Comments on ISO 4355: 2013

Bases for the design of structures Determination of snow loads on roofs

Part II: Critical review of the limits for the thermal coefficient Ct 27.12.2016

1. Upper limit for the snow load / lower limit for Ct

The thermal coefficient Ct according to ISO 4355: 2013, Annex D, equation (D.1) relates the
reduction due to melting to the characteristic ground snow load so by a function in the form:

Ct = 1 f(so) f( i) f(Uo)
Ct = 1 0.054 (so / 3.5)1/4 ( i 5C) (sin ((0.4 Uo 0.1) 180/))3/4

With: f(so) influence of the snow load (climatic correlation)

f(i) influence of the heating
f(Uo) influence of the special thermal transmittance of the roof
Where: so characteristic ground snow load in kN/m2
i internal air temperature under the roof in C
Uo special thermal transmittance* in W/(m2K)
Note: * for the case of melting, excluding the external surface resistance

The function f(so) = 0,054 (so/3.5)1/4 correlates the climate (and its ground snow load so) to the
snowfall rate or intensity and duration, which really govern the melting process [1], [2], [3], [5].
The roof snow is molten during and shortly after the snowfall and does not accumulate on the roof
as it does on the ground. Higher ground snow loads are the result of colder temperatures with
longer accumulation periods and very often more than one snowfall event, not necessarily of
much larger snowfall intensities. That is why, for larger so the Ct-values tend to get smaller.
The Ct-formula is based on a simplified heat and mass balance model [1] using statistical data of
snowfall events in Norway (ground snow loads so = sk between 1.5 kN/m2 and 9 kN/m2 [4]). A
lower limit for the snow loads is given as 1,5 kN/m2, see item 2. An upper limit is missing. For
very large so the value of Ct can be reduced faster than the ground snow load increases, leading to
decreasing roof snow loads, see Fig. 1. Such a trend may be possible in dry, cold climate, if the
snowfall rate decreases and the melting devices are effective, despite cold temperatures. The
Scandinavian data could proof this tendency for up to 9 kN/m2. However, in the Alpine climates of
central and southern Europe with even larger snow loads, there is no known statistical basis for
such a trend. For very high snow loads negative values for Ct result, which is obviously wrong.

To avoid this effect, an upper value for the ground snow load can be derived, by finding the
maximum value of the roof snow load function by differentiation: (Ct so) / (so) = 0
Maximum for: 1 f( i) f(Uo) 0.054 (1/3.5)1/4 5/4 so1/4 = 0
1 = f( i) f(Uo) 0.04935 so1/4
giving: lim so = (1 / (0.04935 f( i) f(Uo)))4 = (20.263425 / (f( i) f(Uo)))4
Check: so lim so = (20.2634 / (f( i) f(Uo)))4

Example:
For max i = 18C (f(i) = 13 K) and max Uo = 4.177 W/(m2K) (f(Uo) = 1) the following limit as
the lowest possible value can be derived: lim so = (20.2634 / (13 1))4 = 5,903 kN/m2. Any other
condition leads to a higher limit load. Thus, the limit concerns only very large snow loads.

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The upper snow load lim so is associated with the lower limit for the thermal coefficient min Ct
= 0.2. Therefore, instead of comparing the snow load to the upper limit lim so, a lower limit for the
thermal coefficient could be introduced in the code:

Check: Ct min Ct = 0,2

However, using min Ct = 0.2 for the calculation together with larger snow loads than lim so would
also increase the roof snow loads further. That would only be realistic for increasing snowfall rates.

It might be more realistic to limit the reduced roof snow loads to an upper value based on min Ct
lim so, as in Germany with s1,t = 0.75 kN/m2 for heated sales greenhouses according to DINV
11535: 1998 (superseded). The Insurance data in Germany (characteristic ground snow loads
between 0,65 kN/m2 and 13,86 kN/m2 at A = 1500 m, SLZ 3) did not record any problems for
sales greenhouses with a roof snow load 0f 0.75 kN/m2, see green line in Fig. 1.

For the example here with max i = 18C and max Uo = 4.177 W/(m2K) the upper roof snow load
limit is: sb = 0.8 Ce min Ct lim so b = 0.94 kN/m2 for a typical greenhouse roof with 22 roof
angle (Ce = 1; b = 1). If a roof angle function according to Part III is used, an upper roof snow
load limit of sb = 0.876 kN/m2 results, which can be accepted for greenhouses in Germany.

Fig. 1: Reduced roof snow loads using Ct according to ISO 4355: 2013 without upper limit

The application of Ct needs to be given clear limits.

ISO 4355, Annex D should not be used without further insight for
characteristic ground snow loads larger than:
lim so = (20.2634 / (f( i) f(Uo)))4 related to: min Ct = 0.2

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2. Lower snow load limit for the application of Ct

In ISO 4355: 2013, Annex D, equation (D.2) and the text below, a lower limit for the ground snow
load is given. However, the following sentences are problematic:
s0 is the characteristic snow load on the ground (s0 1.5 kN/m2)
For significantly lower values of s0, especially in combination with low roof angles, Ct =
1 should apply.
Problem 1: Ct does not cover any roof angle influence any more, see Part III, it applies to snow
loads on horizontal roofs. The remark especially in combination with low roof angles, is
therefore not appropriate any more.
Problem 2: Because significantly lower is not specified, 1.5 kN/m2 (lowest characteristic snow
load in Norway, but not elsewhere [4]) will be taken as the lower limit. As a result, for smaller
snow loads, there will be no reduction of roof snow loads using Ct.

For example, take a heat conducting small flat roof with = 0, Ce = 1, b = 1, Uo = 4.177
W/(m2K) and = 18C. For min so = 1.5 kN/m2 equation (D.1) gives Ct = 0.432. The roof snow
loads will be as follows:

If s0 = 1.5 k/m2: with Ct = 0.432 roof snow load: s1,t = 0.8 0.432 1.5 = 0.52 kN/m2.
If s0 = 1.499 kN/m2: with Ct = 1 roof snow load: s1,t = 0.8 1 1.499 = 1.2 kN/m2.
The roof snow will suddenly increase up to 230%. This inconsistency is certainly not the
intention of the lower limit as given.

Possibilities to avoid this inconsistency are:

1. The load min s0 = 1.5 kN/m2 could be taken instead of the actual s0 in the same way as using
max i = 18C and max Uo = 4.5 W/(m2K) or 4.177 W/(m2K), see item 3, as upper limits
instead of the real values. The roof snow loads would remain constant, but depend on Uo and i.
2. Limits for the already reduced roof snow load (depending on the reliability of the roof snow
control and required robustness) may be given, see also ISO 4355: 2013, Annex F. Not
everyone might understand the Note in chapter 6.2 as a hint.

As a good example for the second possibility, Finland defines a characteristic minimum snow load
min sk (= min s0) = 0.5 kN/m2 for all cases, with and without taking Ct into account, see SFS-EN
1991-1-3/NA, chapter 5.2(8). However, this regulation is also somewhat confusing, because the
roof snow melts, not the ground snow. A little note might help to understand.

This is why the new Standards for greenhouses in Germany and the Netherlands define minimum
roof snow loads of min s1,n,t = 0.25 kN/m2 for commercial production greenhouses (DIN SPEC
18071 and NEN 3859) and min s1,t = 0.5 kN/m2 for sales greenhouses (DIN SPEC 18072). The
first value was chosen because of positive experiences (proven by insurance data) with the
superseded national greenhouse norm DINV 11535-1: 1998, which allowed roof snow loads of
0.25 kN/m2 in the entire country, as long as a strict heating regime was followed, see also Part III.
Additionally, 0.25 kN/m2 turned out to be a slide load limit for heated membrane roofs with about
25 slope [6]. The second value was chosen according to ISO 4355: 2013, Annex F based on a
maximum 24 h-snowfall event with a return period of over 100 years. For greenhouses in
Germany a 24-hour emergency service is guarantied, to repair any damages on the technical
equipment required for plant survival, especially the heating.

Minimum roof snow loads should be defined depending on the reliability of

the melting devices, the experience and the required robustness.

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3. Exact upper limit value for the thermal transmittance Uo

In ISO 4355: 2013, Annex D, equation (D.1) to (D.3) the thermal coefficient Ct is given together
with a number of limits. For the thermal transmittance Uo an upper limit value of 4.5 W/(m2K) has
to be taken, for which the sine-function reaches its maximum. However, the numerical value of 4.5
W/(m2K) is only an approximation of the mathematically exact limit. It is sufficiently exact for Ct-
values with up to one digit. For values with more than one digit, the following exact limit can be
derived:

Influence function of the thermal transmittance: f(Uo) = ( sin (0.4 Uo 0.1) )3/4
The sine-function reaches its maximum for: (0.4 Uo 0.1) 180/ = 90
0.4 Uo = /2 + 0.1
giving: max Uo = (5 + 1) / 4 = 4.1769908 W/(m2K)
Check: Uo max Uo = 4.177 W/(m2K)

For computer-based calculations of Ct the upper limit max Uo = 4.5 W/(m2K)

should be replaced by max Uo = (5 + 1) / 4 = 4.177 W/(m2K).

4. Lower limit value for the thermal transmittance Uo

The lower limit for the thermal transmittance is given in ISO 4355: 2013, Annex D, equation (D.2)
with min Uo = 1 W/(m2K). This seems to be an agreement based on experience, more than a
physical limit to the melting of roof snow.

The influence function of the thermal transmittance f(Uo) reaches its minimum for the minimum
value of the sine-function: sin (0.4 Uo 0.1) = 0, giving the purely theoretical lower limit value of
min Uo = 0.1 / 0.4 = 0.25 W/(m2K).
Note: Although snowmelt affects most roofs above buildings inhibited by people or livestock, ISO
4355, Annex D should not be used for roofs with a thermal transmittance lower than Uo = 1
W/(m2K) without further investigations.

5. Limiting values (range) for the internal air temperatures i

According to ISO 4355: 2013, Annex D, equation (D.2) the internal air temperature i can be taken
into account within the range min i = 5C < i max i = 18C. The lower limit, 5C internal air
temperature, provides reserves to reach melting conditions on the outside surface of the roof. The
upper limit of 18C however seems to be based on experience and the available data for roofs [1],
[2], [3], [5].
The upper limit of 18C is also appropriate as minimum air temperature for greenhouses during and
after snowfall events, because most of the plants tolerate 18C, at least for a short time.

However, this is no physical limit. The linear temperature influence f( i) = ( i 5C) is the most
important influence within the equation (D.1). From research on the melting of snow on membrane
structures [6], tents [7] and for under-floor snowmelt systems for walkways, roadways, bridge-
decks or runways [8], [9], it is known, that much higher temperatures can also be used, if they can
be tolerated and the fast removal of snow is necessary. For roofs it should also be kept in mind, that
snow removal by sliding is much faster than melting and therefore more economical [6].

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6. External air temperature
According to ISO 4355: 2013, Annex D the thermal coefficient Ct has to be increased by a factor of
1,2 (with Ct 1), if the monthly mean temperature for the coldest month of the year is below e = -
8C. Below the limit changes in the external air temperature do not affect Ct. For regions in
Europe, where snowfall events are restricted to days, not month, this condition applies to a shorter
time frame. The limit results from the model assumptions and the statistical data of design relevant
snowfall events in Scandinavia [1], [2], [3], [4].

7. Conclusion on thermal coefficient Ct and the limitations

Fig. 2 shows the thermal coefficient Ct according to ISO 4355: 2013, Annex D for a typical service
temperature of greenhouses of i = 18C. The roof angle influence is neglected.
The necessary limitations for large and for small snow loads are also shown. For large snow loads
the thermal coefficient should be limited to min Ct = 0.2. For small snow loads the required
robustness level for a possible interruption of the heating need to be considered. The effects of the
known and used levels for the lower roof snow limit are also shown: s1,n,t = 0.25 kN/m2; 0.5 kN/m2
and 0.75 kN/m2.

Fig. 2 Thermal coefficient Ct according to ISO 4355, Annex D for internal air temperature 18C
and different heat transmittances Uo and the required limitations

Literature, references:
[1] Sandvik, R.: Calculation of Maximum Snow Load on Roofs with High Thermal Transmittance. In:
Proceedings of the First International Conference on Snow Engineering Santa Barbara, USA, 1988, p.
317-324.

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[2] Dahlberg, M., Hanson, L., Lindh, T.: Snlast p Glastak. Examensarbete, Institut of Technology Lund,
Sweden, September 1988.

[3] Nielsen, A.: Snow-Melting and Snow Loads on Glass Roofs. In: Proceedings of the First International
Conference on Snow Engineering Santa Barbara, USA, 1988, p. 168-177.

[4] Melysund, V.: Prediction of local snow loads on roofs. Dissertation, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology NTNU Trondheim, 2010.

[5] Final Report of the Commission of the European Communities DG III-D3, Scientific Support Activity
in the Field of Structural Stability of Civil Engineering Works: Snow Loads, 1997, Chapter 4.8:
Reduction of snow load on glass roofs. p. 122-134.

[6] Otsuka, K., Homma, Y.: Removal of snow from membrane structures. In: Proceedings of the 2.
International Conference on Snow Engineering Santa Barbara, USA, 1992, p. 263-274.

[7] Kimbar, G.: Dynamics of snow melting on tents during possibility threatening precipitation. In:
Technical Transactions Civil Engineering 2-B/2015, p. 434-440.

[8] Hockersmith, S.L.: Experimental and computational investigation of snow melting on heated horizontal
surfaces. Oklahoma State University Stillwater, 2002.

[9] Aoki, K., Hattori, M., Ujiie, T.: Snow Melting by Heating from the Bottom Surface. In: JMSE
International Journal Series II, Vol. 31, No. 2, 1988, p. 269-275.

Relevant Codes:

ISO 4355: 2013-12-01: Bases for design of structures Determination of snow loads on roofs.

ISO 4355: 1998-12-01: Bases for design of structures Determination of snow loads on roofs.

NS 3479: 1990-10: Design of structures Design loads. (in Norwegian)

EN 1991-1-3: 2003 + AC 2009: Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1-3: General actions Snow loads.

Finland: Annex 4: National Annex to SFS-EN 1991-1-3: 2003: Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1-3:
General actions Snow loads.

DINV 11535-1: 1998-02: Gewchshuser, Teil 1: Ausfhrung und Berechnung. (in German)

EN 13031-1: December 2001: Greenhouses: design and construction Part 1: Commercial production
greenhouses.

NEN 3859: September 2012: Tuinbouwkassen: Ontwerp en constructive Tuinbouwkassen voor de

commercielle productie van planten en gewassen. (in Dutch)

DIN SPEC 18071: March 2014: Commercial production greenhouses (in German and English).

DIN SPEC 18072: March 2014: Sales Greenhouses (in German and English).

Authors:
Dr.-Ing. Ina Pertermann & Members of CEN/TC 284 Greenhouses
Prof. Dr.-Ing Ram Puthli Chairman DIN NA 005-08-25 Greenhouses
Holunderweg 13 E-Mail: info@puthli.de
D-48465 Schttorf
Germany
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