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CHAPTER 8
Although these groups are not mutually exclusive, they afford reasonably clear lines of division in most cases.
Causes and remedies of defects belonging to each of the above groups are discussed hereafter. A summary of
common casting defects is given in the Appendix A.
When the liquid metal enters the mould, the first requirement is that it should satisfactorily fill the mould cavity
and develop a smooth skin through intimate contact with the mould surface. Gross failure to meet these
conditions produces the most serious defect in this group, the misrun or short run casting, in which the metal
solidifies prematurely and some limb or section of the casting is omitted. Cold laps (see Figure X-1) are a less
severe manifestation of the same fault. These arise when the metal fails to flow freely over the mould surface;
the intermittent flow pattern is retained on solidification due to lack of coalescence of liquid streams. Cold shuts
are more serious, the discontinuity extending completely through a casting member in which streams of metal
have converged from different directions.
The first sign of conditions giving rise to such defects is the occurrence of rounded corners and edges and a
general lack of definition of sharp features and fine mould detail. The defects are most generally associated with
metal temperature, cold metal being the usual cause in castings for which the production method is normally
satisfactory. A further cause can be excessive chill from the mould face; this may arise from heavy chilling or
from too high a moisture content in greensand. Laps may be encountered, for example, when a method
developed for dry sand practice is used in conjunction with green sand instead.
A contributing cause to these defects can be an inadequate rate of mould filling relative to the freezing rate of
the casting: especially susceptible, therefore, are extended casting of high surface area to volume ratio. Slow
mould filling may result from low pouring speed, from an inadequate gating system, or as a result of back
pressure of gases in a badly vented mould cavity: several aspects of the casting method are therefore involved in
prevention.
2
Figure 8.1 Cold laps and shut in a steel casting (courtesy of Institute of British Foundry men)
Alloys showing poor fluidity, especially those carrying strong oxide films, are particularly prone to defects
resulting form improper flow. In these cases special techniques of gating and high superheat are the principal
aids to sharp outlines and completely filled moulds.
Indigenous inclusions represent the general condition of cast metal rather than of a particular casting and these
can be minimised by maintaining soluble impurity content at low level by suitable selection of charge melting
and refining technique. To some extent, these are inevitable because of shifts in melt equilibria with fall in
temperature and precipitation and segregation of impurity elements can occur during freezing.
Figure 8.2 Expansion scab (courtesy of Editions Technique des Industries de la Fonderie)
In some cases the expansion is insufficient to bring about spalling and metal penetration, but bulging and shear
cracking of the mould face produce a surface fissure or line defect known as a rat tail (Figure 8.3). In this case
the casting surface shows either a step or a shallow indentation along the path of the incipient mould failure,
often with a short metal fin representing the original crack.
Expansion defects are associated mainly with siliceous moulding materials, which show high expansion on
heating to relatively low temperatures. The effect of temperature on the volume of quartx is illustrated in Figure
8.4, which shows the sudden expansion accompanying the phase change occurring at 575 0 C.
The nature of the scabbing process is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 8.5. During pouring, the upper
surfaces of the mould are subjected to intense radiation from the rising liquid metal, so that the surface layers
of sand can reach the transformation temperature before being submerged. Expansion of the mould face sets up
compressive stresses causing the surface successively to bulge, crack, peel and spall, enabling metal to penetrate
behind the original surface. Alternatively, the sand expands and shears along a plane close to the edge of a zone
of intense heating as shown in Figure 8.5.
Additives to counter expansion include wood flour, coal dust and other organic materials which soften or
decompose to cushion the sand grains. Cereal binders such as starch and dextrin exercise a similar effect,
additions of approximately 0.5% being frequently made to clay bonded sands for the purpose.
4
Figure 8.3Example of rat tail defect in grey iron casting (courtesy of Institute of British Foundrymen)
Figure 8.5 Mould expansion defects: a) scab and b) rat tail formation.
Surface quality is directly influenced by the mould material and finish, the predominant characteristic being the
initial porosity: penetration is thus directly related to permeability. Low porosity can be achieved either by fine
grain size, continuous grading or the use of powdered filler materials. However, mould coatings or facings enable
surface porosity to be reduced without sacrificing the qualities required in the bulk material. Carbonaceous
dressings containing volatile matter improve casting surfaces by generating a back pressure which opposes
penetration.
a) (b)
Figure 8.6 Metal penetration (a) Direct view and (b) profiles of casting surface showing local penetration.
solution.
The evolved gases may include hydrogen which shows appreciable solubility in most casting alloys. Aluminium
alloys are particularly susceptible to gas porosity from hydrogen. A solubility of 0.6 cm3 per 100 g just above the
melting point falls by a factor of about 20 to approximately 0.03 cm3 per 100 g. during freezing. This represents
about 1.54 pct. by volume of the metal by gas evolution from saturated solution. The behaviours of nitrogen is
similar in iron and steel although practically it is insoluble in most non-ferrous casting alloys. In a way it can be
used as a scavenging gas. Oxygen is not usually precipitated directly as it tends to form stable oxide with many
metals. However, it can lead to reaction porosity owing to the evolution of mainly carbon monoxide and steam
formed in combination with other solutes, particularly when appreciable residual oxygen exists in the metal.
The compound gases may be formed by reactions between elements such as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen which
may be present at the outset or may get absorbed by reaction between the molten metal and its surroundings.
Such reactions include those between carbon and oxygen in iron and nickel alloys, between sulphur and oxygen
in copper and between hydrogen and oxygen where either or both elements have been absorbed by the molten
metal. These reactions occur by a change in temperature or by concentration due to differential freezing or
surface absorption, thereby disturbing the relationship between solute elements. The main precautions against
compound gas porosity is to minimise the final oxygen content of the melt. The procedure usually involves strong
oxidising conditions to eliminate hydrogen, carbon and other impurities during melting and controlling residual
oxygen at the final stage by the addition of appropriate deoxidiser before pouring to form stable oxides. The
presence of excess residual deoxidant in the molten metal prevents surface pin holing caused by reaction
between carbon and local oxygen concentration produced by surface oxidation.
In the case of aluminous alloys, argon, nitrogen or chlorine can be employed to reduce hydrogen absorption.
Calcium carbonate which generates CO2 is used for gas scavenging in case of copper base alloys. During steel
making the oxygen injected for the removal of carbon and other elements also reduces the hydrogen and
nitrogen contents of the melt. The CO boil in steel making is also valued for its effect in eliminating dissolved
gases.
s = K (p1-p2)
where s = Amount of gas dissolved in an alloy cm3/100 gm.
K = solubility constant dependent on temperature
P1 = partial pressure of gas in the surrounding atmosphere.
and P2 = partial pressure of gas in the melt.
The rate of degassing depends partly on the geometry of the system, i.e. the surface area and the mass of the
metal and partly upon the extent of the agitation and stirring which help in the transport of the dissolved gas to
the nearest surface. A number of processes have been developed for use on an industrial scale which include: (a)
static bath treatment (b) induction degassing (c) fractional degassing and (d) stream droplet degassing as
illustrated in Fig. 8.8
The static bath treatment involves enclosure of the molten metal ladle in a chamber which is sealed and
evacuated, often assisted by induction stirring which helps in bubble formation. Fractional degassing involves
treatment of fraction of the molten metal which is raised through a section nozzle into a vacuum chamber by
alternate raising and lowering of the chamber. In stream droplet degassing, a ladle is tapped through a sealed
annulus into a second ladle kept in a previously evacuated chamber. Exposure of the falling stream to vacuum
results in gas evolution owing to the formation of small droplets.
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Figure 8.8. Techniques of vacuum degassing of liquid metals. (a) static bath,(b) inclusion degassing, (c)
fractional degassing, (d) stream droplet degassing
In special cases however, advantage is derived from limited gas evolution on freeing, e.g., in some copper alloys
with long freezing range, gas evolution obtained from controlled mould reaction can produce a wide dispersion
of microporosity rather than a more localised void concentration, this being beneficial for pressure tightness. In
case of die casting of aluminium alloys, controlled gas evolution is employed to cause slight expansion of the
casting. This helps to offset the linear contraction which may lead to hot tearing under restraint.
Shrinkage defects arise from failure to compensate for liquid and solidification contraction, so their occurrence
is usually a symptom of inadequate gating and risering technique. The actual form of defect depends upon
design factors, cooling conditions and the mechanism of freezing of the alloy. Various types of internal cavity of
surface depression are encountered: these are illustrated schematically in Figure. 8.9 and some examples are
shown in Figures 8. 10 to 8.11
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Figure 8. 9 Forms of Shrinkage defect. (a) Primary pipe. (b) Secondary cavities. (c) Discrete porosity. (d) Sink.
(e) Puncture.
Sharply defined cavities occur primarily in those alloys which solidify by skin formation and result either from
premature exhaustion of the supply of feed metal or from failure to maintain directional solidification
throughout freezing. The most conspicuous example is the primary shrinkage cavity or pipe resulting form an
inadequate feeder head: due to lack of feed metal the final pipe extends into the casting, becoming visible on
head removal (figure 8. 9 a).
Sporadic occurrence in a casting with a well established method must be attributed to some change in practice,
for example omission of a feeding compound or cessation of pouring before the head was completely filled;
drastic changes in pouring speed or casting temperature are other possible causes. Since the defect is localised
rectification by welding is sometimes feasible.
Unlike primary shrinkage, secondary shrinkage is wholly internal and occurs in positions remote from the feeder
head. Depending on the severity of the conditions, the defect may be a massive cavity or a filamentary network.
Typical sites include the central zones of extended parallel walled sections and local section increases where no
provision has been made either for direct fed or selective chilling (Figure 8.9b) Although this form of cavity is
inaccessible for repair, its location near to the neutral axis of stress diminishes its influence on the strength of
the casting. Typical examples of internal shrinkage cavities are seen in Figures 8.10 and 8.11
Figure 8.11 Sectioned casting exhibiting internal shrinkage cavity and sink
Alloys such as bronzes, gun metal, many light alloys and phosphorous containing cast irons are susceptible to
scattered shrinkage porosity. These alloys have generally larger freezing range and the scattered porosity takes
the form of intercrystalline cavities occuring in a large zone and in many cases this extends to the surface. The
problem is further aggravated by the gases, rejected from the metal on freezing, which tend to oppose capillary
feeding.
Scattered porosity can cause leakage under hydraulic pressure and can also adversely influence mechanical
properties particularly the ductility. Micro shrinkage can neither be detected radiographically nor by visual
examination of machined surfaces. Such porosity can however be inferred from ultrasonic signals and density
measurement. Such porosity can be minimised considerably by appropriate design and chilling action.
8. 5 CONTRACTION DEFECTS
The cooling of cast metal from the solidus to room temperature is accompanied by considerable further
contraction. The magnitude of this contraction is indicated in Table 8. 1 where the coefficients of thermal
expansion of a number of metals provide the basis for a rough estimate of the total linear contraction in the solid
state.
Dimensional change due to solid contraction would be expected to begin as soon as a coherent solid mass is
formed, whether a surface layer or a more extensive network of crystals. Under practical conditions, however,
castings never contract completely freely and the metal must develop sufficient cohesive strength to overcome
significant resistance. Hindrance to contraction may be offered by the mould, by hydrostatic pressure of residual
liquid and by other parts of the casting itself due to differential cooling. Stresses can thus arise either from
external restraint or from thermal conditions alone. (Figure 8.12)
Figure 8.12 Typical design features giving rise to contraction stresses. 9a) Mould restraint, (b) core restraint
(c) Differential contraction of casting members.
Pattern making, moulding and casting or fettling, if not properly carried out, give rise to dimensional faults.
Major defects are due to misalignment of mould parts and cores such as cross jointing and displaced cores,
wornout pains and pinholes which produce lateral shift along the joint line. Dimensional errors can be
considerably reduced by a high standard of box maintenance and jig checking at regular intervals for pin
Figure 8. 13 Typical hot tear at change of section (courtesy of Editions Techniques des Industries de la
Fonderie)
centre dimensions and for pin and pin hole clearances. By proper attention to core print design and clearances,
defects from misplaced or ill fitting cores can be greatly minimised.
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Figure. 8.14 Typical cold crack or clink in a casting ( Courtesy editions Techniques des Industries de la
Fonderie)
Distortion of mould involving enlargement green of mould cavity during pattern withdrawal, manual patching,
low green strength and soft ramming, lack of rigidity in the assembled mould, inadequately reinforced cores or
badly rammed mould parts, core shifts, swelling, and growth across the joint line permit movement owing to
pressure and buoyancy force on casting. high pressure moulding and hardening of moulds and core in contact
with the pattern has reduced the incidence of such distortion considerably.
The significance of the casting defects has to be evaluated in the context of the function of the casting and its
appearance, the former being of overiding importance. The characteristics of importance are:
Although salvaging of castings can be undertaken by restoring the properties and service performance to a
standard equivalent to that: (a) no defects were present or (b) to improve the appearance in such cases where
the defects do not impair the performance. However, such a consideration should not bring about an
indiscriminate relaxation of standard in the different stages of production. In general, rectification processes in
crease cost, consume time, and undermine the confidence of the user. In mass production of castings such as
light castings, a few defective castings are scrapped and replaced because of the high cost and inconvenience of
salvage operation. However, in case of heavy castings or when production of few castings of a particular type is
involved, it becomes more difficult to eliminate defects completely and the cost of rejecting the casting may
involve high financial loss. In such cases salvaging the castings and making them serviceable is justified.
Depending upon the objective in view regarding the salvaging of the casting i.e., restoration of properties and
for improvement in appearance, different techniques are used which include welding, brazing and soldering,
caulking and impregnation, patching and plugging, filling compounds etc.
Welding
Rectification of defects by welding if properly carried out and followed by appropriate post welded heat
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treatment can give properties fully equivalent to those of originally cast metal. By welding a true metallurgical
union between filler metal land the parent casting is achieved giving continuity of crystal structure across the
original interface. This is usually not possible with other methods of rectification including soldering and brazing
where the union is only superficial.
Rectification by welding involves the observance of the following steps and precautions.
(i) For proper matching of the weld with the parent casting, for good corrosion resistance, appearance as well as
mechanical properties, it is advisable to use a filler metal of approximately the same composition as that of the
casting. A difference in hardness or colour gets revealed on machined surfaces.
(ii) It is necessary to remove completely the defective material from the casting because any attempt to weld
over porous metal can result in gas evolution and porous weld deposit. Cracks if not completely removed can get
further aggravated owing to thermal stresses during welding. It is therefore imperative to remove the defect
completely by grinding or machining or by gouging with arc, gas flame, or chisel before executing the repair
successfully irrespective of the processes to be used.
Impregnation
To fill pin holes blow holes, cracks, etc. resin impregnation under pressure is undertaken while the casting is
kept under vacuum. The compound is finally cured usually by thermal treatment to produce an inert and stable
filling. This method is widely accepted to make pressure tight castings in ferrous and nonferrous metals,
particularly for those alloys specially prone to micro porosity.
Filling Compound
Non-metallic compounds are compounds, containing metallic powders and epoxy plastic fillers are used for
rectifying surface finishes to improve appearance and also fill up pin holes, blow holes, cracks, etc. It is possible
to develop appreciable strength by using epoxy and acrylic resins which strongly adhere to metals. However,
such materials should not be regarded as suitable for structural repairs in view of their fundamentally different
characteristics from those of cast metals.
Metal Spraying
The process consists of blowing out small drops of molten metal (melted by an electric are or gas flame) using
compressed air with the help of spray fun. The metal coating obtained varies from 0.3 to 0.8 mm. in thickness,
each pass giving a coat of metal about 0.03 mm thick. The method is suitable for building up undersize casting
and all types of metals can be sprayed. As the bond obtained is of mechanical type with negligible diffusion, the
strength of the sprayed metal is inferior to the obtained by welding or brazing. This technique is also used to
improve the corrosion resistance or iron and steel castings by spraying anticorrosive metal layer.
Straightening
Rectification of deformed or warped castings can be carried out by straightening in a press by applying pressure.
Since the procedure involves plastic deformation, this operation is possible only in case of metals possessing
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reasonable ductility, Generally a hydraulic press is used with appropriate press fixtures and packing to achieve
the correct final dimensions.
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APPENDIX A TO CHAPTER X
CATALOGUE OF CASTING DEFECTS AND REMEDIES
DEFINITION
1. Blow holes or gas holes: They are generally rounded cavities spherical, flattened or elongated caused by the
entrapped air or gas formed during the casting process. These are generally found inside the castings.
Porosities are caused by steam or gas passing through the metal. Sometime pin hole size porosities may be
present on the entire surface or just below the surface.
Blisters are shallow holes on the surface with a thin film of metal over it.
2. Scars are generally caused on a flat surface where entrapped gas has prevented the mould cavity from being
filled completely. Plates are formed when metal oozes into a scar. Minor defects of the scar or cold shut is known
as seam.
Cold slots or shot iron (in case of grey cast iron) are small globules of metal embedded in due to the action of the
entrapped gas or air.
3. A shrinkage cavity or depression, large or small, results from varying rates of contraction while the metal is
changing from liquid to solid. A minor depression is known as sink.
4. Hot tears and cracks are surface discontinuity or fractures caused by either external or internal tresses or a
combination of both acting on the casting.
5. Hardness defects-mass hardness: It is caused when the entire casting is too hard. Localized hardness is
called hard spot and/or chilled spots.
6. A misrun is due to failure of the metal to fill the mould cavity. The cold shut defect is caused due to imperfect
fusion where two streams of metal have converged.
7. Inclusions are the non-metallic particles of materials embedded in the metal.
8. Sand defects:
(a) An erosion scab occurs where the metal has been agitated, boiled, or has partially eroded away the sand
leaving a solid mass of sand and metal at that particular spot. Cuts and washes are caused due to erosion of
sand causing rough spots from either excess metals or sand inclusions.
(b) Expansion scabs are rough thin layers of metal partially separated from the body of the casting by a thin
layer of sand and held in place by a thin vein of metal. They may be readily chipped off causing indentation
known as buckle. A raftail is a minor buckle occurring as a small irregular line or lines.
A pulldown is a buckle in the cope. A blacking scab is caused due to sand expansion. Expansion defects are
governed by the extent to which the initial expansion of the quartz can be offers by deformation of the sand mass
under compressive stresses. Thus the relationship between hot deformation and confined expansion test results
have been found to give a measure of scabbing tendency.
9. Mould metal reaction defects:
(a) Sticker or rat is a lump on the surface of a casting caused by a portion of the mould face sticking to the
pattern.
(b) Rough surfaces are caused due to minor mould metal reactions. Metal penetration is a surface defect which
looks as though the metal has filled the voids between the sand grains without displacing them. When sand is
fused on the surface of the casting the defect is known as fusion.
10. Defects due to faulty workmanship:
(a) A mould shift results in a casting which does not match at parting lines. A core shift results from
misalignment of cores in assembling. A specialized case of core shift known as core raise is caused due to core
movement towards the cope causing a variation in wall thickness.
(b) A ramoff or ramaway is a defect which results from a section of the mould being forced away from the
pattern by ramming sand after it has conformed to the pattern contour. It may be renewable on a localised swell
or shifts.
(c) Swells, fins, strains and sags result in the castings not being true to the pattern because the metal section
are greater or less than required. A swell is an increase in metal section due to the displacement of sand by metal
pressure. A fin is a thin projection of metal from the casting.
A strain is a type of swell wherein the mould surface has cracked and permitted the metal to form a fin.
A sag is a decrease in metal section due to sagging of the cope or core.
(d) Runouts and bleeders: Sometimes called breakouts, these defects result in a casting lacking completeness
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due to molten metal draining or leaking out of some part of the mould cavity either during (known as runouts)
or after pouring (known as bleeders).
(e) Crushes, push-ups and damp-offs: These defects occur as indentations in the casting surface due to
displacement of sand in the mould.
A drop is a defect in a casting due to a portion of the sand dropping from the cope or other overhanging section.
11. Open grain structure is a defect wherein a casting when machined, appears too course grained for the
application. The structure may be general or it may be localised.
12. Miscellaneous defects like broken castings are caused during handling the metal and may be due to design
defect.
Inverse chills or reverse chills are caused due to inhomogeneity of metal.
Kish is a defect when in grey cast iron, free graphite has separated out from molten iron. Warpage defect is a
deformation in a casting other than due to contraction that develops between solidification and room
temperature.
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Misrun May appear as: Holes in the 1. Low pouring temperature 1. Provide hotter metal at
thin sections of a casting. cupola spout. Reduce heat
Edges are smooth and well 2. Low fluidity losses in the ladle by using
rounded, surface of metal, 3. Inadequate venting of flux coverings.
round holes, smooth and often mould
shiny. 2. Increase carbon and
4. Faulty pouring practice phosphorus.
Shrinkage Rough cavities entering a Incorrect gating and feeding Use risers to feed heavy
and draws casting on heavy sections or at sections and ensure they are
the joint of change of sections. Unsuitable composition. filled with hot metal. If using
Saucer shaped depressions on open risers, use feeding flux, if
heavy sections usually with using blind risers use feeding
rough edges. Dark areas seen cores. Embody chills where a
in fracture. heavy section or boss cannot
be fed directly with the riser.
Adjust silicon and/or carbon
content.
Slag Pitted surface or inclusions Dirty metal and ladle linings. Remove all slag from the
found on machining, cavities metal before pouring. Thicken
are generally more saucer Incorrect gating causing slag with sand before
shaped and smooth. Slag may turbulence. shimming. Keep ladle linings
be seen before cleaning the Excess of sulpher with high free from buildup.
castings. Segregations of Mn and low pouring
manganese sulphide. Incorporate skim gates or
temperature. strainer cores in runner
systems. Keep runner bush
full while pouring.
Restrict sulfur pickup and
avoid pouring dull iron.
Porosity Casting, weep under Wrong composition of metal. Reduce silicon and
pressure test. Machined phosphorus content.
surfaces show cavities in this Incorrect running and
sections or series of fine holes feeding system. See Shrinkage
on machined shin. Impermeable mould. Scavenge melt before pouring.
Oxidized metals.
Hard Bright areas on machined Wrong composition of metal Increase silicon content by (i)
metal surfaces often at corners or with high sulphur and low altering metal mixture, and
edges of thinnest sections. manganese. (ii) by introducing silicon in
May occur as scattered hard the ladle.
spots. Shows when broken, a High moisture content.
white fracture. Reduce moisture.
Incorrect pouring practice.
Avoid splashing metal down
runners and risers.
Plug sprues very helpful.
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Scabs Rough warty excrescences on Sand expansion due to, Avoid highly (hard) rammed
surface of casting mainly on
heavy sections. Hard and uneven ramming. Increase inrates (s) area (s)
Mould poured too slowly. Change sand or addition of
little wood flour may help.
Sand grain too uniform
Reduce moisture and coal
Sand erosion due to, dust content.
Weak bond of facing sand Improve sand with clay
Prolonged metal addition.
impingement
Distortion Casting shows swelling on Uneven mould hardness due Ram evenly and firmly.
surface. to insufficient ramming to
withstand metal pressure. Increase weight on moulds
and ensure it is distributed
Poor weighing practice. evenly.
Casting too heavy for green Employ dry sand or CO2
sand mould. bounded moulds.
Rough Casting surface rough Metal penetrates due to 1. Use finer sand and apply
surfaces mould dressing. Make
1. Moulding sand too open additions of coal dust. Ram
2. Low coal dust content. more evenly.
3. Uneven ramming.
Cracks Hair line cracks showing on High dry strength of the Ram softener to allow casting
casting when broken. sand. to contract.
Discoloration shows that crack
was produced while casting Cores too hard. Reduce oil in cores.
was hot. No discoloration Casting strains. Gate evenly to avoid these.
shows cold crack. Modify pattern design.
Mechanical reasons.
Pack casting with wood or old
tyres in tumbler. Take care in
breaking off risers. See that
risers are provided with
correctly designed necks.
Blow Rough shaped holes occurring Insufficient permeability of Increase permeability by use
holes on the outside of the casting in moulding or core sand. of vent wire or open sand with
the thicker sections. May be additions of coarser silica
found just below surface on Hard ramming. sand.
machining. In severe cases, High moisture content.
section of casting may be Avoid excess ramming.
hollow. Cavities may be dull or Rusty or damp chills and Reduce moisture to minimum
bright depending on chaplets. consistent to workability.
conditions under which they Very hard cores.
have formed. Ensure chaplets are dry and
Insufficient venting in cores. coat chills before use with oil
or proprietary dressing.
Incomplete baking.
Reduce oil in the sand.
Damp pouring laddles.
Ensure vents are clear.
Too low a pouring temp.
Bake until centre is dry and
hard.
Thoroughly dry the ladles.
Increase pouring temperature.
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Dirt Rough cavities and pits in Dirty ladles or shanks. Clean ladles etc. and reline if
casting surface. If examined necessary.
before cleaning the sand may Strength of sand low
often be seen. Increase green bond with clay
Loose ramming. addition.
Direct wash of metal on sand Ram evenly.
surface e.g. corners, etc.
Avoid direct wash with well
Poor finish of gating system. designed runners.
Displacement of sand by Finish of running system
cores. should be as good as mould.
Disturbed moulds. Make bushes and runners
with good facing sand.
Insufficient taper on
patterns. Blow out after placing cores.
Place weights carefully. Avoid
knocking moulds.
Increase taper to allow clean
lift.
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Oxide and Dirty areas on machined Poor melting and fluxing Avoid stewing of melt
dross surfaces. Cavities containing technique. in the furnace. Use a
inclusions non-metallic inclusions suitable flux and
mostly on the top surface of Dirty ladle. deoxidant.
casting as cast. Often revealed Careless skimming and
during machining. Maintain ladle lining
pouring clean and free from
Turbulence due to wrong build up.
gating. Skim and pour carefully
Contamination by aluminium and keep slag and dross
(in most alloys) from entering the
mould.
Contamination of leaded
alloys with silicon. Use gating system
which can be kept
choked and gate
parallel to cores.
Guard against Al
pickup.
Remove Si from melt.
Fine gas Fine holes distributed Gas taken into solution in Avoid taking melt to
holes (in throughout whole casting alloy when molten and coming high temperature.
bronze and section can be seen in out of solution as casting
gun metal machined surface. More cools. Use correct melting
alloys only) concentrated in areas last to technique.
solidify. Risers usually flat or Dirty or badly corroded scrap.
Apply controlled
cauliflowered. Damp fluxes. deoxidation.
Highly reducing atmosphere Control furnace
in furnace in case of bronzes atmosphere.
and gun metal.
Employ inhibiting
Slight metal mould reaction mould dressing. Note:
when casting phosphor bronze For those alloys which
alloys. cannot be degassed by
oxidation, deoxidation
technique a scavenging
treatment is highly
successful.
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Sub-surface Fine porosity just below Metal mould reaction. In tin bronze and gun
pin holes casting skin revealed on constituents of molten alloy metal keep phosphorus
polishing or machining react with moisture in 0.03 per cent. In
moulding sand. phosphor bronze keep
phosphor content at
Too high a volatile matter lower limit of
content in the facing sand specification.
(such as excessive wheat flour)
Avoid flour addition to
Mould permeability too low. sand and do not use
Pouring temperature too high flour as dusting agent.
for thickness of cast section. Use dry sand or a Co2
bonded mould dressed
with inhibiting coating.
Increase permeability of
sand.
Reduce pouring
temperature.
Tin and lead Runners and risers back up. Gassy metal. 1. 2. and 4 under gas
sweat Beads of white metal rich in holes.
(inverse tin and lead appear on surface Too high a pouring temp.
segregation ) of risers and casting. 3. Reduce content of Sn,
High content of Sn and Pb. Pb, P where possible.
Metal mould reaction. 5. Increase permeability
Low permeability of moulding of sand
sand.
Defective Fracture shows oxide tints as Shrinkage, porosity (if See remedy under
fracture yellow and brown flakes localised) shrinkage cavity.
pronounced dendritic
structure indicative of low Gassy metal (if general) See remedy under fine
mechanical properties coarse gas holes.
Excessive pouring temp. (if
core like structure indicative structure shows coarse firetree Reduce pouring
of low strength. structure). temperature.
Metal Casting surface rough. Looks Lack of suitable mould Avoid excessive pouring
penetration as though molten metal has dressing. temperature and check
(rough filled voids between sand these points.
surface) grains without displacing Coarse grained sand.
them. Ramming technique
Loosely rammed sand. especially in machine
High pouring temperature. moulding where soft
spots are likely to occur.
Grading and flowability
of sand
Shrinkage External and internal holes Liquid shrinkage and lack of 1. 2. Apply suitable
cavity with rough interior. feed metal. running and feeding
Associated with heavy section system.
and hot spots. Incorrect gating of feed.
3. Modify design to
Faulty design of casting. create more uniform
Low casting design favours section.
formation of hot spots. 4. Use correct pouring
temperature.
26
Sand Rough holes often containing Loose sand in moulding. Blow out mould cavity
exclusions sand on the top surface of carefully before closing
casting as cast. When due to Absence of mould dressing. the mould,
break down of mould lumps Sand lacking green of dry
corresponding to the cavity Improve hardness of
bond. mould surface by
defects will be found.
Erosion coating with suitable
dressing.
Soft ramming.
Increase strength by
Overbaked core. adding more new sand
or clay binder.
Correct gating
technique.
Increase ramming
density.
Control temperature in
drying ovens.
27
Shrinkage Internal or external holes Pouring temperature too high Lower pouring temp and
cavity often with rough walls and causing a high liquid refine grain.
evidence of fire tree crystals. shrinkage and coarse grain
Often located at section structure. Use correctly proportioned
change. Local hot sots may feeder heads.
cause internal spongy areas, Failure to supply liquid feed
metal to areas where shrinkage Use correct pouring temp.
sometimes in the form of and increase or enlarge
surface depression known as cavity is forming.
ingates and risers.
draw or sink. Premature solidification of
ingates and risers due to low Modify with sodium
pouring temperature. addition.
Misrun and Casting not fully formed line Insufficient metal to fill 1, 2,3,4 Increase pouring
cold shut or seam of discontinuity. A mould. temperature.
hole through rounded edge
through wall of casting. Lugs, Incomplete fusion where two 2, 6 Increase permeability of
bosses, corners and thin streams of metal have sands and venting.
edges not filled out. converged.
5. Reduce moisture or
Molten alloy freezes before volatile matter in facing
sand surface has been covered. sand.
Metal sets before mould has 7. Obvious.
been fully filled.
Too much gas forming
material in facing sand.
Lack of permeability of sand.
Die too cold or inadequately
vented (die casting)
Gas holes Smooth walled globular Mechanically trapped gas or Increase pouring
(blow holes) holes of varying diameter air from any of the following temperature.
sources:
Increase permeability of
Low pouring temperature. sand and venting.
Gases blowing from mould due Use moisture free fluxes.
to low permeability.
28
Unsatisfactory High silicon LM6 alloy bright Lack of modification treatment Modify by making sodium
fracture crystalline instead of silky in Al-Si alloy. addition to melt.
cores granular structure
indicative of low strength Pouring temp. excessive or too Use pyrometric control.
low. Absence of the grain
refining elements titanium and Apply grain refining
boron. Iron content excessive. treatment.
Avoid contamination form
iron stirring and plugging
tools, laddles, etc. (the
harmful effects of iron can be
substantially reduced by the
addition of Al/Mn hardener
to the melt.)
Oxide and Dirty areas on the machined Poor melting and fluxing Avoid stewing and dross
dross surfaces. Cavities containing technique. formation during melting.
inclusions non-metallic inclusions
mostly on top surface as cast. Dirty ladle lining. Keep ladle lining free from
skulls and buildup.
Careless skimming and
pouring. Skim and pour carefully and
keep dross and slag out of
Turbulence due to badly mould. Avoid swirl of
designed or positioned gates. metal in pouring cup.
Use gating system which can
be kept choked during
running period. Employ dirt
traps and do not gate so that
metal drives on cores at right
angles.
Sand Irregular shaped holes Loose sand in the mould. Improve the strength of
inclusions containing sand. Mostly mould surface with a
located on top as cast Lack of bonded strength. dressing and
surface. When due to erosion Too soft ramming.
or scabbing of core or mould, Blow out mould and avoid
a corresponding raised area Wrong gating system allowing rough handling.
appears on casting. erosion of mould surface. Mill more efficiently and
Over baked oil sand cores. increase binder additions.
Increasing ramming
pressure.
Gate parallel to mould and
core surfaces.
Reduce stove temperature.