation
4. Pyrgeometer Long-wave radiation
5. Netradiometer Net radiation flux
Measure ment of different components of solar radiation.
Material required: Pyrano-albedometer, millivoltmeter etc.
The visible part of t he spectrum is s hort -wave radiation. The solar radiation is a combination both direct and
diffused radiation. So, to measure direct solar radiation, the diffuse radiation has to be subtracted from the t otal
incident radiation. The total incident radiation, diffused radiation and radiation reflected from various surfaces can
be measured with the help of a pyrano -albedometer. When radiation is incident on the sensitive element of the
instrument, it produces electric current which is meas ured in millivolts in the millitivoltmeter. There is a c onversion
factor for eac h instrument. When the reading in milli voltmeter is multiplied by conversion factor, the reading
comes out in langley per metre per metre per second or watts per metro per m et re per second.
Procedure :
1. Connect the pyrano-albedometer properly to the millivoltmeter.
2. Keep the instrum ent ready for taking observations by setting the knob at
ON, in the millivoltm eter.
3. Level the instrument, if needed, using a small spirit level.
4. Total incident radiation, diffuse radiation and reflected part of the
radiation shall be recorded simultaneously, as per the instructions
given for the instrum ent, on the selected surfaces.

5. Normally, a bare soil, a dry turf, a wet turf and a crop canopy may
give values of real worth comparison.
6. Repeat the process at 15 minute intervals for at least 6 times on
the same surfaces and record the observations in the recording
sheet provided for this exercise.
7. Calculate albedo and direct radiation as per the formulae in point no.9 given below.
8. Observe the trends in albedo and absorbed radiation with variation in time.
9. Formulae: a) Direct radiation = Incoming radiation - Diffuse radiation
b) Albedo = Reflected radiation/Total Incoming radiation x
100 Graph: Plot a neat graph for all the measurements recorded above.
Units
23
1 Einstein = Avogadros number of quanta, (6.023 x 10 )
-2 -1 -2
1 photon = 1 quantum of light, 1 J m s = 1W m
-2 -1 -2
1 cal = 4.184 J, 1 cal cm min = 1 Langley = 697.8 Wm
The following conversion factors are mainly approximation.
At noon on a clear summer day in the wave band 400-700 nm,
-2
10,000 foot-candles = 350 W m , 1 foot candle = 10.76 lux
The solar irradianc e at the Earths surface in a t emperat e region at mid -day during the summer in the wave band
-2 -2
400 - 700 nm = 350 W m and in the wave band 700 - 2400 nm = 350 W m The region 400 - 700 nm is called
visible band or photosynthetically active wave band. The short -wave infrared wave band is 700 - 2400 nm.
Units of length
-3
10-1 m = d ec imetr e ( d m), 10 -2 m = centimetre (cm) , 10 m = millimetre ( mm)
-10 o
10-6 m = micrometre (micron), 10 -9 m = nano metre ( nm ), 10 m = A ngs trom uni t ( A )
Problems1: What are different radiation measuring instruments?
Solution:

Pyr anom et r e Pyr he
il met o
er
Pyrano-albedometer
Fig.3 : Radiation measuring instrume nts
Problem 2: How will you calculate direct radiation and albedo?
Solution:

Dated___________
Exercise No. 6
Measurement of bright sunshine hours
Crops obtain energy necessary for life directly from sunlight. S un gives out its energy within 0.15 -3.0 u.
Solar radiation in general are c alled short wave radiations. Earth emits radiation in the wavelength of 3 -100 u and
are called long wave radiations. Intensity, quality, quantity, duration and periodicity are five important factors
in agricultural production processes. Photosynthesis takes place only in the visible light with wave length 0.4 -0.7
micron and these radiations are also called as Photosynthetically active radiations (P AR) They convert solar
energy into chemical energy during the process of photosynthesis. Large amount of energy is also required during
the process of transpira-tion of crops. Infestation of pests and diseases is also gene rally associated with t he
occurrence of prolonged periods of continuous cloudy days during the crop growing season.
2
At the top of the atmosphere 2.0 cal/cm /min of energy are received( taking this as 100%). Out of this
only 47 % ( or 0.94 cal) reaches to the earth surface as 53% is lost by reflection, scattering and absorption.
This energy on reaching the earth is again reflected differently, roughly 35%. On crop particularly, 25% is
reflected and thus 75% of 0.94 cal equals to 0.705 is incident on the crop. Out of this only 41% energy is in
PAR which is 0.29 cal and rest being used for heating. Photosynthesis has highest efficiency of 8% and,
therefore, 0.29 x 8/100 = 0.023 cals or 1.15% of total solar radiation are utilized on a clear day.
The sunshine is meas ured by means of Campbell -Stokes Sunshine Recorder ( Fig. 4). One of the measurements
needed for studying the total radiation reaching the earths surface is the duration of sunshine. A sunshine recorder
is used to measure the hourly or daily totals of the duration of sunshine. It makes accurate measurements to the
nearest tenth of an hour. In Campbell Stokes sunshine recorder, the duration of sunshine is determined by
concentrating the suns rays, so that they fall on to a piece of pap er, and burn a trac e of it.
Description of sunshine recorder
The sunshine recorder consists essentially of a glass sphere, about 10 cm in diameter, mounted
concentrically in a section of spherical bowl. The diameter of the bowl is such that the suns ra ys are focused
sharply on a card held in grooves cut into the bowl. Three overlapping pairs of grooves are provided in the
spherical segment in order to take cards suitable for different seasons of the year. The sunshine recorder is
installed on a masonry pillar of 5 or 10 feet above the ground.
Record cards: Record cards are made of good quality paste board which does not expand
appreciably in length on wetting. They are printed in a colour such a medium shade of blue that
absorbs solar radiation. Different types of cards are given in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1:T ypes of cards and time of use
S.No. Name of card Type of card Time of use Remarks
th st
1. Summer card Long curved cards 13 April - 31 August Inserted in
bottom slot
2. Winter card Short curved cards 13 October to end of Inserted at top
February slot
th
3. Equinoctial cards Straight cards 1st March to 12 April Inserted in
st th
and 1 S eptem ber to 12 middle slot
October
Exposure
The purpose of the sunshine recorder is to provide a continuous record of bright

sunshine. The sunshine recorder should ideally be set up on a firm and a rigid support in a place
where there is no obstacle to the suns rays at any hours of the day at any tim e of the year.

Measure ment of the records
A second card (C), of similar curvature, is used to evaluate the daily total of the duration of
bright sunshine. Place this card along with edge of the one caring the record (R). Then use a sharp pencil to
mark on the card C, lengths equal those of the successive trace on card R. The position of the card can be
adjusted, so that these lengths from a continuous line. The length of the line should be measured to the
nearest tenth of an hour. The sunshine card is read with the help of sunshine scale. One division of the
scale is six minutes (0.1 hr). The reporting is done by adding together all the points of the burn. The burn
may be very faint such as is usually the case near sunrise and or sunset.
Changing the card
A fresh card should be inserted in the recorder each day, whether there has been sunshine duri ng the day or
not. A blank card provides evidence that the sky has been overcast. After rain, it is some times difficult to withdraw a card
without tearing it. In this case, cut the card out carefully by drawing a sharp knife along the edge of one of the fla nges. Insert
a new card and adjust to the 1200 hours time. Before inserting a new card, it is desir-able to clean dust that may have
accumulated in the grooves into which the cards are to be placed.
Proble ms
1. Draw a neat sketch of Cam pbell-Stokes sunshine recorder and different cards.

Dated_____________
Exercise No.7
Measurement of maximum and minimum temperature
Temperature
Air temperature is the temperature of the air recorded by the thermom eter exposed in a
standard type of screen called Stevenson screen.
Heat and te mperature
Temperature is the measure of mean kinetic energy of per m olecule of the m olecules of an object,
while the heat is the measure of total kinetic energy of all the m olecules of that object.
Measure ment of air te mperature
Temperature of the air is one of the important factor in crop - weather relations. Its measurement
helps in understanding the rate and amount of water loss in the process of evaporation from the soil and
transpiration from the plant system for a given environment. Temperature is measured using three type of
scales namely Fahrenheit , Ceisius and Kelvin. The melting point of ice on the t hree scales is 32, 0 and
273 and boiling point of water is 212, 100 and 373, respectively. The relation between three scales are
K = C + 273
C = 5/9(F 32)
F = 9/5 (C +32)
Temperature instruments
1. Maximum thermometer: This is a mercury thermometer and records the highest or maxim um
temperature reached during past 24 hours or since last setting. Maximum tem perature generally
occurs in the world between 14.00 to 1600 hrs (Fig. 5).
2. Minimum thermometer: This thermom eter records the lowest temperature of air reached during
last 24 hours or since last setting. Lowest temperature of the day generally occurs just before
sunrise or clear day and after sun rise on cloudy day (Fig 5).
3. Dry bulb thermometer: This is a m ercury therm ometer which gives the prevailing temperature
of air at 4' 3' to 4' 6' height. It is required to calculate relative humidity and vapour pressure.
4. Wet bulb thermometer: This is similar to dry bulb thermometer but the bulb of thermometer acts as a
evaporat-ing surface. It is used for calculating dew point, relative humidity and vapour pressure.

5. Thermograph: This instrument continuously records air temperature with passage of time (Fig.6). This is
not a accurate instrument but its importance lies in its automatic recording of air temperature.
6. Infra-red thermometer: This is a sophisticated instrument used for measuring instant temperature. It
contains thermocouple and thermistors upto accuracy 0.1 C and response time less than one second. It
is very accurate, rapid, portable and without any contact, temperature is obtained.
Diurnal te mperature variation and its me asure ment
From sunrise until 2 to 4 pm when the energy supplied by in coming solar radiation is greater than that is being lost by
earth in the form of long wave radiations, the air temperature rises. From 2 to 4 pm, the loss of that energy from the earth is
greater than the energy received from the sun, the air temperature starts falling and reaches its lowest
value just before sunrise ( about 4 - 6 am).
Maximum air te mperature :
The maximum temperature attained by air during the day is measured by a thermometer called
maximum thermometer. It is a mercury-in-glass thermometer with a constriction in the bore below the lowest
graduation. It allows the mercury to be forced through with rising temperature but prevent it being drawn back
with falling tempera-tures, provided the thermometer is kept at an angle of 10 from the horizontal with the
bulb downwards. It allows the mercury in one way as the constriction acts as a valve. The observer resets the
thermometer after reading by holding it firmly in hand by the remote end from the bulb and swinging it briskly
downwards. The range of maximum thermom-eter graduation is from -20C to 55C.
Minimum thermometer :
The minimum temperature attained by air during the day is measured by using a thermometer
called minimum thermometer. Minimum thermometer is a alcohol thermometer. Alcohol is sensitive for lower
temperature than mercury. Within the liquid, there is a very light dumb bell shaped glass index which moves
freely within the spirit but not readily emerge from the liquid due to surface tension. The thermometer is tilted
slightly so that bulb end is upward, the glass index slides along the tube until it reaches the meniscus. But
when temperature rises, it remains stationary while the liquid moves ahead in the column. The range of
minimum thermometer graduation is from -40C to 50C.

Fig. 5: Maximum and minimum thermometers
Recording and setting of air te mperature thermometers
Procedure :
1. Open the door of Stevenson screen
2. Note the reading of maximum and minimum therm ometers in sequence to the
accuracy of 0.1C and verify for the correctness of the observation
3. While taking reading of maximum thermom eter, watch carefully first the
mercury column and shining line and record the point.
4 If scale is not clearly visible then any black material can be rubbed on the scale and then wipe so that
black material fills the marking on the scale. This will enable easy reading of the scale.

5 To avoid error due to parallax for which your eye and the mercury level should be exactly in one line.
While recording the minim um thermometer, the set reading of the earlier day is first seen in
the pocket register and then the end of the glass index farthest from the bulb is read.
1. The reading of the m aximum thermometer should be at least as high or higher than any of the
dry bulb tempera-ture readings taken since the previous setting.
2. The reading of the minimum thermom eter should be as low or lower than any dry bulb reading
taken at or since the previous setting.
Fig. 6: Thermograph

Setting of maximum thermometer :
1. After morning reading, it should be set.
2. For setting, grip firmly the thermometer and swing vigorously up and down in a semicircle.
3. Take care that it does not slip out of hand.
4. No jerks should be given.
5. After setting, the reading should be equal to that of dry bulb therm ometer.
Setting of minimum thermometer :
1. After afternoon reading, it should be set.
2. For setting thermom eter should be gently tilted keeping bulb with the meniscus.
3. The end of the index farthest from the bulb then indicates the minimum temperature of the air a t that moment.
4. Care should be taken to avoid the thermom eters to protect from the direct sun light.
5. When replacing the therm ometer in the screen, incline the instrument slightly by about 2
with the bulb end upperm ost.
6. Place the other end in the support firm.
7. Then gently lower the bulb m aking sure that the index does not slide backwards the bulb.
Self recording of te mperature
Continuous air temperature is recorded by bimet allic thermograph that work on the principle of
expanding of two different metals in length at different rates with the temperature variation. The outer strip of iron -
nickle alloy having negative coefficient of expansion much less than the inner strip of brass and the different
expansion is recoded at clock drum by pointer. The bimet allic thermograph is kept in big Stevenson screen.
Stevenson screen: To give a representative reading, the thermometers are protected from direct sunlight,
sky, earth and surrounding objectives with a adequate ventilation. For this purpose thermometers are kept in
Stevenson screen. The objective of the screen is to shield the thermometers from radiation from the sun ,
ground and neighboring objects and from losing heat by radiation at night. The screen also protects the
thermometer from precipitation while at ther same time allowing free circulation of air.

Observations: Re cord te mperature from different thermometers.
______________________________________________________________________________
Date Tim e Temperature Tes t readi ng at the

Time of setting
Dry Maxi- Mini- Dry Maxi- Mini-
bulb mum mum bulb mum mu m
( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C)
______________________________________________________________________________

Dated___________
Exercise No. 8
Measurement of soil temperature
The surface of the earth gets heated up during the day and gets cooled during the night causing
diurnal changes in the top layers of the soil. The crops have their root systems in these layers and extract
plant nutrients and water from these layers of the soil, since the heat regimes of these layers are governed by
the soil temperatures. Germination of crops are also affected by soil temperature. Therefore, soil temperature
becomes extremely important. The movement of moisture in vapour form is mostly gover ned by temperature
gradient in soil. The condensation of water vapour in the air in the form of dew or frost also occurs due to the
excessive cooling of the earth surface due to emission of long wave radiation by it.
The soil temperature is measured by soil thermometers (Fig. 7). These are mercury in glass
ther-momet ers of t he enclos ed scale type. There is a bend of 120 angle just above the bulb, the rest of stem
being straight, so that when the soil thermometer is installed at a particular depth of th e soil, the bulb rests
horizontally. The inclination of the stem at 120 also facilitates the reading of the scale. Thes e thermometers have
graduation for every degree Celsius and t he graduation starts from the the distanc e of 6.5 cm, 17. 5 cm and 35 cm
from the bulb for the 5,15 and 30 cm depth soil thermometers, respectively. Iron stands with sloping sides at 60 to
the ground surface are provided to support the thermometers at the right inclination. In the observat ory, so il
thermometers are installed at a sight which is sufficiently away from obstructions and is free from water logging
during t he rainy season. Precaution should be tak en t o remove the soil layer by layer and later replace t he same
in order, during the installation of the soil thermomete rs. The soil temperature should be read daily at 0700 hrs and
1400 hrs LMT correct to 0.1C in the order of 5,15 and 30 cm dept hs.
Procedure
1. Install the therm ometers with the help of iron stands as discussed above.
2. Read correct to 0.1C soil temperatures at 0700 hrs and 1400 hrs LMT in the order of 5,15 and 30 cm depths.
Observation:
Fig. 7: Soil thermometer

Problem 1: What is importance of measuring soil temperature? Draw a sketch of soil
therm ometer.
Solution:

Dated___________
Exercise No. 9
Measurement of dew point temperature
Dew point temperature is the temperature at which air would become saturated if cooled at constant
pressure without addition or removal of water vapour. Thus, the actual vapour pressure is equal to the saturated vapour
pressure at the dew point temperature. The closer the dew point temperature to air temperature, the nearer is the air to be
saturated condition.The temperature beyond which air can no longer hold moisture . It means the air becomes fully saturated o r
dew point of a given mass of air is the temperature at which saturation occurs when the air is cooled at constant pressure
without addition or removal of water vapour.It is determined by the amount of water vapour in t he air and is entirely indepe ndent
of free air temperature. It is thus a state of saturation when the air is holding maximum amount of water vapour pressure
possible at the existing temperature and pressure.
If the air is cooled below the vapour becomes liquid, it is called condens ation. Higher the dew point,
higher the moisture content of the air at given temperature. Thus, dew point of humid air will be higher than that of dry air . From
the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature readings, the dew point temperature and RH can be obtained by re ference to
Hygrometric tables. If the height of the place of observation is less than 1500 feet , 1000 mb Hygrometric tables are to be used.
Dew point temperature and RH corresponding to specified value of dry and wet bulb temperatures are given in the abo ve
mentioned Hygrometric tables at interval of 0.2 C. While using the tables , interpolation to the nearest 0.1 C has to be don e.
The following example would illustrate the procedure:
Dry bulb temperature = 34.5 C, Wet bulb temperature = 29.7 C
The values from tables are as below:
Wet bulb
29.6 C 29.8 C
Dry bulb 34.4 C 27.9 28.2
34.6 C 27.8 28.1
Interpolating for dry bulb temperature, we get
Wet bulb
29.6 C 29.8 C
Dry bulb 34.5 C 27.9 28.1
So final interpolated value of dew point temperature is 28 C for the wet bulb temperature of 29.7
C . Dew point can also be calculated by the formula:

T =T1 G (T1 T2)
Where, T = dew point tem perature, T1 = Dry bulb temperature, T2 = wet bulb temperature
and G = Glashier factor(Its value depends upon room temperature, given in Table 9.1)
Example: If the dry and wet bulb thermometers show the reading of 20C and 15C respectively,
then find out the dew point temperature and relative humidity.
Solution:
T =T1 G (T1 T2)
T1 = 20, T2 = 15 , G in table at 20C =

1.79 T = 20 1.79(20 -15)
= 20 8.95 = 11.05C
Saturated vapour pressure from Raino table (Table 9.2) at dew point temperature(11.05C) is 9.87
mm and at room temperature( 20C) is 17.51 mm
RH = f/F x100 or 9.87/17.51 x 100 = 56.3%
Table 9.1 : Glashier factor for dry bulb temperature

Dry bulb temp C Glashier factor Dry bulb temp C Glashier factor
4 7.82 21 1.77
5 7.28 22 1.75
6 6.62 23 1.73
7 5.77 24 1.72
8 4.92 25 1.70
9 4.04 26 1.69
10 2.06 27 1.68
11 2.02 28 1.67
12 1.99 29 1.66
13 1.94 30 1.65
14 1.92 31 1.64
15 1.90 32 1.63
16 1.87 33 1.62
17 1.85 34 1.61
18 1.83 35 1.60
19 1.81 36 1.59
20 1.79

Problem 1: If the dry and wet bulb thermometers show the reading of 23C and 18 C,
respectively, find out the dew point temperature and relative humidity.
Solution:

Dated___________
Exercise No.10
Determination of vapour pressure and calculation of relative humidity
The important measures of humidity are vapour pressure, relative humidity and dew point temperature. The
pressure of air is the total weight of all the gases including water vapour in small proportions. Since water vapour also
contributes to this air press ure, the partial pressure due to water vapour alone is called vapour pressure. It is expressed in
millibars or millimeters of Hg. Water evaporates into water vapour. As more and more water is evapo -rated, amount of water
vapour increases in air. However, at any particular temperature, there is a maximum capacity for water vapour that air can hold.
The pressure exerted by water vapour under such a saturated condition is called saturated water vapour pressure. SVP
increases with increasing temperature. The pressure exerted by water vapour actually present in air is called the actual vapour
pressure(AVP) of air. The ratio of actual water vapour pressure and saturation vapour pressure under fixed condition of
temperature is called relative humidity.
Measure ment of Relative humidity
Water in its different forms is very important for all activities of the life. Growth and sustenance of life
heavily depends on it. The relative humidity, is a measure of water vapour in the air. The instrument used for
measuring the water vapour or relative humidity content of the atmosphere are called hygrometers. The two
main type of the instruments used for measuring the relative humidity of the air near the earths surface are
(a) Combination of dry and wet bulb thermometers (also called psychrometer) and (b) Hair hygrometers
Dry bulb thermometer: This is an ordinary mercury-in-glass thermometer graduated from -35 C to 55 C.
This has a capillary stem of which one end is a bulb containing mercur y and other end is sealed after
removing air from the same. The stem is graduated for reading the value of temperature. Mercury level in the
stem changes with the changes in air temperature denoting the air temperature.
Wet bulb thermometer: This is an ordinary mercury -in-glass thermometer graduated from -35 C to 55 C as like dry bulb
thermometer whose bulb is wrapped by a piece of muslin cloth just sufficient to cover the bulb and is looped by cotton thread
(Cruex thread) that remains the bulb in wet conditions so it is called wet bulb thermometer. When water evaporates from the wet
surface, the latent heat requirement is drawn from the bulb of the thermometer and so the mercury column comes down
indicating a reduction of temperature. Cooling causes the temperature difference in dry and wet bulb thermometers that is used
to calculate relative humidity by using relative humidity tables. Once the temperature of the dry and wet bulb thermometers a re
obtained, hygrometric tables are used to determine the dew point temperature and relative humidity. The table appropriate for
ventilation (wind speed around the thermometer bulb) should be used. When the wet bulb temperature is below the freezing
point, alternate tables should be used depending on whether the wet bulb is covered with ice or coated with super-cooled water.
Calculations:
Td and Tw are the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures respectively, in degree celsius , then the actual vapour pressure

(AVP) in the air is given by:
AVP =e = EW (Td-Tw)
Where, Ew = saturation vapour pressure in mm of Hg (at wet bulb
temperature Tw)
EW can be obtained from hygrometric tables against Tw.
Td = dry bulb temperature
Tw = wet bulb temperature
(Td Tw) = wet bulb depression
Then RH (%) is given by
RH(%) = e/E x 100
Where, E is the saturation vapour pressure at the dry bulb temperature Td (from hygrometric
tables), e is actual vapour pressure
e, E and Tw are in mm Hg and can be converted into

millibars or pascals VPD = SVP AVP
Example: Let, Td = 27.4C and Tw = 23. 0C
SVP at Tw = 21.1 mm of Hg( from table)
E = SVP at Td =27.4 mm Hg ( from table)
Then, AVP (mm of Hg) = e =Ew (Td Tw)
21.1-1/2 (27.4 23.0)
= 21.1 x 4.4
= 21.1 2.2 =18.9 mm of

Hg VPD = E e
= 27.4 18.9
= 8.5 mm of Hg
RH= e/E x 100
= 18.9/27.4 x 100 = 68.9 %.
With Stevensons Screen wet and dry bulb thermometers

For deriving the vapour pressure in the India Meteorological Departm ent the
formula is as follows: For temperatures of Wet Bulb above 0 C
X = f - 0.480 (T-T) X p 610 - T
where X = pressure of vapour present in the air (AVP)
f saturation vapour pressure at temperature T C of the
wet bulb. T Tem perature of the Dry bulb in C.
T Temperature of the Wet bulb in
C. p Pressure of the air.
% Relative Humidity U = x/f X 1 00
where x = Pressure of vapour present in the air (AVP).
f = Saturation vapour pressure at temperatue T C of
the Dry bulb. u = Humidity in percentage.
By using Saturation Vapour Pressure in mn of Hg table, we can substitute the relevant values and find the
vapour pressure present in the air (Actual Vapour pressure) and percentage humidity.
Exam ple: Given T = 20

C T = 30 C
p = 713 mm of Hg. (for Hyderabad, Altitude of 545
m AMSL) Note from svp table
Saturation vapour pressure at wet bulb temperature (f) = 17. 54
Saturation vapour pressure at Dry bulb temperature (f) = 31.83
Actual Vapour Pressure x =17.54 ((-0.480 (30-20)) x (713))/610-20
= 17.54 - 5.8
= 11.74 mm
Dew point tem perature (T d) = 13.7 C (By definition, look for tem perature corresponding to AVP
value in SVP table) Relative Humidity % = 11.74/131.83 = 36.9 %
Vapour Pressure Deficit = SVP (at T) - AVP
= 31.83 - 11.74
= 20.09 mm
Hair hygrograph
It record the continuous changes in relative humidity on graph paper during the hours of the day.
When a hygrometer is transform ed into a self recording device it is called as a hygrograph (Fig. 8).
This is used to record the relative humidity of the air continuous ly.

Table9.2: Saturation vapour pressure over water in mm of Hg.for temperatures 0
to 50 C (Raino table)
_____________________________________________________________________________
Temp .0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
_C___________________________________________________________________________
0 4.58 4.61 4.65 4.68 4.72 4.75 4.79 4. 82 4.86 4.89
1 4.93 4.96 5.00 5.03 5.07 5.11 5.14 5. 18 5.22 5.25
2 5.29 5.33 5.37 5.41 5.45 5.49 5.52 5. 56 5.60 5.64
3 5.68 5.73 5.77 5.81 5.85 5. 89 5.93 5. 97 6.02 6.06
4 6.10 6.14 6.19 6.23 6.27 6.32 6.36 6. 41 6.45 6.50
5 6.54 6.59 6.64 6.88 6.73 6. 78 6.82 6. 87 6.92 6.97
6 7.01 7.06 7.11 7.16 7.21 7.26 7.31 7. 36 7.41 7.46
7 7.51 7.57 7.62 7.67 7.72 7.78 7.83 7. 88 7.94 7.99
8 8.05 8.10 8 .16 8.21 8.27 8.32 8.38 8. 44 8.49 8.55
9 8.61 8.67 8.73 8.79 8.85 8. 91 8.97 9. 03 9.09 9.15
10 9.21 9.27 9.33 9.40 9.46 9. 52 9.59 9. 65 9.71 9.78
11 9.84 9.91 9.98 10.04 10.11 10.18 10.24 10.31 10.38 10.45
12 10.52 10.59 10.66 10.73 10.80 10.87 10.94 11.01 11.09 11.16
13 11.23 11.31 11.38 11.45 11.53 11.61 11.68 11.76 11.83 11.91
14 11.99 12.07 12.14 12.22 12.30 12.38 12.46 12.55 12.63 12.71
15 12.79 12.87 12.96 13.04 13.12 13.21 13.29 13.38 13.46 13.55
16 13.64 13.72 13.81 13.90 13.99 14.08 14.17 14.26 14.35 14.44
17 14.53 14.62 14.72 14.81 14.91 15.00 15.10 15.19 15.29 15.38
18 15.48 15.58 15.68 15.78 15.87 15.97 16.08 16.18 16.28 16.38
19 16.48 16.58 16.69 16.79 16.90 17.00 17.11 17.22 17.32 17.43
20 17.54 17.65 17.76 17.87 17.98 18.09 18.20 18.31 18.42 18.54
21 18.66 18.77 18.88 19.00 19.12 19.24 19.35 19.47 19.59 19.71
22 19.83 19.95 20.07 20.20 20. 32 20.44 20.57 20.70 20.82 20.95
23 21.07 21.20 21.33 21.46 21. 59 21.72 21.85 21.98 22.12 22.25
24 22.38 22.52 22.65 22.79 22. 92 23.06 23.20 23.34 23.48 23.62
25 23.76 23.90 24.05 24.19 24. 33 24.48 24.63 24.77 24.92 25.07
26 25.22 25.37 25.52 25.67 25. 82 25.97 26.13 26.28 26.44 26.59
27 26.76 26.90 27.06 27.22 27. 38 27.54 27.70 27.87 28.03 28.19
28 28.36 28.52 28.69 28.86 29. 03 29.19 29.30 29.54 29.71 29.88
29 30.05 30.23 30.40 30.58 30. 75 30.93 31.11 31.29 31.47 31.65
30 31.83 32.02 32.20 32.38 32. 57 32.76 32.95 33.13 33.32 33.51
31 33.71 33.90 34.09 34.29 34. 48 34.68 34.88 35.07 35.27 35.47
32 35.67 35.88 36.08 36.28 36. 49 36.69 36.90 37.11 37.32 37.53
33 37.74 37.95 38.17 38.38 38. 60 38.81 39.03 39.25 39.47 39.69
34 39.91 40.13 30.36 40.58 40. 81 41.04 41.26 41.49 41.72 41.95
35 42.19 42.42 42.66 42.90 43. 14 43.38 43.62 43.86 44.10 44.34
36 44.58 44.83 45.07 45.32 45. 57 45.81 46.06 46.32 46.57 46.82
37 47.08 47.34 47.59 47.85 48. 11 48. 38 48.64 48.91 49.17 49.44
38 49.71 49.97 50.24 50.52 50. 79 51.07 51.35 51.62 51.90 52.18
39 52.46 52.74 53.02 53.31 53. 59 53.88 54.17 54.46 54.75 55.04
40 55.34 55.63 55.93 56.23 56. 53 56.83 57.14 57.44 57.74 58.05
41 58.36 58.67 58.98 59.29 59. 60 59.92 60.24 60.56 60.88 61.20
42 61.52 61.85 62.17 62.50 62. 82 63.15 63.49 63.82 64.15 64.49
43 64.82 65.16 65.50 65.84 66. 19 66.53 66.88 67.23 67.58 67.93
44 68.28 68.63 68.99 69.35 69. 71 70-08 70.44 70.80 71.17 71.53
45 71.90 72.27 72.65 73.02 73. 39 73.76 74.14 74.52 74.90 75.29
46 75.67 76.06 76.45 76.84 77. 23 77.63 78.02 78.42 78.82 79.22
47 79.62 80.03 80.43 80.84 81. 25 81.66 82.07 82.48 82.90 83.32
48 83.74 84.16 84.59 85.01 85. 44 85.87 86.30 86.74 87.17 87.61
49 88.05 88.49 88.93 89.38 89. 83 90.27 90.72 91.17 91.62 92.08
50 92.50 93.0 93.4 93.9 94. 4 94. 8 95.3 95. 8 96.3 96.7
____________________________________________________________________________
Procedure
1. A band of human hair is fixed on the levers and any slight increase in the
volume is transmitted to the pen arm.

2. The pen arm is self-inked and works on levers.
Fig. 8: Hair hygrograph
3. A change in the length of hair is proportional to the log change of relative humidity
4. A calibrated chart is wrapped around a rotating drum. This completes one
rotation In 24 hours, and works on clock m echanism.
5. The X-axis represents time and Y-axis, the relative humidity.
6. The chart has to be replaced everyday.
7. The dust on the hair should be cleaned and washed regularly. The hair should
not be touched with hand.
8. This instrument should be expos ed in double Stevenson screen. The screen should be located in a place where
the air is not polluted wit h smoke, dust, oil and amrnonia releasing industries in the immediate surroundings.
Problem: If, Td= 20 C and Tw = 16 C, then calculate actual vapour pressure,VPD and relative humidity.
Solution:

Dated___________
Exercise No.11
Measurement of atmospheric pressure
The weight exerted by a column of air on unit surface of the earth is known as atmospheric pressure. This can be
measured by an instrument called barom eter (Fig. 9). There are two types of barom eters, viz.,
1. Mercury
barometers 2. Aneroid barometers
Of these two, the m ost accurate instrum ent is the mercurial barometer. This is used as standard for
calibrating the others. The following instruments are used to measure the atm ospheric pressure.
1. Mercurial barometers:
There are two types of mercurial barometers. A) Fortins barom eter B) Kew pattern barometer
Fortins barometer:
Principle: Balancing of column of air against a column of m ercury in a sealed glass tube. The
height of the mercury column is proportional to the pressure.
The Fortins barometer is a familiar sight at most of the micro -meteorological laboratories and is an accurate
one. It consists of a glass tube of uniform cross section and length, which is closed at one end. It is about one metre in length,
filled with mercury and then inverted with its lower end open into a movable cistern of mercury. The cistern vessel contains
mercury with a flexible leather bag and screw at its bottom. There are two scales on two sides of the tube, one in centimetres
and the other in inches. For accurate readings vernier calipers is also attached.
The mercury column in the tube is supported by the pressure of the air on the surface of the
mercury in the cistern. Procedure
1. To take the pressure reading, the height of mercury column is measured on main scale and
then vernier scale is read.
2. To read the Fortins barometer:
(a) Read the attached thermom eter to the nearest degree before the time
specified (or barometer observation.
b) Gently tap the cistern and tube of the instrum ent 2 to 3 times with the fingers.
c) Raise the surface of the mercury in the cistern by screwing up the plunger at the base
until the tip of the ivory point just touches its image in the clear mercury surface.
d) Set the lower edge of the vernier tangent to the top of miniscus.
e) Read the scale and the vernier.
f) Check the reading by m aking a fresh setting.

Barograph:
The sensitive element in this device is an aneroid capsule which consists of a closed circular vacuum box or
boxes placed one above the other (Fig. 10). The box is made of an alloy of silver plated beryllium copper. As
the atmospheric pressure rises or falls the walls of the box collapse or distant proportional to the impressed
pressure changes. The motion is communicated to a lever system connected to a rotating drum on which
recording is made. This is an instrument used to record the atmospheric pressure continuously.
Units of measure ments:
I. Height of mercury column is measured in inches, centimetres or millimetres. 2.
The S.I. unit for pressure is Pascal and this is equal to a force of one newton per
sq. m. One atmospheric pressure = 29-92 inches or 76 cm or 760 mm of Hg
= 1013.250 millibar
= 101.325 kilopascal (kPa) 14.7 lbs / inch2
= 1.014 X 106 dynes / cm2
Proble m 1: Draw the neat sketch of Fortins barometer

Fig. 9: Mercurial barometers

Fig. 10: Barometer and barograph

Dated___________
Exercise No. 12
Measurement of wind direction and speed
Wind is the air in horizontal motion c aused due to differences in atmospheric pressure. Wind has to be
speci-fied by its direction and speed. The movement of wind is almost horizontal and the vertical compo nent is
very small. The air in horizontal motion near the surface of the earth is called surface wind. Since it relates motion,
it is associated with direction and speed. The influence of the underlying terrain condition sharply diminishes with
height and observa-tions indicate that wind at a height of 10 m above the ground is fairly representative of general
surface wind for met eorological purposes. However, for agrometeorological purpose, the obs ervations are made
at a height of 10 feet which is a representative height of crop canopy.
Wind Instruments :
Ane moscope: This records the direction of the wind continuously.
Aerovane : This measures the velocity and direction of the wind sim ultaneously.
Wind vane : This is used in observatories to find the wind direction.
Ane mometer: It measures speed of the wind.
Wind vane
The common instrument to determine wind direction is wind vane (Fig. 12). This instrument indicat es the direc
-tion from which the wind blows. It is a balanced lever whic h turns freely about a vertical axis. One end of the lever
exposes a broad surface to the wind, while the other end is narrow and points to the direction from which t he wind
blows.Wind direction is the direction from which the wind is approaching the observer. It is expressed in degrees,
measured clockwise from geographical north. The codes and 16 point wind direction is expressed in Table 12.1.
Wind direction known by wind vane is of the shape of a penchant with an arrow head i nstalled on a
metal frame free to rotate in the horizontal plane with the direction of the arrow pointing towards the wind
direction of the wind. Below the indicator, a frame indicating 4 (north, east, south and west) or 8 or 16 points
of the compass is fixed to the frame to facilitate the estimation of the direction.
Reading of wind vane at the time of observation
The direction is read by noting the direction to which the arrow head points. Wind vane is read by
standing exactly in the line of the arrow of the instrument. Since we record 16 points of the directions and
distance between two direction is less, so care is required. The nearest possible is recorded for alphabetical
recording and the nearest 10 degree is recorded for wind direction in degrees. It may be noted that we report
the windward side i.e. from where the wind is coming. Leeward side i.e. where the win d is going is never
reported. In case wind is static, wind may be calm and in that case direction reported is 00.

For example if the arrow head is pointing towards the middle of the region between North(N) and
North-west(NW), the direction should be North- North-west
Measure ment of wind speed
Wind speed is measured by Robinson Cup counter anemometer which has a mech anical
arrange-ment for converting the rotational motion into linear motion in kmph which is converted into average
wind speed in kmph by dividing 24 during last 24 hour (Fig.11). This instrument consists of four hemispherical
cups fixed at the end of metal arms from a central point. The cup wheel is pivoted at the centre to a vertical
spindle passing through a brass tube attached to the anemometer box. The cup is set in motion due to the
pressure differences occurring between the two faces of the cup. The vertical cup is connected to a
mechanical counter through a gear system from which the number of rotations made by the cups in a chosen
interval of time can be counted. The counter is directly calibrated in kilometers.
To determine wind speed at the time of observation, the two successive readings of
the anemometer should be taken at an int erval of 3 minutes. The difference between the two readings when
multiplied by 20 will give the wind speed in kilometer per hour, if the anemometer is calibrated in kil ometers.
For exam ple: If the first anem ometer is 4005.6 and the second reading is 4006.8, the wind speed
will be 20 x ( 4006.8-4005.6) = 20 x 1.2 = 24 kmph.
Calculation of mean daily speed
The mean daily wind speed is calculated at the one hour of observation viz.,7 hrs local mean time
at the agromet observatory. The anemometer reading of 7 hrs LMT reading of the previous day is subtracted
from 7 hrs. LMT reading of the current day wind speed in kmph can be obtained. Thus, mean daily wind
speed on a particular date corresponds to the 24 hour period ending at 0700 hrs LMT of that date.
Exam ple: Anemometer reading at I hour of 20.7.2011 6754.9
Anem ometer reading at I hour of 19.7.2011 6475.4
Difference _________________
279.5 Mean
daily wind speed on 20.7.2011 is given by 279.5/24 = 11.64 kmph

Fig. 11: Robinsons cup anemometer
Fig. 12: Wind vane

Proble m1:
Calcutate the wind speed at the time of the observation on 4.6.2011 and the m ean daily wind
speed on 5.6.2011 with the following data from cup anemom eter:
Date Time Readi ng
4.6.2011 0710 hrs IST* 3345.9
0713 hrs IST. 3346.4
1.6.2011 071 0 hr s. IST. 3 57 5.5
*At the station concerned, 0710 hrs IST is equivalent to 0700 hrs LMT
1. Draw levelled diagram of wind vane and cup anemometer.

Dated___________
Exercise No.13
Measurement of rainfall
Precipitation is defined as the particles of liquid water or ice dropping from the clouds
and reaching on the ground in the form of rain, drizzle, snow hail, etc. and is measured as the depth or
thickness of layer on the surface of the earth if there were no loss by evaporation. It is measured in mm. The
simplest and most common method of measuring rainfall is to use a raingauge. These are of two types:
(a) Non-recording raingauge : Simons rain gauge or ordinary raingauge and FRP ( Fibre
Glass Reinforced Polyster) rain gauge
(b) Self recording raingauge : Recording weighing rain gauge, Tipping bucket rain gauge
and natural siphoning float type self recording rain gauge
Non-recording raingauge : Symons simple rain gauge or ordinary rain gauge
FRP rain gauge
Symons rain gauge was the standard rain gauge of India Meteorology Department. Since 1969,
on the recommen-dation of W MO , FRP rain gauges are used (Fig. 13). Its essential parts are:
2
1. Collector ( funnel) of circular shape with brass rim of 200 cm area. The collector has a deepest
funnel and the complete rain gauge is tapered slightly with narrower portion at the top.
2. Cylindrical body on which funnel is supported
3. Receiver bottle with narrow neck made of polythene and rain falling into funnel gets collected in the bottle.
4. Base which is partially sunk and fixed in the ground and supports the cylindrical body
5. Measuring cylinder whose graduation is consistent with the diameter of funnel. The collected rain
water in the bottle is measured with the appropriate specific measuring glass. The measure glass is
graduated in tenths of millimeter. The capacity of measure glass is 20 mm of rain.
Installation
The rain gauge should be fixed on a concrete foundation , not upon a slope and never on a wall or
roof. It should not be installed on a ground that has slope on the side of the prevailing wind since in
that case quite a few rain drops will be carried away by the winds. A foundation of 60 x
60cm x 60 cm should be provided to rain gauge. The base of the rain gauge is cemented
into this foundation so that the rim of the gauge is exactly 30 cm above the ground level.

Fig. 13: Symons rain gauge and its body parts

Fig. 14: Self recording rain gauge
Time of observation
Daily at 0830 hrs IST giving rains of last 24 hrs. The rainfall is m easured in mm and tenth of mm.
For no rains, record 0.0 and for rainfall less than 0.1 mm, record t meaning trace.

Procedure
1. Remove the funnel by rotating it.
2. Take out receiver containing rain water and measure it by measuring glass upto the first decimal.
3. If water is more, m easure again by and count the full cylinders.
4. Check the value of non-recording raingauge by self recording one.
Self recording raingauge
This provide continuos record of the rainfall. This also determ ine the tim e of onset, cessation
and intensity of the rain (Fig.14). These are three type
1. Float type
2. Tipping bucket type and
3. Weighing type
In India, float type self recording raingauge is used. In this type instrument rain is led in
float chamber containing a light hollow float. The principle is that when water rises the float rises with time
and this plotted on a graph wraped on clock drum of the self recording rain gauge.
Measure ment of snowfall and hail
Snowfall is measured by snow gauges. These gauges are of 127 mm or 200 mm rim diameter and are
mounted on iron stands at height above the average snow level of the location. A known quantity of warm water is poured
into the receiver in which snowfall has been collected. After melting of the snow, the total amount of water is measured. The
actual amount of snowfall is obtained by subtracting from this, the amount of warm water added. During hail also, water and
hail stones collected in the receiver are measured in a similar fashion.
Calculation of rainfall amount from crop field
As we know, rainfall is measured in depth units. So if the area of the crop field (A) in sq cm and the rainfall amount ( R) i n
cm are known, the volume of water (V) can be calculated in cu m or cu cm from following formula:
V= A xR
Since 1000 cubic cm is 1.0 litre and 1000 litres is 1.0 kilo litre or 1 cubic m.
For example, if the area of crop is 1 ha and rainfall recorded is 50 mm, the volume of rain water
received in that crop field can be calculated as follows:

V = 1 x10000 x 10000 x 5 cu. cm
= 500000000 cu.cm
= 500000 litres or 500 kilo litres
Or
3
V = 1 x 10000 x 5 m
= 500 cu. m or 500000 litres or 500 kilo litres
100
Proble ms
1. Draw diagram of different parts of a rain gauge.

2. What is the quantity of rain water received in kilo litres by a cropping land of 1.5 ha from a
rain fall spell of 85 mm?
3. How is snowfall is m easured in hilly areas?

Dated___________
Exercise No.14
Measurement and determination of evaporation
Evaporation is a physical process in which the amount of water is converted into water vapor
under environmental conditions. Water is lost from the earths surface from water bodies, moist surface and
through plants. Evaporation is one of the important aspect of the hydrological cycle by which water from the
earths surface is transferred to the atmosphere in the form of water vapour. When the soil is saturated,
evaporation may be essentially equal to that from free water surface. Dry soils may show lesser evaporation.
Evaporation is measured in depth units (mm/day) just like rainfall.
Following factors affect the rate of evaporation:
(a) Total radiation, solar and terrestrial
(b) Temperature, both the air and evaporating surface
(c) Wind speed at surface
(d) Relative humidity of the air at surface
(e) Atm ospheric pressure and vapour deficit
(f) Nature of surface and surrounding including im purities and vegetation
(g) Am ount of moisture in the surface available for evaporation
Measure ment of Evaporation
Evaporimeters can be categorized into 3 main classes. They are: Float pan, Below ground
sunken pan and above ground pan
1. Floating pans : These pans are used to m easure water loss from water bodies
2. Pitche evaporimeter or Atmometer: Atm ometer is hung at stevensson screen. It consist of a

glass tube. The open end of the tube is covered by drier paper which is placed in position by
metallic clip. The reading of atmometer is higher than USWB open pan evaporimeter.
3. Sunken pan evaporim eter : It is a below ground evaporimeter which gives good values of
evaporation very close to potential evatranspiration.
4. USWB Class A open pan evaporimeter: This evaporim eter is most commonly used in
observatories for measuring evaporation by IMD.
For evaporation measurement, generally a pan evaporimeter adopted by United States Weather Bureau
pan evaporimeter (Class A pan evaporimeter) is used (Fig. 15). Observations are made by measuring the
amount of water evaporated from an open pan. Measurements are carried out by adjusting the water level in
the pan to fixed point. This is done by adding or removing a fixed amount of water.

Fig. 15: U.S.W.B. class-A open pan evaporimeter
Description of pan evaporimeter
1. The pan consists of a cylinder body made of 20 gauge copper sheet tinned inside and painted white outside.
2. It is 25 cm deep and 120 cm in diameter (inside dimensions)
3. The pan is normally unpainted and filled with water to 5 cm below the rim.
4. The pan should be 3 to 5 cm above the ground for air circulation. On wooden stand of 4 feet x 4 feet x
4inch. This ensures the pan not to be in direct contact with soil. Water lev el is measured either by a hook
gauge or by fixed point. The hook gauge consists of a movable scale with vernier fixed to the hook.
5. A stilling well, about 10 cm across and about 30 cm deep is situated within the pan.
6. Measuring cylinder: A measured volume of water is added with the help of measuring cylinder so that the original
level of water to the tip of the reference point is restored. The measuring cylinder is of brass and graduated from 0 to
20 cm from top to bottom. It is fixed on the inner side of the cylinder. The diameter of the measuring cylinder is
th th
exactly 1/10 of the evaporimeter, therefore, the cross sectional area is 1/100 of the evaporimeter.
Thus one container of 20 cm added to the evaporimeter will raise water level by 200x1/10 = 2 mm in pan.

Procedure
The observation of evaporation should be made daily at 0830 hrs IST. Initially the water is
filled upto the fixed point tip. Due to evaporation water level will normally be below the tip of the rod at the
time of observation, then add water to the evaporimeter using the measuring cylinder till the water level once
again coincides with the tip of the reference point. Hence, the amount of water added, which is equal to the
evaporation can be directly measured. For example, if on a particular day three full cylinders of water and 4
cm of water i.e., 64 cm has been added to bring the water level to the reference point, the evaporation can be
determined by dividing the amount of water added by 100, since the area of pan is 100 times than that of the
base of the measuring cylinder. Thus, evapora-tion during the day is 640mm/100 =6.4 mm
If rainfall has occurred after the previous obs ervation and that rainfall has exceeded evaporation during that period, water has
to be removed from the pan till the water level reac hes the reference level indicated by the tip of the rod.
In case the rainfall has occurred during the period but is less than the evaporation, some water has
to be added to the pan to bring it to the reference level. But, while calculating the evaporation, not
only the water added, but the rainfall that has occurred should be taken into account.
The following exam ple would illustrate these procedures :
i. Water added at 0830 hrs IST on 4.11.2011 to bring the water level to the reference point
is 61 cm. Rainfall from 0830 hrs of 3.11.2011 to 0830 hrs on 4.11.2011 is Nil.
Evaporation on 4.11.2011 = 61 cm/100 = 6.1 mm
ii. Water removed at 0830 hrs IST on 10.7.2011 =74 cm. this amounts to a change in water level of
7.4 mm. The rainfall recorded at 0830 hrs of 10.7.2011 hrs IST is 8.4 mm. Had there been no
rain, the level would have risen by 8.4 mm . So the evaporation for the day is 8.4 7.4 = 1.0 mm.
iii. The water added at 0830 hrs IST on 5.6.2011 is 33 cm. This amounts to a change in water level of 3.3 mm.
If the rainfall recorded at 0830 hrs on 5.6.2011 is 1.6 mm, the actual evaporation is equival ent to the sum of the
rainfall and the decrease in the rainfall. So the evaporation for the day is 3.3 + 1.6 = 4.9 mm.
Proble ms:
1. Calculate the pan evaporation From the following data
(a) Water added 65 cm

Rainfall for last 24 hrs Nil
(b) Water added 21 cm
Rainfall for the last 24 hrs 17 mm

(c) Water removed 156 cm
Rainfall for the last 24 hrs 20 mm

Solution
2. Calculate evaporation from pan for the data recorded as below 1
June 2011 Rainfall = 0 mm, water added in pan =30 cm
2 June 2011 Rainfall = 4.5 mm, water added in pan = 25 cm 3
June 2011 Rainfall =17.8 mm, water removed from pan =
135 cm Solution:

Dated___________
Exercise No.15
Agro meteorological data management system
All the aspects relating to agrometeorogical data viz., observation, transmission, storage and
analysis are important for their fruitful utilization in operational.
Data recording
Initial recording of observations : An observer takes data as read from the instrum ents or as
observed visually in a register called Pocket register in appropriate columns. The correction
factor to be applied are recorded once for that month.
Daily register: In this register, only the final observations arrived at from raw (or observed) data
after applying required corrections are recorded. This should be done soon after the observations
have been com pleted. It is a permanent record. In this register month and the year are m entioned
on the top of each page. Daily register should be in duplicate one for users and other for record.
st th
Weekly register: There are 52 meteorological weeks in a year commencing from I January, Duration of 9 week in
nd
the leap year and 52 week are of 8 days each. At the end of each meteorological week, the weekly means of the data
calc ulated by summing of the values for the week and dividing by the number of the observations in respect of the each
parameter and are recorded in the respecti ve column of the weekly register which has columns for meteorologi -c al
week number, period covered and year for each of the parameter for morning and evening.
Monthly register: This is to be maintained to refer the monthly averages of the data. As soon as the month is
over, the daily data of a particular parameter are added together and divided by number of the days in the
month. The work should be completed within 3 to 5 days after completion of the month.
For reporting the data following forms are used:
Crop Weather Station (CWS) 1 form: This form is a copy of the daily register and is filled every day. This needs
to be sent every month to the IMD. Pune, if the observat ory is registered with them. This contains daily information
of 4 to 5 meteorological weeks. The morning and evening observations are recorded separately under the first
hour(I) and second hour (II); respectively, wherever the observation is taken only in the morning, then it is recorded
only under first hour (I). In CWS 1 form, the observations are rec orded as they are required to be reported e. g. the
maximum temperature is read t wice a day but reported for only first hour (I) and hence there is a place for only first
hour in the form. Meteorological weekwise totals and means are worked out and written at appropriate places.
Crop Weather Station CWS 2 form: This is used for reporting the microclimatic observations. These observations are
recorded at the micro-climatic post. Wherever it is available in the observatory. The dry bulb and wet bulb tem -peratures. For
first and second hour are recorded separately. The obse rvations are recorded for different heights starting form surface to 12
feet height. The observations on vapour pressure and relative humidity derived from the dry
PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGRO METEOROL OGY 56

bulb and wet bulb temperatures are also recorded for first and second hour. However, is not mandatory for all the
observatories.
Quality control in the data:
Accuracy of data is very important. Following checks may be found useful for the purpose:
(a) Exam ine the previous reading of anemometer before recording the current reading.
(b) When wind instruments indicate calm, observe the movem ent of shrubs or crops growing
nearby to confirm the same.
(c) The reading of wet bulb thermom eter has to be lower or at the most equal to the dry bulb
therm ometer. When humidity is higher the difference is narrower and vice versa. Use distilled
water in water can of wet bulb thermom-eter.
(d) The dry bulb and maximum thermomet er readings are quite close, even if both the thermometer are not same.
(e) Avoid parallax error while reading.

(f) Minimum temperature recorded in the morning has to be lower than that of evening except in exceptional cases.
(g) Make sure about the compatibility of the rain measuring glass with the installed raingauge.
While purchasing the new one, inform the diameter of raingauge.
(h) Do not cast shadow on the soil thermometers while recording readings.
(i) Observe minutely the movem ent of a bubble at the time when the water level is approaching
towards the set level. Check the level of pan frequently especially during rainy season.
(j) Recheck the observations while recording.
Communication, archival and availability of data
Communication of data: Since both speed and accuracy are import ant in meteorological data communication,
there-fore innovations in the field of telecommunic ation have found ready application in this area. Communication
of current weather dat a is important for forecast preparation on every Tuesday and Friday therefore, its essential
that each AAS unit may regularly send real time meteorological data to NCMRWF through phone/Fax/and VSAT.
Monthly data is required for various type of R&D work for this data may send at the end of month in
floppy and hard copy through post. This may done on a regular basis.
Proble m:Prepare a flow chart of agro-meteorological data manage ment syste m.

Date_____________
Exercise No.16
Synoptic charts and weather reports
After collection of data with various devices, the data need to be transferred to an appropriate
place for analysis. In this regard, it is proper to know a little about synoptic climatology. The term synoptic
climatology is applied to investigations of regional weather and circulation types. It is also used to refer any
climatological analysis which makes some reference to synoptic weather phenomena. This field is concerned
with obtaining an insight into local or regional climates by examining the relations hip of weather elements
individually or collectively to atmospheric circulation processes. Synoptic climatology is defined as the
description and analysis of the totality of weather at a single place or over a small area, in terms of the
properties and motion of the atmosphere over and around the place or area.
There are essentially two stages to a synoptic climatological study:
1. The determination of categories of atmospheric circulation type
2. The assessment of weather elements in relation to these categ ories.
Besides agricultural meteorological observatories, synoptic weather stations
also record weather data such as rainfall, temperature, radiation, low level wind and evaporation etc. The surface
observat ories collect information on various weat her elements and based an these, daily forecasts, warnings and
weat her reports are prepared by weather forecating centres at Channai, Nagpur, Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkatta. The
weat her bulletins are being broadcast in regional languages through All India Radio and Television.
Synoptic report: Observed weather conditions are marked in brief coded form as a synopsis of the
conditions. Such a brief report on weather conditions is known as synoptic report.
Synoptic chart/weather map: The regular observatories record weather elements at scheduled
time and send these readings through a telegram to the main observatory at Pune. They reach
Pune within an hour of observation and they are charted on outline map of India, using the
international code of signals and abbreviations. These are called synoptic charts or weather maps.
In synoptic charts different weather phenomena and atmospheric characters are marked with different symbols as
mentioned below.
S.No. Symbols We ather ele ment / character / phenomenon
1. Narrow block items Isobars
2. Numbers at ends of isobars Pressure values in m b
3. Shading Precipitation
4. Arrows Wind direction
5. Feathers in the arrows Wind velocity
6. Sm all circles with shading Am ount of clouds
P R AC TI CA L MA N U AL O N AG R O ME TEO RO LO G Y 58
Besides, different symbols are also used for recording weather phenomena, in relevant columns
of the pocket register and the Monthly Meteorological Register by the observer.
The duties of the observer: The routine duties of the observer include:
1. To m ake regular and careful observations and to note the general character of
the weather and record in the pocket register.
2. To prepare and dispatch the weather telegram as per the instructions to the
different forecasting centers, immediately after the observations are taken.
3. To send, heavy rainfall telegrams to the various offices on warning list.
4. To prepare and post monthly m eteorological and pocket registers, for each
month to the controlling meteorological office.
5. To keep the instruments clean and maintain them property.
After sending the data by the observer, it should be decoded and the we ather observations for each station
must be plotted at the appropriate location in a systematic manner following the international station model. Only
weat her maps in first-class forecasting c enters approach the completeness of the model. Printed maps and maps
used for plotting usually have an appropriately numbered circle corresponding to each reporting land station and
observations are plotted about this location in the appropriate position regardless of the number of observations
shown. It must be, emphasized again that the weather pattern affecting a locality is an integral part of the much
larger hemispheric weather pattern. It is necessary to plot a map over a large area. E ven if observations are not to
be plotted, it is necessary to know the plotting scheme in order to read and interpret weather charts already plotted.
Proble m: What are synoptic charts? Also discuss duties of the observer.


77 Fa 5 C 35 C 4 Agromanual I

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

77 Fa 5 C 35 C 4 Agromanual I

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

PRACTICAL MANUAL

Dr. L.R. Yadav

Dr. G.L. Keshwa

S. Particulars Page Date Signature of teacher

1 Agro meteorological observatory site

North zone Delhi

East zone Calcutta

South zone Chennai

West zone Bombay

Central zone Nagpur

Types of general observatories

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 1

Types of the observatories

1. Single Stevenson screen with

Dry bulb thermometer

Minimum thermom eter

14. Non-recording rainguage and measuring glass (with one spare

1. Wind vane 2. Anem ometer 3. Dewgauge

1. Single Stevenson screen with

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 2

Minimum thermom eter

21. Anem ometer and

1. Dewgauge 2. Sunshine recorder 3. Self recording rainguage and

4. Double Stevenson screen with thermograph and hygrograph.

(c) Principal (or class A) observatory:

1. Instrum ents of class B observatory

2. Self recording rainguage

3. Thermograph and 4. Hygrograph

Criteria for site selection

and 10 times the height of the obstructions, respectively.

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 3

Precautions for installation

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 4

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 5

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 6

Calculation of local mean time

Indian Standard Time (IST)

Local Mean Time (LMT

LMT= IST- 4 (L1 - L2)

LMT = IST - 4 (82 30' - longitude of the station) m inutes)

Local apparent time

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 7

= 0700 - (28 + 4 x 2/60) = 0700 -28.13 minutes = 0632 hours

LMT = 1400 - 4 x ( 82 30' - 75 28') minutes = 1400 hrs - ( 4 x 7 2') minutes

= 1400 - (36 + 4 x 2/60) = 1400 -28.13 minutes = 1332 hours

and Jaipur (75 48'). at 0700 hrs.

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 8

Meteorological operations are required for a variety of purposes which can

Maximum thermometer : Maximum thermometer is a mercury-in-glass thermometer with a constriction in the

column. The range of minimum thermometer graduation is from -40C to 50C.

Self recording of te mperature :

Exposure and installation of air thermometers

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 9

Grass minimum thermometer

S. Ele ment Unit Instrument(s)

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 10

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 11

1. Name the different thermom eters which are kept in

2. Name the different instruments installed in an agromet

PRAC TICAL MANU AL ON AGR OMETEOROL OGY 12

QA = Angots value(extra terrestrial radiation value incident outside the

n = actual num ber of sunshine hours in a day as observed

N = Maximum possible duration of sunshine( depends on the