D.C.

MACHINE FUNDAMENTALS
1 INTRODUCTION

These notes do not attempt to comprehensively cover all aspects of d.c . machines - instead they attempt to give an
overview of the fundamentals of their operation, construction, commutation and operating characteristics.

2 DEFINITIONS

Stator: the stationary part of the machine, which is usually mounted around the outside of the rotor.
Rotor: the rotating part of the machine, usually mounted within the stator.
Armature: the electrical power carrying element of the machine: in a d.c. machine this is on the rotor.
Field: the part of the machine used to supply a magnetic field: in a d.c. machine this is on the stator.
Commutator: a mechanical switching device used to switch current in the armature winding.
Brushes: the means by which current is fed into the commutator - usually made of carbon.
Yoke: the outer part of the stator, used to complete the machine magnetic circuit.
Field Poles: those parts of the stator which are magnetised to produce either a north pole or a south pole.
Laminations: thin sheets of iron (usually 0.3-1.0mm thick) which are used to make up the armature and sometimes the field
circuit.

3 FUNDAMENTALS

The major features of a d.c. machine are illustrated schematically in fig. 1. The machine can be split into a number of
essential features, namely the field winding mounted on the stator, the armature winding mounted on the rotor and the
commutator/brushgear combination. In addition to these basic components there are commonly a number of other features
employed, such as compensating windings and interpoles. These latter features are not fundamental to the operation of the
machine and will be considered later.

3.1 Field

In a d.c. machine the field is mounted on the stator. Field coils are wound around a number of pole pieces (in this case two).
The poles are attached to a "yoke" which completes the magnetic circuit and holds the assembly together. The magnetic
poles are generally made from a series of steel laminations, whilst the yoke is often of cast steel.

The field coils are excited with a d.c. current in order to produce alternating north and south magnetic poles. The resulting
magnetic field pattern is shown in fig. 2. This magnetic field pattern is stationary in space and time. Magnetic flux flows
out of a north pole, radially across the air-gap, through the armature, back across the air-gap and into a south pole. The
yoke acts as a return path for the magnetic flux.

yoke

field pole
field winding

brushgear

commutator

armature

armature winding

Figure 1 Schematic representation and photograph of a cut-away 2 pole d.c. machine.

 The machine is designed to produce an even radial flux
density under each pole, so that the air-gap radial magnetic
flux density variation is as shown in fig. 3. The magnitude
of the magnetic field is determined by the geometry of the
machine (principally the air-gap length) and the
magnetomotive force (MMF) generated by the field coils.
The MMF is the product of the field current and the
number of turns. This may comprise of a few turns of large
cross section, carrying high current or a large number of
turns carrying low current. The field supply does not
contain any element of power converted to torque, it
simply supplies the i2R losses of the coils. For a given
field MMF the power requirement of the field source is
independent of the turns number, assuming the total area
available for the field coil remains constant.

Figure 2. Typical magnetic flux plot in a 2 pole d.c. machine

with field only excitation.

Because the magnetic field is stationary then it does not

1
induce any eddy currents in the field circuit. Therefore
there is no necessity for the yoke to be laminated. In 0.8
practice the magnetic poles must be laminated because of 0.6
tooth ripple effects resulting from interaction of the
air-gap flux density (T)

armature teeth as the armature rotates. 0.4

0.2
Each field pole and its associated field coil can be replaced
0
with a permanent magnet, as an alternative form of field
source. This produces a number of different advantages -0.2 0 100 200 300 400
and disadvantages. The advantages are as follows:- -0.4

(a) There is no need for a field excitation source. -0.6

(b) The efficiency is increased, as there are no field i2R -0.8
losses.
(c) The machine is likely to be more compact. -1
(d) It turns out to be easier to switch current in the circumferential position (degrees)
armature windings.

However the following major disadvantages exist:- Figure 3. Magnetic flux density variation in the air-gap with
field only excitation.
(a) The field excitation is now fixed in magnitude.
(b) High performance applications require rare earth magnets, which are expensive.

3.2 Armature

The armature is the major power carrying element, and is situated on the rotor. The armature winding is wound in slots so
that the active portion of the winding passes axially down the machine. Current flowing axially in the armature winding
interacts with radial magnetic flux to produce a circumferential force. The use of a slotted armature provides both
mechanical security to the armature windings (the force on the conductors is transferred to the slot wall) and gives a shorter
effective air-gap length, reducing the requirement of the field circuit. Current is passed into the armature via the
commutator and brushgear (see later)
Because the armature is rotating circumferentially through the radial magnetic field produced by the field winding, voltages
are induced in an axial sense down the rotor axial length. This voltage constitutes the back EMF in the armature winding,
but is also present in the rotor iron. For this reason the rotor is laminated in the radial/axial plane, otherwise large rotor
eddy currents would flow.

The magnetic field generated by the armature currents is generally much smaller than that produced by the field current,
because the flux path is predominantly through air. Consequently it has a high magnetic reluctance. At high armature
currents the armature reaction flux can become significant and this is discussed later.

3.3 Torque Production

Fig. 4 shows a cross-section through a machine with a single armature coil composed of one turn. When current, I, flows
axially down one side of the coil it is in a radial magnetic field of flux density, B, generated by the field circuit. A
circumferential force is exerted upon the coil side, given by

F = BIl where l is the axial length of the coil side.

The corresponding torque developed is given by:- T = Fr where r is the radius of the coil side.

i.e. T = Bilr

Each coil is composed of a pair of sides, carrying

brushgear the same current, but in the opposite direction,
and situated in fields of the same direction and
commutator strength. The forces exerted on the two sides are
therefore in opposite directions, and combine to
armature generate torque on the rotor.

armature winding In order to maximise the output torque of the

machine it is necessary to have the entire
armature periphery wound with conductors.
hence in practice the armature is constructed with
a large number of coils, as in fig. 5.

Fig. 4. Cross-section through a machine with an armature winding

composed of a single turn.
If the armature has N series turns, with a proportion, kp, in the magnetic field, then the torque produced is given by:-

T = 2NkpBIlr

In a 2 pole machine the total flux per pole, , is given by the product of the air-gap flux density and the pole area, as kp is
essentially the pole arc to pole pitch ratio..

i.e. = B kprl

Substitution into T = 2NkpBIlr gives

T = 2N I (1)

The above equation is generally expressed as follows for a given machine:-
T = kt ia (2)
where the armature current, ia, is related to the current in one coil, I, according to how the coils are connected
(series/parallel connections). kt is a constant for any one machine and is the machine flux per pole.

Figure 5. A more typical armature with many armature coils.

3.4 Armature Back Emf

An EMF is induced in the armature winding as it moves through the magnetic field.

The EMF induced in one conductor is given by:- E = Blu where u is the conductor velocity

= Blr where is the rotational frequency in radians per second.

The EMF in one turn is twice this, as each turn is comprised of two conductors. If the armature has N series turns, with a
proportion, kp, in the magnetic field, then the total EMF, E is given by
2N
E = 2 Nk p Blr = (3)

This can simply be shown to give an induced voltage in the complete armature winding as follows:-
E = k t (4)

where kt is the same constant as appears in the torque equation.

Note that the product of the armature back EMF and the armature current is equal to the mechanical output power.
.i.e. EI = T (5)

Referring back to fig. 5, it is necessary to ensure that the currents in the armature winding are switched in order to always
have unidirectional currents under each pole. i.e. The actual current pattern in the armature must remain stationary with
respect to the field poles as the armature rotates. This switching is the function of the commutator and is discussed below.

4. COMMUTATOR

The commutator is essentially a mechanical rectifier, changing the a.c. voltage and currents in the individual armature coils
to d.c. in the external circuit. It consists of a set of copper segments arranged as a cylinder which is mounted on the shaft
and rotates with the coils. In the common lap winding arrangement the two ends of each coil are attached to adjacent
commutator segments. Current is fed into the commutator via carbon brushes.
Commutator operation can most easily be
understood with reference to the simple case
of a single armature coil, as in fig. 4. Current
flows in one brush, through one commutator
segment, round the armature coil and back
out the other commutator segment and brush.
As the coil moves through more than 90o
from its present position, it is necessary for
the coil current to be reversed, and this
occurs due to the commutator segments
making contact with the opposite brushes.

A more detailed diagram showing the

connections for a six segment commutator in
a 2 pole machine is shown below. This shows
how the required current distribution is
maintained. Note how the brush current splits
up into two parallel paths in this case.

5a

6a 1a
2a

6a 1b
4a

1a 6b
3a

5a 2a

5b 2b
6b 4b

3b 1b 4a 3a

5b

4b 3b

2b

(a). Schematic of an armature with 6 slots and 2 poles. (b) The coil layout corresponding to (a)

Figure 6
 5. OPEN CIRCUIT CURVE

This is derived from running the machine at constant speed 8

on no load and measuring the armature voltage variation
with field current. As the machine is unloaded there is no 7
resistive drop in the armature, so that the voltage measured 6
at the machine terminals is simply the back EMF, E. The
back EMF is directly proportional to speed, , and machine 5

field flux
flux, , so division by gives k t directly. 4
3
The machine flux is proportional to field current at 2
relatively low excitation levels, where the machine remains
relatively unsaturated and the magnetic reluctance is 1
dominated by the air-gap. However at higher excitation 0
levels magnetic saturation of the iron paths becomes
0 5 10 15
significant and eventually limits the maximum flux density.
field current

Figure 7. A typical open circuit curve, illustrating the

variation of machine flux with field current.

6. CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION

ia
6.1 Armature Resistance
armature
Until now only the voltage, E, induced in the armature
winding has been considered. In practice the winding also has
field
resistance, Ra. E
if
Suppose the machine has a constant d.c.terminal voltage, V,
applied. Then

V = iaRa + E (6)

and the power supplied is given by:-

Via = ia2Ra + Eia (7)

power winding power converted
supplied losses to torque

6.2 Armature and Field Inductance

In addition to resistance, both the field and armature coils have a Ra

significant inductance. Strictly speaking this inductance should be
included in all equivalent circuits and subsequent performance ia
calculations. However, in the steady state a constant d.c. current flows in V
both the field and armature circuits, so that there is no inductive voltage
drop. For this reason we are able to ignore all circuit inductances in our E
if
calculations, as we are only considering steady state operation.

Note, however, that determination of machine transient performance is

often dominated by the coil inductances.
7. SUMMARY

is a nonlinear function of field current, if.

The resultant torque is given by

T = kt ia (8)

A back emf is induced in the armature, where

E = kt (9)

The armature terminal voltage is related to the back emf as follows:-

V = iaRa + E (10)

8. MOTORING AND GENERATING OPERATION

Discussion has so far been in a motoring context. Assuming a field current, if, then when an armature voltage, V, is applied
an armature current flows, resulting in a positive motoring torque. The machine will rotate and an armature EMF, E, is
induced.

Suppose now that the rotor is rotated independantly by some external source, so that E>V. From the above circuit diagram
and equation it is clear that the armature current reverses direction and power now flows back into the supply. The machine
torque is now such that it acts against the direction of rotation. i.e. it is trying to slow the machine down. The machine is
now acting as a generator.

9 DIRECTION OF ROTATION

When motoring the direction of rotation can be changed in one of two ways:-

Since T = kt ia

Then the torque (and therefore the direction of rotation) can be reversed by

(a) Reversing if so that the flux, , is reversed.

(b) Reversing V, so that ia is reversed.

10. ARMATURE REACTION

When a d.c. machine is loaded then the magnetomotive force of the armature winding generates an armature reaction flux
which is in addition to the main field set up by the field winding. This is illustrated with regard to a six pole machine in
figs. 8 and 9. Fig. 9. shows the distribution of the armature reaction field, which is generally much lower than the main
field. In machines of more than a few kW rating the effect of this flux can, however, become important. The armature
reaction field in a motor combines together with the main field to skew the total flux towards the trailing edge of the poles,
as shown in fig. 10, which shows the resultant total field distribution.

Armature reaction has two adverse effects resulting from this:-

(a) The trailing edge of the pole becomes saturated, so that the total field flux is reduced, with a consequent loss of torque
at high currents.
(b) Flux is pushed into the region between poles, causing a voltage to be induced in the coil undergoing commutation,
resulting in arcing at the brushes.

In large machines there are extra design features to help overcome these problems.
Fig. 8. Field only excitation pattern in a 6-pole d.c. machine Fig. 9. Armature reaction pattern in a 6 pole d.c. machine.

(a) Full field pattern. (b) Detail of flux plot around the pole.
Fig. 10 Net field pattern in a 6 pole d.c. machine when loaded.

11. COMMUTATION

As a coil passes through the "interpole" region it has its current direction reversed by the brushes. As adjacent commutator
segments, attached to either end of one coil, pass under a brush they are short circuited. In the ideal case an emf should be
induced in the shorted coil which is sufficient to reverse the current whilst it is short circuited. In such a case there will be
no sparking as the commutator segments attached to the coil terminals leave the brush.
12. DC MACHINE PERFORMANCE

The flux, or field excitation, in a dc machine can be provided in a number of different ways:

(a) Permanent magnets.

(b) Field winding supplied from a separate source.
(c) Field winding in parallel with the armature.
(d) Field winding in series with the armature.
(e) Compound field winding, involving both series and parallel connections.

Each method results in different performance characteristics and will be considered in turn.

13 PERMANENT MAGNET MOTOR

A permanent magnet motor for a Walkman A permanent magnet motor for a food blender

ia
Permanent magnets are commonly employed in smaller dc machines Ra
(from a few W to a few kW) where the addition of a field winding
would take up valuable space or be electrically inefficient. At higher
powers, the increasing volume of the magnets and their subsequent cost
make them less attractive. La
V
To a first approximation, the flux in a permanent magnet dc machine
may be considered constant. Thus k t is constant and the equivalent
circuit may be represented as shown in Fig. 11. E

13.1 No load speed

As Figure 11: Equivalent circuit of a permanent

E = k t (11) magnet dc machine.
and k t is constant, E is proportional to .

When the machine is unloaded it only needs to provide a small torque in order to overcome friction and windage.
Consequently, since
T = k t ia (12)
 ia is small and thus, as the steady state value of voltage is given by
the value of
V = E + ia Ra (13)
we have V E .

As E is proportional to , the no load speed is effectively proportional to the supply voltage, V. Varying the supply voltage
will allow operation over the desired speed range.

13.2 Behaviour under load

1.4

Normalised speed
1.2
By substituting for the values of ia and E in equation 13, using 1
equations 11 and 12, we obtain: 0.8
V TRa 0.6
=
b g
kt kt 2
(14) 0.4
0.2
The machine speed is thus a linearly decreasing function of the 0
b g 2
shaft torque having a slope Ra k t . The intercept with the 0 1 2 3 4
Normalised torque
5 6 7

torque axis (the stall torque) is generally 5-10 times the rated
torque (see Fig. 12).

14. THE SEPARATELY EXCITED MOTOR Figure 12: speed-torque relationship for a PM dc
machine.

ia
Ra
With this connection the field current, and hence the machine
flux, , is normally held constant whilst the armature is
typically fed from a variable dc supply. Under these
if
conditions, the characteristics of the separately excited
La R machine are identical to those of the permanent magnet
f
motor (see equation 14, Fig. 13).
V Vf
In the absence of mechanical losses, the no load speed is
proportional to the supply voltage, V. If the field current is
E Lf allowed to vary, however, the characteristic becomes
modified as shown in Figure 14.

Figure 13: Equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc

machine

14.1 Speed control of the separately excited motor

Consideration of equation 14 indicates several possible methods 1.2

of speed control. For example the steady state speed can be if1<if2
1
no load speed

controlled by varying the voltage applied to the armature.

0.8
Alternatively, the machine flux, , can be altered by varying the
field current to produce changes in speed. These two methods 0.6
0.4
if1
are frequently combined to give a very wide speed range.
0.2 if2
A final method of speed control involves the addition of a 0
resistance in series with the intrinsic armature resistance, Rd. 0 0.5 1 1.5
This alters the slope of the speed-torque characteristic giving a
larger decrease in speed for a given increase in torque. A major supply volts
objection to this technique is that it is inefficient. As a result it is
rarely employed in the control of separately excited motors. Figure 14: No load speed of a separately excited
dc motor.
Equation 14 shows that for a constant armature voltage, V, and constant flux, , the speed-torque relationship is represented
by a straight line of small negative slope (Fig. 15) (Note that for high values of torque, corresponding to large armature
currents, the relationship departs from the ideal straight line as a result of armature reaction effects). The steady state
operating point of the motor is determined by the intersection of the speed-torque line with the load characteristic (point P
in Fig. 15).

If the armature is supplied from a controlled dc source, the speed may be varied up to a value determined by the maximum
working voltage of the machine. The speed-torque characteristics for a range of fixed values of armature voltage consist of
a set of parallel lines.
1.5 2
V1 i f2,V1
T load V2 T load i f1,V1
1
P
0.75 1
saturation
0.5 saturation
V1 > V2
0.25
i f2 < i f1
0
0
-0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
-0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
T
2.0 T
Figure 15: Speed control by variation of V (per unit
Figure 16: Speed control by field weakening (per unit
quantities).
quantities).

Under conditions for which the armature voltage and machine flux are at their maximum design values, the machine is said
to be operating at base speed. Further increase in speed can only be achieved by reduction in the machine flux - a technique
known as field weakening. Fig. 16 shows the effect of reducing the field current on the machine speed-torque characteristic
whilst maintaining a constant armature voltage. Note the increased intercept with the speed axis and also the increased
negative slope resulting from the reduced machine flux (see equation 14). The maximum speed attainable by field
weakening is limited by the mechanical design and is typically between 3 and 6 times the base speed.

14.2 Steady state operating envelope - constant torque and constant power regions

The full load operating conditions are specified at base speed, b and will typically consist of: the rated armature voltage,
Vr ; the rated armature current, iar ; maximum field current, i fr , the range of speed control for field weakening, b to max
and the shaft power developed at rated conditions, Pr . Speed control from zero to base speed is typically achieved with
rated field current, i fr . Over this speed range, the steady state armature current must usually be limited to below the rated
value. The maximum available torque is, therefore, constant:
Tr = k t (i fr )iar
and consequently the maximum power increases linearly with speed (short duration transients may, however, exceed these
values by typically 50-100%).

As the terminal voltage is limited by the available supply, any increase above base speed requires field weakening. The no-
load speed of the motor varies inversely with the machine flux whilst the torque varies in direct proportion to the flux. A
reduction in flux, therefore, results in an increase in speed
Vr

kt
and a reduction in the torque available at rated armature current
Vr iar
T = k t iar =

Note that the machine power ( T ) remains constant.

max speed The steady state operating conditions for the motor are
2 thus bounded by an envelope consisting of a constant
Control of field current torque region below base speed and a constant power
(rated armature voltage) region above base speed subject to the maximum
rotational speed of the machine (Fig. 17). In practice the
available shaft torque will be somewhat less than that
base speed 1
indicated by Fig. 17 as a result of copper losses in the
Variable armature
armature and torque losses due to friction and windage.
voltage (rated
armature current)

0
-0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
rated T
torque

Figure 17: Steady state operating envelope for a

dc motor (per unit quantities).

15 THE SHUNT MOTOR

The shunt connected motor has a single, fixed magnitude, voltage supply for both armature and field windings. Speed
control is normally produced by varying the field current through the addition of a variable resistor, Re, in the field circuit.
The motor thus behaves like a separately excited motor employing only field current control and typically displays a rather
limited speed range. To overcome this difficulty and to prevent excessive supply current being drawn during starting, a
second variable resistor, Rd, is inserted in series with the armature winding.

Fig. 19 shows a typical shunt motor characteristic for two different values of added armature resistance. Note that whilst an
increased armature resistance gives greater reductions in speed for a given change in torque (the negative slope of the
characteristic is proportional to R a + R d ), the no-load speed remains unaltered.

ia
if Rd

Re
Ra
2
Rd0
T load R d1
v
La
R
f
1
saturation

Rd0 < R d1
L E
f
0
-0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
T
Figure 18: Equivalent circuit of the shunt motor. Figure 19: Speed control of a shunt motor using armature circuit
resistance.
16. THE SERIES MOTOR

For a series connected machine, the effective armature resistance is given by the sum of the actual armature resistance, Ra,
the field resistance, Rf and any added resistance, Rd (Fig 20). If the machine operates within the linear region of the no-
load saturation curve, the machine flux, k , can be represented by k f ia . Thus:
T = k f ia2 (15)

At high currents the magnetic flux saturates and ceases to vary with armature current. the torque is therefore directly
proportional to current. (see fig. 21)

1.2

1
Rd R ia L

normalised torque
f f
0.8
Ra
0.6

V 0.4
La
0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
E
Normalised current

Figure 20: Equivalent circuit of the series connected dc machine. Figure 21: Torque-current variation in a series
wound d.c. machine.

No Load Speed

As the load torque approaches zero there is a corresponding reduction in the required armature current and flux
( T = k t ia ) . As

V = E + ia Ra (16)

then E must approach V as ia approaches zero. However, as the armature current drops in a series wound machine, so does
the field current, so that the flux goes towards zero. Hence, if E is clamped to V and goes to zero, than since

E = k t (17)

then must approach infinity. Hence there is a theoretically infinite speed as the load torque approaches zero. In
practice losses will limit this to a finite but nonetheless possibly destructive speed. Series motors should not be run without
a mechanical load.

Speed-Torque Characteristic

With operation from a constant voltage source the speed-torque characteristic can be determined from knowledge of the
machine current. For any one current the flux can be ascertained from the open-circuit characteristic. Hence the torque is
known. By subtracting the ia Ra drop from the voltage source then the back emf can be determined. Finally, division of
the back emf by the flux gives the rotational speed.

Figure 22 shows typical speed-torque curves for a series connected motor. Since the field and armature currents are
identical, any increase in load torque produces a corresponding increase in machine flux and hence a reduction in speed.
This pronounced reduction in speed with increased torque has been exploited in many applications where a near constant
power characteristic is desired (e.g. traction).
 5
4.5
4
3.5
3
Speed

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Torque

Figure 22: Torque-speed characteristics of the series dc motor.

17 THE COMPOUND MOTOR

In this arrangement the motor is provided with both shunt and series field windings. If the machine is of the cumulative
compound type, the fluxes from shunt and series coils assist one another whilst in a differential compound machine the
fluxes act in opposition to one another. Differential compound motors are rarely employed owing to their inherently
unstable speed-torque characteristics. The characteristics of the cumulative compound motor vary from those of a shunt
machine (no series winding) to those of a series machine (no shunt winding). Typical applications include the addition of a
small shunt field to a series motor (to ensure a well defined intercept of the speed-torque curve with the speed axis) and the
addition of a series winding to a shunt motor for the purpose of stabilisation.

18.THE SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATOR

All the above has considered the d.c. machine as a motor, converting electrical power into mechanical power. The d.c.
machine is equally capable of operating as a generator, converting mechanical power into electrical power. for electrical
power generation to occur on a continuous basis it is necessary to have an external "prime mover" driving the rotor shaft.
e.g. a turbine or a diesel engine.

If the back emf exceeds the terminal voltage then current will flow out of the machine and there will be electrical power
generated. In order to avoid continuously working with negative currents it is convenient to change the convention when
dealing with d.c. generators, such that positive current is now defined as leaving the positive terminal of the armature.

In all analysis we will assume a constant rotational speed.

1.2

Ra 1
0.8
voltage

ia 0.6 if1
V if2 (<if1)
0.4

E 0.2
if 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
current
Figure 23: The separately excited generator
Figure 24: Load characteristic of a separately excited generator
From the circuit diagram, using a generator convention, it is clear that

V = E ia Ra (19)

Thus the load characteristic is as follows:-

Note how there is control of the terminal voltage by controlling the field current in a separately excited generator.
However, unless there is permanent magnet excitation there is still a need for a separate field excitation source, although
this is typically only say 5% of the generator output power.

19. THE SHUNT CONNECTED GENERATOR

The shunt excited generator overcomes the need for a separate field excitation source.

Because the field current is supplied by the armature the shunt excited generator is ia
known as a "self excited" connection. if

Note that there is a "chicken and egg" situation in which there can be no E without
Re
an if and no if without E. For self excitation the machine relies upon there being a Ra
small amount of residual magnetism in the field. However, the following
requirements are also necessary
v
(i) The residual magnetism must be in the right direction. R
f

(ii) The value of E generated by a given if must be higher than that needed to
produce that if in the field winding. If this occurs then E will continue to build up.
Lf E
The no-load operating point can be determined by plotting the field resistance line
on the open-circuit curve, as shown below:-

Figure 25: The shunt connected

90 generator
operating point
80

70 voltage due to
residual magnetism
open-circuit voltage

60

50

40
o/c curve
30

20 E=i(Ra + Rf)

10

0
0 5 10 15
field current

Figure 26: Self excitation in a shunt excited generator.

If the machine fails to self excite then either the speed may be too low or Rf may be too high. At any one speed there is a
"critical" value of Rf, above which the machine will not self excite.
 140
o/c curve
120

open-circuit voltage
100 critical
resistance
80 line

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15
field current

Figure 27 The limit of self excitation

Load Characteristic

On load the charactristic is complicated, as the flux falls as V falls.

Assuming a constant speed the characteristic can be found as follows:-

(i) Choose V
(ii) From V determine if and hence k
(iii)From k and the speed, determine E
E V
(iv)ia =
Ra

(v) i L = ia i f

A small amount of voltage control is possible by adjusting the external field current resistor, Rc , but this is limited by the
range over which self excitation will occur. Major application of this connection is therefore as a constant voltage d.c.
supply.

20. THE COMPOUND GENERATOR

The separately excited generator has been seen to reduce its output voltage as the load current rises due to the armature
resistance voltage drop. It is often necessary to maintain V constant i.e. independant of load current in order to produce a
perfect voltage source. This requires an increase in E as ia rises in order to compensate for the resistive volts drop. This
can be achieved with the addition of an extra field winding in series with the armature. The result is a "level compounded"
machine.

There are some applications where a limited short-circuit current is required. e.g. welding sets, traction generators, where V
may fall to zero. This can be done by reducing the flux as the current rises. The above can be achieved if the series field is
arranged so that its MMF opposes that of the main winding. The result is a "differential compounded" machine.
 1.2

0.8

voltage 0.6 normal

0.4 level
compounded
0.2 differential
compounded
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
current

Figure 28: The compound generator

21. THE UNIVERSAL MOTOR

The torque generated by a series wound motor is independant of the current direction, as any current reversal reverses both
the field and armature currents. Hence a series wound motor will still generate a mean torque when supplied from an a.c.
source, provided both rotor and armature cores are laminated. Such a motor is called a "Universal Motor".

When supplied with a.c. current both the flux and current pulsate in time phase, so that:-
T = k t i a = k t sin(t )ia sin(t ) (20)

i.e. T = k i sin (t )
2
t a (21)
so that the mean torque is given by:-
T = kt rmsirms (22)

Small universal motors are used where light weight is

1.2 important, combined with a need for low cost. They are
commonly used in domestic appliances, such as vacuum
1 cleaners, garden tools (e.g. strimmers, lawn mowers),
hand tools (e.g. electric drills), kitchen appliances etc.
0.8 d.c.
Their speed tends to be high (typically 10 000
revs/min.), so that for a given power rating only a small
a.c.
voltage

torque is required, thus resulting in a small machine.

0.6

This machine is cheap and fast, but tends to have a short

0.4
life. It is therefore ideal when only occasional operation
is required. a.c. and d.c. characteristics differ because
0.2
(i) The armature and field inductance plays a significant
0 part in a.c. operation. This is particularly important at
large currents, where the Li voltage drop becomes
00

14

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

10 0
0
0
00

large, thus reducing the back emf for a given current.

10

14

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

This therefore reduces the speed for a given torque.

current
(ii) The peak value of the sinusoidal current exceeds the
rms value by a factor 2 . This level of current can
Figure 29: Universal motor characteristics.
cause appreciable saturation of the magnetic flux when
for the same rms d.c. current there would be none. This therefore reduces the rms flux and therefore torque for a given
current.
 DC MOTOR DRIVES

Before the widespread use of power semiconductor switching devices, dc drives systems employed switched or variable
resistors and, in the case of an ac power source, tapped transformers coupled to a simple rectifier. Automatic control over
current and speed was typically achieved by switching the various resistive elements associated with the machine drive
using electromagnetic relays. The desire to simplify such systems was the principal motivation behind the development of
the wide range of dc machine winding configurations. A summary of typical applications and methods of control for the
main classes of dc motor is given below.

Machine type Typical applications Method of control

Shunt Simple variable speed systems Resistance control of field current - motor usually supplied
with a limited speed range. from a constant dc source. Additional armature resistance for
starting.
Series Traction, winching. Resistance control - can be supplemented by use of field
diverter resistors for extended speed range. Variable voltage dc
source employing thyristor chopper/tapped transformer +
controlled rectifier common in traction applications.
Separately wide range variable speed and Variable voltage dc source with field weakening for extended
excited torque control e.g. rolling/paper speed range.
mills, machine tools, servo
systems.

Summary of dc motor applications.

With the advent of cheap and reliable controlled power semiconductor devices, variable voltage dc supplies, in the form of
choppers (dc-dc converters, bridge circuits) and controlled rectifiers, have replaced many of the resistive control
mechanisms. Such power electronic drives can offer much improved torque and speed control over a wide dynamic range
when combined with a separately excited machine. For this reason many of the traditional markets for shunt and series
wound machines have diminished in favour of the separately excited machine and, more recently, variable speed ac drives
systems.

Operating regimes for dc machines

The steady state operating envelope for any machine
can be divided into 4 quadrants, depending on the
directions of speed and torque. Operation in the first nd st
2 quadrant 2
and third quadrants corresponds to motoring in the 1 quadrant
forward and reverse directions respectively whilst in the
second and fourth quadrants the machine operates as a
generator (Fig. 30).
1
In many applications, operation in the first quadrant
forward forward
will be sufficient. This can be achieved with a
generator motor
unidirectional voltage source capable only of sourcing
current to the machine. If the mechanical load has a T
large inertia, the rate of deceleration, as determined by
the mechanical losses in the system, may be very slow -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0.4 0.8 1.2
and operation in the second quadrant then becomes
desirable. This can be achieved only if there is a reverse
suitable current sink available (e.g. braking resistor or motor
bi-directional current capability). -1 reverse
generator
Reversal of the direction of rotation can be achieved
either by reversing the polarity of supply to the stator or
by reversing the direction of the field current and hence rd th
3 quadrant -2 4 quadrant
the machine flux. If a rapid response is required,
reversal of stator voltage is preferable owing to the
typically lower characteristic time constant. Figure 30: DC machine steady state operating area.