Modern Physics

Modern Physics
Dr. Hong-Yi Chen

09/14/2017
National Taiwan Normal University

Department of Physics
88 TING-CHOU RD. SEC. 4, TAIPEI 116, TAIWAN
11
Relativity
1. Relativity I
1-1 The Experimental Basis of Relativity
1-2 Einstein's Postulates
1-3 Lorentz Transformation
1-4 Time Dilation and Length Contraction
1-5 Doppler Effect
2. Relativity II
2-1 Relativistic Momentum
2-2 Relativistic Energy
2-3 Mass/ Energy Conversion and Binding Energy
2-4 Invariant Mass
Quantum Theory
3. Quantization of Charge, Light, and Energy
3-1 Quantization of Electric Charge
3-2 Blackbody Radiation
3-3 The Photoelectric Effect
3-4 X rays and The Compton Effect
Appendix Math background (Legendre Transformation)
4. The Nuclear Atom
4-1 Atomic Spectra
4-2 Rutherford's Nuclear Model
4-3 The Bohr Model of The Hydrogen Atom
4-4 X-ray Spectra
4-5 The Franck-Hertz Experiment
5. The Wavelike Properties of Particles
5-1 The de Broglie Hypothesis
5-2 Measurements of Particle Wavelengths
5-3 Wave Packets
5-4 The Probabilistic Interpretation of the Wave Function
5-5 The Uncertainty Principle
5-6 Some Consequences of The Uncertainty Principle
Schrodinger Equation
6. The Schrodinger Equation
6-1 The Schrdinger Equation in One Dimension
6-2 The Infinite Square Well
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6-3 Superposition Principle
6-4 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator
6-5 The Finite Square Well
6-6 Reflection and Transmission of Waves
7. Atomic Physics
7-1 The Schrdinger Equation in Two or Three Dimension
7-2 The Hydrogen Atom Wave Functions
7-3 Quantization of Angular Momentum and Energy in the Hydrogen Atom
7-4 Electron Spin
7-5 Total Angular Momentum and the Spin-Orbit Effect
7-6 The Schrdinger Equation for Two (or More) Particles
7-7 Ground States of Atoms: The Periodic Table
7-8 Excited States and Spectra
Statistical Physics
8. Statistics Physics
8-1 Classical Statistics: A Review
8-2 Quantum Statistics
8-3 The Bose-Einstein Condensation
8-4 An Application of Bose-Einstein Statistics
8-5 Properties of a Fermion Gas
Appendix Math background (Lagrange Multipliers)
Application of Quantum Mechanics

9. Molecular Structure & Spectra
9-1 The Ionic Bond
9-2 The Covalent Bond
9-3 van der Waals Force
9-4 Energy Levels and Spectral of Diatomic Molecules
9-5 Scattering, Absorption, and Stimulated Emission
9-6 Lasers and Masers
10. Solid State Physics
10-1 The Structure of Solids
10-2 Free Particle Theory
10-3 Thermal Properties
10-4 Electronic Conduction
10-5 Band Theory of Solids
10-6 Semiconductors
10-7 Quantum Hall Effect
10-8 Superconductivity
10-9 Magnetism
11. Nuclear Physics
13
11. Nuclear Physics
11-1 The Composition of the Nucleus
11-2 Radioactivity
11-3 Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay
11-4 The Nuclear Force
11-5 The Shell Model
11-6 Applications
12. Particle Physics
12-1 Basic Concepts
12-2 Fundamental Interactions and the Force Carriers
12-3 Conservation Laws and Symmetries
12-4 Beyond the Standard Model
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Preface & Bibliography
1. Paul A. Tipler & Ralph A. Llewellyn, Modern Physics (W. H. Freeman and
Company).
2. Robert Eisberg & Robert Resnick, Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules,

Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (John Wiley & Sons).
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1-1 The Experimental Basis of Relativity
Tuesday, December 20, 2011
8:30 PM
A. CLASSICAL RELATIVITY
(1) Inertia reference frame:

Galileo: A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at a constant speed unless
disturbed.
(2) Newton's first law: Everybody persists in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight
forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by force impressed.
1. If an object does not interact with other objects, it is possible to identify a reference frame in
which the object has zero acceleration.
2. The first law of motion postulates the existence of at least one frame of reference called an
inertial reference frame, relative to which the motion of a particle not subject to forces is a
straight line at a constant speed.
3. Newton's laws are valid only in an inertial reference frame. Any reference frame that is in uniform
motion with respect to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame, i.e. Galilean invariance or the
principle of Newtonian relativity.
OS:
Newton's first law define the inertial frame in the situation where there is no force. The principle
of the relativity is the transformation between two inertial frames.
(3) Galilean transformation:
The law of physics (equation of motion) is the same in all inertial reference of frames under Galilean
transformation.
B. SPEED OF LIGHT
(1) James Clerk Maxwells equations

1. Integral form: in vacuum
16
charge free space
Gauss's theorem
2. differential form
vector formula
wave equation
Light is an electromagnetic wave. The medium for propagation of the light was called ether in
19th century.
(2) Maxwell's equations are not invariant under Galilean transformation.

1. Consider an infinity long wire carrying uniform charge
in frame
17
in frame
2. Put a test charge at . The Lorentz force is

in frame
in frame
THE MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT
(1) Michelson interferometer:

1. Experimental setup
The shift in the ineterference pattern

along
along (rotate )
18
Path difference
Phase difference
EXAMPLES:
Width of fringe is detectable
(2) Experimental results:

The interference pattern was not changed after rotation.
Conclusion: The speed of light is the same in all inertial frame. The Galilean transformation cannot apply
to the Maxwells equations.
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1-2 Einstein's Postulates
8:30 PM
A. EINSTEIN'S POSTULATES
(1) Einstein's postulates in special relativity

The law of physics is the same in all inertial reference of frames.
The speed of light is equal to the value c (in vacuum) independent of the motion of the light source.
(2) Time dilation
Relative to the measurement, the observer A' is in a rest frame ( ) and the observer A is in a moving
frame ( )
rom
rom
where is called proper time, which is measured by , i.e., during the measurement, is at rest
with respect to the event.
OS:
An event is described by the spacetime coordinate.
B. RELATIVITY OF SIMULTANEITY
Two spatially separated events in one reference frame are not, in general, simultaneous in another
inertial frame moving relative to the first train.
All clocks are synchronized by light in any inertial frame. Clocks synchronized in one reference of frame
are not, in general, synchronized in another inertial frame moving relative to the first train.
OS:
In the rest frame, two events can be measured at the same time. In the moving frame, two events
are not measured at the same time because of the time dilation.
The breakdown of the simultaneity is related to the events, not the equation of motion.
Therefore, the first postulate is valid.
1 10
1-3 Lorentz Transformation
8:30 PM
A. LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION
(1) Galilean transformation
(2) Lorentz transformation
The path of light in and frame
Substituting equations
Compare term
Compare term
(3) Therefore
(4) Maxwell's equations are invariant under Lorentz transformation

PROOF:
From wave equation:
In one-dimension
1 11
Similarly
Therefore
(5) 4-vector
Galilean transformation: in four dimensional coordinates
Lorentz transformation: in four dimensional coordinates
OS:
The matrix of Galilean transformation is not symmetry.
B. RELATIVISTIC VELOCITY TRANSFORMATIONS
1 12
EXAMPLES:
1. The relative speed of 2 with respect to 1
2. The relative speed of 1 with respect to 2
(1) Spacetime diagram (Minkowski diagram)
An event is described by called spacetime coordinates.

Events A and B are simultaneity.
Events A and D are at the same place.
(2) Diagram for two inertial frame and
1 13
1 14
1-4 Time Dilation and Length Contraction
8:30 PM
A. TIME DILATION
proper time in frame

From inverse Lorentz transformation
Since
The observer in (relative to the events are at rest) measured a longer time interval between two
events than the observer in .
B. LENGTH CONTRACTION
proper length in frame

From Lorentz transformation
Since
C. MUON DECAY
The speed of particle in the cosmic ray is

The decay time (proper time)
The travel distance (proper length)
Usually, muon comes from at above the sea level. Why we can still detect it?
The decay time at earth is
D. THE SPACETIME INTERVAL
is invariant under a Lorentz transformation
(1) World line
1 15
1. Lightlike interval
2. Timelike interval
3. Realistic particles
Spacelike interval
(2) Causality:
B is A's future in frame
B is A's future in frame
C is A's future in frame
C is A's past in frame
Timelike interval remain the causality. Spacelike interval violates the causality.
(3) Spacetime interval invariant

1. Time dilation:
2. Length contraction:
1 16
1 17
1-5 Doppler Effect
8:30 PM
(1) Classical Doppler effect
: observer
: source
(2) Logitudinal relativistic Doppler effect
Source approaches observer
Consider time dilation:
If
Source recedes observer
1 18
(3) Transverse Doppler effect
EXAMPLES:
EM Radiation Source
PROOF:
1 19
2-1 Relativistic Momentum
8:30 PM
A. ERNST MACH PRINCIPLE (1893)
Mass is an expression of relative motion of bodies
EXAMPLES:
Collision between two particles
Conservation of momentum
OS:
Mach's principle essentially states that the inertial effects of mass are not an innate
property of the body. The conservation of momentum is more essential of the system.
B. RELATIVISTIC MASS
(1) Ball A is at rest in frame and ball B is at rest in frame.
(2) Elastic collision of two identical particles

In Frame,
For ball A (magnitude only):
For Ball B (magnitude only):
(3) The conservation of y-component of the momentum
where
2 20
where
As , i.e., and ,
where is the mass measured at the rest frame.
(4) Observer in measures the mass of ball B, moving relative to him/her at speed is
OS:
Instead of introducing , it is better to mention the expression for the momentum and energy of
a body in motion.
(5) The definition of relativistic momentum
2 21
2-2 Relativistic Energy
8:30 PM
A. RELATIVISTIC ENERGY
(1) Newton's second law
Work-energy theorem: Kinetic energy as the work done by a net force in accelerating a particle from
rest to velocity
The relativistic energy
(2) For a particle at rest relative to an observer,
B. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
(1) Inelastic collision of two identical particles
(2) In the frame
2 22
(2) In the frame
In frame:
Before collision
After collision
Conservation of energy
(3) In frame:
Before collision
After collision
The energy is conserved in frame.
C. LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION OF AND
In frame:
In frame:
Using
2 23
Energy-momentum 4-vector
Summary
2 24
2-3 Mass/ Energy Conversion and Binding Energy
8:30 PM
A. MASS ENERGY CONVERSION
(1) Inelastic collision of two identical particles
(2) In the frame (Lab frame)

The initial momentum
The final momentum
Conservation of momentum
2 25
(3) The kinetic energy converts to the rest mass
OS:
The mass measured in a moving frame is larger than the one in a rest frame.
B. BINDING ENERGY
(1) Binding energy (absorb energy)

The difference in the rest mass energies of the separate objects from the combined system.
EXAMPLES:
(2) Reaction energy (release energy)
EXAMPLES:
2 26
2-4 Invariant Mass
8:30 PM
A. CONSERVATION
(1) Symmetry
Invariance: something does not change under a set of transformations.
EXAMPLES:
1. Euclidean space (3D)
Metric is invariant under Galilean transformation.
2. Minkowski space (4D)
From space-time 4-vector
Metric is invariant under Lorentz transformation.
From energy-momentum 4-vector
Metric is invariant under Lorentz transformation.
Symmetry is a type of invariance.
EXAMPLES:
1. Reflection symmetry:
The Coulomb potential
is invariant under coordinate inversion.
(2) Conservation
Emmy Noether's theorem (1918): For every continuous symmetry, there are corresponding quantities
whose values are conserved.
EXAMPLES:
1. Translation symmetry
The potential is translational invariant conservation of momentum

2. Rotation symmetry
The potential is rotational invariant conservation of angular momentum

3. Time symmetry
The potential is time invariant conservation of energy

OS:
Invariance
Symmetry
Conservation
EXAMPLES:
Considering an atom composites two identical moving particles
1. In frame (center-of-mass)
2 27
1. In frame (center-of-mass)
The rest mass of each particle is .
Total momentum:
Total energy:
The rest mass of the atom is
2. In frame (Lab frame)
Total momentum:
Total energy:
The rest mass of the atom is
OS:
The rest energy is invariant under Lorentz transformation.
B. MASSLESS PARTICLE
Travel with the speed of light, i.e., lightlike:
C. CREATION AND ANNIHILATION OF PARTICLES
(1) Annihilation:
conservation of energy:
Experiments:
2 28
Experiments:
The pair must have
(2) Creation:
(direct pair production)
conservation of energy:
conservation of momentum:
The directly produces the pair production is impossible. The pair production needs other particles
nearby and
(3) Consider a beam of ray passing nearby an electron
Total energy and momentum:
In frame (move with speed of relative to )
the three electrons are at rest, i.e. the total rest energy is , which is invariant in frame.
Threshold energy of ray
2 29
For threshold condition:
D. ELECTRON IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
If , then
EXAMPLES:
For an electron,
If , then
2 30
Exercise
8:30 PM
(1) A continuously emitted electromagnetic wave reflected back from a mirror with speed .
What is the reflected frequency?
ANSWER:
If , we assume , what is the beat frequency?

ANSWER:
If beat frequency measurement is accurate to , how accurate is the measured?

ANSWER:
(2) An unstable particle having a mass of is initially at rest. The particle decays into two
fragments that fly off with velocity of and . Find the rest masses of the fragments?
ANSWER:
Conservation of energy in CM frame
Conservation of momentum in CM frame
2 31
3-1 Quantization of Electric Charge
8:30 PM
A. DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON: J.J. THOMSON'S EXPERIMENT (1896)
(1) Measurement of : uniform magnetic field
(2) Measurement of : cathod ray tube (CRT)
As electron pass the selector
Discover the electron
B. MEASUREMENT OF THE ELECTRIC CHARGE: ROBERT ANDREWS MILLIKAN'S EXPERIMENT
3 32
(1)
As the drop reach the terminal velocity,
from Stoke's law , where is viscosity
(2)
However, it is very difficult to work out. In practice, turn up to rise the oil drop to reach a new
terminal velocity
Let
3 33
3-2 Blackbody Radiation
8:30 PM
Blackbody: An ideal system that absorbs all radiation incident on it.
A. HISTORY
(1) Kirchhoff (1860) considered the radiation inside a closed cavity possessing some particular temperature
and proposed that the radiation spectrum of heated bodies depends only on their temperature.
(2) Maxwell's equations (1865): Light is an electromagnetic (EM) wave
(3) Radiation pressure

A single EM wave striking the wall at an angle transfers a momentum to the wall
The total number of such EM waves striking an area of the wall in time is
The total momentum is

The radiation pressure is
where the energy density
OS:
(4) Emissive power (radiation intensity between and )
The energy of radiation from the surface with frequency is
3 34
(5) Stefan's empirical law (1879)
where is the radiation intensity (emission power)

DERIVATION: (Boltzmann, 1884)
From 1st law of thermodynamic
From Helmholtz free energy
The internal energy density (depends only on the temperature) is
The radiation pressure is
Then
(6) W. Wien's displacement law (1893): Adiabatic expansion (very slow) of a box of light
(7) W. Wien (1895) proposed the cavity radiation to investigate the spectrum of radiation
Number of modes of standing waves

The wave equation:
The plane wave solution:
3 35
Then
et
Density of states : The number of modes per unit volume between and
where results from the polarization and is due to that must be positive.
Alternative method:
Calculate the number of modes with a given frequency
The number of modes per unit volume between and
(8) Wien distribution (1896):
OS:
In adiabatic expansion, the energy of light changes in exactly the same way as the frequency, i.e.
From the displacement law, we have
ssume olt mann a tor
where is a constant
Wien assumed that each mode has the energy
3 36
Wien displacement law:
(9) Experimental results of blackbody radiation
OS:
It was later found that the experimental data don't follow Wien's empirical relation at larger
wavelength.
B. RAYLEIGH-JEANS EQUATION
(1) Energy density
Thermodynamic value of the total energy, i.e. the expected value of ensemble average of the energy
Assumed that each mode has the energy (equipartition theorem)
3 37
C. PLANCK LAW
(1) Planck's law
Ensemble average
Planck assumed
where
(2) Stefan's law
Let
3 38
(3) Wien's displacement law
Let
Transcendental equation
(4) Wien's distribution (short wavelength approximation)
(5) Rayleigh-Jeans formula (long wavelength approximation)
3 39
3-3 The Photoelectric Effect
8:30 PM
A. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Experimental results (Heinrich Rudolf Hertz 1887)
The photoelectrons can be released, if

The current if
The stopping potential independent on the intensity of light, but depend on , if
No time lag ( ) if
B. EINSTEIN INTERPRETATION (1905)
(1) Light energy consisted of discrete quanta, called photon
OS:
The photon theory raises a question that light behaves as a wave and a particle.
(2) Maximum kinetic energy and stopping potential
where is work function of metal

The minimum, or threshold, frequency:
PREDICTION:
increases with increasing frequency of incident light.
(3) The phenomenon was experimentally proved by Robert Andrews Millikan (1914)
3 40
3-4 X rays and The Compton Effect
8:22 PM
A. X RAYS DIFFRACTION (WAVE-LIKE)
(1) X ray tube

Wilhelm K. Roentgen (1895)
(2) Laue experiment (1912)
The regular array of atoms in the crystal acts as a 3D grating
(3) Bragg law (1912)
Constructive interference:
OS:
Bragg planes
B. COMPTON EFFECT (PARTICLE-LIKE)
Arthur Compton consider a scattering between X ray and electrons in the material
(1) In classical picture
3 41
(1) In classical picture
Incident light wave Oscillating electron Emitted light wave
The wavelength of the scattered radiation is unchanged.
(2) In quantum picture (billiard ball collision)
1. Conservation of momentum
2. Conservation of energy
3. The relativistic energy
where Com ton wa elen th o the ele tron
(3) Experimental results

X-ray source
Collimator Crystal
(selects angle) (selects
wavelength)

Target
Peak in scattered radiation shifts to longer wavelength than source. The amount of shift depends on
(but not on the target material).
3 42
Right peak: incident X-ray is scattered by the electron.
Left peak: incident X-ray is scattered by the whole atom whose mass is quite large, so that the
wavelength is not varied.
(4) Limitation on measurement

Since measurement of the coordinates of a particle is possible only with a precision of the order of the
wavelength of the light that is illuminating it, it is clear that the position of a specific particle may be
determined only with an accuracy of the order of the Compton wavelength of the particle. The
Compton wavelength of a particle is equivalent to the wavelength of a photon whose energy is the
same as the rest-mass energy of the particle.
EXAMPLES:
The photon energy with Compton wavelength of the electron is
which is equivalent to the rest energy of the electron.
3 43
Appendix Math Background
8:22 PM
A. LEGENDRE TRANSFORMATION
(1) Consider a function of two independent variables, . Its differential is
Defining
The equation becomes
We call and a conjugate pair of variables, and likewise and .
(2) Proceeding, use the product rule (or equivalently, integration by parts) to compute the differential
gets
Let
Since we are taking differentials of and , we can take those two quantities as the independent
variables of the new function, .
(3) To summarize, we have done a Legendre transformation from an original function to a new
function by switching from variable to its conjugate variable . We see therefore that for
two variables, there are 4 possible variants on the function.
B. RIEMANN ZETA FUNCTION
(1) Dirichlet series
When the real part of is greater than 1, the Dirichlet series converges and its sum is the Riemann zeta
function .
EXAMPLES:
(2) Zeta function regularization
The identity continues to hold when both functions are extended by analytic
continuation to include values of for which the above series diverge.
Substituting
Riemann zeta function can be defined for other values of by analytic continuation.
(3) Riemann zeta function
3 44
(3) Riemann zeta function
where is the gamma function
EXAMPLES:
1.
This is useful in certain contexts such as string theory
2.
This is useful in certain contexts such as string theory
3.
This is employed in calculating of kinetic boundary layer problems of linear kinetic equations.
4.
5.
This is employed in calculating the critical temperature for a Bose-Einstein condensate in a box
with periodic boundary conditions, and for spin wave physics in magnetic systems.
6.
The demonstration of this equality is known as the Basel problem. The reciprocal of this sum
answers the question: What is the probability that two numbers selected at random
are relatively prime?
7.
8. This number is called Apry's constant.
9.
This appears when integrating Planck's law to derive the Stefan-Boltzmann law in physics.
3 45
4-1 Atomic Spectra
8:30 PM
A. SPECTRA
OS:
Johann Balmer's empirical formula of spectral lines of hydrogen
B. RYDBERG-RITZ FORMULA
where is called Rydberg constant

For hydrogen:
For heavy element:
OS:
In cold atom, a Rydberg atom is the size of , corresponding to a package of about
100 atoms.
4 46
4-2 Rutherford's Nuclear Model
8:30 PM
A. J.J. THOMSON MODEL
(1) Electrons uniformly distributed in the positive charge background within an atom with
(2) Maximum scattering angle from single atom
maximum momentum change of the particle (head-on collision: elastic scattering)
OS:
Very small angle scattering
(3) Multiple scattering of electrons

If an particle is scattered by atoms and the direction of each individual scattering must be
random,
OS:
Still small angle scattering
B. PARTICLE SCATTERING
(1) Geiger and Marsden's experiment
4 47
(1) Geiger and Marsden's experiment

For particles
1. Agreed with Thomson's model:
Most particles are either undeflected or deflected through
2. Disagreed with Thomson's model:
Probability of scattered particles deflected through is
Backscattering
C. RUTHERFORD SCATTERING THOERY
(1) The incident particles passing through the circle area actually end up entirely outside the solid angle
.
If a particle enters in an infinitesimal area then it will be s attere into a soli an le .
4 48
The factor that relates the area to the solid angle is called the differential cross-section:
OS:
In principle the scattering angle can of course also depend on the azimuthal angle . However,
most scattering potentials are symmetric, so that we can usually integrate over , as shown in
the figure below.
A particle arrives with an impact parameter between and , it will be scattered with an angle
between
OS:
The number of particles found in between the deflection angles and can be expressed
by the area of the grey cross section, and the number is called the cross section.
is related to the probability that incident particles inside the circle area will be scattered at
angle larger than
is the probability that incident particles inside the area will be scattered at angle
between and .
(1) Relation between and
4 49
The radial force equation
Alternative method:
Particle moves in a central-force field and use Lagrange equation
an ular momentum is onser e
(2) Trajectory equation for central force

OS:
central force field conservation of angular momentum
Conservation of angular momentum:
4 50
Therefore the radial force equation becomes
called Binet equation
OS:
A central force given the shape of the orbital motion in terms of and
(3) Classical Coulomb scattering
As
et
1. Before scattering
2. After scattering an
(4) Rutherford scattering Formula

Differential cross section
4 51
(5) The number of scattered alpha particles
The solid angle for small detectors openings is defined as
(6) Fraction of scattered particles at angle larger than

Estimate:
Differential cross section:
4 52
D. NUCLEAR ATOM
Rutherford proposed that an atom has a positively charged core (nucleus) surrounded by the negative
electrons.
The positive charge is concentrated in a nucleus with a radius much smaller than .
he si e o the nu leus
4 53
4-3 The Bohr Model of The Hydrogen Atom
8:30 PM
A. BOHR MODEL
(1) Electric field lines of a charge in uniform motion
Radiation from moving charged particle under linear acceleration

Larmor's formula ( )
The power per solid angle is
where is the angle between and
(2) Energy loss for an electron in a circular motion per revolution
4 54
(3) The problem of Rutherford's model of an atom
In the planetary model of an atom, the electron should continuously emit energy and spirally fail on the
nucleus.
(4) Bohr postulates (1913)

Electron moving in a stationary state would not radiate
The stationary states have quantized angular momentum
where the Bohr's radius is
The quantization of energy in the Bohr's model
where is called quantum number
4 55
where is called quantum number
(5) Energy-level diagram:

Allowed energies of the stationary states
OS:
According to Bohr's model only certain orbits were allowed which means only certain energies are
possible.
(6) Energy level and line spectrum

The electron will radiate only if it transit from
Balmer series
4 56
Balmer series
OS:
In classical theory, the electron will radiate while it is accelerated.
In Rutherford's model, the spectrum is continuous.
In Bohr's model, the spectrum is discrete.
(7) Bohr's prediction: Rydberg constant
For hydrogen atom
OS:
Experiments:
B. REDUCED MASS CORRECTION
When two bodies are moving in translational, rotational or vibrational motion only under their mutual
interaction, then for simplified analysis, we can consider one body at rest and analyze the motion of
other body w.r.t. first body and change the inertial mass of moving body to a new value called reduced
mass given as.
Reduced mass
OS:
A Hamiltonian description of the two-body problem gives
Let the centre of mass coincide with the origin in this reference frame
Then substituting above gives a new Hamiltonian
4 57
C. CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE
(1) In the limits where classical and quantum theories should agree, the quantum theory must reduce to
the classical result.
EXAMPLES:
The frequency of the radiation emitted is equal to the orbital frequency of the
electron around the nucleus.
1. Classical:
2. Bohr's theory:
For large
D. FINE STRUCTURE
(1) Fine structure of the hydrogen spectral lines (Balmer series)
4 58
(1)
Viewed with high resolution, the spectral line consists of very closely spaced lines.
(2) Sommerfeld model

From classical mechanics, Sommerfeld proposed the quantization of the action:
(3) Circular orbital (simple harmonic motion)
et
4 59
OS:
Planck proposed the quantization of the energy.
Bohr proposed the quantization of the angular momentum which deduces the quantization of the
energy. In a circular motion, . The quantization of the action is equal to
the quantization of the angular momentum.
(4) Elliptical orbital
1.
2.
e enerate states
OS:
Degenerate states: two or more different quantum states are at the same energy level.
As , there are two degenerate states
(5) Fine structure splitting: the elliptical orbit and special relativity
ine stru ture onstant

Sommerfeld predict: fine structure splitting
For
4 60
4-3 Supplement - Our Changing View of Atom
8:30 PM
A. CLASSICAL ERA
(1) John Dalton (1803)
Billiard ball model: the smallest indivisible particle
(2) J. J. Thomson (1897)
Plum pudding model: negative electrons are embedded in a sea of positive charge
(3) Ernest Rutherford (1911)
Planetary atom model: positive charge is located within a central nucleus
B. QUANTUM ERA
(1) Neil's Bohr (1913)
Atomic orbital model: electrons are in circular orbits with quantized energy levels
(2) Modern Model (1926)
Quantum mechanics model: electrons occupy regions of space whose shape is described by complex
mathematical equations
4 61
4-4 X-ray Spectra
8:30 PM
A. BOHR-RUTHERFORD PICTURE
(1) X-ray spectra

X-rays are emitted when a target of heavy metal atoms is bombarded by energetic electrons
characteristic spectrum
(discontinuous spectrum)
continuous spectrum
(bremsstrahlung = stop)
OS:
The Bremmstrahlung has a short wavelength cut-off determined by the energy of the electrons,
independent of the target material.
The peaks are caused by the removal of an electron from an inner shell and higher energy
electrons making a transition to the inner shell by emitting an X-ray photon.
B. MOSELEY PLOT (1913)
(1) The empirical equation
4 62
(2) For the series, whose electrons are close to nucleus
Consider an -electron about to make a transition to the -shell which now only has one
electron left
electron "sees" a net charge of
Therefore,
Bohr theory for a transition between and levels
Replace by for -shell
where is Rydberg constant
EXAMPLES:
2) o Mo (Molybden Z )
EXP.:
THE.:
OS:
Provided a reasonably complete experimental set of data that supported the conception of
atomic orbital model.
Bohr's theory works well for -lines, and does not work well for -lines and higher values of
C. AUGER ELECTRONS (1922)
An incident electron creates a core hole in the level. An electron from the level fills in the hole
and the transition energy is imparted to a electron which is emitted. The final atomic state thus has
two holes, one in the orbital and the other in the orbital.
4 63
4 64
4-5 The Franck-Hertz Experiment
8:30 PM
A. FRANCK-HERTZ EXPERIMENTS
Direct measurement Bohr's hypothesis of energy quantization in atoms
(1) Sketch of Franck-Hertz apparatus (1914)
(2) Data for mercury
OS:
The electrons lost discrete amounts of energy.
(3) Theory
1. Elastic collision: The electrons will not lose energy on colliding with mercury. As the accelerating
potential increases, the current also increases.
4 65
2. Inelastic collision: As the accelerating potential reaches (each electron posses ),
the energy level of electron bound to the atom is raised.
The electron almost loses its energy, and measured current drops.
Drops in the collected current occur at multiples of 4.9 volts since an accelerated electron which has 4.9
eV of energy removed in a collision can be re-accelerated to produce other such collisions at multiples
of 4.9 volts.
OS:
The experimental results confirm the existence of discrete energy levels, i.e., the existence of
stationary states.
B. ELECTRON ENERGY LOSS SPECTROSCOPY
4 66
5-1 The de Broglie Hypothesis
8:30 PM
(1) For photons
(2) Louis-Victor de Broglie (1924)

proposed the matter wave with , when a particle has momentum
OS:
The wave corresponds to the physical motion of a localized particle
hypothesis: all matter has a wave-like nature.
EXAMPLES:
The wave length of a neutron at
(3) The Product of Planck's constant
5 67
5-2 Measurements of Particle Wavelengths
8:30 PM
A. DAVISSON-GERMER EXPERIMENT (1927)
(1) Low energy electron diffraction (LEED)
Face centered cubic (f.c.c.)
OS:
Being used to study the surface structure of the crystal

1. Diffraction maximum occur at
2. Bragg law: Constructive interference
Let
OS:
is determined by the crystal structure.
5 68
is determined by the crystal structure.
3. de Broglie wavelength
OS:
Exhibit the existence of the matter wave of the electron
The dependence of diffraction on the inner atomic layer
After 6th order, the scattered intensity is too small to be detected, LEED can only probe the few layers
of the crystal.
AN EASY WAY TO DETERMINE DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTHS
(1) Low energy:
(2) High energy:
5 69
(3) Compare the Compton wavelength and de Broglie wavelength of the electron
OS:
The de Broglie wavelength of a particle at rest is infinite. Highly nonrelativistical particles can
show wave properties over scales much larger than their Compton wavelength. As the de Broglie
wavelength becomes shorter than the Compton wavelength, relativistic effects become very
important.
EXAMPLES:
Cosmic ray proton:
Rest energy:
5 70
5-3 Wave Packets
8:30 PM
A. WAVE PACKET
(1) Wave function

1. Electromagnetic wave
A plane wave solution:
2. Matter wave
A plane wave solution:
(2) Wave packet
The superposition of a group of plane waves of slightly different phases
Phase velocity: velocity of a single wave
Group velocity: average velocity of a wave packet
5 71
Group velocity: average velocity of a wave packet
Let
The Taylor expansion of a very narrow spread in and
Let
where and
B. PARTICLE WAVE PACKETS
(1) EXAMPLES:
1. Nonrelativistic free particle
5 72
2. relativistic free particle
(2) Bohr's complementary principle

All properties of physical entities exist only in pairs, wave and particle.
It is impossible to view both properties that appear to be contradictory, at the same time despite their
simultaneous coexistence in reality.
5 73
5-4 The Probabilistic Interpretation of the Wave Function
8:30 PM
(1) Dispersion relation

A single plane wave or a linear combination of plane waves represent a free particle.
1. Wave-like: plane wave
2. Particle-like: free particle
Contradictory: is proportional to in plane wave. On contrast, is proportional to in free particle.

OS:
A function satisfied the wave equation can only represent the wave. A function satisfied the
Newton's equation can only represent the particle.
(2) Erwin Schrdinger (1926)

1. Free particle in one dimension
Particle moving in a potential
In general
OS:
The Schrdinger equation details the behavior of but says nothing of its nature. Schrdinger
tried to interpret it as a charge density in his paper, but he was unsuccessful.
(3) Max Born (1926)

interpreted as the probability amplitude, whose absolute square is equal to probability density
Probability density
The probability of finding a particle at position and time .

Probability amplitude
Normalization condition
5 74
Dirac bra-ket notation
Double slit experiment
The measurement displays a statistical distribution of locations that appears wavelike. The distribution
is related to the particle's wavelength and diffraction pattern. Since A particle's trajectory and
destination cannot be precisely predicted for each particle individually, there is a certain probability of
finding the particle at a given location, and the overall pattern is called a probability distribution.
OS:
The manifestations of wave-like behavior are statistical in nature and always emerge from the
collective outcome of many electron events. In the present experiment nothing wave-like is
discernible in the arrival of single electrons at the observation plane. It is only after the arrival of
perhaps tens of thousands of electrons that a pattern interpretable as wave-like interference
emerges.
5 75
5-5 The Uncertainty Principle
8:30 PM
A. MATRIX MECHANICS (Werner K. Heisenberg, 1925)
(1) The transition radiation

The power in electromagnetism:
For the simple harmonic motion
The intensity of the radiation is related to the orbit of the electrons.
(2) Heisenberg: For an atom, the measurable line spectrum is important rather than the unobservable orbit
of the electron. The transition radiation between two stationary states and .
where
and is the measurable quantity (observable)
(3) Determine
EXAMPLES:
The partial energy levels of a hydrogen atom
OS:
Assumption: are the probability amplitudes for the transition between state and .
Similarly,
(4) Written in a table
Similarly,
Given two matrices and describing two physical quantities,
5 76
, two matrices do not commute.
In matrix form:
(5) In classical mechanics:

Given two variables position and momentum
, two variables commute to each other, i.e., .
OS:
If you measure two observables simultaneously, the state of the system should collapse to a
common eigenvector of the two observables. Since most matrices don't have any eigenvectors in
common, most observables can never be measured precisely at the same time. If two matrices
share their eigenvectors, they can be simultaneously diagonalized. It is clear that their product
does not depend on their order. Two matrices and commute. The Uncertainty Principle then
is a consequence of the fact that two matrices and do not always commute.
B. UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE (Werner K. Heisenberg, 1927)
(1) Observer effect

The observer effect says that when you try to observe (watch) something, you will always change
something about it, even if you do not want to. That means that your measurement will never be
exactly right. The observer effect only happens when you observe something in order to measure it.
1. Single slit diffraction
2. Heisenberg gamma ray microscope
According to Rayleigh criterion (spatial resolution)
5 77
According to Compton scattering, the momentum change of the electron in direction
It is impossible to measure accurately both the position and the momentum of a particle at the same
time.
OS:
If we increase the precision in measuring one quantity, we are forced to lose precision in
measuring the other.
(2) Gaussian wave packet
5 78
It is impossible to arbitrarily concentrate both a function and its Fourier transform (without observer
effect).
OS:
The uncertainty principle is inherent in the properties of all wave-like systems, and that it arises in
quantum mechanics simply due to the matter wave nature of all quantum objects. Thus, the
uncertainty principle actually states a fundamental property of quantum systems, and is not a
statement about the observational success of current technology. It must be emphasized
that measurement does not mean only a process in which a physicist-observer takes part, but
rather any interaction between classical and quantum objects regardless of any observer.
(3) In quantum mechanics, particles cannot have arbitrarily precise position and momentum, regardless of
whether they are measured or not.
OS:
Obviously it makes no sense to say something like 'the particle is there' as we are not able to see
it, but particles have well defined states which can be detected, that's why we can say that a
particle is in a state. Even if we cannot imagine a behavior like that it fortunately doesn't mean
that we are unable to calculate it.
C. CONJUGATE OBSERVABLES
This supplement material would try to explain why in the uncertainty principle, the observables come in
pairs (conjugate) and not arbitrary chosen.
(1) Lagrange equation

For a system with configuration space of dimension , the Lagrange equations are a set of uncoupled
2nd-order differential equations.
When we take variations (least action), and are considered as independent variables., i.e., we have
independent variables in -dimension space.
The motion of the system is a curve in the configuration space.
(2) Hamilton equations (1833)

Take the conjugate momenta
The canonical equations of Hamilton are
where and are independent variables.

We have 2 1st-order differential equations in 2 -dimensional phase space.
5 79
We have 2 1st-order differential equations in 2 -dimensional phase space.
The implementation of phase space is only effective if there are pairs of conjugated variables.
(3) Conjugate operators

Hamilton's equations of motion have an equivalent expression in terms of the Poisson bracket.
In QM (canonical quantization) the variables on phase space are replaced by operators acting on Hilbert
space.
The commutators are defined as
(4) Fourier transform duals

and are conjugate operators defined in such a way that and are Fourier
transform duals.
Therefore, mathematically using Cauchy-Schwarz inequality
If , provide simultaneously measurable observations because their mutual disturbances have

no effect
If , lead to the uncertainty of measurement because their mutual disturbances have effects.
OS:
Consider angular momentum operator
D. TRUE LOVE
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle maybe can explain the difficulty in finding the true love.
5 80
5-6 Some Consequences of The Uncertainty Principle
8:30 PM
A. MINIMUM ENERGY OF A PARTICLE IN A BOX
(1) Estimate the minimum energy of a particle confined in a one-dimensional box with length
ANSWER:
(a) If
(b) If
(c) If
From quantum mechanics (solving the Schrodinger equation), one can get as the ground state
energy. Ground state energy is the lowest energy of the system. Although , must be an
energy of different system. Since , is the excited state.
(2) Estimate the minimum energy of a particle confined in a parabolic potential (an oscillator with simple
harmonic motion)
ANSWER:
5 81
B. SIZE OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
(1) Prove that there are no electrons in the nucleus

ANSWER:
Radius of nucleus
The experimental results: maximum
(2) Estimate the size of the hydrogen atom

ANSWER:
C. WIDTH OF SPECTRAL LINES
(1) Atomic spectrum
(2) Theoretical spectrum
5 82
(3) Natural Width
Energy level above the ground state with energy and lifetime has uncertainty in energy
OS:
Short-lived states have large uncertainties in the energy.
Energy levels have a width due to the uncertainty principle:
The measurement gives a distribution of energies called a Lorentzian distribution and the width of this
distribution at half-maximum is labeled .
The uncertainty in energy can be expressed as
The natural line width is related to the lifetime t of the state as
EXAMPLES:
A typical lifetime for an atomic energy state is about
OS:
This source of broadening is important in nuclear spectra, such as Mossbauer spectra, but is
rarely significant in atomic spectroscopy.
5 83
6-1 The Schrdinger Equation in One Dimension
8:30 PM
A. THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION
(1)
gives the probability of finding the particle at point , at time
Probability density
(2) Normalization
If is normalized at , it stays normalized for all future time.
(3) Consequences of normalization

1. Conservation of global probability
2. Continuous equation of probability (Conservation of local probability)
3. Conditions for acceptable wave functions

must exist and satisfy the Schrdinger equation
and must be continuous
and must be finite
and must be single valued
at
B. EXPECTATION VALUES & OPERATORS
(1) The expectation value is the average of repeated measurements on an ensemble of identically prepared
systems, not the average of repeated measurements on one and the same system.
(2) The expectation value of and
6 84
The time derivative of the expectation value of position is equal to the expectation value of the velocity.
The expectation value of momentum
(3) Define operators
C. THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
(1) The uncertainty principle of an infinite square well with
6 85
Since
D. SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
(1) The solutions are simple products
Divided by
Separation constant C
According to de Broglie relation
E. CONSEQUENCES OF SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
(1) Stationary states

1. The wave function depends on , but the probability density does not depend on .
2. Every expectation value is constant in time
3. Every measurement of the total energy is certain to return the value
Time-independent Schrodinger equation
The expectation value of the total energy
6 86
The expectation value of the total energy
(2) Linear combination of separable solutions

Any linear combination of solutions of Schrodinger equation is itself a solution.
where is the solution of time-independent Schrodinger equation associated the separation

constant .
EXAMPLES:
1.
and re the energies associated with and .
2.
The probability oscillates sinusoidally at an angular frequency .
6 87
8:30 PM
A. ONE DIMENSIONAL INFINITE POTENTIAL WELL
(1) Wave function and eienenergy

As
(2) Normalization
normali ation onstant
6 88
where is the quantum number
HOMEWORK:
Find the wave function and eienenergy?
6 89
6-3 Superposition Principle
8:30 PM
A. SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
(1) Classical superposition (mixed state)

Any wave function for the system can be represented as a linear combination of as
where are probability of finding a particle in state .
Dirac bra-ket notation:
The expectation value of an arbitrary operator
In a statistical mixture, also called mixed state, there are no contributions to the ensemble average
coming from interferences between different states.
(2) Quantum superposition (pure state)
where are complex number.
The expectation value of an arbitrary operator
EXAMPLES:
1. Considering a quantum system with two states
6 90
robabilit o in in a arti le at is
2. If an electron might have 50/50 chance to be stayed in either or .

Classical superposition:
3. Double slit experiment
OS:
With the double slit experiment, you need a superposition of the states of passing through
each slit to get the standard interference pattern. If you measure which slit the electron
goes through, but ignore the result, then you still have a 50/50 chance of going through
either slit. However, this will be a classical probability not a quantum superposition, so it is a
mixed state and you won't see the interference pattern.
4. Free expansion
Assume there is a particle in the ground state
where and
Suddenly the well expands to twice its original size, i.e.,
The new wave functions of the particle in a new infinite well is
forms the basis
6 91
HOMEWORK:
The ground state wavefunction is
Suddenly the well expands to twice its original size, i.e.
can be described by the superposition of the new eigenfunctions
The first two non-zero coefficients

ANSWER:
6 92
6-4 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator
8:30 PM
A. 1D SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
(1) Schrodinger equation
et an
(2) Asymptotic solution
(3) Hermite [her-'meet] differential equation
Substitute into Schrodinger equation
Let
(4) Hermite polynomials
Recursion relation
Orthogonality
6 93
Orthogonality
B. GAUSS INTEGRAL
C. WAVEFUNCTON & EIGENENERGY
(1) Ground state:
Parabolic potential Ground state wavefunction Gaussian
6 94
(2) Variational method (find the ground state wavefunction and energy)
Assuming the trial wave function
Calculate
Find the extreme value
6 95
Find the extreme value
(3) First excited state:
6 96
6-5 The Finite Square Well
8:30 PM
A. ONE DIMENSIONAL FINITE POTENTIAL WELL
(1)
The electron is not confined in the potential well and becomes a free particle. The wavefunction is the
plane wave and the energy is
(2)
The electron is confined in the potential well and form a bound state.
B. BOUND STATES
(1) Separate regions

1. Region I
2. Region II
3. Region III
(2) Boundary condition

as
as
6 97
(3) Eigenfunctions
(4) Normalization
(5) Eigenenergy
6 98
HOMEWORK:
6 99
6-6 Reflection and Transmission of Waves
8:22 PM
A. REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION
(1) Region I
(2) Region II

No reflected wave in region II
(4) Flux
Coefficient of reflection
6 100
Coefficient of transmitting
B. PENETRATION
(1) Region I
(2) Region II
6 101
(4) Define a penetration depth

If the potential barrier has finite height, the wave function partially penetrates the barrier.
C. TUNNELLING EFFECT
If the barrier has finite extent, quantum mechanically the particle can penetrate the barrier and appear
on the other side.
D. SCANNING TUNNELLING MICROSCOPY (STM)
(1) Gerd Binnig (Nobel Prize 1986)
STM can be used to observe the atomic structure on the surface and measure the density of states
6 102
STM can be used to observe the atomic structure on the surface and measure the density of states
(1) Barrier potential

Region I
Region II
Region III
6 103
Let
(4) Transmission coefficient
(5) Tunneling effect

For the low energy and wide barrier, i.e.,
6 104
OS:
Tunneling condition is very sensitive to the separation of tip and sample. To increase the
tunneling probability, one need to have high energy electrons and very thin barrier.
E. FIELD EMISSION MICROSCOPY (FEM)
The emission process where electrons are to be extracted is quantum-mechanical tunneling through
vacuum, and is directional.
(1) Barrier potential
According to Schottky effect: the workfunction changes to a smaller value as the field strength
increases, and the potential barrier to the outside world will always be reduced.
OS:
In STM, the width of the barrier is tuned by hand.
In FEM, the width of the barrier is tuned by the field strength.
(2) Use Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin (WKB) approximation to find the tunneling rate.
For single potential barrier
6 105
For a potential barrier of arbitrary shape
(3) Tunneling rate
At the edge of the forbidden region
where
6 106
7-1 The Schrodinger Equation in Two or Three Dimension
8:30 PM
A. SOLUTIONS TO SCHRODINGER EQUATION IN 1D
(1) 1D Square potential (potential well): RECTANGULAR COORDINATE
SOLUTION:
1. Plane wave
2. Energy Levels
(2) 1D Parabolic potential: RECTANGULAR COORDINATE
SOLUTION:
1. Hermite polynomial
2. Energy Levels
B. SOLUTIONS TO SCHRODINGER EQUATION IN 2D
(1) 2D Square potential: RECTANGULAR COORDINATE
7 107
SOLUTION:
(2) 2D Parabolic potential: POLAR COORDINATE

(central force conservation of angular momentum)
SOLUTION:
Wavefunction:
Radial wave function: Central force (Laguerre polynomial)
Azimuthal wave function:
(3) 2D Disk potential: POLAR COORDINATE
SOLUTION:
Trail wave function: (This function can not do the variable separation.)
We can integrate out because of the circular symmetry to remove the azimuthal dependence.
Radial wave function: Plane wave (Bessel function)
(4) 2D Ring potential: POLAR COORDINATE
SOLUTION:
C. SOLUTIONS TO SCHRODINGER EQUATION IN 3D
(1) 3D Square potential (box): RECTANGULAR COORDINATE
7 108
SOLUTION:
(2) 3D Cylinder: POLAR COORDINATE
SOLUTION:
Radial wave function: Plane wave (Bessel function)

Plane wave in -direction:
(3) Coulomb potential: SPHERICAL COORDINATE

(central force)
SOLUTION:
1. Wave function:
Radial wave function: Central force (Laguerre polynomial)

(Legendre polynomial)
Spherical Harmonic wave function:
2. Energy Levels
7 109
EXAMPLES:
1. Two dimensional infinity potential well
(a) Since
(b) Normalization
If
where
(c) Ground state
(d) First excited state
7 110
Degenerate states
When but ( and correspond to the same eigenenergy), and
are called degenerate states.
Degeneracies
2. 2D harmonic oscillator
Degeneracies of energy states
Let
Degeneracies
3. 3D harmonic oscillator
2nd excited states
Degeneracies
HOMEWORK:
Find the degeneracies of the ground state, the first excited state, and the second excited state of
a three-dimensional box?
ANSWER:
(a) Ground state:
If , No degeneracy
(b) First excited state:
If
Degeneracies
(c) Second excited state:
If
Degeneracies
7 111
7-2 The Hydrogen Atom Wave Functions
8:30 PM
A. REDUCED MASS
Reduced mass -
B. THE HYDROGEN ATOM : ONE-ELECTRON ATOM
(1) Coulomb potential (Central force)
(2) Solution of the Schrodinger equation
(3) Separation of variables
Radial differential equation:
Angular differential equation:
OS:
Both and are eigenfunctions because is a constant
7 112
Both and are eigenfunctions because is a constant
(4) Solution of angular part
Separation of variables:
-dependent differential equation:
Azimuth differential equation:
1. Azimuth solution
Periodic boundary condition
: Orbital magnetic quantum number

2. -dependent solution
Let
Associated Legendre differential equation
Associated Legendre polynomial
Spherical harmonic function
Normalization
Example:
(5) Solution of radial part
7 113
Let
Associated Laguerre differential equation
Associated Laguerre polynomial
Normalization
EXAMPLES:
(6) The total wave function
(7) Allowed waveforms
7 114
C. RADIAL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
(1) The radial probability
The probability that the electron can be found in a shell of size is .

The probability that the electron can be found between and is given .
Radial probability density:
OS:
If the radial probability density is defined as , it means that the electron can exist inside
the nucleus, which would violate the uncertainty principle. [ - ]
The maximum of , (the most likely distance of )
(2) Expectation value of
D. THE GROUND STATE ( )
7 115
The maximum of , (the most likely distance of )
The average distance
E. THE EXCITED STATES ( )
7 116
7-3 Quantization of Angular Momentum and Energy in the Hydrogen
Atom
8:30 PM
A. QUANTIZATION OF THE ANGULAR MOMENTUM
(1) In Cartesian coordinate
(2) In spherical coordinate
7 117
(3) The measurement of the angular momentum and
The wavefunction of the hydrogen atom
is the eigenfunction of
is also the eigenfunction of

The expectation value
(4) When is the eigenfunction of and
is not the eigenfunction of and

The expectation value of and
EXAMPLES:
OS:
In classical mechanics, three projections and of have the definite value. In quantum
mechanics, only one projection of has the definite value.
Classical:
Quantum:
EXAMPLES:
7 118
The expectation value of , , and
Since
The wave function is initially some linear combination of eigenstates. When the measurement of
is the same as its eigenvalue, i.e.
the wavefunction collapses to just one of eigenstates, i.e.

OS:
After the measurement, the electron surely locates on the state . Since the location
of the electron is confirmed, the probability of the electron appears on other states are
zero.
B. QUANTIZATION OF THE ENERGY
(1) The confinement leads to the energy quantization.

OS:
When an electron is trapped in a potential well, its wave like behavior interacts with the
confinement. It faces and responds by adopting only specific wavelengths consistent with the
extent of confinement. These wavelengths correspond to fixed values of energy, resulting in
quantization of the energy of the confined electron.
For the hydrogen atom, the energy levels only depend on (principal quantum number). The energy
levels are degenerate.
7 119
The energies of electrons in -like atoms are quantized as
(2) Experimentally, atomic spectra (line spectrum) reveal this quantization
C. SELECTION RULES
Not all transitions are allowed. Transitions are governed by selection rules.
7 120
Not all transitions are allowed. Transitions are governed by selection rules.
D. DIPOLE TRANSITION SELECTION RULE
(1) Fermi's Golden Rule

The transition probability rate is obtained by applying the time-dependent perturbation theory to a
system that undergoes a transition from an initial state to a final state that is part of a continuum
of states.
where is the density of states near the state

If the transition is forbidden.
If the transition is allowed.
(2) The dipole operator

The power of the electromagnetic wave is
where is the Poynting vector. In most cases of interest, the wavelength of the photon emitted or
absorbed by an atom is on the order of several 1000 . An atom has dimensions on the order of . We
can therefore use the approximation that is constant in space (known as electric dipole
approximation).
(simple harmonic motion)
OS:
The radiation is generated from the dipole oscillation.
Consider the transition between two states of an atom in an electromagnetic eld.
where is the dipole operator
7 121
(3) Determine
1. Radial integral
The radial integral equals some constant. Hence it gives no selection rule.
2. Angular integral
Consider only
(a) -axis
If , then
If , then
(b) -axis
Thus
(c) -axis
Conclusion: The transition occurs only if 1.
(4) Determine
1. Conservation of parity
Noether's theorem: symmetry under some transformation leads to a conservation law -
In quantum mechanics, the physical observables are related to the probability density .
When the potential is symmetric under the reflection transformation, i.e.
,
the probability density must follow .
The wavefunction could be either or to satisfy the condition.
2. The wavefunction, therefore, has definite ''parity'':
Even parity: (even/symmetric function)
Odd parity: (odd/antisymmetric function)
EXAMPLES:
The Coulomb potential is symmetric about the origin point. The wavefunctions have definite
7 122
The Coulomb potential is symmetric about the origin point. The wavefunctions have definite
parity.
In spherical coordinate,
1. The dipole radiation
The integrand in must be even for . Since has odd parity, therefore we require the
product to be odd and therefore the initial and final state have to be of opposite parity.
OS:
The normalization condition prevent the transition from
(5) Summary:
The consequence of the properties of the spherical harmonics.

OS:
Note that these are not strict selection rules. Other transitions can occur which would follow the
magnetic dipole or electric quadrupole selection rules. These would be found by including further
(higher order) perturbations into the Hamiltonian. However, the transition probabilities will be
very small compared to those for electric dipole transitions, so that in our case they are in
practice not present and we only consider electric dipole selection rules.
7 123
7-4 Electron Spin
8:30 PM
A. MAGNETIC MOMENT
(1) If a system of charged particles is rotating, the magnetic moment is proportional to its angular
momentum, i.e. Larmor theorem.
In general
where is the gyromagnetic ratio and is the Bohr magneton
Torque:
Potential energy:
EXAMPLES:
For the hydrogen atom
(2) Uniform magnetic field (precession)
7 124
Since
Larmor frequency
(3) Nonuniform magnetic field (Stern-Gerlach experiment 1922)

OS:
Original design is going to proof the quantization of the angular momentum
The neutral atom feels an external force
OS:
What does that mean of the equation above? is related to the orbital magnetic moment
How to make affect ? Make the neutral atom in the excited state
Ground state: 1 atomic beam
Excited state: 3 atomic beams
7 125
In principle, odd number of atomic beams should be observed due to the orbital magnetic moment.

Only 2 beams were observed.
OS:
The Stern-Gerlach experiment therefore points to another source of magnetic momentum, quite
dierent from what arises from the orbital angular momentum.
Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit (1925) proposed that each elementary particle has intrinsic angular
momentum.
Pauli (1925) called spin and typically is denoted .
Dirac (1928) developed relativistic quantum theory & derived electron spin angular momentum.
To date, we know the origin of the spin (relativistic effect), the mathematics to describe the spin,
and the properties of the spin. However, we don't know what the spin is.
B. ELECTRON SPIN
(1) Pauli (1925) called spin and typically is denoted .

Spin variable has no classical analog.
(2) Spin operators

Spin Operator Angular Momentum Operator
OS:
Cyclic permutation
7 126
(3) The measurement of the spin and
(4) The magnetic dipole moment

The spin angular momentum leads to a magnetic moment, similar to orbital angular momentum.
Dirac predicts and the experimental result is
(5) Stern-Gerlach experiment:

Since only two atomic beams were observed,
Electron's spin quantum number
OS:
This number won't be changed, no matter the electron is in the ground state or in the excited
state.
(6) Physical properties:

Sequential experiments
EXAMPLES:
OS:
A spin- particle needs two rotations ( ) until it is again in the same state.
A spin-1 particle needs a full rotation ( ) until it is again in the same state.
A spin-2 particle needs half a rotation ( ) until it is again in the same state.
7 127
C. THE COMPLETE HYDROGEN ATOM WAVE FUNCTIONS
(1) Total wavefunction (Full wavefunction)

The total wavefunction of the electron involves both the spatial part and the spin part. Spin is a new
degree of freedom in addition to the spatial coordinates . Hence,
4 quantum number:
Total wavefunction Spatial wavefunctions Spin wavefunctions
EXAMPLES:
OS:
In Dirac notation
7 128
7-5 Total Angular Momentum and the Spin-Orbit Effect
8:22 PM
Schrodinger equation
The total wavefunctions are eigenstates of four angular momentum operators
A. SPIN-ORBIT COUPLING (SPIN-ORBIT INTERACTION)
(1) Spin-orbital interaction
From Biot-Savart law
The electric field produced by the charged nucleus gives rise a magnetic field in the reference frame
moving with an orbiting electron.
The angular momentum
The potential energy (spin-orbit interaction) arises from the interaction between an electron spin
magnetic moment and the magnetic field due to the apparent motion of the nuclear charge
an
7 129
an
OS:
The electric field produced by the charged nucleus leads to a momentum-dependent effective
Zeeman energy.
(2) The relativistic correction

lewell n homas re ession
Gyromagnetic ratio:
Spin-orbit coupling: a coupling between an electron spin and its orbital angular momentum about the
nucleus.
(3) Schrodinger equation with spin-orbit interaction
is not the eigenfunction of and . and are, therefore, no longer a good quantum number.
, , ,
B. TOTAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM
(1) To specify a quantum state we need quantum numbers.

We define the total angular momentum
Therefore, , , ,
is the eigenstate of , but not
7 130
(2) Spectroscopic Notation:
EXAMPLES:
C. SELECTION RULE
The electron spin does not involve in the transition. Therefore, the spin quantum number cannot
change ( ).
(but is not allowed)
D. FINE STRUCTURE -
Energy level shifts due to interaction
(1) Estimate
is of order (Bohr's radius)
Both and are of order
(2) The fine structure constant
The Compton wavelength of the electron
We obtain
7 131
The magnitude of the ground state energy of the hydrogen is
Therefore
OS:
The energy shift due to the spin-orbit coupling is of order
EXAMPLES:
The Land Interval Rule:
OS:
In general
For an electron
7 132
7 133
7-5 Supplement - Atomic Energy Levels
8:22 PM
A. INTRINSIC EFFECTS
(1) Quantized angular momentum
(2) Fine structure (spin-orbit coupling)
Note:
According to the spin-orbit interaction, for hydrogen, the and states remain degenerate.
OS:
and states have the same value of
(3) Lamb shift (Willis Lamb 1951)
7 134
The state is slightly lower than the state.
(4) Hyperfine structure
Interaction between electron's spin and nuclear's spin . The total angular momentum is .
B. EXTRINSIC EFFECTS
(1) Energy levels splitting due to the presence of an external magnetic field
is of order 0.1 Tesla
The interaction is
1. Anomalous Zeeman effect:
7 135
where and
ext
Note: precesses around and precesses around .

To find the -component of , we project to direction, and then project the total vector
to -direction.
The interaction along the -axis is
The energy shift is
where is the Land -factor (1921)

OS:
Alternative method to find the Land -factor
As we known, is anitparallel to and is anitparallel to .

Since is not antiparallel to , we need to project to direction, and then project to
direction.
7 136
Since
EXAMPLES:
The energy splitting of
Selection rule:
7 137
(but is not allowed)
2. Normal Zeeman effect (Nobel Prize 1902):
ext
Note: precesses around and ignore precesses around .

The interaction is
The energy shift is
Selection rule:
7 138
3. Paschen-Beck effect:
ext
Note: and decouple and both precess independently about the direction.
The interaction is
The energy shift is
Selection rule:
7 139
Selection rule:
(conservation of total spin)
0 (conservation of total spin)

(2) Energy levels splitting due to the presence of an external electric field
Stark effect (Nobel Prize 1919)
1. Linear Stark effect:

The charge distribution of the excited state of an hydrogen atom exhibits the intrinsic
dipole moment
Taking the electric field along the -axis
The wavefunction of (for example) is the linear combination of .
Only if is the linear combination of and ,

The excited state behaves as though it had an electric dipole moment of magnitude .
OS:
mixes states and . The new eigenstates become
does not affect states and .
2. Quadradic Stark effect:

he h ro en roun state is s heri all s mmetri an has enite arit .
It cannot possess an intrinsic electric dipole moment
But, the eld itself polarizes the electron distribution, inducing a separation of charge and a
dipole moment that is proportional to , i.e.
Conclusion:
(only -state) Quadratic Stark eect (small splitting).
Linear Stark eect (large splitting).
7 140
7-6 The Schrdinger Equation for Two (or More) Particles
8:30 PM
A. EXCHANGE PARTICLES
(1) Two noninteracting particles in one-dimensional potential well
separation of variables
Product state: the total wavefunction is the product of two one-particle eigenfunctions.
(2) Label permutation:
1 2 2 1
Exchange particles: Interchanging two indistinguishable particles should not produce any observable
difference. The probability distribution corresponding to any two-particle state must remain the same
when we exchange the particles.
Considering a product state:
The product state above is only a solution of Schrodinger equation but does not obey the exchanging
particles.
OS:
For , the product state does not obey
the exchanging particles.
(3) This confliction is correctly reflected if we replace the wavefunctions by the linear combinations of
product states, i.e.,
Either or
7 141
Either or
The sign reflects that there are two distinct ways to accomplish this.
(4) Spin wavefunctions

1. There are four possible combinations for two spins
Spin-1 Spin-2 Notation
2. According to the indistinguishability, the probability density should be the same under exchanging
1 and 2.
BUT
The linear combinations of product states:
Finally, four spin wavefunctions are
3. Add two spins

The total spin of two electrons
Singlet:
Triplet:
OS:
7 142
OS:
Operators:
Spin-1 Spin-2 Notation 4-vector
(5) Total wavefunction Spatial wavefunctions Spin wavefunctions
B. PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE (1925)
(1) Pauli exclusion principle:

No more than one electron may occupy a given quantum state specified by all quantum numbers:
(2) Alternative:
The total wave function of electrons is antisymmetric.
7 143
EXAMPLES:
when both sets of quantum numbers are the same, the total wave function is obviously zero.
(3) Conservation of Laws

We are naturally led to consider two kinds of identical particles.
Noether's theorem: symmetry under some transformation leads to a conservation law - -
C. HELIUM
(1) Electron-electron interaction
OS:
It is impossible to know the exact eigenfunctions of a Helium. We can guess that the low energy
eigenfunction can be approximated as the product state of the single electron.
(1) Ground state:

Both electrons occupy the lowest energy state . The spatial wavefunction must be symmetric and
the spin wavefunction is antisymmetric .
Also can be written as Slater determinant -
1. Kinetic energy
2. Direct integral (Coulomb integral)
7 144
OS:
The Coulomb integral represents the repulsive potential energy for two interacting charge
distributions and
(2) First excited state

1. : symmetric spatial wavefunction and antisymmetric spin wavefunction
2. : antisymmetric spatial wavefunction and symmetric spin wavefunction
1. Direct integral (Coulomb integral)
7 145
2. Exchange integral
OS:
The exchange integral, which has no classical analog, arises because of the exchange
symmetry (or antisymmetry) requirement of the wavefunction.
The Coulomb interaction between electrons lifts the degeneracy of the states with different total spin.
1. Triplet (orthohelium):
Exchange correlations cause electrons to avoid each other which would slightly lower the
Coulomb energy.
2. Singlet (parahelium):
Exchange correlations favor electrons being closer to each other which would slightly rises up the
Coulomb energy.
7 146
(3) Exchange energy
Add two spins
The energy difference between the triplet and singlet states is .

et
The exchange energy becomes
7 147
7-7 Ground States of Atoms: The Periodic Table
8:22 PM
A. HUND'S RULES
(1) Atomic radius and ionization energies trend
According to the atomic radius, the ionization should monotonically increase from . However,
experiments show
Ionization energy drop from and from
(2) Principles of filling of electrons

1. Aufbau principle: electrons occupy orbitals of lower energy first
Note: is lower than

Electron configuration:
2. Pauli exclusion - each orbital occupy by 2 electrons of opposite spin
3. Hund's rule - electrons occupy orbitals singly before any orbital is doubly occupied.
(3) Hund's rules (1927): maximum multiplicity

When filling sublevels other than , electrons are placed in individual orbitals before they are paired
up.
1. Electrons spins align so as to produce the largest value of consistent with Pauli exclusion
principle. (exchange interaction )
2. The state with largest values are filled first. (orbital motion )
7 148
2. The state with largest values are filled first. (orbital motion )
for less than half-filled shells, but for more than half-filled shells. (spin-orbit
coupling )
OS:
Electrons fill like people do on a bus. You would never sit right next to someone you did not know
if there are free seats available, unless of course all the seats are taken then you must pair up.
B. THE GROUND STATES OF THE ATOM
(1) H and He
The total wave function must be antisymmetric
(2) Li and Be
(3) B
(4) C
7 149
(5) N, O, F and Ne
C. FIRST IONIZATION ENERGY
Highest peaks are noble gases.

Lowest troughs are alkali metals.
Local maxima occurs for filled subshells and half-filled subshells
D. PERIODIC TABEL
7 150
E. TRANSITION ELEMENTS
(1) -orbitals
The 5 -orbitals in an isolated ion are degenerate.

OS:
Electronic configuration
(2) Crystal Field Theory

Hans Bethe (1929) and John Hasbrouch van Vleck (1935): The interaction between a central metal ion
and surrounding anions which typically are treated as point charges.
The essential insight is that the geometry of the negatively charged point charges influences the energy
7 151
The essential insight is that the geometry of the negatively charged point charges influences the energy
levels of the central metal ion.
1. Spherical
OS:
A spherical distribution of negative charge surrounding the metal ion affects each of the
five 3d orbitals in the same way and consequently all five 3d orbitals have the same energy.
2. Octahedral
OS:
Since and orbitals are pointed directly toward the negative point charges, they
have higher energy than , , and orbitals.
3. Tetrahedral
OS:
None of the 5 -orbitals points directly at or between the negative point charges.
The results from the Crystal Field Theory are summarized in the chart show below.
7 152
7 153
7-8 Excited States and Spectra
8:22 PM
A. COUPLING MODEL
(1) The spin-orbit interaction dominates the electrostatic interactions

OS:
Used extensively for the description of the nuclear states observed in nuclear spectroscopy.
(2) Two inequivalent electrons

or
or

or
or
B. RUSSELL-SAUNDERS COUPLING SCHEME
(1) The electrostatic interaction dominates the spin-orbit interaction
1. Atomic Term Symbol
2. Multiplicity
Name and letter conversions
7 154
OS:
S, ,D, oes not re resent the orbital o ele trons, but just re resents the summation o
the orbital angular momentum of eleectrons.
(3) Two equivalent electrons
OS:
: Since a term requires that , which means that and must be the same; then
the Pauli principle permits only a singlet spin state, or a .
: The term requires that and that the spins be parallel, which violates the
Pauli principle.
Energy levels
7 155
7 156
8-1 Classical Statistics: A Review
8:30 PM
A. BASIC CONCEPTS
(1) Configurations and microstates: 4 particles (identical and distinguishable) distribute into two containers
The total microstates are

In general
(2) Three equilibrium systems

1. isolated
8 157
C: N and E fixed
E
N E
2. closed
E
C: N and fixed
3. open
E
N
C: and fixed
(3) Ensemble a large number of virtual copies of a system, have the same macrostate, but different
microstates.
Different macrostate lead to different type of ensemble.
OS:
A microstate species a system in terms of the properties of each of the constituent particles; for
example, the position and momentum of each of the molecules in a sample of gas.
A key concept of statistical mechanics is that many dierent microstates can correspond to a
single macrostate. However, specifying the macrostate imposes constraints on the possible
microstates. Statistical mechanics explores the relationship between microstates and
macrostates.
Three main ensembles
1. Microcanonical ensemble (isolated system)
2. Canonical ensemble (closed system + heat reservoir)

Heat Bath
3. Grandcanonical ensemble (open system + heat reservoir + particle reservoir)
8 158
Particle Bath Heat Bath
OS:
At most, the chemical potential is needed if you have an open system, that is able to
exchange matter with another system. For instance, when water condensates, the liquid
phase can exchange matter with the gaseous phase.
B. BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION
(1) Microcanonical ensemble: An isolated system with the fixed volume , the fixed number of particles
(identical and distinguishable particles), and the fixed energy .
1. Total microstates
EXAMPLES:
(a) (total energy) and in 4 equidistant energy levels

In general,
8 159
Each microstate that has the same total energy appears with equal probability
The probability of the configuration with the largest amount of microstates
(b) If the energy level has degeneracies
The number of microstates for each configuration becomes
2. Microstates and entropy :

Two independent subsystems are put together and forbid any exchange of energy between them.
8 160
The total microstates is
The total entropy is
Assume that , then
olt mann rin i le
(2) Canonical ensemble: A closed system with the fixed volume and the fixed number of particles
thermally contacts to a heat reservoir to approach the thermal equilibrium.
OS:
When two systems exchange energy, the two systems will reach an equilibrium state and have
the same energy .
Heat Bath
The total energy is .
Thus reaching equilibrium always increases entropy (according to Boltzmann principle).

After two systems reach the equilibrium, we forbid the energy exchange.
Heat Bath
The total microstates are reduced to .
s the maximun o the we in

Since
Thu .
8 161
Thu .
Since , in large limit, .
In the thermodynamical limit, the system of Fig. 1. and the system of Fig. 2. have the same
entropy and the maximum entropy.
(3) In thermal equilibrium, the system has the maximum entropy. When the energies of the systems in
the canonical ensemble fluctuate little about some mean value , the canonical and microcanonical
ensembles will be identical. Therefore, and the system has maximum microstates
i.e. . We use the microcanonical
ensemble to derive the distribution of the equilibrium configuration .
OS:
When there is particles exchange between the system and its surroundings but the fluctuations
from some average value are vanishingly small, then there is little difference between the
constant and variable cases. In this case the canonical ensemble and grand canonical
ensembles would give the same result. Noticing this it is sometimes convenient, for calculation
purposes, to use the grand canonical ensemble when is constant and later impose the
restriction that fluctuations from are insignificant.
Use Lagrange multipliers with constraints that the total number of particles and total
energy are fixed.
For large , use Stirling's approximation
Apply Fermat's theorem (stationary point)
(4) Determine and

From the thermodynamics
From the expression above of
Therefore
an where is the hemi al otential
8 162
(5) Canonical partition function
In physics, a partition function describes the statistical properties of a system in thermodynamic
equilibrium.
where
canonical partition function
The probability of a given particle in energy level is
where is the Boltzmann factor
OS:
The distribution of particles is mainly determined by the Boltzmann factor . This is a
weighting factor that determines the probability that an particle will be in the n th energy state
when the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium. The partition function represents the
distribution of the weighting factor at each state of the system. Once we know all for each
state, i.e. summation of all (partition function), we know the system.
The partition function of the microcanonical ensemble is .
C. MAXWELL DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS AND KINETIC ENERGY
(1) For a classical ideal gas
8 163
The energy is a continuous variable and only depends upon the radius . The discrete probability can be
treated with a continuous variable.
where
(2) Density of states (DOS)
=constant
The molecules per unit volume with speeds between and are
All molecules in the spherical shell are
Let is the number of molecules per unit volume with speeds between and
Densit o states
(3) Partition function
(4) Maxwell speed distribution
8 164
(5) Maxwell energy distribution
Use Gamma function:
OS:
Alternative method:
8 165
HOMEWORK:
8 166
8-2 Quantum Statistics
8:30 PM
A. BOSE-EINSTEIN DISTRIBUTION
(1) The combinations of particles (identical and indistinguishable) distribute into the energy level with
degeneracies
EXAMPLES:
3 particles at energy level and
Imagine arranging 3 particles and line
he ombinations are
In general, imagine arranging particles and lines
The microstates for all possible energy levels
OS:
The classical limit
(2) Lagrange multipliers
8 167
Stationary point
B. FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION
(1) The combinations of particles (identical and indistinguishable) distribute into the energy level with
degeneracies and satisfied Pauli exclusion principle
EXAMPLES:
2 particles and
he ombinations are
The microstates for all possible energy levels
OS:
The classical limit
(2) Lagrange multipliers
8 168
Stationary point
C. COMPARISON OF THE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS
(1) Identical and distinguishable particles

Boltzmann distribution
(2) Identical and indistinguishable particles

Bose-Einstein distribution
Symmetric total wavefunction
(3) Identical and indistinguishable particles satisfied Pauli exclusion principle

Fermi-Dirac distribution
or
Anti-symmetric total wavefunction
OS:
Grand canonical partition function
8 169
D. THERMODYNAMIC QUANTITIES
OS:
There are two approaches to calculated the thermodynamic quantities. One is to find the
partition function of the system and the other just use the distribution function. If we can know
all Boltzmann factors of an equilibrium system, it is better to find the partition function.
(1) Partition function approach: finding
where the number of states per unit volume between and
(2) Distribution function approach: finding
(3) Thermodynamic quantities

1. Helmholtz free energy
2. Specific heat
3. Entropy
E. USEFUL INTEGRAL
8 170
8 171
8-3 The Bose-Einstein Condensation
8:30 PM
Direct evidence of the Bose-Einstein condensation
A. HELIUM
(1) Experimental characteristics

1. Density of liquid helium (K. Onnes 1924)
2. Specific heat (K. Clusius 1932)
3. boson ( )
gas
liquid, called helium
superfluid (no viscosity), called helium II
(2) London two-fluid model (1938)

Density of helium II
1. Treating helium as an equilibrium system of classical particles in a cubical box
8 172
2. Bose distribution function
OS:
Degeneracy term in Boltzmann distribution
If , the Boltzmann distribution can be used.
here ore, we use

3. Determine
At 0, there are significant number of particles in the ground state.
Choose for the ground state
4. Fraction of superflluid
8 173
B. QUANTUM DEGENERATE FERMION GAS
(1) Helium
1.
(Fermion)
superfluid (R.C. Richardson 1970, Nobel Prize 1996)
A pair of becomes a boson with
2.
(2) Superconductor
Cooper pair: 2 electron becomes a boson with
(3) Cold atoms

Two fermions can be bounded together to form a boson at very low temperature.
(E. Cornell 1995 Nobel Prize 2001)
8 174
8-4 An Application of Bose-Einstein Statistics
8:30 PM
A. PLANCK'S LAW
(1) Photon gas -

The energy density of blackbody radiation is proportional to the number of photons per unit volume.
(2) Density of states

Plane wave
The number of modes per unit volume in the infinitesimal [in-fin-i-tes-uh-muh l] range between and
.
where results from the polarization and is due to that must be positive
(3) Distribution function
8 175
(3) Distribution function
(4) Determine
In thermal equilibrium, photons are absorbed and re-emitted by matter.
The total number of photon is not conserved.
From the Helmholtz free energy and is not a constant
where is the chemical potential

Minimize the free energy (equilibrium state)
(5) Black radiation
The energy density of blackbody radiation
B. SPECIFIC HEAT OF SOLIDS
(1) The emperical Dulong-Petit law (1819)
(2) Classical model: equipartition theorem
(3) Einstein model: (optical phonon)

1. Phonon: an elementary vibrational motion in which a lattice of atoms uniformly oscillates at a
single frequency.
OS:
In classical mechanics this is known as a normal mode. Normal modes are important
because any arbitrary lattice vibration can be considered as a superpositionof
these elementary vibrations (cf. Fourier analysis). While normal modes are wave-like
phenomena in classical mechanics, phonons have particle-like properties as well in a way
related to the waveparticle duality of quantum mechanics.
8 176
2. At low temperature, the vibration can be considered as an harmonic oscillator.
The eigenenergy of atom is
phonons are particle-like properties of the lattice vibration. The energy of one phonon is .
The particle at energy level is equivalent to particles at ground state.
The vibration along -direction of each atom can be considered as an one-dimensional

oscillator.
Assume that all atoms have the same vibrational frequency .
3. Internal energy
In thermal equilibrium
The average number of phonons
Therefore
4. Limit
(high temperature)
8 177
(4) Debye model: (acoustic phonon)
1. Atoms oscillate collectively in a wave-like fashion.
Assume that the frequencies are continuous from to .

2. Density of states (borrowed from the result above)
The cutoff frequency of phonon:
3. Internal energy
et
Define Debye temperature
8 178
4. Limit
( )
(high temperature)
8 179
8-5 Properties of a Fermion Gas
8:30 PM
A. DENSITY OF STATES
(1) : the number of energy states per unit volume in the infinitesimal [in-fin-i-tes-uh-muh l] range
between and .
(2) 1D simple harmonic oscillator
Let
(5) Free electron gas
8 180
Periodic boundary conditions:
umber o states er unit olume
Sin e
OS:
1. 1D
2. 2D circle
B. FINITE TEMPERATURE EFFECT
(1) The ground state is the state when the system is at .
(2) Probability that a state with energy is occupied at is
8 181
(2) Probability that a state with energy is occupied at is
ermi un tion
1. In the limit,
2. In the limit,
falls off exponentially with increasing .
3. At
(3) The total number of occupied states at the finite temperature
where is the density of occupied states per unit volume and energy.
At zero temperature
(4) The majority of the electrons in a metal fill states with energy far below the Fermi energy. Such
electrons have very little effect on the macroscopic properties. A small change in does not affect the
mean energies of the majority of the electrons, with , since these electrons lie in states which are
compeltely filled, and remained. These electrons contribute nothing whatsoever to the macroscopic
properties.
8 182
A relatively small number of electrons in the energy range of order , centered on , in which
is significantly different from and , do contribute to the macroscopic properties.
The fraction of active electrons lie in the tail region is
where is
The integral can be approximated as
8 183
Appendix Math Background
8:22 PM
A. LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS
(1) Simple example

Maxmize the function subject to the constraint
(2) Inelegant approach

1. Solve the constraint equation for as a function of
2. Substitute into , yielding
3. Find the extrema of by differentiation
(3) Elegant approach

1. Write the constraint as
2. Define
where is a constant, independent of and

3. Minimize freely with no restriction between and
4. Enforce the condition

hoose the ositi e si n or a maximum
This method avoids differentiating square root, etc. This is especially important if we cannot solve the
constraint equation analytically.
8 184
9-1 The Ionic Bond
8:30 PM
(1)
1. Ionization energy
2. Electron affinity
3. Net Ionization energy
4. Dissociation energy
(2) The total potential energy
where and can be determined through the minimization of .

OS:
At small internuclear separation, we effectively have a single system and some of the electrons
must go into higher-energy quantum states because of the exclusion principle, thus increasing the
total energy of the system.
9 185
9-2 The Covalent Bond
8:30 PM
A. MOLECULE
(1) Two separated hydrogen atoms are brought together. The overlapped spatial wavefunction could be
either symmetric or antisymmetric .
OS:
wo se arate h ro en atoms are like two ierent boxes ea h with one ele tron in the lowest
eigenstate. When the two boxes are pushed together, one obtains a larger box thereby lowering
the energy of the lowest eigenstate which is known as the bonding orbital. The two electrons
an take o osite s in states an an thereb both t in the bon in orbital. he rst ex ite
state is known as the antibonding orbital.
(2) Exchange energy for two hydrogen atoms
The symmetric wavefunction (bonding) gives a high electron density between the nuclei, and leads to a
net attractive force between the atoms. The exchange interaction leads to a strong bond for the
hydrogen molecule with dissociation energy at a separation of .
(3) Why not Molecule

The potential energy of the anti-bonding orbital shown gives some insight into why a third hydrogen
atom cannot bond to the two atoms of the hydrogen molecule. It would be in an anti-bonding situation
with one of the other hydrogen atoms and would therefore be repelled.
B. BOND
two orbitals overlap
9 186
C. BOND
two orbitals overlap
9 187
9-3 van der Waals Force
8:30 PM
A. DIPOLE-DIPOLE BONDING
(1) field of a dipole
The electric potential energy
where is the dipole moment
where
(1) Dipole-dipole interaction
(2) Dipole-induced dipole interaction
where is the polarizability of a molecule
9 188
9-4 Energy Levels and Spectral of Diatomic Molecules
8:30 PM
Empirical results of molecular spectroscopy show that the energy of a molecular is made up of three
principle parts electronic, rotational, and vibrational.
OS:
The solution of the Schrodinger equation for any but the simplest molecules is very difficult.
A. ROTATIONAL ENERGY LEVELS
(1) Classical model of rotation (rigid rotor)
e u e mass
Moment o inertia
n ular momentum
ineti ener
(2) Rigid rotor in quantum mechanics

The Hamiltonian of the system is simply the angular kinetic energy
The direction of is normal to the plane of rotation.

The energy levels are
where is the rotational quantum number and
9 189
(3) Selection rule
(4) Population of a rotational level
EXAMPLES:
The ratio of populations in the energy level relative to if is ?
B. VIBRATIONAL ENERGY LEVELS
(1) Harmonic oscillator
One can view a molecule as a collection of atoms connected by springs similar to the model of a
harmonic oscillator.
is the vibrational quantum number
(2) For diatomics, the bond force constant can be determined using the energy of the absorbed infrared
photon.
(3) Selection rule
9 190
C. SPECTRA
The energy of a typical spectroscopic transition, between vibrational energy levels is about 100 times
greater than that of a typical transition between rotational energy levels.
D. INTENSITY
(1) Room temperature
Most of the molecules are in the lowest vibrational state .
The molecules are distributed among several rotational energy states, the relative number in each state
being determined by the Boltzmann factor.
(2) Absorption line
9 191
(2) Absorption line
The intensity of a given absorption line is proportional to the number of molecules.
The transition with maximum intensity is obtained by
where is an integer
E. HEAT CAPACITIES OF GASES
For one mole diatomic gases
(1) Equal-partition theorem

1. Zero temperature
2. Low temperature
9 192
3. High temperature
(2) Partition function

1. High temperature
9 193
9 194
9-5 Scattering, Absorption, and Stimulated Emission
8:22 PM
A. SCATTERING
(1) Elastic scattering
In visible wavelengths or larger, i.e. Rayleigh scattering

In -ray or -ray Compton scattering
(2) Inelastic scattering (Raman scattering)
The light interacts with optical phonons (i.e. intra-molecular vibrations and
rotations), with frequencies in the order of THz
9 195
corresponds to the characteristic transition of the scattering molecule.
B. ABSORPTION, SPONTANEOUS EMISSION, FLUORESCENCE
(1) Photoelectron
A substance absorbed x-ray to emit an electron
(2) Resonance absorption and spontaneous emission
EXAMPLES:
ESR (Electron Spin Resonance)
9 196
(3) Fluorescence
A substance absorbed the light and radiated with longer wavelengths immediately.
C. STIMULATED EMISSION
(1) Process
1. Optical pumping Spontaneous emission
2. Pumping Metastable state Stimulated emission
(2) Einstein coefficients
9 197
bsor tion
S ontaneous emission
atoms
Stimulate emission
Absorption: The transition atoms from to is
Spontaneous emission: The transition atoms from to is
Stimulated emission: The transition atoms from to is
where is the energy density of incident radiation with frequency and , , are Einstein
coefficients of absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission, respectively.
In the thermal equilibrium
Use the Boltzmann distributions

and
Use Planck's law
We have
an
Therefore
(3) Spontaneous emission is dominated

When
(4) Stimulated emission is dominated

When
(5) When
9 198
9 199
9-6 Lasers and Masers
8:22 PM
A. METASTABLE STATE
(1) From Fermi's Golden Rule:
The probability of transition from higher energy level to a lower one is inversely proportional to the
lifetime of the higher energy level.
(2) Atoms stay in an excited level only for a short time (about 10-8 [sec]), and then they return to a lower
energy level by spontaneous emission.
When the transition probability is low for a specific transition, the lifetime of this energy level is longer
(about 10-3 [sec]), and this level becomes a "meta-stable" level.
(3) Population inversion

Pumping is the process of raising the number of excited atoms
B. THE RUBY LASER
(1) Ruby: crystal containing some impurity of chromium
(2) Critical population inversion density of a laser

Intensity decay
where is the characteristic time
Intensity gain
Note:
where is the life time of the spontaneous emission.
9 200
where is the life time of the spontaneous emission.
where and
In general, and are population densities of states
The condition for a laser action
The critical population inversion density is
When the laser can be operated continuously.

The minimum power per volume input for a laser
(3) If the density of states and are not equal, then
EXAMPLES:
1. Ruby laser
2. laser
9 201
10-1 The Structure of Solids
8:30 PM
A. BONDING
(1) Type of bonding
10 202
(2) Madelung constant of ionic solids
The net attractive part of the potential energy of an ion in a crystal can be written
where is the Madelung constant.

1. 1D
From
Madelung constant
2. 2D
10 203
3. 3D
B. CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE (PERIODICITY)
(1) A crystal is made up by repetition of one or more atoms (basis or building block).
(2) These basis are commonly referred to as points within a crystal lattice site.
OS:
These points don't tell you the position of an atom in a crystal. They are simply points 'in space'
oriented in such a way to build a crystal lattice.
(3) Any lattice point obtained from another point as with is

periodic lattice.
10 204
OS:
For an arbitrary lattice point , there is an infinite array of points such that the lattice
appears exactly the same regarless of which point the arrangement is viewed from.
The collection of all vectors constitutes a set of discrete points is called Bravais [bravei] lattice (1850).
C. CONSTRUCT LATTICE
(1) The Bravais lattice can be made up by periodically repeating unit cells.
(2) Unit cell:

A unit cell has number of lattice points per unit cell . When , the unit cell is called
primitive unit cell.
OS:
A cell is translated by a SUBSET of vectors of the Bravais lattice.
A primitive unit cell is translated by ALL the vectors of the Bravais lattice.
The physical dimension of a unit cell is called lattice constant or lattice parameter referred to as , ,
and .
The volume of a unit cell is .
D. LATTICE VIBRATIONS & PHONONS
(1) The canonical partition function of an oscillator with energy is
10 205
(2) The mean energy of one oscillator is
where is the ose instein istribution un tion

OS:
The combinations of phonons distribute into the energy level with degeneracies
Internal energy
(3) The number of phonons is not conserved: they can be created or annihilated in course of interactions.
Therefore they should be determined from the condition of equilibrium, i.e. from the request of
minimum of free energy. As a result, for phonons . The Bose-Einstein function determines the
equilibrium number of phonons with a given frequency.
10 206
10-2 Free Particle Theory
8:30 PM
A. DRUDE THEORY (1900)
(1) Dc conductivity (Ohm's law)

1. In the presence of an constant electric field
Drude (1900) proposed a collision mechanism by which electrons make collisions every second.
In each collisions all of the electron's forward velocity is reduced to zero and it must be
accelerated again. The result is a constant average velocity:
2. The current density
where is the electron concentration
(2) Electronic thermal conductivity

1. The energy per electron at equilibrium at is .
10 207
where is the thermal velocity
2. Specific heat
(3) Weidermann-Franz law (1853)

At a given temperature the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity was the same
for all metals.
orent number
OS:
orent number
This empirical law is named after Gustav Wiedemann and Rudolph Franz, who in 1853 reported
that has approximately the same value for different metals at the same temperature. The
10 208
that has approximately the same value for different metals at the same temperature. The
proportionality of with temperature was discovered by Ludvig Lorenz in 1872.
B. SOMMERFELD THEORY
(1) Quantum theory of electron gas (1928)

OS:
Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld (1868-1951)
1. As the freely moving electrons cannot escape the surface of the material, they may be treated as
particles confined (trapped) in a box of size . The Schrodinger equation is
The plane wave solution is
2. Box boundary condition (open boundary condition): vanishes at the boundary
where
Energy of the electrons inside the material is quantized and hence is discrete.
3. Born-von Karman boundary conditions (periodic boundary condition):
OS:
Advantage: allows the travelling wave
where
The periodic boundary condition permits only certain discrete values of .
(2) Ground state configuration

1. Electrons fill the energy states
10 209
Place electrons from the energy level . Then continue to add electrons, subject to the Pauli
exclusion principle, and successively filling the energy levels of lowest energy that are empty.
2. Fermi energy represents the sharp occupancy cut-off at for particles described by
the Fermi-Dirac statitics, i.e. the energy levels of are occupied subject to the Pauli
exclusion principle, and all those with are empty.
Different boundary conditions give the same Fermi wave vector and the same energy.
3. Fermi surface is the locus of points in reciprocal space where
For 1D metal, the Fermi surface is two points at .
For 2D metal, the Fermi surface is a circle.
For 3D metal, the Fermi surface is a sphere.
10 210
The radius of the "sphere" is called the Fermi wave vector .
4. Ground state energy
The total number of occupied states equal to the total number of electrons .
1. Box BC:
2. Periodic BC:
The ground state energy
Average energy per electron is
EXAMPLES:
10 211
EXAMPLES:
Typical value of metal
Fermi energy:
Fermi temperature:
At room temperature we are not very far from the ground-state configuration.
10 212
10-3 Thermal Properties
8:30 PM
A. ELECTRONIC SPECIFIC HEAT
(1) Internal energy
(2) Useful formula

1. Sommerfeld expansion (Integration technique)
2. Identity
(3) The internal energy becomes
(4) The electronic specific heat is
(5) Specific heat of metal

1. The total specific heat of a metal at low temperature takes the form
where is the eletronic specific heat and is due to lattice vibrations. As the temperature is
reduced, approaches zero far more rapidly than the eletronic specific heat.
EXAMPLES:
10 213
EXAMPLES:
Low temperature specific heat of copper
2. Specific heat of metal
3. Specific heat of insulator & metal
OS:
James William Rohlf, Modern Physics from to , Wiley, 1994.
Strong experimental deviations from this number are observed for, for instance, , ,
, , and .
B. ELECTRONIC THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
(1) Fourier's Law: the ratio of the thermal current to the magnitude of the temperature gradient
(2) Free electrons
10 214
(2)
C. ELECTRON-PHONON SCATTERING
(1) Low temperature: Electrons mainly scatter off defects as there aren't many phonons around, and those
that are presented have long wavelengths and don't see the electrons.
constant
(2) Intermediate temperature
(3) High temperature
D. HEAT CARRIED BY PHONONS
10 215
D. HEAT CARRIED BY PHONONS
(1) Thermal conductivity in non-metals: electrons are not free, so now heat is mainly carried by phonons.
(2) Low temperature: long wavelength phonons do not see impurities, so the mean free path is limited only
by the size of the sample.
Intermediate temperature:
High temperature:
10 216
10-4 Electronic Conduction
8:30 PM
A. RELAXATION TIME
(1) Total cross section
Total scattering centers: , where is scattering centers per unit volume.
(2) Incident flux on one scattering center
where is the incident particles and is the mean velocity.
(3) The number of scattered particles in all directions by all scattering centers is
The collision probability per unit time for one scattering center is
(4) The relaxation time is
The mean free path is
B. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY DUE TO ELECTRON-PHONON SCATTERING
(1) Low temperature (electron-defect collisions)

constant
constant
(2) Intermediate temperature (electron-acoustic phonon collisions)

The thermal energy causes the lattice ions vibrating.
The total energy of phonons is
10 217
The total energy of phonons is
Since each phonon has energy

The number of phonons is
The cross section seen by the electron depends upon the deviations of the lattice ions. The scattering
cross section is
(3) High temperature (electron-phonon collisions)

The number of phonons is
The vibration of lattice
The cross section is
(4) Wiedermann-Franz law
10 218
10-5 Band Theory of Solids
8:22 PM
A. BAND
(1) 1927, Walter Heitler and Fritz London discovered bands - very closely spaced orbitals with not much
difference in energy.
(2) When two atoms are brought together, the spatial wavefunctions overlap each other and form either
symmetric or antisymmetric wavefunction.
EXAMPLES:
Merging of two potential wells into one potential well
The bonding orbital has lower energy than the antibonding orbital.
(3) Combine multiple atoms
10 219
B. BLOCH THEOREM (1928)
(1) Constant potential
(2) Periodic potential

Felix Bloch: The electrons can sneak by all ions in a metal because the wave differed from the plane
wave by a periodic modulation.
where and is the periodic spacing of the potential.
(3) Bloch wavefunction
Alternative
(4) Crystal momentum
C. KRONIG-PENNEY MODEL (1931)
10 220
C. KRONIG-PENNEY MODEL (1931)

Region
Region
et
(2) Bloch wavefunction
Solutions
(3) Boundary conditions
Let and , i.e.
The barrier potential becomes a periodic array of Dirac delta functions.
10 221
(4) Free electrons
Bound electrons
is finite
Electrons in a solid
10 222
(5) Number of states
D. CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS, AND SEMOCONDUCTORS
(1) Full/Empty band
10 223
Empty bands carry no current
Full bands carry no current
(2) Partial filled bands
When electric eld is applied, electrons accelerate, lling some of the states to the right and
emptying -states to the left. Since there are an unequal number of left-moving versus right-moving
electrons, the situation on the right represents net current ow.
A band diagram with two bands shown where each atom has one electron so that the
lowest band is exactly half lled, and is therefore a metal.
OS:
One thing we might conclude at this point is that any system where the unit cell has a
single valence electron (so the rst Brillouin zone is half-full) must be a metal. Monovalent atoms
are atoms that may gain 1 electron or lose 1 electron.
10 224
10-6 Semiconductors
8:22 PM
A. EFFECTIVE MASS
(1) Free electron
(2) Bloch electron
e ti e mass
(3) The behavior of electrons near the band edge is of considerable interest.
Constant masses are at the band edge.
10 225
B. SEMICONDUCTOR BAND STRUCTURE
Near , typical semiconductor band structure is approximated using the parabolic relations.
The energy in the conduction band
The energy in the valence band
C. INTRINSIC (PURE) SEMICONDUCTORS
(1) Electrons in the conduction band
The DOS (density of states)
For , i.e., or
(2) Holes in the valence band (A hole is the absence of an electron)
electron
hole
For
10 226
(3) In an intrinsic semiconductor
The chemical potential lies in the middle of the band gap.
D. EXTRINSIC (DOPED) SEMICONDUCTORS
(1) -type semiconductor
EXAMPLES:
doped with . donates an electron.
(2) -type semiconductor
10 227
EXAMPLES:
doped with . a has 3 valence electrons.
E. DIODES
(1) - junction
Due to diffusion of the holes and the electrons, the junction region is carrier free called depletion
region.
Band diagram
10 228
(2) Diodes
Band diagram under bias
characteristic
10 229
F. TRANSISTORS
"B" (Base), "C" (Collector) and "E" (Emitter)
We provide a reservoir of water for "C" (the "power supply voltage") but it can't move because there's
a big red plunger thing in the way which is blocking the outlet to "E". The reservoir of water is called
the "supply voltage". If we increase the amount of water sufficiently, it will burst our transistor just the
same as if we increase the voltage to a real transistor. We don't want to do this, so we keep that
"supply voltage" at a safe level.
If we pour water current into "B" this current flows along the "Base" pipe and pushes that black
plunger thing upwards, allowing quite a lot of water to flow from "C" to "E". Some of the water from
"B" also joins it and flows away. If we pour even more water into "B", the black plunger thing moves up
further and a great torrent of water current flows from "C" to "E".
A tiny amount of current flowing into "B" allows a large amount to flow from "C" to "E" so we
have an "amplification effect". We can control a BIG flow of current with a SMALL flow of
current. If we continually change the small amount of water flowing into "B" then we cause
corresponding changes in the LARGE amount of water flowing from "C" to "E". For example, if we
measure the current flow in gallons/minute: Suppose 1 gallon/minute flowing into "B" allows 100
gallons/minute to flow from "C" to "E" then we can say that the transistor has a "gain" or
"amplification" factor of 100 times. In a real transistor we measure current in thousandths of an
Ampere or "milliamps". So 1mA flowing into "B" would allow 100mA to flow from "C" to "E".
The amount of current that can flow from "C" to "E" is limited by the "pipe diameter". So, no
matter how much current we push into "B", there will be a point beyond which we can't get any
more current flow from "C" to "E". The only way to solve this problem is to use a larger
transistor. A "power transistor".
The transistor can be used to switch the current flow on and off. If we put sufficient current into
"B" the transistor will allow the maximum amount of current to flow from "C" to "E". The
transistor is switched fully "on".
If the current into "B" is reduced to the point where it can no longer lift the black plunger thing,
the transistor will be "off". Only the small "leakage" current from "B" will be flowing. To turn it
fully off, we must stop all current flowing into "B".
PNP and NPN transistor
10 230
10 231
10-7 Quantum Hall Effect
8:30 PM
A. CLASSICAL HALL EFFECT (1879)
(1) In the presence of a magnetic field (weak field) and an electric field
(2) Cyclotron frequency

The Lorentz force
Under the magnetic field, the electron moves circularly. Supposing the centrifugal force is equal to the
Lorentz force, the cyclotron frequency is
(3) The external magnetic field induce an effective electric field . The induced field is coupled to .
The Newton's equations become
(4) The conductivity tensor & resistivity tensor
10 232
(5) Hall resistivity
B. INTEGER QUANTUM HALL EFFECT
(1) Two-dimensional metal at
The resistance is quantized in units of divided by an integer.
(2) Quantum theory
10 233
The difference in the QHE is that the Hall resistance can not change from the quantised value for the
whole time the Fermi energy is in a gap, i.e, between the fields (a) and (b) in the diagram, and so a
plateau results. Only when case (c) is reached, with the Fermi energy in the Landau level, can the Hall
voltage change and a finite value of resistance appear.
C. FRACTIONAL QUANTUM HALL EFFECT
In very high mobility samples extra plateaux appear between the regular quantum Hall plateaux, at
resistances given by divided by a rational fraction instead of an integer.
In the integer effect, gaps are due to magnetic quantisation of the single particle motion, in the
fractional effect the gaps arise from collective motion of all the electrons in the system.
Hamiltonian
For the state at filling factor 1/3 Laughlin found a many body wavefunction with a lower energy than
the single particle energy. This can also be adopted at any fraction , but the energy
difference is smaller at higher m and hence the fractions become weaker along the series 1/3, 1/5,
1/7....
10 234
10-8 Superconductivity
8:30 PM
A. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Experiments Theory
1911 H. Kammerlingh Onnes discovered that the 1934 H. and F. London explained the Meissner effect
electric resistance goes to zero when mercury is using Maxwell equation and constitutive equations
cooled at about 4.2 K. of the electromagnetic theory.
1933 Meissner and Ochsenfeld discovered that 1934 Gorter and Casimir explained the
the superconducting state is a diamagnetic thermodynamic behavior of the superconducting
state. state using two fluids model.
1941 Discovery of high transition temperature in
(15 K).
1950 Reynolds, Maxwell, Serin, Wright and 1950 Ginzburg and Landau explained
Kesbitt discovered the isotopic effect. superconductivity in terms of an order parameter
1955 Wilkinson et al. showed that the using a phenomenological theoretical model.
superconducting transition is occurring in the 1950 Frhlich proposes the importance of the
momentum space with the neutron electron-phonon interaction in superconductivity to
experiments. explain the isotopic effect.
1961 Giaever experiments using tunnel junctions 1956 L. Cooper proposed the instability of the Fermi
that show the existence of the energy gap in a sea by pairing two electrons with opposing
superconductor. momentum and spin up , and down .
1957 Bardeen Cooper and Schriffer theory (BCS
theory) that explain from the microscopic point of
view the electronic pairing mechanism that lead to
the superconducting behavior of materials, based in
the electron-phonon interaction.
1959 Gor'kov shows the equivalence between the
Ginzburg-Landau theory and the BCS theory in the
limit close to the critical temperature.
1964 Josephson demonstrated the existence of a
superconducting current (in absence of voltage)
through a tunneling device made with two
superconductors separated by a weak constriction.
1965 Eliashberg theory.
1970 Theoretical models based on BCS theory
explained why the maximum transition temperature
of superconductors must be about 30 K.
1986 Bednorz and Mller reported on the
discovery of a new Copper based ceramic which
has a maximum transition temperature of about
30 K.
1987 Discovery of the
superconducting compound by the group of P.
Chu.
1994 The pairing mechanism in the high
cuprates have an order parameter in which the
symmetry is primarily of type .
1996 Last experiments by IBM's group shows
that the symmetry of the order parameter is of
-wave character. The implications of this fact is
that antiferromagnetic fluctuations can generate
this type of symmetry in the order parameter.
Accordingly then, electron-phonon coupling as
10 235
Accordingly then, electron-phonon coupling as
the main mechanism for the electron pairing is
almost discarded.
B. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
(1) Metal
Perfect conductor
(2) Superconductor
Zero resistance by H. Kammerlingh Onnes (1911)
C. MEISSNER EFFECT
(1) perfect conductor: paramagnetism
superconductor: diamagnetism
(2) London theory
London & London assumed
10 236
where the London penetration depth
D. TYPE I & TYPE II SUPERCONDUCTORS
(1) Type I superconductor
Critical magnetic field as a function of temperature
(2) Type II superconductor
Critical magnetic field as a function of temperature
10 237
(3) The penetration and inverse magnetization
BCS THEORY (1957)
(1) In a normal conductor, electrons collide with each other and ions. (Ion vibration increases resistivity)
Zero resistance means no collision between electrons and ions.
(2) The isotope effect (1950) (evidence for phonon interaction)
The lattice ions are involved in superconductivity.

OS:
Confliction: acoustic phonon increases resistivity and benefits superconductivity.
(3) In the superconducting state, when two electrons are near the Fermi energy level, they could couple to
form a new particle via phonon (weak attractive force).
10 238
OS:
When an electron passing through the ions, its negative charge will attract the nearby ions
shifting toward itself. The ions' moving, therefore, cause an electron-induced phonon (not a
thermal excited phonon). As the electron goes far away, the phonon will continue to propagate
forward and attract the other electron.
The most energetically favorable situation for this to occur is when two electrons have a total spin of
zero and a total momentum of zero.
OS:
Cooper pair:
The wavefunction of a Cooper pair is . All the pairs have the same phase (phase coherent).
OS:
At low temperatures thermal agitation is minimal, and that all of the Cooper pairs can occupy the
lowest possible energy state. Thus, no energy exchanges can take place, and the energy loss due
to resistance is not possible. The Cooper pairs move through the superconducting material
without being impeded; therefore, it has zero electrical resistance and exhibits superconductivity.
That is possible at a certain temperature because all the particles in a bosonic system would drop
into the ground state and lose their individual characteristics, and their wave-functions would be
unified.
(4) Superconducting energy gap
Superconducting energy gap : the energy cost to create two un-paired electrons, or
the energy cost to break a Cooper pair.
(5) Gap size for a superconductor as a function of temperature.
10 239
E. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING
STS experiments Ivar Giaever (1962)
Density of states
F. FLUX QUANTIZATION
10 240
The wavefunction of a Cooper pair is
The electric current density
where
In the interior and , i.e.
because must be single-valued.

By the stokes theorem,
G. SPECIFIC HEAT
In magnetic field, we define a Gibbs free energy
10 241
At the normal and superconducting phase are in equilibrium.
For ,
Specific heat
At , is discontinuity (second order transition)

At ,
H. JOSEPHSON JUNCTION
OS:
If two superconducting regions are kept totally isolated from each other the phases of the
electron-pairs in the two regions will be unrelated. If the two regions are brought together then
as they come close electron-pairs will be able to tunnel across the gap and the two electron-pair
waves will become coupled. As the separation decreases, the strength of the coupling increases.
The tunneling of the electron-pairs across the gap carries with it a superconducting current as
predicted by B.D. Josephson and is called "Josephson tunneling" with the junction between the
two superconductors called a "Josephson junction"
Dc Josephson current: current-phase relation
where is the critical current
10 242
10-9 Magnetism
8:30 PM
A. MAGNETIC SPIN SUSCEPTIBILITY
(1) Bohr-von Leeuwen theorem

The partition function of a classical system
where is the Hamiltonian without the field, and
Since the partition function does not depend on the applied field
The system has no magnetic response, and thus no magnetism.

The majority of magnetism arises due to the electron spin.
(2) Magnetic susceptibility
where is the magnetic moment and is the magnetization
where is the external field
Paramagnetism:
Diamagnetism:
B. ITINERANT ELECTRONS
(1) Langevin diamagnetism (1905: classical electron gas)
where is the number of atoms per unit volume and is the radius of the electron loops.
(2) Pauli paramagnetism (1925: spin response)

In a metal,
1.
10 243
2. Apply an external field , energy levels shift
At equilibrium, electrons in the shaded region (up spin) go into lower energy states (down spin)
and flip spins.
The number of down spins is larger than the number of up spins. Overall, this imbalance causes an
overall magnetization.
At as
(3) Landau diamagnetism (1930: orbital response)
10 244
The total susceptibility of a metal is
OS:
In the presence of a magnetic field and
The energy of a state is
The density of states is
The free energy is
At
Let
For large , we use the Euler-Maclaurin formula
10 245
(4) Magnetism in metal
C. EXCHANGE INTERACTION (c.f. )
(1) Product state

There are 4 different states. The total wavefunction of each state must be antisymmetric (Pauli
principle).
OS:
Assume one site has one energy state
Only is satisfied the Pauli principle which is not enough to describe the ferromagnetism and
antiferromagnetism.
Assume one site has two energy states.
(2) Two approaches to write down all wavefunctions.

Two-electron configuration
10 246
Slater determinant
In Slater determinant, you don't need to know all configurations. You just follow the rules
and then, thereafter, correctly write down all possible wavefunctions.
(3) Electron-electron interaction
The Hamiltonian matrix becomes
and are eigenstates of . The are the components of the triplet state
There remains a matrix to be solved.
Four degenerate states are splitted into 3 triplet states and 1 singlet state.
Eigenstates are
10 247
We want to rewrite the operator in terms of the spin operators and of the individual electron
spins. Add two spins
The energy difference between the triplet and singlet states is .

We can write
Within the 4-element subspace, the electron-electron interaction can be described as an ''exchange
Hamiltonian'' that contains only the spin operators.
(4) In general, keeping the orbital components fixed.
The electron-electron interaction can be expressed by spin operators. is called the exchange coupling
constant.
1. FERROMAGNETISM
Direct exchange in orthogonal orbitals favors ferromagnetism.

2. ANTIFERROMAGNETISM
Direct exchange in orthogonal orbitals favors antiferromagnetism.
OS:
Considering the exchange interaction only, the electron-electron interaction can be described as
an ''exchange Hamiltonian'' that contains only the spin operators. Thus we have an e ective spin-
spin interaction entirely due to exchange integral.
This appealing possibility was first noticed by Dirac.
10 248
11-1 The Composition of the Nucleus
8:30 PM
The number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number
Fundamental properties of atomic constitutes
11 249
11-2 Radioactivity
8:30 PM
(1) Decay rate
(2) Mean life

1. Method 1:
2. Method 2:
The fraction with life time in is
(3) Half life
11 250
11-3 Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay
8:30 PM
A. ALPHA DECAY
value: the kinetic energy released in the decay of the particle at rest (the decay energy)
(1) From conservation of energy
where is the mass of nucleus and is the mass of atom
(2) From conservation of momentum

Assuming parent nucleus at rest and
B. BEAT DECAY
(1) Decay
where is the electron antineutrino and the rest mass of antineutrino , no charge,
(2) Decay (positron decay)
(3) Electron Capture
Usually occur in shell, also called capture.
11 251
EXAMPLES:
decay:
decay:
decay:
Electron Capture:
C. GAMMA DECAY
(1) From conservation of momentum
The kinetic energy of the nucleus (recoil)
(2) Mssbauer effect: recoilless nuclear resonance fluorescence involves the

resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma radiation by atomic nuclei bound in a solid.
11 252
11-4 The Nuclear Force
8:30 PM
A. POTENTIAL BARRIER FOR DECAY
(1) In repulsive Coulomb region to
where is the atomic number of the nucleus
(2) Tunneling rate:
where and are constant

The Coulomb potential energy of two protons in a nucleus
From the tunneling rate, to stick a proton on a neutron from is about .
B. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NUCLEAR FORCE
(1) The Fermi model
where is the infinite square well.
The potential for a nucleon is approximately
11 253
Assume for protons or neutrons
(2) Binding energy
(3) The nuclear force is stronger than the electromagnetic force. Therefore, the nuclear force is also called
strong force.
1. Attractive
2. Independent on charge
3. Short range
11 254
11-5 The Shell Model
8:22 PM
A. BINDING ENERGY OF THE NUCLEUS
Energy required to break the nucleus into its constituent nucleons.
Greater the binding energy, more difficult it is to break a nucleus into its separate constituents.
B. LIQUID DROP MODEL
(1) Estimate the binding energy of a given nucleus with a "semi-epmirical" model.
Nucleus: Collection of interacting particles in a liquid drop of nuclear matter
Bethe-Weizscker mass formula (1935)
1. Volume energy
2. Surface energy
3. Coulomb energy
4. Asymmetry energy
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(2) Nuclear Stability
A nuclei with are very stable
C. SHELL MODEL
(1) In nuclei, protons and neutrons are separately distributed over certain energy states subject to the
Pauli exclusion principle.
(2) Simple shell model
where is (a) infinite spherical well or (b) parabolic potential well

Quantum numbers
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A central force potential is ONLY able to account for the first three magic number 2, 8, 20, but not the
remaining four 28, 50, 82, 126.
(3) Spin-orbit coupling by Mayer, Jensen and Suess (1949)
where is an attractive central potential, is the nuclear spin angular momentum, is the nuclear
orbital angular momentum, and .
Quantum numbers
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11-6 Applications
8:22 PM
A. NEUTRON SCATTERING
(1) Scattering interaction

An "ideal" probe might be one that has a wavelength similar to the spacing between atoms, in order to
study structure with atomic resolution, and an energy similar to that of atoms in materials in order to
study their dynamics. It would have no charge, to avoid strong scattering by charges on the electrons or
the nucleus and allow deep penetration into material. It would be scattered to a similar extent by both
light and heavy atoms and have a suitable magnetic moment so that we cam also easily study
magnetism. The scattering cross-section would be precisely measurable on an absolute scale, to
facilitate comparison with theory and computer modeling.
Salient features:
Electrons are charges and experience strong, long-range Coulomb interactions in a solid. They
therefore typically only penetrated a few atomic layers into the solid. Electron scattering is
therefore a surface-sensitive probe. Electrons with wavelengths comparable to interatomic
distance ( ) have energies of several tens of electron volts, comparable to energies of
plasmons and interband transitions in solids. Electrons scattering is therefore well suited as a
probe of these high-energy excitations.
Neutrons are uncharged and do not experience Coulomb interaction. The strong-force
interaction is naturally strong but very short-range, and the magnetic interaction is long-range
but weak. Neutrons therefore penetrate deeply into most materials, so that neutron scattering is
a bulk probe. Neutrons with have energies of several tens of , comparable to the
thermal energies at room temperature. These so-called "thermal neutrons" are excellent
probes of low-energy excitations such as lattice vibrations and spin waves with energies in the
range.
80 years of neutrons: a timeline

1932 James Chadwick discovers the neutron. He receives the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935 for
discovering the missing part of the atom.
1938 Enrico Fermi receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work investigating the atomic scattering and
absorption cross-sections of slow and thermal neutrons.
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absorption cross-sections of slow and thermal neutrons.
1946 Ernest Wollan and Clifford Shull, using the Graphite reactor at Oak Ridge Naitonal Laboratory, USA,
establish the basic principles of the neutron diffraction technique. They prove the existence of
antiferromagnetism as predicted by Louis Nel who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1970.
1955 The first measurements of phonons from a prototype triple-axis spectrometer built by Bertran N
Brockhouse confirm the quantum theory of solids.
1956 The Dido research reactor comes online at the Harwell Laboratory. This helped the UK to develop
neutron scattering techniques for materials research.
1972 The Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) in Grenoble, one of the most intense thermal neutron sources in
the world, comes into operation. It exploits the use of neutron optics (guides) to substantially
increase the experimental capacity of a neutron source.
ZING-P and ZING-P pulsed spallation neutron source concepts are demonstrated by Jack
Carpenter at Argonne National Laboratory.
1974 Small angle neutron scattering shows that polymer chains in the liquid state have a random coil
conformation as predicted by Paul J Flory. He wins the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his
fundamental achievements in understanding macromolecules.
1984 The ISIS pulsed spallation neutron source opens at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. It is the
first major neutron user facility based on a high-energy proton accelerator.
1987 J. Georg Bednorz and K. Alexander Mller receive the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of
high temperature superconductors. Later, neutron spectroscopy shows that magnetic interactions
are crucial to this phenomenon.
1991 Pierre-Gilles de Gennes receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on liquid crystals and
polymers. Neutron spin-echo spectroscopy was used to validate his models of the snake-like
polymer repetition dynamics of polymers.
1994 Clifford Shull and Bertram Brockhouse receive the Nobel Prize in Physics for pioneering the
development of neutron scattering techniques that can show where atoms are and what
atoms do.
2001 ILL millennium upgrade begins with over a 20 fold increase in detection rate within a decade.
2009 Next-generation accelerator based pulsed neutron sources come online in the UK (ISIS Target
Station 2), Japan (J-PARC) and USA (SNS) opening up new areas of science
2010 Lund, Sweden, is chosen as the site for the European Spallation Source. Construction is planned to
be complete by the end of the decade.
(1) Interaction of neutrons with matter
(2) Remark of the scattering theory
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1. Classical scattering theory:
where is the radius of the nucleus as seen by the neutron (impact parameter).
2. Quantum scattering theory:
where is the scattering amplitude and is the probability current.
(3) Elastic neutron scattering

Since the incident and outgoing neutrons are free particles, we have
1. The incident neutron flux is
alternative:
The outgoing neutron flux is the transition rate (Fermi's Golden Rule)
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For short range strong force, use Born approximate interaction potential for single nucleus.
where is the scattering length of the nucleus and measures the strength of the neutron -nucleus
interaction.
2. Total cross section:
For low energies of the incident particle the details of the scattering potential are unimportant,
only how the potential looks from far away. This is because at low energies the particle is not
going to actually touch the object producing the scattering potential. The scattering length is a
measure of how far from the potential the details become important.
Born approximation for the lattice of nuclei:
where is the scattering length of the nucleus at lattice site (the position of nucleus).
3. For a single isotope:
where is the total number of unit cells and is the volume of the unit cell. For most , matrix
elements are very small because phase factors contributed by different nuclei cancel out. Matrix
element is large only for (reciprocal lattice vector, defined as ). If this condition
is satisfied, the constructive interference leads to a huge enhancement (Bragg peak) of the
scattering rate.
If all nuclei are identical:
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If all nuclei are identical:
4. For many isotopes:
where denotes the average over isotopes and nuclear spin states
where the first term is the coherent scattering and the second term is the incoherent scattering.
In a small-angle scattering experiment, coherent scattering contributes to the resonant signal. On
the other hand, incoherent scattering contributes to the background signal and degrades signal
to noise.
OS:
Coherent scattering: the scattered waves from all the nuclei have definite relative phases
and thus interfere with each other.
Incoherent scattering: the scattered waves from different nuclei have random, or
indeterminate relative phases and thus cannot interfere with each other.
For a given isotope, one has to average over the scattering lengths for and for
for nuclear spin . The number of states for these two situations is:
for
for
Since there are no correlations between -value for different nuclei, we have
where denotes the different naturally occurring isotopes and is their relative abundance.
B. NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE
(1) Net magnetization

When an nucleus spin is placed in a magnetic field, a torque is exerted on the nucleus spin, causing its
magnetic moment to precess about the magnetic field.
Larmor frequency:
The nucleus spin are characterized by two quantum states, one with its magnetic moment parallel to
and one antiparallel.
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(2) The parallel state has lower energy and at thermal equilibrium, there is a surplus of nucleus spins in the
parallel state according to the Boltzmann distribution. Therefore, there should be a net magnetization
parallel to the -axis.
(3) Magnetization in the rotating frame
The magnetic field will rotate the magnetization about the + -axis ( Is parallel to the x-axis) as long
as the microwaves are applied.
Rabi frequency:
Transition between the energy levels can be induced using RF pulse.
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Transition between the energy levels can be induced using RF pulse.
(4) Relaxation
When we tipped the magnetization into the - plane, it remained there with the same magnitude.
Because the nucleus spins interact with their surroundings, the magnetization in the - plane will
decay away and eventually the magnetization will once more return to alignment with the -axis. This
process is called relaxation and is characterized by two constants, and .
1. Spin-lattice relaxation time (longitudinal magnetization): describes how quickly the
magnetization returns to alignment with the -axis.
2. Spin-spin relaxation time (transverse magnetization): describes how quickly the magnetization
in the - plane disappears.
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12-1 Basic Concepts
8:30 PM
A. INTERACTIONS
Yukawa suggested in 1935, the nuclear force results from a exchange particle called meson.
The force between two objects can be described as the exchange of a particle. The exchange particle
transfer momentum and energy between the two objects, and is said to mediate the interaction.
The potential energy associated with each force acting between two particles is characterized by both
the strength of the interaction and the range over which the interaction takes place. In each case the
strength is determined by a coupling constant, the range is characterized by the mass of the exchange
particle.
B. FEYNMAN DIAGRAMS
(1) Rule:
1. Two kind of lines: a straight line with an arrow or a wiggly line
2. Vertex:
You must have exactly one arrow going into the vertex and exactly one arrow coming out.
3. Every line must connect to at least one vertex:
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4. Topology:
(2) Physics: We read the diagrams from left to right (or bottom to top).
EXAMPLES:
The interaction with a photon
an electron emits a photon and keeps going.

a positron absorbs a photon and keeps going.
an electron and positron annihilate into a photon.
a photon spontaneously "pair produces" and electron and positron.
EXAMPLES:
The external lines correspond to incoming or outgoing particles and the internal lines represent virtual
particles that are never directly observed.
The electron and positron annihilate into a photon which then produces another electron -positron pair.
An electron tosses a photon to a nearby positron (without ever touching the positron).
EXAMPLES:
Compton scattering
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12-2 Fundamental Interactions and the Force Carriers
8:30 PM
A. FUNDAMENTAL INTERACTION
(1) Structure of Matter
(2) Fundamental Interaction
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B. FEYNMAN DISGRAMS
C. THE STANDARD MODEL - A SUMMARY
12 268
12 269
12-3 Conservation Laws and Symmetries
8:30 PM
A. TOTALITARIAN PRINCIPLE
Any localized particle of finite mass should be unstable, since the decay into several smaller particles
provides many more ways to distribute the energy, and thus would have higher entropy.
Every process that is not forbidden must occur
Any decay process which is expected but not observed must be prevented from occuring by some
conservation law.
B. LEPTON NUMBER
EXAMPLES:
EXAMPLES:
EXAMPLES:
C. BARYON NUMBER
Baryons are massive particles which are made up of three quarks in the standard model. This class of
particles includes the proton and neutron. Other baryons are the , , , and particles. Baryons are
distinct from mesons in that mesons are composed of only two quarks.
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Baryon number is conserved in all interactions. All baryons have baryon number , all
antibaryons have , and all other particles are assigned .
EXAMPLES:
EXAMPLES:
D. STRANGENESS
Gell-Mann and Nishijima in 1952 explained the seemingly strange behavior of the heavy baryons and
mesons.
Strangeness is conserved by the strong and electromagnetic interactions. The strangeness of the
ordinary hadrons (nucleons and pions) are chosen to be zero.
EXAMPLES:
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E. ISOSPIN
Isospin is a dimensionless quantity associated with the fact that the strong interaction is independent of
electric charge. Isospin is a term introduced to describe groups of particles which have nearly the same
mass.
EXAMPLES:
and n
This doublet of particles to have isospin , with projection for the proton and for the
neutron.
EXAMPLES:
Three pions compse a triplet, i.e., isospin . The projections are for , and for the and .
EXAMPLES:
F. HYPERCHARGE
Gell-Mann-Nishijima formula: Isospin is related to other quantum numbers for the particles by
G. TCP INVARIANCE
(1) Time reversal ( )

Charge conjugation (particle antiparticle)
Parity ( )
The parity quantum number can have only the values or .
Time reversal, Charge conjugation, and Parity is considered to be a fundamental symmetry operation -
all physical particles and interactions appear to be invariant under this combination.
(1) Violation
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12-3 Supplement - Conservation Laws and Symmetries
8:30 PM
Noether's theorem: For every continuous symmetry, there are corresponding quantities whose values
are conserved. - - - -
The root of all symmetry principles lies in the assumption that it is impossible to observe certain basic
quantities; these will be called "non-observable".
EXAMPLES:
Consider the interaction energy between two particles at position and . The assumption that the
absolute position is a non-observable means that we can arbitrarily choose the origin from which
these position vectors are drawn; the interaction energy should be independent of . In other words,
is invariant under an arbitrary space translation, changing to ;
We deduce that the total momentum of this system of two particles must be conserved.
Non-observables Symmetry Transformation Conservation of Laws

Difference between identical particles Permutation Bose-Einstein or Fermi-Dirac
statistics
Absolute spatial position Space translation Momentum
Absolute time Time translation Energy
Absolute spatial direction Rotation Angular momentum
Absolute right or absolute left Reflection Parity
Absolute sign of electric charge Charge conjugation
Relative phase between states of Charge
different charge
Relative phase between states of Baryon number
different baryon number
Relative phase between states of Lepton number
different lepton number
Difference between different coherent isospin
mixture of and states
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12-4 Beyond the Standard Model
8:22 PM
A. MASSIVE NEUTRINOS
Quantum mechanics requires that if neutrinos oscillate from one type to another, then they must have
mass.
After time , the neutrino has traveled a distance , and the wavefunctions become
The probability of a neutrino at will be observed to have changed or oscillated to a neutrino , is

given by
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Modern Physics

Dr. Hong-Yi Chen

National Taiwan Normal University

Application of Quantum Mechanics

2. Robert Eisberg & Robert Resnick, Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules,

(1) Inertia reference frame:

(3) Galilean transformation:

(1) James Clerk Maxwells equations

(2) Maxwell's equations are not invariant under Galilean transformation.

2. Put a test charge at . The Lorentz force is

THE MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT

(1) Michelson interferometer:

The shift in the ineterference pattern

Width of fringe is detectable

(2) Experimental results:

(1) Einstein's postulates in special relativity

(2) Time dilation

(1) Galilean transformation

(2) Lorentz transformation

The path of light in and frame

(4) Maxwell's equations are invariant under Lorentz transformation

Lorentz transformation: in four dimensional coordinates

B. RELATIVISTIC VELOCITY TRANSFORMATIONS

1. The relative speed of 2 with respect to 1

2. The relative speed of 1 with respect to 2

(1) Spacetime diagram (Minkowski diagram)

An event is described by called spacetime coordinates.

(2) Diagram for two inertial frame and

proper time in frame

proper length in frame

The speed of particle in the cosmic ray is

D. THE SPACETIME INTERVAL

is invariant under a Lorentz transformation

(1) World line

(3) Spacetime interval invariant

(1) Classical Doppler effect

(2) Logitudinal relativistic Doppler effect

Source approaches observer

Consider time dilation:

Source recedes observer

A. ERNST MACH PRINCIPLE (1893)

Mass is an expression of relative motion of bodies

(1) Ball A is at rest in frame and ball B is at rest in frame.

(2) Elastic collision of two identical particles

For ball A (magnitude only):

For Ball B (magnitude only):

(3) The conservation of y-component of the momentum

(5) The definition of relativistic momentum

(1) Newton's second law

The relativistic energy

(2) For a particle at rest relative to an observer,

(1) Inelastic collision of two identical particles

(2) In the frame

The energy is conserved in frame.

C. LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION OF AND

A. MASS ENERGY CONVERSION

(1) Inelastic collision of two identical particles

(2) In the frame (Lab frame)

The final momentum

(1) Binding energy (absorb energy)

(2) Reaction energy (release energy)

Symmetry is a type of invariance.

is invariant under coordinate inversion.

The potential is translational invariant conservation of momentum