Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 401413
Review
By-products of
plant food
processing as a
source of
functional
compounds
recent
developments
A. Schieber,* F.C. Stintzing and
R. Carle
Hohenheim University, Institute of Food Technology,
Section Plant Foodstu Technology, Garbenstrasse
25, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany (tel.: +49-711-459-
3125; fax: +49-711-459-4110; e-mail:
schieber@uni-hohenheim.de)
There is a rapidly growing body of literature covering the
role of plant secondary metabolites in food and their
potential eects on human health. Furthermore, consumers
are increasingly aware of diet related health problems,
therefore demanding natural ingredients which are expec-
ted to be safe and health-promoting. By-products of plant
food processing represent a major disposal problem for the
industry concerned, but they are also promising sources of
compounds which may be used because of their favourable
technological or nutritional properties. The purpose of this
review is to highlight the potential of selected by-products
as a source of functional compounds. # 2002 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
* Corresponding author.
09242244/01/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 92 4 - 2 24 4 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 01 2 - 2
Introduction
Fruit juices and derived products such as nectars and
drinks have experienced growing popularity within the
last years. Grapes and apples are the most important
fruits in the temperate zone, while oranges, pineapples,
bananas, watermelons and mangos are the predominant
fruits of tropical and subtropical areas. Among other
reasons, the rise in consumption and export of pro-
cessed fruit juices, pulps and concentrates may be
attributed to better transportation and distribution sys-
tems, and improved cultivation and processing methods
(Askar, 1998). Per capita consumption of juice is highest
in Germany, accounting to more than 40 l in 1999
(Horenburg, 2001).
Fruits from the temperate zone are usually character-
ized by a large edible portion and moderate amounts of
waste material such as peels, seeds and stones. In con-
trast, considerably higher ratios of by-products arise
from tropical and subtropical fruit processing. Due to
increasing production, disposal represents a growing
problem since the plant material is usually prone to
microbial spoilage, thus limiting further exploitation.
On the other hand, costs of drying, storage and ship-
ment of by-products are economically limiting factors.
Therefore, agro-industrial waste is often utilized as feed
or as fertilizer. However, demand for feed may be
varying and dependent on agricultural yields. The pro-
blem of disposing by-products is further aggravated by
legal restrictions. Thus, ecient, inexpensive and envir-
onmentally sound utilization of these materials is
becoming more important especially since protability
and jobs may suer (Lowe & Buckmaster, 1995).
Epidemiological studies have pointed out that con-
sumption of fruits and vegetables imparts health bene-
ts, e.g. reduced risk of coronary heart disease and
stroke, as well as certain types of cancer. Apart from
dietary ber, these health benets are mainly attributed
to organic micronutrients such as carotenoids, poly-
phenolics, tocopherols, vitamin C, and others. There-
fore, a minimum of ve servings a day of vegetables and
fruits, especially of green and yellow vegetables and
citrus fruits, is recommended (Heimendinger & Cha-
pelsky, 1996). Although consumers are increasingly
aware of diet related health problems (Gilbert, 1997), a
large group of the population lacks a generous intake of
fruits and vegetables. Thus, dietary supplements and
food fortication may be an alternative route to the
402 A. Schieber et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 401413
consumption of minor plant components that may have
health benets. Since synthetic additives are more and
more rejected by consumers, functional ingredients
should preferably originate from natural sources. This is
particularly valid for phenolic compounds which, in
contrast to most carotenoids and vitamins, are not che-
mically synthesized and need to be extracted from plant
material.
The preparation of dietary ber from by-products has
already been summarized (Larrauri, 1999), and residual
sources of natural antioxidants were the subject of a
recent review (Moure et al., 2001). Therefore, the
objective of this review is to highlight the potential of
selected by-products of food processing as a source of
natural food additives and ingredients with particular
reference to investigations on the characterization of
low-molecular components.
By-products of fruit processing
Apple
The highly variable composition of apple (Malus sp.,
Rosaceae) pomace and possible strategies of utilization
have recently been reviewed (Kennedy et al., 1999a).
According to the authors, the ongoing eort indicates
that the ideal use has not yet been found. Production of
pectin is considered the most reasonable way of utilizing
apple pomace both from an economical and from an
ecological point of view (Endre, 2000; Fox, Asmussen,
Fischer, & Endre, 1991). In comparison to citrus pec-
tins, apple pectins are characterized by superior gelling
properties. However, the slightly brown hue of apple
pectins caused by enzymatic browning may lead to lim-
itations with respect to their use in very light-coloured
foods. Approaches at bleaching apple pomace by alka-
line peroxide treatment resulted in the loss of the poly-
phenols and in pectin degradation (Renard, Rohou,
Hubert, della Valle, Thibault, & Savina, 1997).
Apple pomace has been shown to be a good source of
polyphenols which are predominantly localized in the
peels and are extracted into the juice to a minor extent.
Major compounds isolated and identied include cate-
chins, hydroxycinnamates, phloretin glycosides, querce-
tin glycosides, and procyanidins (Foo & Lu, 1999;
Lommen, Godejohann, Venema, Hollman, & Spraul,
2000; Lu & Foo, 1997, 1998; Schieber, Keller, & Carle,
2001). Since some phenolic constituents have been
demonstrated to exhibit strong antioxidant activity in
vitro (Lu & Foo, 2000), commercial exploitation of
apple pomace for the recovery of these compounds
seems promising. Inhibitory eects of apple polyphenols
and related compounds on cariogenicity of streptococci
suggest their possible application in dentifrices (Yana-
gida, Kanda, Tanabe, Matsudaira, & Oliveira Cordeiro,
2000).
Enhanced release of phenolics by enzymatic liquefac-
tion with pectinases and cellulases represents an alter-
native approach at utilizing apple pomace (Will,
Bauckhage, & Dietrich, 2000), but does not allow the
recovery of pectin. Increasing eorts to improve juice
yields by enzymatic liquefaction might even lead to
shortages of apple pomace as a raw material. Further-
more, the use of cellulolytic enzymes for fruit juice pro-
duction is still restricted by law. Recently, a method for
the combined recovery of pectin and polyphenols from
apple pomace was established (Carle et al., 2001). Gel-
ling properties of colour-improved pectin were not
aected. Thus, removal especially of oxidized poly-
phenols provides rened pectin qualities with extended
elds of application. In addition, phenolic compounds
may be obtained in good yields since the clean-up pro-
cedure can easily be integrated in the technical pectin
production.
Grape
Apart from oranges, grapes (Vitis sp., Vitaceae) are
the worlds largest fruit crop with more than 60 million
tons produced annually. About 80% of the total crop is
used in wine making (Mazza & Miniati, 1993), and
pomace represents approximately 20% of the weight of
grapes processed. From these data it can be calculated
that grape pomace amounts to more than 9 million tons
per year. Five to seven million tons are reported by
other authors (Meyer, Jepsen, & Sorensen, 1998). Its
composition varies considerably, depending on grape
variety and technology of wine making.
A great range of products such as ethanol, tartrates,
citric acid, grape seed oil, hydrocolloids, and dietary
ber are recovered from grape pomace (Bravo & Saura-
Calixto, 1998; Girdhar & Satyanarayana, 2000; Hang,
1988; Igartuburu, Pando, Rodriguez Luis, & Gil-Ser-
rano, 1997; Nurgel & Canbas, 1998; Valiente, Arrigoni,
Esteban, & Amado, 1995). Anthocyanins, catechins,
avonol glycosides, phenolic acids and alcohols and
stilbenes are the principal phenolic constituents of grape
pomace. Anthocyanins have been considered the most
valuable components, and methods for their extraction
have been reported (Mazza, 1995; Mazza & Miniati,
1993). In Chardonnay grape pomace, 17 polyphenolic
constituents were identied by NMR spectroscopy (Lu
& Foo, 1999). Chardonnay pomace was also a source of
two unusual dimeric avanols (Foo, Lu, & Wong,
1998). Catechin, epicatechin, epicatechin gallate and
epigallocatechin were the major constitutive units of
grape skin tannins (Souquet, Cheynier, Brossaud, &
Moutounet, 1996). A new class of compounds, ami-
noethylthio-avan-3-ol conjugates, have been obtained
from grape pomace by thiolysis of polymeric proantho-
cyanidins in the presence of cysteamine (Torres &
Bobet, 2001).
Since grape and red wine phenolics have been
demonstrated to inhibit the oxidation of human low-
density lipoproteins (Frankel, Waterhouse, & Teissedre,
 A. Schieber et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 401413
1995; Teissedre, Frankel, Waterhouse, Peleg, & Ger-
man, 1996), a large number of investigations on the
recovery of phenolic compounds from grape pomace
has been initiated. From a nutritional point of view,
these phenolics are highly valuable since they are
absorbed to a large extent (Martin-Carron, Garcia-
Alonso, Goni, & Saura-Calixto, 1997). According to
Shrikhande (2000) who recently reviewed health-pro-
moting wine by-products, patent disclosures and
research studies evolving from the French Paradox
observations (Renaud & De Lorgeril, 1992) have been
instrumental in establishing a wine by-product phenol
industry.
The antioxidant activity of grape pomace (Larrauri,
Ruperez, & Saura-Calixto, 1996) has led to the devel-
opment of a new concept of antioxidant dietary ber
(Saura-Calixto, 1998). Drying of pomace at high tem-
peratures, however, may cause a signicant reduction of
extractable polyphenols and may also aect antioxidant
activity and free radical scavenging capacity (Larrauri et
al., 1997a, 1997b; Larrauri, Sanchez-Moreno, & Saura-
Calixto, 1998). Enzymatic treatment of grape pomace
enhanced release of phenolic compounds, as determined
by the Folin-Ciocalteu assay (Meyer et al., 1998).
However, the eects of this treatment on individual
phenolics were not investigated. Gamma irradiation
extended the shelf life of grape pomace and improved
anthocyanin yields (Ayed, Lu, &, Lacroix, 1999).
Extraction of crushed grape pomace with a mixture of
ethyl acetate and water yielded phenolic compounds
displaying antioxidant activities comparable to BHT in
the Rancimat test (Bonilla, Mayen, Merida & Medina,
1999). The use of superheated solvents for the extrac-
tion of phenolics from grape pomace has also been
recently described (Palma & Taylor, 1999). Grape seeds
are rich sources of polyphenolics, especially of procya-
nidins, which have been shown to act as strong anti-
oxidants and exert health-promoting eects (Fuleki &
Ricardo da Silva, 1997; Jayaprakasha, Singh, & Sakar-
iah, 2001; Kallithraka, Garcia-Viguera, Bridle, & Bak-
ker, 1995; Saito, Hosoyama, Ariga, Kataoka, &
Yamaji, 1998). Addition of supplementary quantities of
grape seeds to grape juice increased catechin and pro-
cyanidin contents of wines (Kovac, Alonso & Revilla,
1995).
Peach and apricot
Bitter apricot (Prunus armeniaca L., Rosaceae) seeds
are by-products of the apricot processing industry.
Apart from the use of apricot seed oil in cosmetics,
peeled seeds serve as a raw material for the production
of persipan. This requires debittering by hydrolysis of
amygdalin. Grinding, soaking and cooking considerably
reduced the total cyanogenic potential, however, the
products obtained were not considered safe for human
consumption (Tuncel, Nout, & Brimer, 1995). For
403
complete hydrolysis of cyanogenic glycosides, b-gluco-
sidase had to be added in considerable amounts,
whereas pectinase did not enhance amygdalin degrada-
tion (Tuncel et al., 1998). Pomace of wild apricot
proved to be a rich source of proteins but also contained
low levels of amygdalin. Growth inhibition observed
when rats were fed 30% wild apricot pomace as dry feed
was ameliorated by wetting of the meal (Gandhi,
Mukerji, Iyer, & Cherian, 1997). No toxic eects were
found when weanling rats were given a diet containing
10% apricot seed oil as the sole source of dietary fat
(Gandhi, Mulky, Mukerji, Iyer, & Cherian, 1997).
Besides apricot seeds, peach (Prunus persica L.
BATSCH, Rosaceae) seeds may also be used for the
production of persipan. Recently, the recovery of pectin
from fresh peach pomace has been described (Pagan &
Ibarz, 1999). Quality evaluation revealed that peach
pectin is highly methoxylated and has favourable gelling
properties (Pagan, Ibarz, Llorca, & Coll, 1999). While
storage of dry powdered pomace led to signicantly
higher pectin yields, quality parameters of the pectins
deteriorated (Pagan, Ibarz, Llorca, Pagan, & Barbosa-
Canovas, 2001).
Citrus fruits
Due to the large amounts being processed into juice, a
considerable by-product industry has evolved to utilize
the residual peels, membranes, seeds, and other com-
pounds. For a review, we refer to Braddock (1995) and
literature cited therein. Residues of citrus juice produc-
tion are a source of dried pulp and molasses, ber-pectin,
cold-pressed oils, essences, d-limonene, juice pulps and
pulp wash, ethanol, seed oil, pectin, limonoids and avon-
oids (Askar, & Treptow, 1998; Braddock, 1995; Ozaki,
Miyake, Inaba, Ayano, Ifuku, & Hasegawa, 2000;
Siliha, El-Sahy, Sulieman, Carle, & El-Badawy, 2000).
Fiber-pectins may easily be recovered from lime peels
and are characterized by high ber contents (Askar &
Treptow, 1998; Siliha et al., 1995). The main avonoids
found in citrus species are hesperidin, narirutin, nar-
ingin and eriocitrin (Mouly, Arzouyan, Gaydou, &
Estienne, 1994). Peel and other solid residues of lemon
waste mainly contained hesperidin and eriocitrin, while
the latter was predominant in liquid residues (Coll, Coll,
Laencine, & Tomas-Barberan, 1998). Citrus seeds and
peels were found to possess high antioxidant activity
(Bocco, Cuvelier, Richard, & Berset, 1998). Both in vitro
and in vivo studies have recently demonstrated health-
protecting eects of certain citrus avonoids (Kuo,
1996; Manthey, Grohmann, & Guthrie, 2001; Tanaka et
al., 1997). These ndings may enhance their elds of
application, thus making their recovery more protable.
Mango
Mango (Mangifera indica L., Anacardiaceae) is one
of the most important tropical fruits (Ramteke,
404 A. Schieber et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 401413
Vijayalakshmi, & Eipeson, 1999). Mango and mango
products experience worldwide popularity and have
gained increasing relevance also in the European market
(Loeillet, 1994). Major waste of mango processing are
peels and stones, amounting to 3560% of the total fruit
weight (Larrauri, Ruperez, Borroto, & Saura-Calixto,
1996).
Mango seed kernel fat is a promising source of edible
oil and has attracted attention since its fatty acid and
triglyceride prole is similar to that of cocoa butter.
Therefore, legislation has recently allowed mango seed
kernel fat to be used as a cocoa butter equivalent.
Mango seed kernels may also be used as a source of
natural antioxidants. The antioxidant principles were
characterized as phenolic compounds and phospholi-
pids (Puravankara, Boghra, & Sharma, 2000). The phe-
nolics were assumed to be mainly gallic and ellagic
acids, and gallates. In another study, gallotannins and
condensed tannin-related polyphenols were reported in
mango kernels (Arogba, 2000). Ethanolic extracts of
mango seed kernels displayed a broad antimicrobial
spectrum and were more eective against Gram-positive
than against Gram-negative bacteria. Their active com-
ponent was shown to be a polyphenolic-type structure,
however, its exact nature still remains to be elucidated
(Kabuki, Nakajima, Arai, Ueda, Kuwabara, & Dosako,
2000).
A standardized method for the recovery of good
quality mango peel pectin with a degree of esterication
of about 75% has recently been developed (Sudhakar &
Maini, 2000). Mango peels were also reported to be a
good source of dietary ber containing high amounts of
extractable polyphenolics (Larrauri et al., 1996). This
appreciable content was reected by high in vitro anti-
oxidant activity (Larrauri et al., 1997a,b). However,
since polyphenolics were determined by the Folin-Cio-
calteu assay, no conclusions could be drawn as to their
chemical structures. Furthermore, owing to their lack of
selectivity, spectrophotometric methods tend to over-
estimate the phenolic content (Escarpa & Gonzalez,
2001). The presence of a broad pattern of phenolic
compounds, especially of avonol glycosides, in mango
puree concentrate was demonstrated by HPLC with
diode array and mass spectrometric detection (Schieber,
Ullrich, & Carle, 2000). It was hypothesized that these
phenolics may partly originate from the peel since
mango puree is prepared both from peeled and from
unpeeled fruits. Our preliminary investigations on peel
phenolics of dierent mango cultivars conrmed this
assumption (unpublished). The latex which is deposited
in fruit ducts and removed with the fruit at harvest has
been shown to be a source of monoterpenes (Saby John,
Jagan Mohan Rao, Bhat, & Prasada Rao, 1999). How-
ever, mango latex also contains alkyl resorcinols which
have been identied as a contact allergen (Cliord,
2000).
Pineapple
In 1997, 12.8
106 tons of pineapples (Ananas comosus
L. MERR., Bromeliaceae) were produced worldwide.
The pulpy waste material resulting from juice produc-
tion still contains substantial amounts of sucrose, starch
and hemicellulose, and may therefore be used for etha-
nol production (Nigam, 2000; Tanaka, Hilary, & Ishi-
zaki, 1999). In contrast to papain from papaya, the
proteolytic enzyme bromelain may also be recovered
from the mature fruit. Enzymatic browning of fresh and
dried apple rings is inhibited by pineapple juice (Lozano
de Gonzalez, Barrett, Wrolstad, & Durst, 1993). The
antioxidant principles have been structurally elucidated
(Ling, Wrolstad, & Hsu, 1999), and methods for their
recovery from pineapple juice and from pineapple pro-
cessing plant waste streams have been described (Wrol-
stad & Ling, 2001).
Banana
Banana (Musa
paradisiaca L., Musaceae) represents
one of the most important fruit crops, with a global
annual production of more than 50 million tons.
Worldwide production of cooking bananas (plantains)
amounts to nearly 30 million tons per year (Franke,
1997). Peels constitute up to 30% of the ripe fruit.
About 1000 banana plants are estimated to yield 2025
tons of pseudostems providing about 5% edible starch
(Anand & Maini, 1997). Attempts at utilization of
banana waste include the biotechnological production
of protein (Chung & Meyers, 1979), ethanol (Tewari,
Marwaha, & Rupal, 1986), a-amylase (Krishna &
Chandrasekaran, 1996), hemicellulases (Medeiros et al.,
2000) and cellulases (Krishna, 1999). Very recently,
anthocyanin pigments in banana bracts were evaluated
for their potential application as natural food colorants.
It was concluded that the bracts proved to be a good
and abundant source of anthocyanins of attractive
appearance, as well as being a useful tool in anthocya-
nin identication since all six most common anthocya-
nidins (delphinidin, cyanidin, pelargonidin, peonidin,
petunidin and malvidin) are present (Pazmino-Duran,
Giusti, Wrolstad, & Gloria, 2001). Most of the car-
otenoids found in banana peels were demonstrated to be
xanthophylls esteried with myristate, and to a lesser
extent with laurate, palmitate or caprate (Subagio,
Morita, & Sawada, 1996).
Guava
Guava (Psidium guajava L., Myrtaceae) is a rich
source of relatively low methoxylated pectins (50%),
amounting to more than 10% of the dry weight (Mur-
oki & Saint-Hilaire, 1977). Since wastes constitute only
1015% of the fruit, the use of guava for pectin pro-
duction is limited (Askar & Treptow, 1998). The seeds,
usually discarded during processing of juice and pulp,
contain about 513% oil rich in essential fatty acids
 A. Schieber et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 401413
(Adsule & Kadam, 1995). The results of very recent
investigations indicate that peel and pulp of guava fruits
could be used as a source of antioxidant dietary ber
(Jimenez-Escrig, Rincon, Pulido, & Saura-Calixto,
2001).
Papaya
Papain, a proteolytic enzyme used as a meat tender-
izer and as a stabilizing agent in the brewing industry, is
recovered from the latex of papaya fruit (Carica papaya
L., Caricaceae). Furthermore, papaya fruits may also be
used for the production of pectin. Owing to their spicy
avour which is caused by glucosinolate degradation,
the seeds are sometimes used as a substitute and even as
an adulterant for pepper. The seed oil is low in poly-
unsaturated fatty acids, but defatted papaya seed meal
contains high amounts of crude protein (40%) and
crude ber (50%) (Jagtiani, Chan, & Sakai, 1988).
Passion fruit
The waste resulting from passion fruit (Passiora
edulis SIMS, Passioraceae) processing consists of more
than 75% of the raw material. The rind constitutes 90%
of the waste and is a source of pectin (20% of the dry
weight). Passion fruit seed oil is rich in linoleic acid
(65%) (Askar & Treptow, 1998).
Kiwifruit
Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis PLANCH., Actinidia-
ceae) waste results from rejected kiwifruits which com-
prise up to 30% of the total kiwifruit crop, and from
kiwifruit pomace after juice production. A comprehen-
sive review of the components and potential uses of
kiwifruit waste has recently been given (Kennedy et al.,
1999b), inferring that only little work has so far been
conducted on nding uses for kiwifruit pomace. The
total dietary ber content of kiwifruit pomace amounts
to approximately 25% on a dry weight basis (Martin-
Cabrejas, Esteban, Lopez-Andreu, Waldron, & Selven-
dran, 1995). Phenolic acids, avanol monomers, dimers
and oligomers, and avonol glycosides have recently
been characterized in kiwifruit pulp (Dawes & Keene,
1999).
By-products of vegetable and potato processing
Tomato
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum MILL., Solana-
ceae) juice is the most important vegetable juice with
respect to per capita consumption, followed by carrot
juice. About 37% of the raw material is lost as waste
during tomato juice pressing (Otto & Sulc, 2001).
Tomato pomace consists of the dried and crushed skins
and seeds of the fruit (Avelino, Avelino, Roseiro, &
Collaco, 1997). The seeds account for approximately
10% of the fruit and 60% of the total waste, respec-
tively, and are a source of protein (35%) and fat (25%).
405
Tomato seed oil has attracted interest since it is rich in
unsaturated fatty acids, especially in linoleic acid (Askar
& Treptow, 1998; Roy, Goto, & Hirose, 1996).
Recently, the optimization of degumming, bleaching
and steam deodorization was reported (Bhullar & Sogi,
2000). Sensory evaluation of products made with
tomato seed and sunower oil revealed no signicant
dierences (Sogi, Kiran, & Bawa, 1999).
Lycopene is the principal carotenoid causing the
characteristic red hue of tomatoes. Most of the lycopene
is associated with the water-insoluble fraction and the
skin (Sharma & Maguer, 1996). Therefore, skin extracts
are especially rich in lycopene. Baysal, Ersus, and Star-
mans (2000) clearly stated that a large quantity of car-
otenoids is lost as waste in tomato processing.
Supercritical CO2 extraction of lycopene and b-carotene
from tomato paste waste resulted in recoveries of up
to 50% when ethanol was added (Baysal et al., 2000).
Enzymatic treatment of tomato marc enhanced lyco-
pene extractability (Bohm, Tiemeni, & Otto, 2000).
Recently, saccharication to obtain biomass from
tomato pomace has also been reported (Avelino et al.,
1997). Haddadin, Abu-Resh, Haddadin, and Robinson
(2001) described the utilization of tomato pomace as a
substrate for the production of vitamin B12.
Carrot
Carrot (Daucus carota L., Apiaceae) juices and blends
thereof are among the most popular non-alcoholic bev-
erages. From 1995 to 1999, German carrot juice pro-
duction increased by 69%, now amounting to more
than 42 million liter. Steady increase of carrot juice
consumption has also been reported from other coun-
tries (Chen & Tang, 1998). Despite considerable
improvements in processing techniques including the
use of depolymerizing enzymes, mash heating, and
decanter technology, a major part of valuable com-
pounds such as carotenes, uronic acids, and neutral
sugars is still retained in the pomace which is usually
disposed as feed or as fertilizer. Juice yield is reported to
be only 6070%, and up to 80% of carotene may be lost
with the pomace (Sims, Balaban, & Matthews, 1993).
According to our own investigations, total carotene
content of pomace may be up to 2 g per kg dry matter,
depending on processing conditions (Stoll, Schieber, &
Carle, 2001).
Various attempts were made at utilizing carrot
pomace in food such as bread (Ohsawa, Chinen, Taka-
nami, Kuribayashi, & Kurokouchi, 1994), cake, dres-
sing and pickles (Ohsawa et al., 1995), and for the
production of functional drinks (Henn & Kunz, 1996).
However, consumer acceptance of such products still
needs to be demonstrated, especially since sensory
quality may be adversely aected (Henn & Kunz, 1996).
Pigments of spray-dried carrot pulp waste proved to be
prone to degradation during storage, depending on
406 A. Schieber et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 401413
storage time and temperature. It was suggested that the
stability of carotenoid powder can be greatly enhanced
by employing appropriate packaging methods and
storage conditions (Chen & Tang, 1998). Freeze-dried
powder showed a higher pigment stability during
storage than the spray-dried product (Tang & Chen,
2000). Signicant isomerization which can also contri-
bute to decolorization was not observed after 15 weeks
of storage of b-carotene encapsulated in a maltodextrin
matrix (Desobry, Netto, & Labuza, 1997).
Smokers were ocially recommended to refrain from
foods fortied with b-carotene (BgVV, 1998). Accord-
ing to a recent recommendation, daily intake of isolated
b-carotene should not exceed 2 mg (BgVV, 2001).
Therefore, carrot pomace represents a valuable natural
source of a- and b-carotene which may be recovered
and applied as functional food ingredients in their gen-
uine proportion.
Onion
The amount of onion (Allium cepa L., Alliaceae)
waste produced annually in the European Union is
estimated at approximately 450,000 tons. The major by-
products resulting from industrial peeling of onion
bulbs are brown skin, the outer two eshy leaves and
the top and bottom bulbs. Owing to their strong char-
acteristic aroma and their susceptibility to phytopatho-
gens, onion wastes are not suitable as fodder. However,
they are a source of avour components and ber com-
pounds and particularly rich in quercetin glycosides
(Hertog, Hollman, & Katan, 1992; Waldron, 2001). The
major avonoids of mature onion bulbs are quercetin
3,40 -O-diglucoside and quercetin 40 -O-monoglucoside,
accounting for more than 85% of the total avonoids
(Price & Rhodes, 1997). Since quercetin from onions is
rapidly absorbed and slowly eliminated, it could con-
tribute signicantly to antioxidant defense (Hollman et
al., 1997). An overall processing scheme for exploiting
onion waste has been given by Waldron (2001).
The eects of pressure-cooking, divalent cations and
extrusion-cooking on cell-wall polymers of onion waste
have been investigated in detail (Lecain, Ng, Parker,
Smith, & Waldron, 1999; Ng, Lecain, Parker, Smith, &
Waldron, 1999; Ng, Parker, Smith, & Waldron, 1999).
With respect to the recovery of fructans and fructo-
oligosaccharides, the outer two eshy leaves have been
demonstrated to be the most suitable sources (Jaime et
al., 2000). The production of alcohol and snacks from
onion pomace has also been reported (Horiuchi,
Yamauchi, Osugi, Kanno, Kobayashi, & Kuriyama,
2000; Kee, Ryu, & Park, 2000, 2001).
Olive
The by-products resulting from olive oil extraction
are the vegetation water, also called black water or
vegetable water, and the olive husk including skins and
stones. Depending on the processing conditions, 50110
kg of water result from 100 kg of olives (Vitolo, Petarca,
& Bresci, 1999). The husk can be reprocessed for the
recovery of olive oil, or extracted with an organic sol-
vent to yield husk oil. Dried husk is utilized as fuel or
animal feed (Gasparrini, 1999). A process for the
separation of the vegetation water from the solids by
evaporation has been recently described. The remaining
solid fraction representing 98% of the organic load
could be mixed with the husk and used as a fuel (Vitolo et
al., 1999). Olive oil waste waters are rich in antioxidant
compounds, particularly in hydroxytyrosol derivatives
(Visioli et al., 1999). Hydroxytyrosol strongly inhibited
LDL oxidation stimulated by 2,20 -azobis(2-aminopro-
pane) hydrochloride (Aruoma et al., 1998). Further
investigations point out that hydroxytyrosol and oleur-
opein are potent scavengers of superoxide radicals
(Visioli, Bellomo, & Galli, 1998). Tyrosol and hydro-
xytyrosol are dose-dependently absorbed by humans
and eliminated as their glucuronide conjugates, indicat-
ing a good bioavailability (Visioli et al., 2000, Galli et
al., 2000). An environmentally friendly synthesis of
hydroxytyrosol using mushroom tyrosinase as a bio-
catalyst has recently been established and might facil-
itate further metabolic studies (Espin, Soler-Rivas,
Cantos, Tomas-Barberan, & Wichers, 2001).
Red beet
More than 200,000 tons of red beet (Beta vulgaris L.
ssp. vulgaris, Chenopodiaceae) are produced in Western
Europe annually, most of which (90%) is consumed as
vegetable. The remainder is processed into juice, color-
ing foodstu and food colorant, the latter commonly
known as beetroot red (Henry, 1996). Though still rich
in betalains, the pomace from the juice industry
accounting for 1530% of the raw material (Otto &
Sulc, 2001) is disposed as feed or manure. The coloured
portion of the beetroot ranges from 0.4 to 2.0% of the
dry matter, depending on intraspecic variability,
edaphic factors and postharvest treatments (Stintzing,
Schieber, & Carle, 2000). Beets are ranked among the 10
most potent vegetables with respect to antioxidant
capacity ascribed to a total phenolic content of 5060
mmol/g dry weight (Cao, Soc, & Prior, 1996; Kahko-
nen et al., 1999; Vinson, Hao, Su, & Zubik, 1998). A
more recent investigation showed that total phenolics
decreased in the order peel (50%), crown (37%) and
esh (13%). Epidermal and subepidermal tissues, i.e.
the peel, also carried the main portion of betalains with
up to 54%, being lower in crown (32%) and esh (14%)
(Kujala, Loponen, Kika, & Pihlaja, 2000). Whereas the
coloured fraction consisted of betacyanins and betax-
anthins, the phenolic portion of the peel showed l-
tryptophane, p-coumaric and ferulic acids, as well as
cyclodopa glucoside derivatives (Kujala, Loponen, &
Pihlaja, 2001). Therefore, the exploitation of peel and
 A. Schieber et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 401413
pomace for phenolics and betalains is a real need. Tem-
perature- and pH-dependent in vitro antiradical activ-
ities have been reported for betanin and betanidin
carrying phenolic hydroxyl groups (Escribano, Pedreno,
Garcia-Carmona, & Munoz, 1998; Pedreno & Escri-
bano, 2001), thus being more ecient than the betax-
anthins vulgaxanthin I and II (Escribano et al., 1998).
However, betaxanthins that bear phenolic structures in
their amino acid moiety, e.g. portulacaxanthin II, mir-
axanthin III, miraxanthin V and dopaxanthin (Stintzing
et al., 2001), may act in a similar way. Little is known
about the in vivo absorption of betalains. In a recent
study with betalains from a cactus fruit, a degradation
rate of 2429% was shown to occur in the stomach, of
2026% in the small intestine, and of 2629% in the
large intestine (Reynoso, Giner, & de Meijia, 1999).
Betacyanins were demonstrated to be strong anti-
oxidants in various model systems, and their positive
charge may increase their anity to biological mem-
branes which are the preferred targets of oxidation
(Kanner, Harel, & Granit, 2001). Literature data imply
a low rate of betalain absorption, and a critical con-
centration for the bioactivity of these compounds in
human plasma has yet to be established. Toxicological
studies revealed that betanin, the major compound from
red beet, did not exert allergic potential (Pourrat,
Lejeune, Grand, Bastide, & Bastide, 1987), nor muta-
genic or hepatocarcinogenic eects (Schwartz, von Elbe,
Pariza, Goldsworthy, & Pitot, 1983; Von Elbe &
Schwartz, 1981). High content in folic acid amounting
to 15.8 mg/g dry matter is another nutritional feature of
beets (Wang & Goldman, 1997). Folic acid is one of 10
essential vitamins in human diet, and its value has been
recognized in recent years by an important increment in
governmentally recommended allowances from 400 to
800 mg for pregnant women in the US (Wang & Gold-
man, 1996). Since red beet is often associated with an
earth-like avour of geosmin, high nitrate levels and
microbial contamination, cactus fruits as alternative
sources of betalains have attracted interest (Stintzing et
al., 2001).
Potato
While consumption of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum
L., Solanaceae) has decreased, processed products such
as French fries, chips, and puree have experienced
growing popularity (ZMP, 2000). Peels are the major
waste of potato processing. According to Putz (1991),
losses caused by peeling range from 15 to 40%, their
amount depending on the procedure applied, i.e. steam,
abrasion or lye peeling.
Aqueous peel extracts were shown to be a source of
phenolic acids, especially of chlorogenic, gallic, proto-
catechuic and caeic acids (Onyeneho & Hettiarachchy,
1993; Rodriguez de Sotillo, Hadley, & Holm, 1994a).
The antioxidant activity of freeze-dried water extracts of
407
potato peels was comparable to that of butylated
hydroxyanisole (Rodriguez de Sotillo et al., 1994b). The
extracts displayed species-dependent antibacterial but
no mutagenic activity, and concentrations of the gly-
coalkaloids solanine and chaconine were below toxic
threshold levels if peel extracts were added at 200 ppm
to a food (Rodriguez de Sotillo, Hadley, & Wolf-Hall,
1998). However, methods for the complete separation of
steroidal alkaloids from phenolic compounds prior to
their use in foodstu would be desirable to avoid any
risk for human health (Rodriguez-Saona, Giusti, &
Wrolstad, 1998; Rodriguez-Saona, Wrolstad, & Pereira,
1999). Chemistry, biochemistry, and dietary role of
potato polyphenols have been recently reviewed by
Friedman (1997).
By-products of sugar production
Since the world sugar market is currently suering
from very high stocks and low prices, long-term options
for the utilization of by-products are urgently required
(Anonymous, 2000). Sugar cane (Saccharum ocinarum
L., Poaceae) and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vul-
garis var. altissima DOLL, Chenopodiaceae) are the
most important crops for the production of sugar.
Molasses represents the runo syrup from the nal
stage of crystallization. It mainly consists of fermentable
carbohydrates (sucrose, glucose, fructose), and of non-
sugar compounds which were not precipitated during
juice purication. Furthermore, molasses contains sub-
stances formed chemically or enzymatically during pro-
cessing and storage (betaine and other amino acids,
Maillard products, Strecker decomposition products,
lactic acid, mineral and trace elements, and vitamins
especially of the B-group). Molasses is used as feed and
as a source of carbon in fermentation processes, e.g. for
the production of alcohol, citric acid, l-lysine and
l-glutamic acid (Higginbotham & McCarthy, 1998).
In volume, bagasse is the by-product of highest rele-
vance. The brous residue from the extraction process is
utilized as fuel and as a source of pentosans, for the
production of furfural from pentosan-rich raw material,
and for the recovery of brous products (Delavier,
1998). Granulated activated carbon (GAC) produced
from sugar cane bagasse showed some potential as a
sugar decolorizer (Ahmedna, Marshall, & Rao, 2000a)
but was inferior to GAC produced from pecan shells
(Ahmedna et al., 2000b).
Depending on the process, exhausted beet pulp has a
dry matter content of 815%. Therefore, its economic
utilization requires dewatering which is mostly per-
formed by mechanical pressing (pressed pulp), followed
by thermal drying. Pressed pulp is an energy-rich animal
feed the shelf-life of which can be extended by ensiling
(Harland, 1998; Heller, 1998). Enzymatic release of
ferulic acid from sugar beet pulp and subsequent bio-
conversion to vanillin in a two-step process has been
408 A. Schieber et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (2001) 401413
demonstrated (Thibault et al., 1998). A freeze-dried
arabinan substitute for gum arabicum and a fat replacer
based on linear arabinan were also obtained from sugar
beet pulp (Broughton, Dalton, Jones, & Williams,
1995). Addition of sugar beet ber to semolina
increased dietary ber content but adversely aected
colour and cooking loss of spaghetti (Ozboy & Koksel,
2000). Owing to its high content of acetyl groups and its
low molecular weight, beet pectin has poor gelling
properties and is of very limited commercial value
(Broughton et al., 1995).
Concluding remarks
Far from claiming completeness, this review discusses
the potential of the most important by-products of
plant food processing as a source of valuable com-
pounds. The relevance of this topic is illustrated by a
number of related reviews that were published during
the past 5 years (Anand & Maini, 1997; Das, 2001;
Kennedy et al., 1999a,b; Larrauri, 1999; McKee & Lat-
ner, 2000; Moure et al., 2001; Shrikhande, 2000; Sud-
hakar & Maini, 1995). For cereal and legume by-
products and spent grains from brewing, which are
mainly sources of dietary ber, we refer to the recent
treatise of McKee and Latner (2000). Antioxidants from
cereals and legumes, among others, have also been con-
sidered by Moure et al. (2001). Particular attention to
bioactive compounds of cereals has been given by
Andlauer and Furst (1998, 1999). Studies on the utili-
zation of Brassicaceae such as cauliower (Brassica
oleracea L.) (Femenia, Robertson, Waldron, & Selven-
dran, 1998), of spent soluble coee waste (Regalado et
al., 2000) and tea leaves (Zandi & Gordon, 1999) are
rather limited and deserve further attention. By-products
and the compounds recovered thereof may be broadly
classied into insoluble (bers etc.), water-soluble (e.g.
phenolics) and lipid-soluble (e.g. carotenoids) com-
pounds. In the present review, a product-related cate-
gorization has been given preference since this has been
considered more useful to the reader.
Future trends
The exploitation of by-products of fruit and vegetable
processing as a source of functional compounds and
their application in food is a promising eld which
requires interdisciplinary research of food technologists,
food chemists, nutritionists and toxicologists. In the
near future, we are challenged to respond to the fol-
lowing research needs: First, food processing technol-
ogy should be optimized in order to minimize the
amounts of waste arising. Second, methods for complete
utilization of by-products resulting from food proces-
sing on a large scale and at aordable levels should be
developed. Active participation of the food and allied
industries with respect to sustainable production and
waste management is required. Third, natural and
anthropogenic toxins such as solanin, patulin, ochra-
toxin, dioxins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
need to be excluded by ecient quality control systems.
Minimization of potentially hazardous constituents, e.g.
solanin, amygdalin, and optimization of valuable com-
pounds such as carotenoids and betalains may also be
achieved by plant breeding. Fourth, there is a need for
specic analytical methods for the characterization and
quantication of organic micronutrients and other
functional compounds. Fifth, the bioactivity, bioavail-
ability and toxicology of phytochemicals need to be
carefully assessed by in vitro and in vivo studies. This is
possibly of greatest importance since the results of the
ATBC study (ATBC Study Group, 1994) and the
CARET trial (Omenn et al., 1996) surprisingly suggest
that high dosages of b-carotene achieved by formula-
tions with high bioavailability might lead to harmful
eects. Also, in the case of phenolics, Parr and Bolwell
(2000) concluded that it still remains to be claried
whether certain individual phenolics are particularly
active, or whether the consumption of a broad spectrum
of phenolics is important. Under certain conditions, e.g.
in the presence of some transition metal ions, anti-
oxidants such as phenolics may behave as prooxidants
(Fukumoto & Mazza, 2000). Finally, Dillard and Ger-
man (2000) pointed out that the activity of many phy-
tochemicals has only been tested in in vitro models, and
this may bear no relationship to the situation in vivo.
Undoubtedly, functional foods represent an impor-
tant, innovative and rapidly growing part of the overall
food market. However, their design, i.e. their complex
matrix and their composition of bioactive principles,
requires careful assessment of potential risks which might
arise from isolated compounds recovered from by-pro-
ducts. Furthermore, investigations on stability and inter-
actions of phytochemicals with other food ingredients
during processing and storage need to be initiated. Since
functional foods are on the boundary between foods and
drugs, their regulation still proves dicult. In any case,
consumer protection must have priority over economic
interests, and health claims need to be substantiated by
standardized, scientically sound and reliable studies.
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Any Suggestions?
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in the light of recent advances or changing priorities within the food industry. Thus they are shorter than
conventional reviews, focusing on the latest developments and discussing likely future applications and research
needs.
Features are similar in style to mini-reviews, highlighting specic topics of broad appeal to the food science
community.
The Viewpoint section provides a forum to express personal options, observations or hypotheses, to present new
perspectives, and to help advance understanding of controversial issues by provoking debate and comment.

Conference Reports highlight and assess important developments presented at relevent conferences worldwide.
TIFS also welcomes Letters to the Editor concerned with issues raised by published articles or by recent
developments in the food sciences.
All Review-style articles are subject to editorial and independent peer review by international experts in the
appropriate eld.