Operating Characteristics

Internal Combustion Engines

 Engine Parameters Avg piston speed
For an engine with
bore B, crank offset a, engine speed N,
Stroke length is:
S 2a
Vd S Average piston speed is:

U p 2SN

r Maximum average piston speed: 5-20 m/s

Typically inversely proportional to engine
size
Reason for this range:
1. Safe limit of material strength
(piston, connecting rod)
2. Limitation of gas flow in and out

Cf) Table 2-1: Typical engine

parameters
Instantaneous Piston Speed

Bore to stroke ratio B/S

Square: B=S
Under square B<S
(large engine, ~4)
Vd S Over square: B>S

Distance betn crank axis and wrist pin

s a cos r 2 a 2 sin 2
r
Instantaneous piston speed
U p ds / dt
Up cos
sin 1
Up 2 R 2 sin 2
R r/a
 Piston Velocity vs. Crank Angle
R: Ratio of connecting rod to crank offset
For small engines: 3-4
For large engines: 5-10
Displacement
Displacement (volume):
Vd VBDC VTDC
Vd / 4B 2 S
(caution in text)
Vd S
Its range: 0.1 cm3 8 L
For a given displacement,
Longer stroke smaller bore: less
r
hear
loss, more friction loss
Shorter stroke larger bore:
More heat loss, less friction loss
Modern engines: Near square
Clearance volume:
Vc VTDC
VBDC Vc Vd
Compression Ratio

Compression ratio
rc VBDC / VTDC vBDC / vTDC
Vc Vd / Vc

Vd S SI engines : 8-11
CI engines : 12-24

r
Engines w/super- or
turbochargers have lower
compression ratio than
naturally aspirated
engines.

Fig. 2-5
Variable compression ratio
(see text)
Cylinder Volume and Areas
Cylinder volume at any crank angle
B 2
V Vc r a s
4
V
Vc
1
2

1 rc 1 R 1 cos R 2 sin 2
Vd S
Cross-sectional area
(=surface area of a flat-topped piston)
r
Ap B2
4

Combustion chamber surface area

A Ach Ap Br a s

Ach Ap
BS
2
R 1 cos R 2 sin 2
Ach : Cylinder head surface area

Prob. 2-1
 Work
Work can be calculated using (Work per cycle)

W Fdx PAp dx PdV

w Pdv

Work can also be calculated

as an area under the process Indicator
lines in the indicator diagram diagram

Pressur
e, P

Volume, V
 Indicated Work

Indicated work wi : Work inside the combustion

chamber
Brake work wb : Actual work available at the crankshaft
Work lost due to friction and parasitic loads w f
Parasitic loads include oil pump, supercharger, air conditioner
compressor, alternator, etc.

Relations between three types of work

wb wi w f
 Net Indicated Work

Indicated work is classified into the following:

Gross indicated work: Compression and power strokes

Pump work: Intake and exhaust strokes

(Net) Indicated work: wi net wi gross wi pump

wi gross

wi pump
 Super- or Turbocharger
Without supercharges, pump work is negative.
wi net Area A Area B
With super- or turbochargers, pump work is positive
since intake pressure is greater than exhaust pressure.

wi net Area A Area B

Supercharge increases net
indicated work but add to
friction work.
 Mechanical Efficiency

Mechanical efficiency: Ratio between brake work at a

crankshaft to indicated work in a combustion chamber

m wb / wi Wb / Wi

Excluding parasitic loads, the mechanical efficiency of

an engine is:
55-60% at a high speed (friction loss)

85-95% at a low speed (heat loss)

~0 at idle
 Mean Effective Pressure
Mean effective pressure: mep w / v W / Vd
A good parameter for comparing engines with regard to design
or output because of independency of both engine size and
speed
Brake mean effective pressure bmep wb / v
Indicated mean effective pressure imep wi / v
Pump mean effective pressure pmep wi pump / v
Friction mean effective pressure fmep w f / v
Relations of all meps
nmep = gmep + pmep
bmep = mimep
bmep = imep fmep
(No difference betn nmep and imep?)
 Torque
A good indicator of an engines ability to do work
2 WbR (bmep)Vd / n

WbR: Brake work per revolution (caution in text)

n : # revolution per cycle

For two-stroke engines:

(bmep)Vd / 2
For four stroke engines:
(bmep)Vd / 4
Maximum torque/displacement
80-110 N-m/L
Maximum brake torque (MBT)
CI > SI, generally
 Power
Rate of work
W WN / n
2N (caution in text)

W WN
(1 / 2/nn)(mep) ApU p
2N net indicated power, gross indicated power,
Brakepower,
pumppower
(1 / 2n)can beAdefined
(mep) depending on which work or mep
pU p
used

Power relations
Wb mWi
W W
i net i gross Wi pump
Wb Wi W f
 Torque and Power: Discussion
Torque and power
Both increases with speed at low speed, reaches a maximum,
and decreases at high speed
Indicated power increases with speed
Brake power increases to a maximum and then decreases at
higher speeds
Friction losses increase with speed and become dominant at
very high speeds
Speed at maximum brake power ~ 1 speed at maximum
torque

To increase power, increase displacement, mep, speed

Faster and higher mep w/super- and turbochargers

Read 2.5, Prob. 2-2, 3

 Air-fuel and Fuel-air Ratios
Their definitions: AF ma / m f m a / m f
FA m f / ma m f / m a 1 / AF
ma , m a : mass (flow rate) of air
m f , m f : mass (flow rate) of fuel

Gasoline SI engines
AF = (too rich) 6 - 15(ideal, stoich) - 25 (too lean)
Rich mixtures: when accelerating, starting cold
Lean mixtures: when cruising at light load (local rich zone)
Diesel CI engines
AF = 18-70 (nonhomogeneous air-fuel mixture)
Equivalence ratio: FAact / FAstoich AFstoich /AFact
Lambda value: 1 / FAstoich /FAact AFact /AFstoich
 Specific Fuel Consumption

Definition: sfc m f / W
Brake specific fuel consumption bsfc m f / Wb
Indicated specific fuel consumption isfc m f / Wi
fsfc: friction specific fuel consumption
igsfc: indicated gross specific fuel consumption
insfc: indicated net specific fuel consumption
psfc: pump specific fuel consumption
Useful relations

m Wb / Wi m f / Wi / m f / Wb isfc / bsfc
 Specific Fuel Consumption
Brake specific fuel consumption
Increases at high speed due to friction loss
Increases at low speed due to heat loss
Decreases at high compression ratio
Minimum near stoichiometry (Fig. 2-18)
Decreases with engine size

Fuel economy: distance traveled per unit fuel

See text
 Engine Efficiencies
Combustion efficiency: To account for incomplete
combustion
c Qin / m f QHV Q in / m f QHV
Thermal efficiency (enthalpy efficiency)
t W / Qin W / Q in W / m f QHV c
W , mf : Work and mass of fuel for one cycle
QHV : Heating value of fuel

can be given as indicated or brake, etc: m t b / t i

Fuel conversion efficiency
f W / m f QHV W / m f QHV
1 /( sfc )QHV
tt/ c c

 Volumetric Efficiency
Air enters the chamber less than ideal (short cycle time,
flow restrictions, intake manifolds, etc)
Definition: v ma / aVd nm a / aVd N
ma , m a : air mass per cycle, mass flow rate

Standard air conditions

P0 101 kPa
T0 298 K 25 C
a P0 / RT0 1.181 kg/m 3
R 0.287 kJ/kg - K

Air conditions in the intake manifold used sometimes

Prob. 2-4
 Emissions
Specific emissions (SE): Units of g/kW-hr
SE NOx m NOx / Wb
SE CO m CO / Wb
SE HC m HC / Wb
SE part m part / Wb

Emission index (EI): Units of g/kg

EI NOx m NOx / m f
EI CO m CO / m f
EI HC m HC / m f
Prob. 2-5, 6
EI part m part / m f
Read 2.11-2.13
Please look at Heywood
2.1-2.5, 2.7-2.15