Rocks and Stones

Properties of minerals
Hardness
 Cleavage or Fracture

Streak

Color

Luster

Crystalline Structure
 Igneous

Geological Sedimentary

Metamorphic

Stratified

Rocks Physical Unstratified

Foliated

Argillaceous

Chemical Sillicious

Calcarious
Igneous rocks
Cooling the molten lava on or inside the earths surface during volcanic eruption. They dont contain any

fossils or shells. The rocks may be acidic or alkaline depending upon silica content.

Effusive rocks magma spreads over the surface of earth where it solidifies, it forms basalt and trap.

plutonic rock - solidifies below the earths surface itself, the solid crystalline rock is termed as deep-

seated. The examples are granite, syenite, diorite and gabbro.

hypabyssal rock - solidifies at a relatively shallow depth, the resultant rock possesses a finely grained

crystalline structure, Dolerite

The principal constituents of magma are quartz, mica and felspar.

Sedimentary rocks
Gradual deposition of disintegrated rocks at the bottom of rivers, lakes or sea.

Precipitation of salts in drying water basin (chemical deposits) are gypsum, anhydrite,

magnesite, dolomite.

Accumulation of plant or animal remains (organogenous rocks) are limestone, shale, chalk,

diatomite and tripoli.

Deterioration of massive magmatic or sedimentary rocks (fragmental rocks) are sandstone,

laterite, sand, gravel, carbonate conglomerate and breccia.

Metamorphic rocks

Rocks are subjected to great heat and pressure inside the earth.

Complete recrystallization of the original rock into an interlocking

mosaic of calcite, aragonite and/or dolomite crystals.
Physical/ Petrological classification
Stratified rocks -exhibit distinct layers which can be separated.
Examples: Limestone, Slate, Sandstone etc.

Unstratified rocks do not show any sign of strata and cannot be easily split
into the slabs. Examples: Granite, Trap etc.

Foliated or fragmented rocks have a tendency to split up only in a definite

direction.
Chemical classification
Silicious rocks - Principal constituents silica. Examples: Granite, Quartzite,
Sandstone etc.

Argillaceous rocks - Principal constituents clay or alumina. Examples: Kaolin,

Laterite, Slate etc.

Calcareous rocks - Principal constituents lime. Examples: Limestone and

Marble.
Characteristics of good building stone

Appearance uniform colour

Structure no dull appearance, uniform texture

Strength compressive strength 60-200 N/mm2

Weight

Hardness

Toughness

Porosity and absorption

Characteristics of good building stone

Seasoning quarry sap

Weathering

Workability

Fire resistance

Specific gravity

Thermal movement
Deterioration of stones
Rain
Physical action
Chemical action
Frost
Wind
Temperature changes
Vegetable changes
Mutual decay
Chemical agents
Lichens
 1.RAIN

Rain water acts both physically and chemically on stones. The physical action is due to the
erosive and transportation powers and the latter due to the decomposition, oxidation and
hydration of the minerals present in the stones.

2.PHYSICAL ACTION

Alternate wetting by rain and drying by sun causes internal stresses in the stones and
consequent disintegration.

3.CHEMICAL ACTION

In industrial areas the acidic rain water reacts with the constituents of stones leading to its
deterioration.
 DECOMPOSITION

The disintegration of alkaline silicate of alumina in stones is mainly because of the action of chemically
active water. The hydrated silicate and the carbonate forms of the alkaline materials are very soluble in
water and are removed in solution leaving behind a hydrated silicate of alumina (Kaolinite). The
decomposition of felspar is represented as

K2Al2O3.6H2O + CO2 + nH2O = K2CO3 + Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O + 4SiO2.nH2O

OXIDATION AND HYDRATION

Rock containing iron compounds in the forms of peroxide, sulphide and carbonate are oxidised and hydrated
when acted upon by aciduated rain water.

This chemical change is accompanied by an increase in volume and results in a physical change manifested
by the liberation of the neighbouring minerals composing the rocks. As another example iron sulphide and
siderite readily oxidize to limonite and liberates sulphur, which combines with water and oxygen to form
sulphuric acid and finally to sulphates.
 4.FROST

In cold places frost pierces the pores of the stones where it freezes, expands and creates cracks.

5.WIND

Since wind carries dust particles, the abrasion caused by these deteriorates the stones.

6.TEMPERATURE CHANGES

Expansion and contraction due to frequent temperature changes cause stone to deteriorate especially if a rock is

composed of several minerals with different coefficients of linear expansion.

7.VEGETABLE GROWTH

Roots of trees and weeds that grow in the masonry joints keep the stones damp and also secrete organic and acidic

matters which cause the stones to deteriorate. Dust particles of organic or nonorganic origin may also settle on the

surface and penetrate into the pores of stones. When these come in contact with moisture or rain water, bacteriological

process starts and the resultant micro-organism producing acids attack stones which cause decay.
 8.MUTUAL DECAY

When different types of stones are used together mutual decay takes place. For example when
sandstone is used under limestone, the chemicals brought down from limestone by rain water to
the sandstone will deteriorate it.

9.CHEMICAL AGENTS

Smokes, fumes, acids and acid fumes present in the atmosphere deteriorate the stones. Stones
containing CaCO3, MgCO3 are affected badly.

10.LICHENS

These destroy limestone but act as protective coats for other stones. Molluses gradually weaken
and ultimately destroy the stone by making a series of parallel vertical holes in limestones and
sandstones.
Discoloration is mainly an aesthetic problem. It may be caused by pigments released from, or contained within, the
microorganisms
Preservation of stones
Coal tar

If coal tar is applied on stone surface. it preserves stone.

Linseed oil

This preservative may be used either as raw linseed oil or boiled linseed oil.

Paint

An application of paint on stone surface serves as a preservative. The paint changes the original colour
of stone.

Paraffin

This preservative may be used alone or it may be dissolved in neptha and then applied on stone surface.
It changes the original colour of stone.
 Solution of alum and soap

The alum and soft soap are taken of proportion of about 0.75N und 0.50
respectively and they arc dissolved in a liter of water. This solution, when
applied on stone surface acts as preservative.

Solution of baryta

A solution of barium hydroxide when applied on the stone surface acts as

a preservative. The barium sulphate is insoluble and it is least affected by
atmospheric agencies.
 Examples of degradation in stone
Erosion: some material parts are lost, and after long times
the structural and aesthetic features of the objects vanish.

Exfoliation: the external, surface layers are raised and

detached from beneath layers, forming plaques and laminae.

Alveoli formation: detachment of sandy friable material leads

to formation of cavities (alveoli).

Blackening: it is generally due to deposition of carbon

particles on the surface of artifacts.

Scouring: this process occurs when the parts of a stone

monument, which have been transformed into soluble
compounds by chemical reactions, are removed by water.